1

Acknowledgment
We would like to express our special thanks of gratitude to our teacher Pushpinder Singh who
gave us the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic NCES Unit 2, which
also helped us in doing a lot of Research and we came to know about so many new things we
are really thankful to them.
Secondly, we would also like to thank our parents and friends who helped us a lot in finalizing
this project within the limited time frame.

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 Table of Contents
1. Non-Conventional Sources of Energy 4

2. Solar Radiation 6

3. Available Solar Radiation 9

4. Measurement of Radiation 12

5. Photovoltaic Cells 16

6. Design Considerations For Solar Cells 36

7. Flat Plate & Focusing Collector 40

a. Direct and Indirect Hot Water Systems 41

b. Direct Hot Water System 41

c. Indirect Hot Water System 42

8. Effect of Receiving Surface Location 48

9. Effect of Receiving Surface Orientation 56

10. References 58

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Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
As the consumption of energy growing the population depends heavily on fossil fuels such as coal, oil
and gas day by day. There is a need to secure the energy supply for future since these conventional
sources of energy are limited and fast exhausting. Consequently, the prices of gas and oil are also on the
rise since the past couple of decades. Thus, there is a need for alternative sources of energy which will
not only help sustain the future generations but will do so in an environment-friendly manner.

The major non-conventional energy resources are -

• Solar
• Wind
• Biomass
• Tidal
• Geothermal

Solar energy
Solar energy is the radiation from the Sun capable of producing heat, causing chemical reactions, or
generating electricity. The total amount of solar energy incident on Earth is vastly in excess of the
world’s current and anticipated energy requirements and if suitably harnessed, this highly diffused
source has the potential to satisfy all future energy needs. Solar energy is attractive as a renewable
energy source because of its inexhaustible supply and its non-polluting character, in stark contrast to the
finite fossil fuels coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

4
Wind energy
Wind energy is described as the energy harnessed from the wind to generate electricity. Wind farms are
located in areas where winds are strong and constant and consist of many individual wind turbines,
which are connected to the electric power transmission network. These are generally high-altitude
areas. Onshore wind is an inexpensive source of electric power, competitive with or in many places cheaper
than coal or gas plants.

Biomass energy
Biomass is the organic matter that originates from plants, animals, wood, sewage. These substances
burn to produce heat energy which then generates electricity. The chemical composition of biomass
varies in different species but generally, biomass consists of 25% of lignin, 75% of carbohydrates or
sugar. Biomass energy is also applicable for cooking, lighting, and generation of electricity. The residue
left after the removal of biogas is a good source of manure. Biomass is an important energy source
contributing to more than 14% of the global energy supply.

Tidal energy
Tidal power is a form of hydropower that converts the energy of tides into electricity. In areas where the
sea experiences waves and tides, electricity is generated using tidal power. Among sources of renewable
energy, tidal energy has traditionally suffered from relatively high cost and limited availability of sites
with sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow velocities, thus constricting its total availability.

Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy is the heat energy that we get from hot rocks present in the earth’s crust. The
geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its
surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the
surface. Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped within the earth but these emissions are
much lower per energy unit than the fossil fuels.

5
Solar Radiation
Origin and Nature
Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted by the sun from a nuclear fusion reaction that creates
electromagnetic energy. This energy then reaches the earth’s atmosphere. After passing through the
atmosphere, the radiation is received in an attenuated form at the earth’s surface because it is
subjected to the mechanisms of absorption and scattering while traversing through the blanket of air.
However, less attenuation takes place in a cloudless sky and maximum radiation reaches the earth’s
surface.

Absorption occurs primarily because of the presence of ozone and water vapor in the atmosphere, and
to a lesser extent due to other gases (like CO2, NO2, CO, O2 and CH4) and particulate matter. It results in
an increase in the internal energy of the atmosphere.

Scattering on the other hand, occurs due to all gaseous molecules as well as the particulate matter in
the atmosphere. The scattered radiation is redistributed in all directions, some going back to the space
and some reaching the earth’s surface.

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There are several measured types of solar irradiance -

• Total Solar Irradiance (TSI) is a measure of the solar power over all wavelengths per unit area
incident on the Earth's upper atmosphere. It is measured perpendicular to the incoming
sunlight. The solar constant is a conventional measure of mean TSI at a distance of one
astronomical unit (AU).
• Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI), or beam radiation, is measured at the surface of the earth at a
given location with a surface element perpendicular to the Sun. It excludes diffuse solar
radiation (radiation that is scattered or reflected by atmospheric components). Direct irradiance
is equal to the extraterrestrial irradiance above the atmosphere minus the atmospheric losses
due to absorption and scattering. Losses depend on time of day (length of light's path through
the atmosphere depending on the solar elevation angle), cloud cover, moisture content and
other contents. The irradiance above the atmosphere also varies with time of year (because the
distance to the sun varies), although this effect is generally less significant compared to the
effect of losses on DNI.
• Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DHI), or Diffuse Sky Radiation is the radiation at the earth's
surface from light scattered by the atmosphere. It is measured on a horizontal surface with
radiation coming from all points in the sky excluding circumsolar radiation (radiation coming
from the sun disk). There would be almost no DHI in the absence of atmosphere.
• Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) is the total irradiance from the sun on a horizontal surface on
earth. It is the sum of direct irradiance (after accounting for the solar zenith angle of the sun ‘Z’)
and diffuse horizontal irradiance.

In general, the intensity of diffuse radiation coming from various directions in the sky is not uniform. The
diffuse radiation is therefore said to be anisotropic in nature. However, in many situations (e.g. part or
heavy cloud cover), the intensity from all directions tends to be reasonably uniform. It is then modelled
as being perfectly uniform and is said to be isotropic in nature.

7
Map 1: World Global Horizontal Irradiation

Map 2: World Direct Normal Irradiation

8
Available Solar Radiation

India is endowed with vast solar energy potential. About 5,000 trillion kWh per year energy is incident
over India's land area with most parts receiving 4-7 kWh per sq. m per day. Hence both technology
routes for conversion of solar radiation into heat and electricity, namely, solar thermal and solar
photovoltaics, can effectively be harnessed providing huge scalability for solar in India. Solar also
provides the ability to generate power on a distributed basis and enables rapid capacity addition with
short lead times.

Off-grid decentralized and low-temperature applications will be advantageous from a rural

electrification perspective and meeting other energy needs for power and heating and cooling in both
rural and urban areas. From an energy security perspective, solar is the most secure of all sources, since
it is abundantly available. Theoretically, a small fraction of the total incident solar energy (if captured
effectively) can meet the entire country's power requirements. It is also clear that given the large
proportion of poor and energy un-served population in the country, every effort needs to be made to
exploit the relatively abundant sources of energy available to the country. While, today, domestic coal
based power generation is the cheapest electricity source, future scenarios suggest that this could well
change.

Global solar radiation is the total amount of solar energy received by the Earth's surface, usually
expressed as W m-2. About 99 percent of global solar radiation has wavelengths between 300 and 3000
nm.

9
This includes ultraviolet (300-400 nm), visible (400-700 nm), and infrared (700-3000 nm) radiation.
Global solar radiation is the sum of direct, diffuse, and reflected solar radiation. Direct solar radiation
passes directly through the atmosphere to the Earth's surface, diffuse solar radiation is scattered in the
atmosphere, and reflected solar radiation reaches a surface and is reflected to adjacent surfaces.
The visible portion of the solar radiation spectrum provides energy for photosynthesis, which is the
primary gateway for inorganic carbon to become organic and support life on the Earth. Infrared light
heats the ground and maintains an ideal environment for life. Global solar radiation drives the global
water cycle and weather patterns.
In fact, about half of the solar radiation absorbed by the Earth's surface is consumed by
evapotranspiration on a global scale. Solar radiation is also used to generate electricity. Measuring
global solar radiation can be accomplished with pyranometers and pyro-heliometers.

Before talking about concentration of light for practical purposes, it would be good for us to review
what kinds of natural radiation are available to us and how that radiation is characterized and
measured.
The fraction of the energy flux emitted by the sun and intercepted by the earth is characterized by
the solar constant. The solar constant is defined as essentially the measure of the solar energy flux
density perpendicular to the ray direction per unit are per unit time. It is most precisely measured by
satellites outside the earth atmosphere. The solar constant is currently estimated at 1367 W/m2 [cited
from Stine and Harrigan, 1986]. This number actually varies by 3% because the orbit of the earth is
elliptical, and the distance from the sun varies over the course of the year. Some small variation of the
solar constant is also possible due to changes in Sun's luminosity. This measured value includes all types
of radiation, a substantial fraction of which is lost as the light passes through the atmosphere [IPS -
Radio and Space Services].

As the solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, it gets absorbed, scattered, reflected, or
transmitted. All these processes result in reduction of the energy flux density. Actually, the solar flux
density is reduced by about 30% compared to extraterrestrial radiation flux on a sunny day and is
reduced by as much as 90% on a cloudy day. The following main losses should be noted:
• absorbed by particles and molecules in the atmosphere - 10-30%
• reflected and scattered back to space - 2-11%
• scattered to earth (direct radiation becomes diffuse) - 5-26% [Stine and Harrigan, 1986]
As a result, the direct radiation reaching the earth surface (or a device installed on the earth surface)
never exceeds 83% of the original extraterrestrial energy flux. This radiation that comes directly from

10
the solar disk is defined as beam radiation. The scattered and reflected radiation that is sent to the
earth surface from all directions (reflected from other bodies, molecules, particles, droplets, etc.) is
defined as diffuse radiation. The sum of the beam and diffuse components is defined as total (or global)
radiation.
It is important for us to differentiate between the beam radiation and diffuse radiation when talking
about solar concentration in this lesson, because the beam radiation can be concentrated, while the
diffuse radiation, in many cases, cannot.
Short-wave radiation, in the wavelength range from 0.3 to 3 μm, comes directly from the sun. It
includes both beam and diffuse components.
Long-wave radiation, with wavelength 3 μm or longer, originates from the sources at near-ambient
temperatures - atmosphere, earth surface, light collectors, other bodies.
The solar radiation reaching the earth is highly variable and depends on the state of the atmosphere at a
specific locale. Two atmospheric processes can significantly affect the incident
irradiation: scattering and absorption.

Scattering is caused by interaction of the radiation with molecules, water, and dust particles in the air.
How much light is scattered depends on the number of particles in the atmosphere, particle size, and
the total air mass the radiation comes through.
Absorption occurs upon interaction of the radiation with certain molecules, such as ozone (absorption of
short-wave radiation - ultraviolet), water vapor, and carbon dioxide (absorption of long-wave radiation -
infrared).
Due to these processes, out of the whole spectrum of solar radiation, only a small portion reaches the
earth surface. Thus most of x-rays and other short-wave radiation is absorbed by atmospheric
components in the ionosphere, ultraviolet is absorbed by ozone, and not-so abundant long-wave
radiation is absorbed by CO2. As a result, the main wavelength range to be considered for solar
applications is from 0.29 to 2.5 μm [Duffie and Beckman, 2013].
The amount of solar radiation on the earth surface can be instrumentally measured, and precise
measurements are important for providing background solar data for solar energy conversion
applications.

11
MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION
Introduction
Radiometry is the science of radiation measurement. It is concerned with the detection and
measurement of radiant energy either in separate wavelengths or integrated over a narrow or broad
wavelength band. It also concerns with the interaction of radiant energy with matter in such ways as
absorption, reflectance, transmission and emission. Meteorological science normally measures the
radiation over specific wavelength bands and over a known length of time.

Radiometer is a device to measure the quantity of radiant energy. It is designed to convert the energy of
incident radiation into another form, for the determination of the quantity of the radiation that is
incident on the device. The device may provide an electrical output which will be a useful measure of
the incident radiant energy in quantitative terms.

Radiation detectors convert radiation into energy of other types, such as electrical, thermal, chemical,
optic-acoustic and pyroelectric. Even the phenomenon of heating affects the materials, thereby, causing
changes in mechanical, electrical, photoelectrical and photochemical properties. The degree of change
in the measurable output, however, depends on a variety of variables and the quantity of incident
radiant energy. A part of this incident energy always goes to change the internal energy of the detector
and hence it is not available for measurement. In addition, there are other intrinsic losses due to
reflection, exchanges with its environment etc. Thus, the quantity as measured by a detector is always
lower than the actual incident quantity of radiant energy. Some of these losses may be accounted for by
careful laboratory measurements and quantified, leading to a measurement which will be as close as
possible to the true value. Such an experimental determination is called characterisation.

Meteorological practices generally use thermal detectors and photoelectric detectors for measuring the
radiant energy. Thermal detectors are used for non-selective measurements over wide spectral ranges.
Photoelectric devices are used for measuring radiant energy in narrow spectral bands. However, the
measured value cannot be said to be accurate due to uncertainties caused by various inherent sources
of errors.

The deviations from the true value give rise to uncertainty in the measured values. Besides, the intrinsic
uncertainties due to changes in internal energy, the accuracy of measured value depends on several
factors, some of which are listed below:
1. Resolution: the smallest change in the radiant energy which can be detected by the instrument.
2. Stability of sensitivity over time
3. Linearity of output with irradiance changes.
4. Spectral response over a wide range
5. Directional response due to changes in azimuthal direction, zenith distance and tilt of the sensor
surface.
6. Response time of the sensor or measuring system.
7. Changes in sensitivity due to changes in the environment, especially the dependence on
temperature changes.
8. Absence of zero-point depression due to sudden changes in irradiance levels. This shift in zero-
point may occur when the colder reference becomes warmer than the irradiated area due to sudden

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changes in irradiance and as the colder reference is not subjected to direct irradiation in most
cases.
9. Uncertainties with the auxiliary equipment.

Classification of radiation instruments

Most of the radiation instruments, generally used on network scale for meteorological purposes,
have thermal detectors. They are exposed outside throughout the year under all environmental
conditions and at different locations with varying climatological conditions. Most of them have wide
spectral ranges, viz. 300 - 3000nm and 4 - 50µm. Photosensors are used mainly for measurements of
optical depths. Accordingly, the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) has classified the
radiation instruments into different groups.

(i) Pyrheliometers: These measure direct solar irradiances The solar radiation is incident
perpendicularly on the receiving surface. The normal incidence can be achieved by mounting it on
an electrically or mechanically driven solar tracker or manually, in case of instantaneous
measurements and using a sighting device. The field of view is 5º or slightly more. By using broad-
band filters, spectral measurements of irradiance can also be made.

(ii) Pyranometers: These measure solar irradiation received from a solid angle of 2ʌ steradians on a
horizontal surface. They give global solar irradiance. When a shading device keeps the sensor under
shade, the instrument measures diffuse solar irradiance. In an inverted position, it measures the

13
solar irradiance reflected by the underlying surface. The instrument can also be used on sloping
surfaces and facing different directions to obtain the solar irradiance from different orientations.

(iii) Pyrradiometers: The total energy contained in both solar and terrestrial radiant energy
wavelengths is measured by pyrradiometers, either in the upward or downward directions. In this
case, the temperature of the measuring sensor surface has also to be independently measured or a
compensation electrical circuit has to be developed, to account for the loss in thermal energy from
the sensing surface and obtain the true value of the radiant energy.

(iv) Pyrgeometers: These measure the net terrestrial radiation only. They are solar blind. These are
provided with suitable filters to prevent the strong solar irradiance during the daytime.

(v) Net pyrradiometers: The balance between total downward and total upward radiant energy or
the net radiant energy, is measured by net pyrradiometers.The radiant field is 4ʌ steradians.

(vi) Sunphotometers: These are used to measure the irradiance in narrow spectral bands using
narrow band pass or interference filters. These measurements are used to derive the optical depth
of the atmosphere. Photo sensing detectors are used for the purpose.

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Scale of radiation measurements:

Prior to 1956, the radiation measurements were being made with reference to the two standards-
Ångström pyrheliometer at Stockholm, Sweden and the silver disk pyrheliometer kept at the
Smithsonian Institution, Washington. The calibration factor of the standard Ångström pyrheliometer
was derived based on the basic dimensions of the sensor, its resistance and absorptivity.

This was standardized in 1905 and the base reference to this was being called the Ångström Scale
1905. The Smithsonian Institution derived the calibration factor of its pyrheliometer by calorimetric
methods with reference to its standard water flow pyrheliometer. Measurements based on these
pyrheliometers were referred to a standard called Smithsonian Scale 1913. There have been
frequent inter-comparisons of the two scales through their secondary standards. Careful analysis of
data established a mean difference of 3.5 per cent between the two scales.

In 1956, the International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics (IAMAP) in its
meeting at Davos, Switzerland considered these data and formulated a new scale for normalizing
the two scales and the data obtained based on them. It was called International Pyrheliometric
Scale 1956 (IPS 1956). To reduce the calibration factors of different sensors and the data obtained
earlier to this new IPS 1956 Scale.

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PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS
A photovoltaic (PV) cell is an energy harvesting technology, that converts solar energy into
useful electricity through a process called the photovoltaic effect. There are several different types of PV
cells which all use semiconductors to interact with incoming photons from the Sun in order to generate
an electric current.

The first PV cells were made of silicon combined, or doped, with other elements to affect the behaviour
of electrons or holes (electron absences within atoms).There are two basic types of semiconductor
material, called positive (or P type) and negative (or N type). In a PV cell, flat pieces of these materials
are placed together, and the physical boundary between them is called the P-N junction. The device is
constructed in such a way that the junction can be exposed to visible light, IR, or UV. When such
radiation strikes the P-N junction, a voltage difference is produced between the P type and N type
materials. Electrodes connected to the semiconductor layers allow current to be drawn from the device.

Large sets of PV cells can be connected together to form solar modules, arrays, or panels. The use of PV
cells and batteries for the generation of usable electrical energy is known as photovoltaics. One of the
major advantages of photovoltaics is the fact that it is non-polluting, requiring only real estate (and a
reasonably sunny climate) in order to function. Another advantage is the fact that solar energy is
unlimited. Once a photovoltaic system has been installed, it can provide energy at essentially no cost for
years, and with minimal maintenance.

Types of PV Cells
Photovoltaic cell can be manufactured in a variety of ways and from many different materials. The most
common material for commercial solar cell construction is Silicon (Si), but others include Gallium Arsenide
(GaAs), Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) and Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS). Solar cells can be
constructed from brittle crystalline structures (Si, GaAs) or as flexible thin-film cells (Si, CdTe, CIGS).
Crystalline solar cells can be further classified into two categories-monocrystalline and polycrystalline. As
the names suggest, monocrystalline PV cells are comprised of a uniform or single crystal lattice, whereas
polycrystalline cells contain different or varied crystal structures. Solar cells can also be classified by their

16
number of layers or "p-n junctions". Most commercial PV cells are only single-junction, but multi-junction
PV cells have also been developed which provide higher efficiencies at a greater cost.
Photovoltaic Effect
The photovoltaic effect is a process that generates voltage or electric current in a photovoltaic
cell when it is exposed to sunlight. It is this effect that makes solar panels useful, as it is how the cells
within the panel convert sunlight to electrical energy. The photovoltaic effect was first discovered in
1839 by Edmond Becquerel. When doing experiments involving wet cells, he noted that the voltage of
the cell increased when its silver plates were exposed to the sunlight.
Process
The photovoltaic effect occurs in solar cells. These solar cells are composed of two different types
of semiconductors - a p-type and an n-type - that are joined together to create a p-n junction. By joining
these two types of semiconductors, an electric field is formed in the region of the junction
as electrons move to the positive p-side and holes move to the negative n-side. This field causes
negatively charged particles to move in one direction and positively charged particles in the other
direction.[1]
Light is composed of photons, which are simply small bundles of electromagnetic radiation or energy.
These photons can be absorbed by a photovoltaic cell - the type of cell that composes solar panels. When
light of a suitable wavelength is incident on these cells, energy from the photon is transferred to
an atom of the semiconducting material in the p-n junction. Specifically, the energy is transferred to the
electrons in the material. This causes the electrons to jump to a higher energy state known as
the conduction band. This leaves behind a "hole" in the valence band that the electron jumped up from.
This movement of the electron as a result of added energy creates two charge carriers, an electron-hole
pair.

17
When unexcited, electrons hold the semiconducting material together by forming bonds with surrounding
atoms, and thus they cannot move. However, in their excited state in the conduction band, these electrons
are free to move through the material. Because of the electric field that exists as a result of the p-n
junction, electrons and holes move in the opposite direction as expected. Instead of being attracted to
the p-side, the freed electron tends to move to the n-side. This motion of the electron creates an electric
current in the cell. Once the electron moves, there's a "hole" that is left. This hole can also move, but in
the opposite direction to the p-side. It is this process which creates a current in the cell.

DATA

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19
LAST 2 DECADE CAPACITY DATA OF WORLDWIDE

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LAST DECADE DATA OF INDIA

Installed solar PV on 31 March

Year Cumulative Capacity (in MW)

2010 161

2011 461

2012 1,205

2013 2,319

2014 2,632

2015 3,744

2016 6,763

2017 12,289

2018 21,651

2019 28,181

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ONGOING RESEARCH IN THIS FIELD
Bionic leaf

Scientists at Harvard recently created a bionic leaf, which uses a catalyst to make sunlight split water
into hydrogen and oxygen, then a bacteria engineered to convert carbon dioxide and hydrogen into a
liquid fuel called isopropanol. They're almost at a 1% efficiency rate of turning the sunlight into the fuel -
- in other words, they've found a way to recreate the efficiency of photosynthesis.

Perovskites

Perovskites are materials with a specific crystalline structure. Stanford University researchers found that
using lead, ammonia, and iodine, they could make a lot of it for cheap. Perovskites are more efficient
than silicon in some ways, so the idea is using them to supplement rather than replace silicon may be a
way to increase the efficiency of solar cells. At Stanford, a silicon solar cell with an efficiency of 11.4%
increased to 17% with perovskite.

One of the most exciting parts of perovskites is their high efficiencies. Based on lab calculations,
scientists believe that perovskite solar cells are capable of beating the efficiencies of traditional mono-
or poly-crystalline silicon cells. Although they have been in development for far less time than silicon
cells, perovskite cells are already reaching lab efficiencies above 20 percent. Researchers hope that
perovskite solar cells can exceed the efficiency limits of traditional panels once more lab development is
done.

Another advantage of perovskite solar cells is that they are based on a man-made material that can be
produced at a low cost. Standard solar PV cells are made with crystalline silicon, which has to be
extracted from the earth and processed before it can be used to make high-quality solar cells. Perovskite
cells are made through a process called “solution processing” which is the same practice used when
printing out newspapers.

High efficiency for As-doped cells

Copper-doped cadmium telluride thin-film solar cells have high efficiency, but limited hole density and
Cu diffusion allow little room for further improvements in device performance. Now, arsenic-doped
cadmium telluride thin films show enhanced hole density and lower dopant diffusivity leading to 20.8%-
efficient solar cells. Copper-doped cadmium telluride thin-film solar cells have high efficiency, but

22
limited hole density and Cu diffusion allow little room for further improvements in device performance.
Now, arsenic-doped cadmium telluride thin films show enhanced hole density and lower dopant
diffusivity leading to 20.8%-efficient solar cells.

Polymer solar cells

Polymer solar cells, called P1D2, may increase solar cell efficiency. The research comes from the
University of Chicago's chemistry department, the Institute for Molecular Engineering, and Argonne
National Laboratory. The polymer breaks down easier and allows more electrons to travel faster. The
researchers said in a test, it increased solar cell efficiency by 15%.

Thin film solar

New research from Cornell, published in Nature in January, showed that scientists are reporting better
solar cells by changing the chemistry of the materials. Thin film solar, which is a photovoltaic material
onto a substrate like silicon. The ones made by these researchers at Cornell are organic-inorganic metal
halide perovskites, which the team has been studying for a while. The new solar cells use a liquid source
and a simple coating, which can make it appealing for more commercial uses.

23
CURRENT SCENARIO
In recent years solar cell technology has achieved tremendous growth as sustainable source of energy.
In last few years photovoltaic industries have emerged with an annual growth of 40%. Solar cells are
renewable pollution free source of electrical energy which can easily replace traditional fossil fuels. In
this article we have reviewed the previous and current status of various generations of solar cells and
discussed about their future trends and aspects.
New installations this calendar year will reach nearly 14 gigawatts (GW), which is about 50% more than
the capacity added last year, according to a report by the Gurugram-based renewable energy
consultancy firm Bridge to India, released on Jan. 09.

The new capacity addition will take India’s installed solar capacity to about 38 GW by the end of the
year. Overall, the country is estimated to add nearly 16 GW of clean energy capacity in 2019, driven by
large-scale solar projects.

In 2018, addition of new capacity fell primarily due to low tender activity in the past couple of years,
Saran said, adding that the projected rise in additions this year is a result of heavy tendering activity in
late 2017 and early 2018.

After dipping in the second half of 2018, government tenders picked up again in December, when India’s
ministry of new and renewable energy announced plans to issue tenders for 60 GW by March 2020.

Apart from such large-scale projects, installation of rooftop solar panels also continues to rise.

24
Indian households have not yet warmed to rooftop solar panels due to their high cost of purchase. But
commercial and industrial buildings, which are supplied grid electricity at significantly higher rates than
residential users, find it economical to switch over to solar panels.

As land becomes tougher to acquire, developers are now eyeing water bodies. “The latest tenders for
floating solar have gone well and there has been a lot of excitement from developers,” Saran said,
adding that new auctions for floating solar projects of up to 5 GW are expected from the government in
2019.

Winning bids for the government’s tenders this year will range from Rs3 and Rs2.5 per unit of electricity,
the report said. Bids had fallen to Rs2.43 in 2017.

INDIA’S CURRENT STATUS

Solar power in India is a fast-developing industry. The country's solar installed capacity reached 31.124
GW as of 30 September 2019. India has the lowest capital cost per MW globally to install the solar
power plants.
The Indian government had an initial target of 20 GW capacity for 2022, which was achieved four years
ahead of schedule. In 2015 the target was raised to 100 GW of solar capacity (including 40 GW
from rooftop solar) by 2022, targeting an investment of US$100 billion. India has established nearly 42
solar parks to make land available to the promoters of solar plants.
India expanded its solar-generation capacity 8 times from 2,650 MW on 26 May 2014 to over 20 GW as
on 31 January 2018. The country added 3 GW of solar capacity in 2015–2016, 5 GW in 2016–2017 and
over 10 GW in 2017–2018, with the average current price of solar electricity dropping to 18% below the
average price of its coal-fired counterpart.

25
Rooftop solar power accounts for 2.1 GW, of which 70% is industrial or commercial. In addition to its
large-scale grid-connected solar photovoltaic (PV) initiative, India is developing off-grid solar power for
local energy needs. Solar products have increasingly helped to meet rural needs; by the end of 2015 just
under one million solar lanterns were sold in the country, reducing the need for kerosene. That year,
118,700 solar home lighting systems were installed and 46,655 solar street lighting installations were
provided under a national program; just over 1.4 million solar cookers were distributed in India.

• Overall Solar PV Installed capacity is 2.87 % mixed with Total Installed capacity of India October 2016 &
1.47% penetration in End Energy consumption

• Currently India is having 8.75 GW of installation capacity from Solar PV and is expected to grow by 5-
fold as MNRE Go has set up the vertical moving target of 100 GW up to 2022.

• 100 GW is breakup in two major segment 60 GW Ground mount (20 GW Solar park) and 40 GW
Rooftop (OPEX,Capex), Mini and Micro grid

• Leading states are Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamilnadu, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh,
Karnataka and other 2-3 states are having ~80% of total share in installation capacity from solar.

• Strong Project development/ Tender pipeline ~19-20 GW by End to December 2016 where 7-8 GW is
under development.

• CAGR of ~27.10% YoY has been observed from past 5 years and is expected to increase by 34.33% YoY
in next 5-6 years

• 11068 MW is expected to be commissioned in Q4 2016-17 and Q1 2017-18

• 1900 MW in Telangana ,1950 MW in Karnataka, 1395 MW in Andhra Pradesh, 910 MW in Rajasthan,

570 MW in Madhya Pradesh, 550 MW in Punjab states are having largest execution pipeline

Domestic (Indian) Solar Market Outlook: Growth trajectory

• India need to add YoY 15-16 GW/year to achieve the 100 GW target up to year 2022

• As per revised national tariff policy, GoI is targeting to increase the RPO up to 8% in Year 2022.

• Highest installation would be in northern region. UP, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Madhya
Pradesh, Karnataka would be leading states.

26
GLOBAL STATUS

Over the years, solar has lagged significantly behind wind power in terms of annual installed capacity
and cumulative capacity but is rapidly closing the gap in annual installations. Already by 2019, it is
predicted that solar will surpass wind in new installed capacity. The solar revolution began in earnest in
2008 when new installations soared to 6.7 GW from 2.5 GW the year before. The 268% surge preceded
another 7.3 GW of installed capacity in 2009. In 2010, new installations more than doubled to 17.2 GW,
bringing the global cumulative capacity to 40.3 GW. In 2011, new installations surged yet again and
finished the year at 30.1 GW (70.5 GW total). 2012 was a flat year for solar with a 0.1 GW decline in new
installations. Prior to 2012, the industry had ramped up capacity expecting another strong year of sales
and profits. When this did not come to fruition, the industry was left with excess capacity and prices of
PV products such as panels, modules and cells declined and manufacturers with high-levels of debt
quickly found themselves in a struggle to survive. The industry recovered in 2013 and 2014. In 2013, as
the wind power industry experienced a big slump in new capacity, solar for the first-time surpassed wind
in annual installations. Wind retook the lead in new installations in 2014 and 2015 but in 2016, solar
opened up a wide gap with 78 GW in new installations or 23 GW ahead of wind followed by 99 GW
installed in 2017. In 2018, new PV installations were twice as high as wind (102.4 GW vs. 51.3 GW).

A year of strong PV growth is expected in 2019. Solar Power Europe forecasts a level of new installations
between 84.5 GW (low) and 165.4 GW (high). 137.5 GW are required to reach Solar Power Europe's
expected 2019 mid-scenario of 647 GW total installed capacity.

Global Scenario: Solar industry growth

• Market Size would be 9.35 times bigger than current in next 5-6 years

27
• As per GTM research Solar PV capacity will be 7--730GW (450-500 GW by 2022) and as per IHS it
would be ~720-750 GW in next 5-6 Year.

• India (100 GW), China (180-190 GW), USA, Japan, would be leading country in Solar Sector

• This year pace of installation might be lower in China, Japan as government has reduced the FITs by
20-30% in China and ~30% in Japan that will reflect 18-20% lower interest in terms of development but
India (23 GW), USA, UK

• Significant reduction in LCOE (20-30%) shall be seen in next 2 year due to falling of Average selling
price of module due to oversupply, adoption of Single axis tracker, MPLE, 1500V, Share of Fixed and
Single axis tracker in same Solar Project with optimal balance afterward the overall LCOE would be

stable

FUTURE IMPROVEMENT IN PV CELLS

The first photovoltaic cells, developed in the 1950s to power communications satellites, were very
inefficient. Since those days, solar-cell efficiencies have climbed steadily while costs have dropped,
although there remains plenty of room for improvement. In addition to lower cost and better efficiency,
future advances in photovoltaic materials will likely lead to wider use of solar power for novel,
environmentally friendly applications.

28
Lower Cost

Photovoltaic cells were key to the first communications satellites because few alternatives could
produce reliable electricity for long periods, especially with no maintenance. The high cost of a satellite
justified using expensive solar cells for power. Since then, costs for solar cells have dropped significantly,
leading to inexpensive mobile devices such as solar-powered calculators and cellphone chargers. For
large-scale power generation, the cost for every watt of electricity produced from photovoltaics remains
higher than alternatives such as energy from coal or nuclear power. The overall trend for decreasing
costs for solar cells is likely to continue into the foreseeable future.

Higher Efficiency

An efficient solar cell produces more electricity from a given amount of light compared to an inefficient
one. Efficiency depends on several factors, including the materials used in the photovoltaic cell itself, the
glass used to cover the cell and the cell’s electrical wiring. Improvements, such as materials that convert
a larger part of the Sun’s light spectrum into electricity have radically increased solar-cell efficiency.
Future advances will likely increase efficiencies further, wringing more electrical energy from light.

Flexible Formats

A traditional photovoltaic cell is a flat piece of silicon material, covered in glass and bonded to a metal
panel; it is effective but not very flexible. Current research in photovoltaic materials has led to cells that
are painted onto a variety of surfaces, including paper and plastic sheets. Another technique places an
ultra-thin film of material onto glass, resulting in a window that lets light in and produces electricity.
Greater variety in photovoltaic materials in the future may lead to solar-powered house paint, road
paving, a coat that recharges your cell phone, and other advanced applications.

Nanotechnology

Advances in nanotechnology, the study of material properties at the atomic and molecular levels, have
great potential for improving photovoltaic cells. For example, the size of microscopic particles in
photovoltaic materials affects their ability to absorb specific colours of light; by fine-tuning the size and
shape of molecules, scientists can increase their efficiency. Nanotechnology may also one day lead to a
desktop 3D-printer that produces atomically-precise solar cells and other devices at very low cost

FUTURE TECHNOLOGY

Bio-solar cells

Bio Solar Cells are natural systems or systems based on natural processes that use photosynthesis to
convert sunlight into useable energy. This occurs in many ways, and the Bio Solar Cells Project focuses
on three options: 1 Increasing the photosynthetic efficiency of plants Outcome: More biomass and
higher yields per given surface area. 2 Direct production of fuels, bypassing the biomass phase.
Outcome: Photosynthetic cyanobacteria or algae that produce butanol, for example. 3 Combining
natural and technological components. Outcome: ‘Artificial Leaves’ that highly efficiently produce
hydrogen gas or syn-gas from solar energy

29
For the first time ever, researchers connected nine biological-solar (bio-solar) cells into a bio-solar panel
and continuously produced electricity from the panel and generated the most wattage of any existing
small-scale bio-solar cells.

Last year, the group took steps towards building a better bio-solar cell by changing the materials used in
anodes and cathodes (positive and negative terminals) of the cell and also created a miniature
microfluidic-based single-chambered device to house the bacteria instead of the conventional, dual-
chambered bio-solar cells.

However, this time, the group connected nine identical bio-solar cells in a 3x3 pattern to make a scalable
and stackable bio-solar panel. The panel continuously generated electricity from photosynthesis and
respiratory activities of the bacteria in 12-hour day-night cycles over 60 total hours.

The current research is the latest step in using cyanobacteria—which can be found in almost every
terrestrial and aquatic habitat on earth—as a source of clean and sustainable energy.

Even with the breakthrough, a typical “traditional" solar panel on the roof of a residential house, made
up of 60 cells in a 6x10 configuration, generates roughly 200 watts of electrical power at a given moment.
The cells from this study, in a similar configuration, would generate about 0.00003726 watts. So, it isn’t
efficient just yet, but the findings open the door to future research of the bacteria itself.

“Once a functional bio-solar panel becomes available, it could become a permanent power source for
supplying long-term power for small, wireless telemetry systems as well as wireless sensors used at
remote sites where frequent battery replacement is impractical," said Seokheun ‘Sean’ Choi, an assistant
professor of electrical and computer engineering in Binghamton University’s Thomas J. Watson School of
Engineering and Applied Science, and co-author of the paper, in a 11 April press statement.

30
Floating panels, floating solar farms

In many countries, there is a lack of space to install large-scale ground-mount solar systems. As
authorities wish to avoid taking away large farmlands for ground-mount solar systems, companies are
introducing ecological alternative solutions.

One such firm is French company Ciel & Terre International, which has been developing large-scale
floating solar solutions since 2011. Its Hydrelio Floating PV system allows standard PV panels to be
installed on large bodies of water such as drinking water reservoirs, quarry lakes, irrigation canals,
remediation and tailing ponds, and hydroelectric dam reservoirs.

This simple and affordable alternative to ground-mounted systems is particularly suitable for water-
intensive industries that cannot afford to waste either land or water.

This is how it works. The main float is constructed of high-density thermoplastic (HDPE) and is set at a
12-degree angle to support a standard 60-cell PV solar module. A secondary non-slip HDPE float is then
used to link the main floats together and provide a platform for maintenance and added buoyancy.

According to Ciel and Terre, the system is easy to install and dismantle, can be adapted to any electrical
configuration, is scalable from low- to high-power generation and requires no tools or heavy equipment.
It is also eco-friendly, fully recyclable, has low environmental impact and is cost-effective.

To date, the system has been installed in the UK. The company has also set up projects for floating solar
farms in countries such as India, France and Japan.

Transmitting solar power wirelessly from space

The Japanese Space Agency (JAXA)’s Space Solar Power Systems (SSPS) aims at transmitting energy from
orbiting solar panels by 2030. On 12 March, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd (MHI) successfully
conducted a ground demonstration test of “wireless power transmission", a technology that will serve
as the basis for the SSPS. In the test, 10kW of electricity was successfully transmitted via a microwave
unit. Power reception was confirmed at a receiver located 500 metres away. LED lights on the receiver
confirmed the transmission. This marks a new milestone in transmission distance and power load
(enough to power a set of conventional kitchen appliances).

31
Potentially, a solar battery in orbit (36,000km above earth) could generate power that would then be
transmitted to earth via microwave/laser, without relying on cables. JAXA anticipates that this new
technology could become a mainstay energy source that will simultaneously solve both environmental
and energy issues on earth.

The estimated lifecycle carbon dioxide emission for the operational SSPS indicates that it is almost the
same as from nuclear power system and much less than fossil fuel power system, JAXA claims on its
website. Countries such as India, China and Japan are investing heavily in these technologies right now.

Concentrated PV cells

IBM researchers have found a way to make concentrated PV cells that are more efficient in converting
the sun’s energy into electricity. The researchers have shown that it is possible to increase the
concentration of light on photovoltaic cells by about 10 times without causing them to melt. This, they
say, makes it possible to boost the amount of usable electrical energy produced by up to five times.

The principle behind concentrated PV cells is to use a large lens to focus light onto a relatively small
piece of PV semiconductor material. The benefit is that only a fraction of the semiconductor material is
used, thereby reducing costs. IBM’s solution is to place an ultrathin layer of liquid metal, a compound of
gallium and indium, between the two surfaces. The metal has a very high thermal conductivity and
because it’s a liquid, it is possible to make this layer extremely thin, typically around 10 micrometers.

32
IBM is in talks with solar-cell companies about licensing the technology. Last September, Swiss-based
Airlight Energy said it has partnered with IBM to bring affordable solar technology to the market by
2017.

The system can concentrate the sun’s radiation 2,000 times and convert 80% of it into useful energy to
generate 12kW of electrical power and 20kW of heat on a sunny day—enough to power several average
homes.

The Future of Solar Panels: The Tesla Solar Roof

While rooftop solar installations can reduce one’s energy bill, they’re also a bit unsightly to those who
really care about the outward appearance of their home.

However, companies such as Tesla are working on future solar panels that are more aesthetically
pleasing, and have now nearly reached the point where you can’t even tell that there are any solar
panels installed at all

Tesla’s “solar roof” is comprised of PV panels that look just like any other panel that might be used on
the roof of a home, but provides the added benefit of solar energy generation.

This technology, in combination with home energy storage, is a perfect example of how solar energy is
becoming literally “built-in” and more a part of our world than ever before.

With further advancements and creative thinking in future solar energy projects, it might not be long
before the vast majority of our surfaces are generating electricity.

INDIA’S FUTURE PROJECTION

33
CLASSIFICATION OF PV SOLAR CELL

A solar cell (also called photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell) is a solid state electrical device
that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect.
The following are the different types of solar cells.
• Amorphous Silicon solar cell (a-Si)
• Biohybrid solar cell
• Cadmium telluride solar cell (CdTe)
• Concentrated PV cell (CVP and HCVP)
• Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells (CI(G)S)
• Crystalline silicon solar cell (c-Si)
• Dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC)
• Gallium arsenide germanium solar cell (GaAs)
• Hybrid solar cell
• Luminescent solar concentrator cell (LSC)
• Micromorph (tandem-cell using a-Si/μc-Si)
• Monocrystalline solar cell (mono-Si)
• Multi-junction solar cell (MJ)Nanocrystal solar cell
• Organic solar cell (OPV)
• Perovskite solar cell
• Photoelectrochemical cell (PEC)
• Polycrystalline solar cell (multi-Si)
34
 • Quantum dot solar cell
• Solid-state solar cell
• Thin-film solar cell (TFSC)
• Wafer solar cell, or wafer-based solar cell crystalline

Comparison between common PV technologies

35
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR SOLAR CELLS
• Choice of silicon crystal
The crystal of the Si to be used i.e. mono crystalline form or polycrystalline form , amorphous form, etc
is the first consideration during designing .The purity of Si also an important aspect of designing.

• Doping material
Another material consideration his the doping material. They used in converting a simple Si crystal to n-
type or P-type in order to create the required PN Junction. Various materials used for this purpose
include Boron , phosphorus, etc. Various doping materials have different effect on the created junction
hence its requisite selection is important.

• Technique applied for doping

There are a number of techniques that have been developed to for doping of the Si Crystal. Some of
them are:

❖ Gas Diffusion
❖ Liquid Diffusion
❖ Solid Diffusion
❖ Diffusion By Alloys
❖ Ion Implantation

Not only technique but the level or amount of doping i.e thickness of doping layer is also an important
design consideration.

• Electrode material
Electrode is responsible for the transfer of the generated energy to the system and so the conductivity
of the material should be very along with stability at such high temperatures. Electrodes should cover
least area possible and should have a high energy potential.

• Module cover plate

The cover plate should be as transparent as possible to allow maximum radiation capture. Lot of
materials like glass and other hybrids are present in the markets and so right selection is important.

• Antireflection coating
This coating is essential to avoid the loss of irradiance captured by the module and thus reducing the
power losses. Thus the controlling factors for this coating are:
➢ RI of coating material
Refractive Index = [(RI ofAir)*(Ri of solar eng.mat.)]^0.5

➢ Thickness of coating material

36
 Thickness = m*(wavelength/4)*(1/n)

n - Refractive index of coating material

• Support systems
Capacity of a solar cell is also controlled by its support system such as inverters, resistances, batteries,
etc. and their respective efficiencies and capacities. Thus for implementation both the support and main
systems should complement each other. This is the work of designer to work with corresponding
available support system technology.

• Installation Aspects
Aspects of area and place of installation must be considered in order to maximise the usage of area as
well as work with respect to energy generation potential of the location.

• Economics
Last but not the least the economics of the solar cell constructed is an important measure while
designing. It is the top priority of constructing cheap solar cells all over the world. Economics in terms of
material cost, cost of operation and maintenance costs without compromising with the efficiency is of
major importance.

37
PERFORMANCE OF SOLAR CELLS
Factors affecting performance of a solar cell:

• Type of PV Technology:
Performance of cell depends on the types of crystal and type of technology applied for its construction.

• Ambient Conditions:
PV cell like any other semiconductor device is sensitive to temperature . Efficiency and output power
reduced with increase in temperature due to increased carrier concentration.

• Amount of solar radiation:

Performance vary significantly under caring light conditions which in turn impact the yield of the
system.Variations in intensity of radiation affect parameters such as Isc ,Voc , power ,FF and efficiency.

• Fill Factor:
It is a measure of squareness of PV cell.A good PV cell is expected to have a fill factor above 70%. It is
ratio of maximum power to the product of Isc and Voc.

• Parasitic Resistance :
The series and shunt resistances called the parasitic resistances results in power losses and hence
effecting the efficiency of the module. For optimum performance of module the shunt resistance should
be as high as possible and series resistance should as low as possible.

• Shading Factor:
Shading results in the mismatching of the radiation and so current on the different cells of a solar
module. This not only reduces power but also may damage the internal resistances due to forced
current.The solution to this is the use of Bypassing Diodes.

38
 • Geographical Location:
Location plays an important by affecting module capabilities.
The location affects the irradiance at a place and also theme of sunshine availability. High Altitude
locations also affect the performance due to temperature differences.

• Soiling:
Formation of dust over the glass surface tends to reduce the capture ability of the cell and hence affects
the performance.

• Module Orientation:
A PV module orientation and tilt angle decides the actual performance of the solar cell since an efficient
cell without proper orientation would not work upto the expectations. The orientation should as such to
trace the entire path of sun from sunrise to sunset.

39
Flat Plate & Focusing Collector
The major component of any solar system is the solar collector. This is a device that absorbs the
incoming solar radiation, converts it into heat, and transfers the heat to a fluid (usually air, water, or oil)
flowing through the collector. Here we will be broadly discussing about Flat Plate & Focusing collectors
in detail.

Flat Plate Collector

A typical flat-plate collector is a metal box with a glass or plastic cover (called glazing) on top and a
dark-colored absorber plate on the bottom. The sides and bottom of the collector are usually insulated
to minimize heat loss.

Sunlight passes through the glazing and strikes the absorber plate, which heats up, changing solar
energy into heat energy. The heat is transferred to liquid passing through pipes attached to the absorber
plate. Absorber plates are commonly painted with "selective coatings," which absorb and retain heat
better than ordinary black paint. Absorber plates are usually made of metal—typically copper or
aluminum—because the metal is a good heat conductor. Copper is more expensive, but is a better
conductor and less prone to corrosion than aluminum. In locations with average available solar energy,
flat plate collectors are sized approximately one-half- to one-square foot per gallon of one-day's hot
water use.

Applications: The main use of this technology is in residential buildings where the demand for hot
water has a large impact on energy bills. This generally means a situation with a large family, or a
situation in which the hot water demand is excessive due to frequent laundry washing.

Commercial applications include laundromats, car washes, military laundry facilities and eating
establishments. The technology can also be used for space heating if the building is located off-grid or if
utility power is subject to frequent outages. Solar water heating systems are most likely to be cost
effective for facilities with water heating systems that are expensive to operate, or with operations such
as laundries or kitchens that require large quantities of hot water.

Unglazed liquid collectors are commonly used to heat water for swimming pools. Because these
collectors need not withstand high temperatures, they can use less expensive materials such as

40
plastic or rubber. They also do not require freeze-proofing because swimming pools are generally used
only in warm weather or can be drained easily during cold weather.

While solar collectors are most cost-effective in sunny, temperate areas, they can be cost effective
virtually anywhere in the country so should be considered.

Direct and Indirect Hot Water Systems

There are several different ways to heat water for use in the home. Solar water heating systems that use
flat plate solar collectors to capture the suns energy can be classed as either direct or indirect systems by
the way in which they transfer the heat around the system. In order to heat your water successfully and
use it during both the day and the night, you will need to have both a solar collector to capture the heat
and transfer it to the water and also a hot water tank to store this hot water for use as needed.

Direct Hot Water System

A direct solar water heating system, also known as an active open-loop system, uses a pump to circulate
the water around the system. The cooler water is pumped directly from the home to a central water
storage or immersion tank and passes through the solar collector for heating. The hot water leaves the
flat plate collector and returns back to the tank flowing in a continuous loop. From there, the water is
pumped back into the house as hot usable water.

A low voltage 12 volt pump can be used which can be powered by a small photovoltaic cell or electronic
controller making the system more green. Direct systems are usually used in warmer climates with few
cold days or is drained in winter to stop the water in the pipes from freezing. Chemicals can not be added
to the water for protection as the same water that circulates through the flat plate collector is used in the
home.

41
In a passive direct hot water system, the system does not use pumps or control mechanisms to transfer
the heat created to the storage tank. Instead, passive systems are what are called “open-loop systems”
which use the natural force of gravity to help circulate the water around the system. This type of system
uses a solar flat plate collector combined with a horizontally mounted storage tank of some kind located
immediately above the collector.

The water heated by the sun rises naturally using convection through the solar collectors pipes and enters
the storage tank situated above. As the heated water enters the storage tank above, the cooler water is
forced out and flows down to the bottom of the collectors aided by gravity as cold water is more dense
than hot water. This cycle of hot water rising and cooler water falling is known as a “thermosyphon flow”
and continuously repeats unaided while the sun is shining.

Indirect Hot Water System

The heat exchanger transfers the heat from the collector’s antifreeze solution to the water located in the
water storage tank. The heat exchanger can either be a copper coil inside the lower part of the storage
tank or a flat plate exchanger outside the storage tank.

One of the main advantages to this closed loop indirect heating system is that the antifreeze solution gives
all year round operation in areas where the temperature falls below the freezing point as well as
protecting the system from corrosion of the collectors by untreated tap water containing gases and
various dissolved salts.

The main advantage of a forced circulation indirect hot water system is that an existing domestic water
heating system can easily be converted to solar heating of the water just by adding a flat plate collector
and a single pump as most homes use gas or oil fired boilers as well as a hot water storage tank with built-
in heat exchanger coil.

42
The system is also likely to be more efficient, and the hot water storage tank can be placed anywhere in
the home because it does not need to be higher than the collectors as in the previous passive or
thermosyphon system. One disadvantage, however, is that the closed-loop system is dependent on
electricity for the circulating pump which may be expensive or unreliable. Some designs use a small low
voltage pump and photovoltaic panel along side the collector making the system more efficient and
greener. For larger installations and in cooler climates the hot-water tanks are included below the roof
within buildings, so forced circulation indirect solar water heating is the norm.

43
Focusing Plate Collector
Focusing collector or concentrating type solar collector is a device to collect solar energy with high
intensity of solar radiation on the energy absorbing surface. Such collectors generally use optical system
in the form of reflectors or refractors. A focusing collector is a special form of flat-plate collector
modified by introducing a reflecting or refracting surface between the Solar Radiation and the absorber.
In these collectors radiation falling on a relatively large area is focused on to a receiver or absorber of
considerably smaller area. As a result of the energy concentration, fluids can be heated to temperatures
of 5000 oC or more.

Concentrating (focusing) type solar collector

A Schematic diagram of a typical concentrating collector is shown in fig. The collector consists of a
concentrator and a receiver. The concentrator shown is a mirror reflector having the shape of a
cylindrical parabola. It focuses the sunlight on to its axis where it is absorbed on the surface of the
absorber tube and transferred to the fluid flow through it.

44
A concentric glass cover around the absorber tube helps in reducing the convective and radiative losses
to the surroundings. In order that the sun’s rays should always be focused on to the absorber tube, the
concentrator has to be rotated. This movement is called tracking in the case of cylindrical parabolic
concentrators, rotation about a single axis is generally required. Fluid temperatures up to around 5000
o
C can be achieved in cylindrical parabolic focusing collector system.

Parabolic Reflector:
A systematic diagram of a parabolic reflector is shown in Fig. 1.5.

The radiation received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel. They are reflected by parabolic
reflector and focused on a vessel full of water. The water gets heated by utilizing solar radiation.
Sometimes, the temperature becomes high; the water gets evaporated to form steam.

Focusing collectors may be of two types:

(a) Line focusing

(b) Point focusing.

In actual practice, the line is a collector pipe and the point is a small vessel, as shown in Fig. 1.6, through
which the fluid flows to transport heat.

45
Mirror-Strip Collector:
Another kind of focusing collector in which a large number of plain or slightly curved mirror strips are
mounted on a flat base. The angle of individual mirrors are so adjusted that they reflect solar radiation
on the same focal line as shown in Fig. 1.7.

The radiation received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel. This is shown in Fig. 1.8. In this
system, the solar radiations falling on the earth are focused to a vessel (boiler) mounted on a high tower
by using a large number of flat mirror reflectors which are steerable about to axis known as heliostat.

46
The mirrors are installed on the ground and are oriented such that to reflect the direct radiation beam
on vessels. This produces high-temperature fluids. Radiation falling on the vessel is heated by black
pipes in which working fluid is circulated. The working fluid is used to drive a turbine to produce
mechanical energy.

47
Effect of Receiving Surface Location
A general idea of the availability of solar radiation over different regions can be obtained by constructing
solar radiation maps. Such maps have been drawn here by Mani and Chacko for India and shown here -

48
49
50
The annual average daily global radiation received over the whole country is around 450 langleys. Peak

values are generally measured in April or May, with parts of Rajasthanand Gujarat receiving over 600
langleys. In contrast, during the monsoon and winter months, the daily global radiation decreases to

about 300-400 langleys. From Fig., it is observed that the annual average daily diffuse radiation received
over the whole country is around 175 langleys. The maximum values measured over the whole country
are about 300 langleys in Gujarat in July, while minimum values, between 75 and 100 langleys, are
measured over many parts of the country during November and December as winter sets in. The table
below gives the mean hourly air temperature of some important Indian cities -

51
52
53
These solar energy maps are visual representations of the amount of energy that a solar photovoltaic
system can produce based on the intensity of light that reaches the Earth’s surface, what we call Solar
Production Potential. This number can then be used to calculate how many solar panels you would need
to produce enough energy to offset your home’s electricity usage

Some Angles associated with the receiving surface that affect the solar flux are:

• The Latitude: In geography, latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north–south
position of a point on the Earth's surface. Latitude is an angle (defined below) which ranges
from 0° at the Equator to 90° (North or South) at the poles.
• The Declination : In astronomy, declination (abbreviated dec; symbol δ) is one of the two angles
that locate a point on the celestial sphere in the equatorial coordinate system, the other being
hour angle. Declination's angle is measured north or south of the celestial equator, along the
hour circle passing through the point in question.
• The Surface Azimuth angleAn azimuth is an angular measurement in a spherical coordinate
system. The vector from an observer to a point of interest is projected perpendicularly onto a
reference plane; the angle between the projected vector and a reference vector on the
reference plane is called the azimuth. When used as a celestial coordinate, the azimuth is the
horizontal direction of a star or other astronomical object in the sky.
• The Hour angle: The angle may be expressed as negative east of the meridian plane and positive
west of the meridian plane, or as positive westward from 0° to 360°. The angle may be
measured in degrees or in time, with 24h = 360° exactly. In astronomy, hour angle is defined as

54
 the angular distance on the celestial sphere measured westward along the celestial equator
from the meridian to the hour circle passing through a point.
• Zenith Angle : The solar zenith angle is the angle between the zenith and the centre of the Sun's
disc. The solar elevation angle is the altitude of the Sun, the angle between the horizon and the
centre of the Sun's disc. Since these two angles are complementary, the cosine of either one of
them equals the sine of the other.

55
Effect of Receiving Surface Orientation
Definition
Solar radiation on a Tilted Surface: Incident power on a PV module depends on both the contained
power in the sunlight, as well as the angle formed between the sun and the solar module. When the
sunlight is perpendicular to the module absorbing surface, the power density on the module surface is
equal to the power density of the sunlight (i.e. the power density is always at its maximum when the
direction of the PV module is perpendicular to the sun). But since the angle between any fixed surface
and the sun is frequently changing, the power density on the fixed PV module is less than the power
density of the incident sunlight.

Incident radiation calculation

The following equations relate to the radiation incident on the module tilted surface (Smodule), the
measured solar radiation on horizontal surface (Shoriz) and measure the solar radiation perpendicular to
the sun (Sincident).

Shoriz = Sincident sin α

Smodule = Sincident sin (α+β)

where,
α : elevation angle; and
β : module tilt angle measured from the horizontal.

The elevation angle equation:

α = 90 – φ +δ
where,
φ: latitude;
δ: declination angle , which is equal to
δ= 23.45o sin [ (360/365) * (284 + d ) ]

56
where,
d: day of the year.
From these equations a relationship between Smodule and Shoriz can be determined as:
Smodule =Shoriz (sin (α+β) / sin α )

Power optimization
Tilt angle has a big effect on the solar radiation incident on the surface. The maximum power for a fixed
tilt angle, over a year interval is achieved when the tilt angle is equal to the location’s latitude. Tilt
angles can be optimized to be steeper for expected large winter loads, while smaller title angles use a
greater portion of light in the summer.

Latitude and module tilt have a huge effect of on the amount of solar radiation received throughout the
year and determine the maximum possible output from any Solar module set up.

The relation between Radiation on a tilted surface and a horizontal surface

The above formulas can be used to confirm that tilting a module surface up can increase the incident
irradiance. Numerous factors affect the actual amount, such as the latitude, the day of the year, the
tilting angle and the surface azimuth, clearness index, and albedo.

• Optimum Surface Orientation

In order to maximize the direct irradiance on a surface, rotating the surface around two axes is
required; the tilt and the azimuth angle.
• Fixed Tilt
When there is no option of moving the surface, the optimum tilt angle for the maximum direct
beam irradiance is equivalent to the location’s latitude.
• Seasonal Tilt
One should adjust the tilt angle for winter and summer seasons in areas where majority of the
irradiance occurs in summer.
• Tracking
New technologies provide advanced options for optimizing the module tilt by tracking
techniques

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References

• Basharat Jamil, D. Nichols, B. M. Oki and D. Terry, " Development of empirical models for estimation of
global solar radiation exergy in India", https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.09.246
• Ya-Ling He, Kun Wang, Yu Qiu, Bao-Cun Du, Qi Liang, ShenDu, " Review of the solar flux distribution in
concentrated solar power: Non-uniform features, challenges, and solutions",
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.12.006
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_irradiance#Irradiance_on_Earth's_surface
• https://www.britannica.com/science/solar-energy
• https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics/sources-of-energy/non-conventional-sources-of-energy/

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