2.

Open Channel Flow

Table of Contents 1. Introduction 3. Weirs Index

OVERVIEW
This chapter provides a general discussion of open channel flow measurement techniques. Included are
sections discussing open channel flow, methods of open channel flow measurement, primary and secondary
measuring devices, and general units of flow measurement.

Open channels are commonly used in wastewater treatment plants.

Types of flow systems

There are two basic types of flow systems: flow in closed channels and flow in open channels
(Figure 2-1). Closed channel flow is flow in completely filled pressure conduits (pipes).
Pressure conduits are usually used for fresh water lines or for industrial process lines, and flow
through them is often measured by some type of device inserted into the line. Common types of
closed channel flow measuring devices are venturi meters, ultrasonic meters (both doppler and
transit time), flow nozzles, orifice meters, magnetic flow meters, and pitot tube flow meters. A
complete discussion of closed channel flow measurement is outside the scope of this handbook;
for further information, the reader is directed to references [1] and [2].
Open channel flow is flow in any channel in which the liquid flows with a free surface.
Examples are rivers, irrigation ditches, canals, flumes, and other uncovered conduits. Certain
closed channels, such as sewers and tunnels when flowing partially full and not under pressure,
are also classified as open channels. Open channels are used in most storm and sanitary sewer
systems, sewage treatment plants, many industrial waste applications, and some water treatment
plants. Most irrigation water is also distributed in open channels.
Figure 2-1: Closed Channel and Open Channel Flow

Methods of open channel flow measurement

There are many ways to determine the rate of flow in open channels. Kirkpatrick and Shelley
[1] presented a comprehensive review of the various techniques available for measuring flow.
Some of the more common methods of open channel flow rate measurement are discussed
below, making liberal use of Kirkpatrick and Shelley’s comments.

Timed gravimetric
In this method, the entire contents of the flow stream are collected in some type of container
over a specific length of time. The weight of the fluid is then determined and the flow rate
calculated. If the flow rate was uniform over the period of the collection, the result will be an
average flow rate for the period of the collection.
Gravimetric meters include weighers, tilting traps, and weigh dump meters. In its simplest
form, a gravimetric meter involves determining the weight of a quantity of fluid in a tank
mounted on beam scales, load cells, or some other mass or force measuring device. Weighing the
fluid is a primary standard. Since the accuracy of weighing devices is routinely considered to be
better than ±0.1%, gravimetric meters are frequently used to calibrate other meters.
In field use, the tipping bucket rain gauge is probably one of the most common meters of this
type. Another field application, often used as a calibration method where a scale or some other
weighing device is available, is the simple “bucket and stopwatch” technique. This technique
requires measurement of the time required to fill a container of a known volume. Practical
considerations limit the use of this measurement technique to fairly low flow rates and, because
of its nature, it is not suited for continuous measurement.

Dilution
In this method, the flow rate is measured by determining how much the flowing water dilutes
an added tracer solution. Although brine tracers have been used, radioactive and fluorescent dye
tracers are more commonly used today. The dilution technique produces no pressure loss,
requires no drop in hydraulic grade line, offers no obstruction to the flow, and indicates flow
rate directly by simple theoretical formulas.
There are two general techniques used in dilution flow measurement: the constant-rate
injection method and the total recovery (or slug injection) method. The constant-rate injection
method requires the tracer solution to be injected into the flow stream at a constant flow rate for
a given period of time. The flow rate is determined by a formula involving the background
concentration in the stream (if any), the tracer concentration and injection rate, and the
measured plateau of the concentration-time curve at the measuring site. In the total recovery
method, a known quantity of the tracer solution is placed in the flow stream, and a continuous
sample is removed at a uniform rate during the time needed for the tracer wave to pass, in effect
integrating the concentration-time curve. The flow rate is determined from the total quantity of
tracer injected and the integral of the concentration-time curve.
Although both of these dilution methods have advantages and limitations, they are basically
similar. A fluorometer, Geiger counter, or some other appropriate instrument is required for
determining sample concentration, a method of extracting a sample for analysis is needed, and a
device to either inject a tracer at a steady, known rate, or withdraw a sample at a steady (but not
necessarily known) rate is required. Both methods require complete vertical and lateral mixing at
the measurement site. The main disadvantages of dilution techniques are the cost of the
instruments required to determine tracer concentrations, the lack of ruggedness of these
instruments, and the required training for operator personnel. The reader is directed to
references [3], [4], and [5] for more information on the dilution method.

Hydraulic structure
In this method, some type of hydraulic structure (primary device) is introduced into the flow
stream. The function of the hydraulic structure is to produce a flow that is characterized by a
known relationship (usually nonlinear) between a liquid level measurement (head) at the
specified location of that particular device and the flow rate of the stream. This relationship or
head-flow rate curve for the particular structure or device is called the rating. The change in
liquid level is measured by a secondary device, which may also convert the liquid level to a flow
rate automatically.

Slope-hydraulic radius
In this method, measurements of water surface slope, cross-sectional area, and wetted
perimeter over a length of uniform section channel are used to determine the flow rate, using a
resistance equation such as the Manning formula. The flow channel serves as the primary device.
The Manning formula requires a knowledge of the channel cross-section, liquid depth, slope of
the water surface, and a roughness factor dependent on the character of the channel.

Area velocity
In this method, the flow rate is calculated by determining the mean flow velocity across a
cross-section and multiplying this by the cross-sectional area of flow (wetted area) at that point.
In open channels, this will generally require two separate measurements — one to determine the
mean velocity and the other to determine the flow depth. The measured depth is then used to
calculate the area of the flow based on the size and shape of the channel.

•   •   •

The timed gravimetric and dilution techniques are generally not suited to provide a
continuous record of flow rate. They are more often used for occasional flow rate measurements
at a particular time and place, for calibrating some other type of device, or for developing a
liquid level-flow rate curve for a particular location. These techniques have a definite role in
open channel flow measurement but, because they are not adaptable to continuous flow rate
recording, they will not be discussed here. For a complete discussion, see references [1], [3], [4],
and [5].
 The hydraulic structures technique differs from the other techniques in that, provided a
standard type of structure is used and certain installation and application rules are followed, no
field calibrations or measurements other than a continuous measurement of liquid level are
required to obtain a continuous record of flow rate. Because of this, the hydraulic structures
technique is widely used in open channel flow measurement. This technique is briefly discussed
in the following two sections and at length in Chapters 3, 4, and 5.
The slope-hydraulic radius technique, using the Manning formula, is applied in a manner
similar to the hydraulic structures technique in that only a continuous measurement of liquid
level is required to obtain a continuous record of flow rate. Because of uncertainties associated
with the Manning formula, the accuracies obtainable are not as good as those achieved with
hydraulic structures. The slope-hydraulic radius technique is normally used where great accuracy
is not required. But, since this technique does not require the installation of an additional
structure in the flow stream, it is often used for temporary measurements such as storm water
runoff monitoring. The slope-hydraulic radius method is discussed in Chapter 6.
The area velocity method has an advantage over the other methods in that, in addition to
measuring flow under free flow conditions, it can also be used to measure flow under
submerged, full pipe, surcharged, and reverse flow conditions. Similar to the Manning formula,
area velocity does not require the installation of a weir or flume. Because it incorporates
measurements of both liquid depth and velocity, the area velocity method provides greater
accuracy than the slope-hydraulic or Manning flow measurement methods. Due to advances in
area velocity technology in recent years, it is now considered to be the standard method of flow
measurement in the absence of a hydraulic structure. While normally not as accurate as the use
of hydraulic structures, area velocity flow measurement accuracy will exceed that of a hydraulic
structure’s in situations where the flow is subject to downstream restrictions, such as surcharge
and submerged flow conditions.
Area velocity flow meters are commonly used in sewer flow monitoring, inflow and
infiltration studies, and combined sewer overflow studies. The area velocity method is discussed
in greater detail in Chapter 7.

Primary measuring devices: weirs and flumes

The most commonly used technique of measuring the rate of flow in an open channel is that
of hydraulic structures. This is especially true of permanent locations or applications that require
a high degree of accuracy. In this method, flow in an open channel is measured by inserting a
hydraulic structure into the channel, which changes the level of liquid in or near the structure. By
selecting the shape and dimensions of the hydraulic structure, the rate of flow through or over
the restriction will be related to the liquid level at the specified measurement location. Thus, the
flow rate through the open channel can be derived from a single measurement of the liquid level.

Figure 2-2: Weir

 The hydraulic structures used in measuring flow in open channels are known as primary
measuring devices and may be divided into two broad categories: weirs and flumes.
A weir (Figure 2-2) is essentially a dam built across an open channel over which the liquid
flows, usually through some type of an opening or notch. Weirs are normally classified according
to the shape of the notch, the most common types being the rectangular weir, the trapezoidal (or
Cipolletti) weir, and the triangular (or V-notch) weir. Each type of weir has an associated
equation for determining the flow rate over the weir.
A flume (Figure 2-3) is a specially shaped open channel flow section with an area and/or
slope that is different from that of the channel. This results in an increased velocity and change
in the level of the liquid flowing through the flume. A flume normally consists of a converging
section, a throat section, and a diverging section. The flow rate through the flume is a function
of the liquid level at some point or points in the flume. The most commonly used types of
flumes are Parshall and Palmer-Bowlus flumes, although there are many other types available.

Figure 2-3: Flume

Secondary measuring devices: open channel flow meters

The flow rate or discharge through a weir or flume is usually a function of the liquid level in
or near the primary measuring device. A secondary measuring device (or open channel flow
meter) is used in conjunction with a primary measuring device to measure the rate of liquid flow
in an open channel. The secondary measuring device has two purposes:
 1. To measure the liquid level in the primary measuring device.
2. To convert this liquid level into an appropriate flow rate according to the known liquid
level-flow rate relationship of the primary measuring device. This flow rate may then be
integrated to obtain a totalized volume. Depending on the application, the secondary
device can output the flow signal for remote data collection, sampler pacing, or process
control functions.
Thus, a combination of a weir or flume (primary measuring device) and an open channel flow
meter (secondary measuring device) is necessary to measure flow in an open channel. The flow
measurement system requires both a primary and secondary measuring device to be complete. A
weir or a flume (primary device) restricts the flow in a controlled manner and generates a liquid
level which is related to the flow rate through the device. The open channel flow meter
(secondary device) measures this level and converts it into a corresponding flow rate according
to the known liquid level-flow rate relationship of the primary device.
The first task of an open channel flow meter is to measure the liquid level at an appropriate
point in or near the primary measuring device. The second task is to convert the measured liquid
level into a corresponding flow rate according to the level-flow rate relationship for the primary
measuring device being used. Following are descriptions of some of the more commonly used
methods of achieving these tasks, including some general comments on their application.

Float
A float, in combination with either a cable and pulley or a pivoting arm, converts the liquid
level (as measured by the float) into an angular position of a shaft, which is proportional to
liquid level. Refer to Figure 2-4 for a view of a float-operated flow meter. Floats may be affected
by ambient air temperature changes and are subject to build-up of grease and solids. In addition,
floats include moving parts, which are subject to wear and require periodic maintenance and
repair, and generally require the use of a stilling well. Technological advances over the years have
basically made this method of measurement obsolete.

Figure 2-4: Float-operated Flow Meter

Mechanical cam
A mechanical cam, whose profile follows the level-flow rate relationship of the primary
measuring device in question, is rotated by the level measuring device. The position of the cam
follower is then proportional to flow rate. Refer to Figure 2-5 for a view of a cam used to
convert level measurements into flow rate. Like floats, this method of measurement has
essentially been rendered obsolete by advances in technology.

Figure 2-5: Mechanical Cam for Converting Level to Flow Rate

Electrical
This type of level measurement system uses the change in an electrical circuit caused by a
changing level to measure the liquid depth. Most designs use a capacitance or admittance probe.
The accuracy of electrical systems may be affected by changing liquid characteristics, or coatings
of grease or solids. In addition, electrical systems require field calibration at varying flow stream
depths, and the probe may be subject to physical damage from debris in the flow stream.
Ultrasonic
A sensor mounted above the flow stream transmits a sound pulse that is reflected by the
surface of the liquid. The elapsed time between sending a pulse and receiving an echo
determines the level in the channel. Refer to Figure 2-6 for a view of an Isco ultrasonic sensor.
Because the speed of sound changes with air temperature, an ultrasonic system must compensate
for changes in air temperature, usually with a temperature probe built into the ultrasonic sensor.
An ultrasonic sensor is easy to install and, because it does not contact the liquid, requires
minimal maintenance and is not affected by grease, suspended solids, silt, and corrosive
chemicals in the flow stream, and liquid temperature fluctuations.
However, ultrasonic systems may be affected by wind, steam, and air temperature gradients,
and may provide inaccurate results in channels with turbulence or floating foam or debris. In
addition, ultrasonic sensors require space above the flow to mount the sensor, and are usually
not suitable for use in very narrow channels.

Figure 2-6: Isco Ultrasonic Sensor

Because ultrasonic sensors compensate for changes in air temperature, exposure to sunlight
can impact performance by artificially heating the sensor and introducing temperature errors to
the internal temperature compensation. As a result, it is more suitable to use such devices in
applications that are sheltered rather than in an exposed outdoor type of application.

Submerged pressure transducer

A sealed pressure transducer is submerged in the flow stream, and measures the hydrostatic
pressure of the liquid, which is proportional to the liquid level. Refer to Figure 2-7 for a view of
a submerged pressure transducer. Submerged pressure transducers are not affected by wind,
steam, turbulence, and floating foam and debris.
However, because the transducer is located in the flow stream, its accuracy may be affected by
changes in the temperature of the flow stream and the transducer is subject to damage by
lightning, flowing debris, and corrosive flow stream chemicals. In addition, submerged pressure
transducers may be difficult to install in large channels with high flow, and may require periodic
maintenance in flow streams with high concentrations of grease, suspended solids, or silt.

Figure 2-7: Submerged Pressure Transducer

Bubbler
A bubbler measures the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid. However, the pressure transducer
for a bubbler is located inside the flow meter, and a bubble tube is anchored in the flow stream.
Bubbles of pressurized air or other gas are released from the end of the bubble tube at a
constant rate, and the transducer measures the pressure required to maintain the bubble rate.
This pressure is proportional to the liquid level. Refer to Figure 2-8 to view an Isco 4230
Bubbler Flow Meter.

Figure 2-8: Isco 4230 Bubbler Flow Meter

Similar to submerged pressure transducers, bubblers are not affected by wind, steam,
turbulence, and floating foam and debris. In addition, because the pressure transducer is located
inside the flow meter, the accuracy of a bubbler is not affected by liquid temperature
fluctuations, and the transducer is not subject to damage by lightning, flowing debris, and
corrosive flow stream chemicals. Bubblers may require occasional maintenance when used in
channels with high concentrations of grease, suspended solids, or silt, although periodic air
purges of the bubble tube often minimize this problem. Additional maintenance is also required
to regenerate desiccators that prevent moisture from being drawn into the air system of a
bubbler.

Electronic memory device

A digital integrated circuit memory device is programmed with the level-flow rate relationship
of the primary device. A microprocessor-controlled flow meter accesses the memory device to
convert level measurements into flow rate.

Figure 2-9: Isco 2150 Area Velocity Flow Logger

Software
The firmware in a microprocessor-controlled instrument is used to convert the measured
liquid level into a flow rate corresponding to that level. See Figure 2-9 for a view of the Isco
2150 Area Velocity Flow Logger that uses internal microprocessor-based firmware for flow
conversion.

•   •   •

The level-to-flow rate conversion methods listed are just some of the more commonly used
methods, but others are available. When properly designed and applied, any one of the
conversion techniques will give satisfactory results in most situations. In addition, any one of the
level measurement technologies may be combined with any one of the level-to-flow rate
conversion techniques to result in a complete open channel flow measurement system.
When designing an open channel flow measuring system, the importance of both the primary
and secondary measuring devices should be recognized. In a complete open channel flow
measurement system, a proper weir or flume installation can be negated through the use of an
inaccurate flow meter. Similarly, a very accurate flow meter cannot overcome the inaccuracies of
a poorly installed or maintained weir or flume. As with any measurement system, an open
channel flow measurement system can be no more accurate than its least accurate component.
Finally, any of the level measurement technologies can also be used with the Manning
formula and area velocity methods of open channel flow measurement.

Types of open channel flow meters

There are five types of open channel flow meters, distinguished by the method by which flow
data is managed.
Handheld flow meters
Handheld flow meters are used for spot-checking flows and for calibrating other flow meters.
They are used for only a short period of time at any one site. While handheld flow meters
provide a visual indication of measurements, the data must be manually recorded. The most
common example of a handheld flow meter is a current meter, which is used to manually
measure the velocity in a flow stream. Current meters are discussed further in Chapter 7.

Flow transmitters
Flow transmitters measure flow and then transmit this information to other recording and/or
control instruments. Common outputs on a flow transmitter include analog signals such as a 4 to
20 mA output, relays, and digital outputs such as an RS-232 serial output. Flow transmitters send
flow data to equipment such as recorders, computers, automatic samplers, or instruments to
control processes such as chlorination and pH neutralization. Flow transmitters typically include
a display to view current measurements, and a means such as a keypad to program the
instrument. Transmitters are AC powered and permanently installed, with connections often
made through conduit. Refer to Figure 2-10 for a view of an Isco 3010 Ultrasonic Flow
Transmitter.

Figure 2-10: Isco 3010 Ultrasonic Flow Transmitter

Recording flow meters

Recording flow meters record data on a built-in recording device such as a printer. Recording
flow meters are often used in portable applications, with a rechargeable battery providing power
for one to two weeks of operation. They may also be used in permanent installations with AC
power. Recording flow meters include a keypad and display to program the meter and display
measurements. Connections to the flow meter are made with sealed cables and connectors.
Meters can also have features such as data logging ability. Refer to Figure 2-11 for a view of an
Isco Signature® Flow Meter.

Figure 2-11: Isco Signature Flow Meter

Flow loggers
Flow loggers store data in their internal memory. A flow logger will record a reading at
specified intervals. The reading will be carried out as a constant reading until the next scheduled
reading interval. Flow loggers are commonly used in flow monitoring projects where flows at
multiple sites will be monitored, and a computer will be used to view and analyze the data.
Therefore, controls and indicators on a flow logger are minimal. Instead, a computer is used to
program the logger, and retrieve and analyze stored data. Data can also be retrieved using data
transfer units. Flow loggers are often powered by disposable batteries that can provide power for
up to one year. Similar to a recording flow meter, connections to a flow logger are made with
sealed cables and connectors. Refer to Figure 2-12 for a view of an Isco 2150 Area Velocity Flow
Logger.

Figure 2-12: Retrieving Data from an Isco 2150 Area Velocity Flow Logger Using a Computer

Flow modules
Flow modules plug into an automatic sampler, transforming the sampler into a combination
sampler and flow meter. Such a system is designed to meet the needs for portable “spot
checking” applications. With a flow module installed, the sampler can measure and totalize flow,
activate sampling based on flow measurements, and collect flow proportioned samples.
 A keypad and display on the sampler are used to set up the sampler and flow module, and to
display current measurements. Flow and sample data are then stored in the sampler’s memory
for later retrieval and analysis using a computer. Refer to Figure 2-13 for a view of an Isco 750
Area Velocity Flow Module plugged into a 6712 Sampler.

Figure 2-13: Isco 750 Area Velocity Flow Module and 6712 Sampler

General units of measurement

Two types of units are used in measuring liquids: units of discharge (flow rate) and units of
volume.
Discharge, or flow rate, is defined as the volume of liquid that passes a particular reference
section in a unit of time. The unit of discharge generally used in irrigation practice in the U.S. is
the cubic foot per second (cfs), also known as the second-foot (sec.-ft.). In water supply and
waste treatment in the U.S., the units of discharge normally used are million gallons per day
(mgd) or, in some cases, gallons per minute (gpm). In metric units, discharge is normally
expressed in liters per second (lps or l/s), cubic meters per second (cms or m3/s), or cubic
meters per hour (cmh or m3/hr).
Total flow, or volume, measurements are usually obtained by integrating flow rate over a
period of time, which then represents an accumulated total of liquid. The unit of volume
commonly used in irrigation work in the U.S. is the acre-foot (ac.-ft.). An acre-foot is defined as
the quantity of water required to cover 1 acre (0.40 ha) of land to a depth of 1 foot (0.30 m), or
43,560 cubic feet (1230 m3). In water supply and waste treatment the unit of volume normally
used is the gallon (gal) or millions of gallons (mg). In metric units, volume is normally expressed
in liters (l) or cubic meters (m3).

Selecting a Measurement Device

Make sure you select the right flow measurement device for your application. Multiple styles
of flow monitors are available to meet the specific needs of different applications. There is no
one technology or device that will meet every need. When choosing a flow meter, transmitter, or
logger, consider what is required for your particular application. Examine your expectations of
the equipment you select to see if they are realistic. When you look at different features,
determine which are desired and which are necessary.
The following list contains some things you should consider before selecting a flow monitor:
• Why do you need to monitor flow (billing, process control, spotting trends, alarm
conditions)?
• What accuracy is required?
• What outputs are required (4-20 mA, contact closure, alarm output, relay output, dialout
alarm, digital outputs)?
• What are your communication needs (modem, wireless, Modbus, RS232)?
• Do you need printed reports?
• Do you need a mechanical totalizer?
• What is the duration of the project?
• What are the permit requirements?
• What are the piping requirements?
The characteristics of the application are important to the selection of measurement
technology. Determine whether there are corrosive elements, wind, excessive turbulence, debris
or other factors present. Table 2-1 is an important aid in determining a suitable technology
based upon site conditions.
The ongoing maintenance and operating requirements are also a concern, since staff must
know how to operate and maintain the device(s). Regular maintenance programs are
recommended for all devices to ensure the ongoing quality of measurements, but the type and
frequency of maintenance can vary for different devices.

Table 2-1:
Flow Measurement Technology Selection Guide

Ultrasonic Submerged
Bubbler Area Velocity
Sensor Probe
Suitability for different applications
Weirs and flumes Excellent1 Excellent Excellent Excellent

Channels less than 6 in. (150 Not recommended Excellent Excellent Not recommended
mm)

Small round pipes, 6 to 8 in. (150

Good2 Excellent Excellent Good
to 200 mm)

Medium round pipes, 10 to 15 in.

Good2 Excellent Excellent Excellent
(250 to 375 mm)

Large round pipes, 15 to 96 in. Excellent2 Good Excellent Excellent

(375 to 2500 mm)

Irrigation channels and small Excellent2 Good Excellent Good

streams

Rivers and large streams Excellent2 Good Excellent Good

Chemical Compatibility of Sensor

Organic solvents Compatible Not Recommended Compatible Not Recommended

Organic acids Compatible Not Recommended Compatible Not Recommended

Alcohols Compatible Compatible Compatible Compatible

Esters Compatible Not Recommended Compatible Not Recommended

Inorganic acids Compatible Not Recommended Compatible Not Recommended

Inorganic bases Compatible Not Recommended Compatible Not Recommended

Inorganic salts Compatible Compatible Compatible Compatible

Performance under Adverse Conditions

Strong wind Not Recommended Excellent Excellent Excellent
3 3
Air temperature fluctuations Very good Excellent Very good Excellent

Steam above liquid Not Recommended Excellent Excellent Excellent

Foam on liquid Not Recommended Excellent Excellent Excellent

Flow stream turbulence Not Recommended Excellent Excellent Excellent

Floating debris Not Recommended Excellent Excellent Excellent

Floating oil or grease Not Recommended Excellent Excellent Excellent

Suspended solids Excellent Very Good Good Very Good

Suspended grease Excellent Very Good Good Very Good

Silting in Excellent Very Good Good Very Good

4 4
Liquid temperature fluctuations Very Good Good Excellent Good4

Submerged flow Not Recommended Not Recommended Not Recommended Excellent

Full pipe flow Not Recommended Not Recommended Not Recommended Excellent

Surcharged flow Not Recommended Not Recommended Not Recommended Excellent

Reverse flow Not Recommended Not Recommended Not Recommended Excellent

Maintenance Requirements Caused by Adverse Conditions

Silting in None Occasional Occasional Occasional

Suspended solids None Occasional Occasional Occasional

High grease concentration None Occasional Occasional Occasional

1. Use with caution in small flumes.

2. There must be adequate space above for mounting sensor.
3. Large air temperature fluctuations will affect accuracy.
4. Large water temperature fluctuations will affect accuracy.

Table of Contents 1. Introduction 3. Weirs Index