International School of Asia and The Pacific: Legal Basis

INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL OF ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
Bulanao Norte, Tabuk City, Kalinga
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
This chapter presents the literature reviewed by the
researchers that further shaped and give a clear direction of
the study.
Legal Basis
In the 1987 Philippine constitutions (article XIV, section
18), (1) the state shall ensure access to cultural opportunities
through the educational system, public or private cultural
entities, scholarships, grants and other incentives, and
community cultural centers, and other culture.
Establish a scholarship fund for poor but deserving
students residing within the municipality in schools located
within its jurisdiction. (RA 7160, article 3. The Sangguniang
Bayan, Section 447 number 5 vii)
The mandate of CHED is provided for in Article V, Section 2
(3)”to establish and maintain a system of scholarship grants,
students loan program, subsides and other incentives which shall
be available to deserving students in both public and private
schools.”
24

Implementing rules and regulation of Republic Act 10687
otherwise known as “unified student financial assistance system
for tertiary education (UniFAST)”. Pursuant to the authority
vested in the UniFAST board under section 27 of Republic Act. No
10687 otherwise known as “Unified student financial assistance
system of tertiary education”, the following implementing rules
and regulations are hereby promulgated:
Rule 2. Modalities of stuFAPS
Rule 2.1 Scholarship- the board shall institute a unified,
improve an expended national government- funded scholarship
program to promote an environment conducive for the development
to bright and talented to serve the public good and enlarge pool
of world- class Filipino researchers, artists, innovations,
thinkers, and leaders.
Foreign
There are many challenges to the university life in the
United States. First and foremost is on the fiscal resources.
The federal government contributions little to the country’s
universities and institutions of higher learning that curtails
them to balance a moral obligation to educating the poor and
disadvantages against the costs of financial aid.
25

Questions about financing higher education continue to
cause wide debate within United States and other democratic
societies in as much as higher education benefits society as a
whole.
Every country response to the issue differently by
employing different approaches and strategies in their own
respective orientation. In Japan, students and their families
bear the major part of the burden of higher education. Higher
Education is substantially dependent upon student tuition.
In contrast, the Scandinavian countries, Germany and
France, charge students either nothing or small service fee.
These nations believe that the great burden for the costs “of
higher” education is the responsibility of the public. Ninety
percent of the revenues of the French Universities are from
general public funds. Other countries like Spain make public and
private funding. The Universities in Spain receive 80% of their
income from the public, and the remaining 20% from the students
themselves.
Australia is an interesting case. With Higher Education
dependent on the government of about 90% of its revenues-
Australia policy makers are considering ways to diversity its
funding. The government is looking at challenge grants, offsets
26

provided to industry for contribution of funds and equipment and
collective bargaining to include support for higher education in
wage negotiations.
The United States has a complex structure for financing
education. Everyone who benefits from higher education pays a
portion of it. Tuition accounts for 20% of the revenues of
public institutions and 55% of the revenues of private
institutions. Government funds are in several forms- outright
grants, programmatic grants or contrast for services. The
private sector- through unrestricted gifts, grants for projects
and endowment contributions- provides 20% of the funds for
public institutions and 25% for private ones.
According to Thomas Jefferson, the president of the United
States, “Enlighten the people generally and Tyranny of both mind
and body will vanish like evil spirits of the dawn of day.” The
president may be too idealistic but the connection between
democracy, education and economic opportunity is vital the well-
being of any free society.
Scholarships are awarded based upon various criteria, which
usually reflect the values and purposes of the donor of founder
of the majorly, scholarships are to be awarded to the people who
are poor and find it difficult to pay tuition fees, eat at least
27

two times per day, and to clothe themselves. Therefore, in a bid
to verifying the impact of scholarships on students’ academic
performance using tertiary institutions Enugu State, Nigeria as
a case study, the study utilized survey data generated from 450
questionnaires distributed among students in twelve (12) higher
institutions in Enugu State. The propensity score matching model
was adopted for the study and the results indicated that
students’ academic performance significantly increases with an
increase in the award of scholarships.
Moreover, the results of the model confirm that scholarship
is a positive significant determinant of students’ academic
performance of those in tertiary institutions in Enugu State,
Nigeria. In addition to the above, the results also suggested
that would decreases by 13%but will rise by about 87% if the
scholarships are given to students who are poor. There is need
for increased award of scholarships to students from poor
background and not to students from high socio-economic status
by the government, non-governmental organizations, and other
philanthropist to alleviate this problem. The state government
should revitalizes the giving of bursary awards to the students
from the state are in higher institutions, be it private or
public. Government and other private higher institution should
28

also make tuition fee that are payable by the poor. In fact,
government can make a ceiling on tuition fee of students to
reduce the capitalist nature of private institutions, when these
are done, it will make higher education affordable by the poor
and hence reduce the number of touts on the streets, criminals,
armed robbers, drug use, kidnapping and other social vices
thereby, speeding up economic growth and development, not just
in Enugu State but, Nigeria as a whole.
SCHOLARSHIP PROGRAMS AND STUDY GRANTS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES
1) Great Britain links subsistence grants to its mandatory
grants given to all students. A part of it is given exclusively
to needy students, awarded by local authorities and funded by
the central government. Full-time students in degree level
programs receive a mandatory grant with appropriate subsistence
portion. The student-grant plan was modified after thirty (30)
years of existence, into repayable loan;
2) Germany- similar grants are available to the German
students although it was also satisfactory scholastic progress.
Only about 3-% of German students are however, eligible for
support;
29

3) Australia – Retrospective Taxation System was utilized by
Australian government in financing higher education. Costs of
education depend upon the taxable income of the students and pay
the government a percentage to the costs incurred, while he is
studying;
4) Greece and Portugal – while offering study grants and
loans, they subsidize meals and housing and provide books and
services at minimal costs to students.
According to Gardner, development assistance for education
has gone far to the poor remains to be an aspiration. He
likewise mentioned that financial assistance may be in the form
of scholarship grants in aide, loan and employment.
May students of high intelligence who would be in college
are not there, and many who are already there, are forced to
leave because of financial problems. In a democratic social
system, the best talents should be given opportunities for
advance training so that they may be able to exercise leadership
functions, in and render valuable services to community. When
capable young men and women are admitted in institutions of
higher education on account of luck of funds, injustice is not
only commitment but most of all, a great deal of human
intellectual power wasted.
30

Risty said that “Human talents, like iron, ore, timber and
oil must be extracted, refined and molded into instruments of
production. Therefore, opening the door of opportunity to the
able but needy students will reduce tremendous waste of our
greatest natural resources – the intelligence of the people.
Ability to pay should not be a selection factor to admission
policy.”
The need of giving financial aid to deserving students in
growing with the increasing cost of college education. On their
attempts to support themselves in college, considerable members
of students over exert themselves. Oftentimes, financial
difficulties are at the root of feeling of cynicism,
frustration, fear and emotional anxiety conditions which could
possibly be inimical to the maintenance of good mental health.
As a student personnel point of view is concerned with the
total development of the students, like any other students
personnel program, financial aid program should also be given at
most attention. The question of financial assistance should not
be looked upon as a fiscal function neither be considered as a
form of charity. There is a need for an institution of higher
education to define clearly its policies or philosophy of
financial aid in terms of its objectives, these resources for
31

aid, and the percentage of the student body who needed and share
are deserving of help.
According to Wrenn, there are three factors to consider in
the selection of qualified beneficiaries for the financial
assistance. These are as follow:
1) Intellectual ability as shown by marks and results of
aptitude tests;
2) Personal qualifications, information regarding these are
obtained from rating and recommendations from the high school
principal, and from interviews with the student in college; and
3) Financial need of the students.
Furthermore, he categorized student’s aid into three types
as follows:
1) Scholarship and fellowship. These are outright grants
provided to students on the basis of scholastic ability and
future promise. They usually do not involve obligation to repay.
Applicants are selected basing from the individual’s ability and
creativeness, character and personality traits, and examination
results. It is unfortunate that some institutions of higher
education have a tendency to place so much weight upon just the
ability of the students and so little on the need of the student
in granting scholarship awards. While intellectual ability is
32

important for success in college, the financial need of the
students should receive as much emphasis as his mental ability,
2) Loans – these are grants in the form of money wherein it
will be returned within specified time with or without interest.
In the case of educational loan in the Philippine Educational
System, which is popularly known as the “Study Now, Pay Later
Plan”, such loan has no interest. Like in the Philippines, such
loan will be repaid after the student graduates. However, to
them, it is only applied to big loans. Loans of small amount
shall be repaid after a year.
Loans are not given out of charity, and students who needs
to request for loan should not feel embarrassed to applying for
such help. The amount loaned by a student should determine on
the basis of the student’s present need, prognosis of learning
power, his health, his academic standing, his opportunities for
self-help and his integrity. No collateral is required for a
loan
3) Part-time Employment – some people question of permitting
college students to do outside work. They claim that part-time
employment is detrimental to scholastic achievement. But many
studies in relation to this topic show that part-time employment
does not weaken employment. In fact, according to Strang, there
33

is also evidence showing that greater intellectual interest is
exhibited by students who are self-supporting.
Part-time employment is a constructive educational force
which contributes to the development of students, habit of
industry is acquired by students engaged in part-time work. As a
result of time limitations, students thus employed learn
effective methods of the study. Certain types of part-time
employment provide desirable educational vocational experiences
in getting along with employees and follow workers and skills in
certain types of work. Furthermore, a student earns his way
through college, learns the value of independence and acquires a
good sense of economic values.
Some scholarships have a “bond” requirement. Recipients may
be required to work for a particular employer for a specified
period of time or to work in rural or remote areas; otherwise
they may be required to repay the value of the support they
received from the scholarship. This is particularly the case
with education and nursing scholarships for the people prepared
to work in rural and remote areas.
Regracio in her Study, “SNPL: Its Implementation in the
division of Camarines Sur” revealed that SNPLP was implemented
according to the policies and procedure set forth in the
34

implementing rules and regulations it has said to be of help to
the poor but bright students to get equal opportunity for
higher education. However, the educational loan was not adequate
to finance expenses for a degree course.
He also found out that nobody supervises the program at the
division level. The grantees and the agencies involved in the
program encountered operating problems particularly little
coordination among different agencies included in the program.
Another similar study was conducted by Villamater wherein
she found out that generally financial assistance programs have
been actually implemented by the institutions of high learning
by a general observance of the guidelines set on qualifications
of a candidate, academic requirements, allowance and other
privileges. She likewise concluded that more highlanders than
lowlanders are enjoying NISG while more lowlanders are enjoying
SNPLP as to the distribution of ethnic group.
As to parental income, there were more low income that high
income grantees: on the course preference there were more
grantees in the technical and vocational courses that in
academic courses. There were more grantees belonging to the
medium and large size families that the small sized families.
35

Most problems encountered by the grantees were primarily of
financial and psychological in nature.
Voucher system
The voucher system gives the students the liberty to search
for the school that they think will give them the highest value
for money. It is also referred to as demand-driven funding
(Jongbloed, 2004). The whole idea of the system is focused on
the “freedom to choose” (Barr, 1998). It requires that
education can be both provided by public or at least in part by
private institutions that complied with the quality standards.
According to Jongbloed and Vossensteyn (2002), the government is
responsible for overseeing the quality control and information
supply. The fees are determined by the providers and are covered
partly by the voucher.
Although there are advantages of the voucher system,
Jongbloed and Koelman (2000) pointed out several disadvantages
of the system: (1) Geographical factor is an issue on the limits
of choices left for the students; (2) There could also be a
problem on over-subscription of vouchers that will favor high-
income families; (3) There should be a strong will amongst
government regulators to protect the individuals, quality, and
equity; (4) Large variations in enrollment and funding may lead
36

to job insecurity among teachers; and (5) Programs with small
enrollments but high cultural value may force to close.
Student Loan Program
A student loan program is one that is given to low-income
yet talented and skilled individuals who wish to enroll in
higher education by providing a loan that will cover the cost of
education and other incidental expenses, the payment of which
will be in the future after the student has completed the
program. Usher (2005) provided a picture of how the government
subsidies student loan across different countries using three
approaches—zero-nominal, zeroreal, and cost of government
borrowing. The zero-nominal approach has the largest government
subsidy and was taken by countries such as Canada, United
States, and Germany. The loan shrinks while the student remains
in school. The zero-real interest approach is taken by
Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. It has also
government subsidy but less than that of the zero-nominal
approach. In contrast, Netherlands charges students the
government cost of borrowing while Sweden makes use of rate
based on the cost of borrowing. Both countries have no
government subsidy but students benefit from the intervention of
the government since they would be unable to receive such a rate
37

on their own in the private market. Browne (2010) proposed a
program where access and finance to higher education will be
possible to students who have potential. The proposal seeks more
investments in higher education. The government will initially
spend for the upfront cost of higher education through the
Student Finance Plan. The demand for payment of the government
costs to enter higher education is possible only once they are
enjoying the benefits of that education. Payments will be linked
to income, so those on low incomes pay nothing. Payments stop
when the Student Finance Plan is complete.
The Philippines also value the access to higher education
by providing student loan and subsidies. A student can get a
partial or full subsidy of the tuition fee by becoming a student
assistant in the university/college he/she is enrolled in. In
the event the students do not meet the requirements of the
scholarship grant offered, he/she can avail of the student loan
from the government, which can be paid at a later date
(http://www.courses.com.ph/scholarship-grantsphilippines-
overview/).
Scholarship Grants
Scholarship grant is another program given by the government
and some private institutions to students with talents and
38

skills but have no means to cover the expenses of education. In
the Philippines, a number of government agencies, private
companies, special academies, and private individuals offer
academic scholarships. This type of scholarship usually caters
to high school students who are Valedictorians, Salutatorians or
part of the upper 10% or 20% of their graduating class. There
are also international scholarships provided by foreign
organizations and government agencies. On the other hand, there
are also non-academic scholarships available like athletic
scholarships, cultural scholarships, cadet scholarships,
publication scholarships, scholarships for student leaders, band
member scholarships, and beauty queen scholarships. There are
also special scholarships like for the Overseas Filipino Workers
and their beneficiaries and the beneficiaries of former members
of the rebel groups (http://www.courses.com.ph/scholarship-
grants-philippines-overview/).
UniFAST Act (Republic Act No. 10687)
To allow the citizens full access to quality education by
providing adequate funding and to increase the participation
rate in tertiary education, a new law was enacted. “The Unified
Student Financial Assistance System for Tertiary Education Act
(R.A. No. 10687) is the declared policy of the state to promote
39

social justice and was approved and signed by the Board last May
11, 2016. This gives preference to the poor but academically
proficient and highly motivated students” (CHED.gov.ph).
There are several objectives of the Act namely: “(1) to

properly allocate and utilize all government resources intended
for students through effective beneficiary-targeting; (2) to
ensure consistency, continuity and efficient coordination of
student financial assistance policies and programs; (3) to ensure
equity in the distribution of student financial assistance slots
to the regions; (4) to produce through talent-based scholarships,
a pool of proficient and competent graduates and technical
experts who will contribute to the country’s high-level labor
force; (5) to facilitate access to quality education through
grants-in-aid for students belonging to marginalized sectors and
(6) to assist through student loans students with liquidity
issues” (CHED.gov.ph).
40

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INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL OF ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Bulanao Norte, Tabuk City, Kalinga

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents the literature reviewed by the

researchers that further shaped and give a clear direction of

In the 1987 Philippine constitutions (article XIV, section

18), (1) the state shall ensure access to cultural opportunities

through the educational system, public or private cultural

entities, scholarships, grants and other incentives, and

community cultural centers, and other culture.

Establish a scholarship fund for poor but deserving

students residing within the municipality in schools located

within its jurisdiction. (RA 7160, article 3. The Sangguniang

Bayan, Section 447 number 5 vii)

The mandate of CHED is provided for in Article V, Section 2

(3)”to establish and maintain a system of scholarship grants,

students loan program, subsides and other incentives which shall

be available to deserving students in both public and private

Bulanao Norte, Tabuk City, Kalinga

otherwise known as “unified student financial assistance system

for tertiary education (UniFAST)”. Pursuant to the authority

vested in the UniFAST board under section 27 of Republic Act. No

10687 otherwise known as “Unified student financial assistance

system of tertiary education”, the following implementing rules

and regulations are hereby promulgated:

Rule 2. Modalities of stuFAPS

Rule 2.1 Scholarship- the board shall institute a unified,

improve an expended national government- funded scholarship

program to promote an environment conducive for the development

of world- class Filipino researchers, artists, innovations,

thinkers, and leaders.

There are many challenges to the university life in the

United States. First and foremost is on the fiscal resources.

The federal government contributions little to the country’s

universities and institutions of higher learning that curtails

them to balance a moral obligation to educating the poor and

disadvantages against the costs of financial aid.

Bulanao Norte, Tabuk City, Kalinga

cause wide debate within United States and other democratic

societies in as much as higher education benefits society as a

Every country response to the issue differently by

employing different approaches and strategies in their own

respective orientation. In Japan, students and their families

bear the major part of the burden of higher education. Higher

Education is substantially dependent upon student tuition.

In contrast, the Scandinavian countries, Germany and

France, charge students either nothing or small service fee.

higher” education is the responsibility of the public. Ninety

percent of the revenues of the French Universities are from

private funding. The Universities in Spain receive 80% of their

Australia is an interesting case. With Higher Education

dependent on the government of about 90% of its revenues-

Australia policy makers are considering ways to diversity its

funding. The government is looking at challenge grants, offsets

Bulanao Norte, Tabuk City, Kalinga

collective bargaining to include support for higher education in

The United States has a complex structure for financing

education. Everyone who benefits from higher education pays a

portion of it. Tuition accounts for 20% of the revenues of

public institutions and 55% of the revenues of private

institutions. Government funds are in several forms- outright

grants, programmatic grants or contrast for services. The