KASTURBA GANDHI NURSING COLLEGE

SRI BALAJI VIDYAPEETH, MGMC & RI CAMPUS

Pillaiyarkuppam, Pondicherry- 607 402

SEMINAR ON
CONCEPTS OF
PSYCHOBIOLOGY
SUBMITTED TO, SUBMITTED BY,

MS.NIVEDHA T.NARMADHA

TUTOR MSC NURSING I YEAR

DEPT OF OBG DEPT OF MENTAL HEALTH NURSING

KGNC KGNC.
INTRODUCTION:
Psychobiology also known as biological psychology is a subfield of Biology and
psychology that deals with the interaction between the Biological (things like hormones,
neurotransmitters, and cells) and the social, or the way we act in our world.

Psychology is an academic and applied field involving the study of behaviour, mind and thought
and the subconscious neurological bases of behaviour. Psychology also refers to the application
of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' daily
lives and the treatment of mental illness. It is largely concerned with humans, although the
behaviour and mental processes of animals can also be part of psychology research, either as a
subject in its own right or somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into
human psychology by means of comparison. Psychology is commonly defined as the science of
behaviour and mental processes.

Psychology does not necessarily refer to the brain or nervous system and can be framed purely in
terms of phenomenological or information processing theories of mind. Increasingly, though, an
understanding of brain function is being included in psychological theory and practice,
particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience.

Psychology describes and attempts to explain consciousness, behaviour and social interaction.
Empirical psychology is primarily devoted to describing human experience and behaviour as it
actually occurs.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM:

An anatomical review:

1. The central nervous system consisting of the brain and the spinal cord.

2. The peripheral nervous system consists of 31pairs of spinal nerves and 12 pairs of cranial
nerves.

3. The autonomic nervous system consists of sympathetic system and parasympathetic system.
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:

The brain and spinal cord are completely covered by 3 membranes, the meninges, lying
between the skull and the brain, and between the vertebrae and the spinal cord, named from
outside inwards.

 Dura mater

 Arachnoid matter and

 Pia mater

I. DURA MATER:

The cerebral Dura mater consists of 2 layer of dense fibrous tissue; the outer layer is
firmly attached periosteum of the skull called endoecteum. And the inner layer provides a
protective covering to the brain. There is only a potential space between these two layers and
this space contains venous sinuses the inner layer reduplicates to the fold. In between the
cerebral hemispheres the fold is called the flaxi cerebri and between the cerebrum and
cerebellum the fold is called tentorium cerebella.

II. ARACHNOID MATER:

The delicate transparent serous membrane lies between the Dura and Pia mater. It is
separated from the duramater by sub dural space. The arachnoid mater passes over the
convolutions of the brain and the inner layers of Dura mater. In the formation of flaxi
cerebri, tentorium cerebella, and flax cerebella.It extends downwards to cover the spinal cord
and ends at the 2nd sacral vertebrae.

III. PIA MATER:

It is pierced by many minute blood vessels. It continues downwards to cover the spinal
cord and at the level of 2nd sacral vertebra. It pierces the arachnoid tube and goes on with the
duramater to fuse with the periosteum of the Coccyx.
THE CEREBROSPINAL FLUID:

Cerebrospinal fluid is continuously secreted into each lateral ventricle of the brain by
choroid Plexuses. The choroid plexuses are formed by protrusion of blood capillaries with Pia
mater into ventricles.CSF movement is aided by pulsating blood vessels.CSF is continuously, at
a rate 3 about 20ml per hour i.e. 480 ml per day. The amount around the brain and the spinal
cord may be 120-150ml.CSF pressure may be 10cms when the individual is lying on his side and
about 30cms in sitting Position .it also contains some WBCs .Normally CSF is reabsorbed at the
rate equal to the production (20ml/hr. or 40ml/day).

THE BRAIN AND LIMBIC SYSTEM:

A brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and
most invertebrate animals. It is located in the head, usually close to the sensory organs
for senses such as vision. It is the most complex organ in a vertebrate's body. In a human,
the cerebral cortex contains approximately 14–16 billion neurons, and the estimated number of
neurons in the cerebellum is 55–70 billion. Each neuron is connected by synapses to several
thousand other neurons. These neurons communicate with one another by means of
long protoplasmic fibres called axons, which carry trains of signal pulses called action
potentials to distant parts of the brain or body targeting specific recipient cells.

The brain constitutes about one-fiftieth of the body weight and lies within the cranial cavity.

 Cerebrum

 Diencephalon

 Midbrain or Mesencephalon

 Pons

 Medulla oblongata

 Cerebellum
 The mid brain, pons and medulla oblongata makes the brain stem.

CEREBRUM:

The cerebrum consists of left and right hemispheres and constitutes the largest part of the
Human brain. The surface of the cerebrum consists of grey matter and is called the cerebral
cortex. The grey matter is so called because the neuron cell bodies of which is composed look
grey to eye. The basal ganglia are responsible for certain subconscious aspects of the voluntary
movement .Each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex is divided into the frontal lobe, the parietal
lobes, the temporal lobes and the occipital lobes.

Olfaction

The olfactory bulb, responsible for the sense of smell, takes up a large area of the cerebrum in
most vertebrates. However, in humans, this part of the brain is much smaller and lies underneath
the frontal lobe. The olfactory sensory system is unique since the neurons in the olfactory bulb
send their axons directly to the olfactory cortex, rather than to the thalamus first. Damage to the
olfactory bulb results in a loss of olfaction (the sense of smell).

Language and communication

Speech and language are mainly attributed to the parts of the cerebral cortex. Motor portions of
language are attributed to Broca's area within the frontal lobe. Speech comprehension is
attributed to Wernicke's area, at the temporal-parietal lobe junction. These two regions are
interconnected by a large white matter tract, the arcuate fasciculus. Damage to the Broca's area
results in expressive aphasia while damage to Wernicke's area results in receptive aphasia.

Learning and memory

Implicit or procedural memory, such as complex motor behaviours, involves the basal ganglia.

Short-term or working memory involves association areas of the cortex, especially

the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, as

The cerebrum consists of left and right hemispheres and constitutes the largest part of the
Human brain. The surface of the cerebrum consists of grey matter and is called the cerebral
cortex.
THE FRONTAL LOBE:

The voluntary body movement is controlled by the impulses through the frontal lobes.
The right Frontal lobes control motor activity on the left side of the body and the left frontal
lobes controls motor activity on the right side of the body. The frontal lobes may also play a role
in an emotional experience as evidenced by changes in mood and character after damages to this
area. The frontal lobe also involved in thinking and perceptual interpretation of information.

THE PARIETAL LOBES:

Somatosensory input occurs in the parietal lobe area of the brain. These include body
position, touch,pain, temperature, taste and visceral sensations. Language interpretation is
associated with the left hemisphere of the parietal lobe.

THE TEMPORAL LOBES:

The upper anterior temporal lobe is concerned with auditory functions. The sense of
smell has a connection to the temporal lobes, as the impulses carried by the olfactory nerves end
in this area of the brain.

THE OCCIPITAL LOBES:

The occipital lobes are the primary area of visual reception and language interpretation
Also influenced by the occipital lobes through an association with the visual experience.

DIENCEPHALON:

The major components of the diencephalon include the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and
the limbic System.

Thalamus:

The thalamus integrates all sensory input except smell. It is also involved in temporarily
blocking minor sensations, so that an individual can concentrate on one important event when
necessary.

Hypothalamus:
 The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and just above the pituitary gland .the
pituitary gland consists of posterior lobe and anterior lobe.

Fear processing

The medial zone of hypothalamus is part of a circuitry that controls motivated behaviors, like
defensive behaviors. Analyses of Fos-labeling showed that a series of nuclei in the "behavioral
control column" is important in regulating the expression of innate and conditioned defensive
behaviors.

Sexual orientation

Sex hormones that affect the developing fetal brain may have a role in determining sexual
orientation.

The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and just above the pituitary gland .the pituitary
gland consists of posterior lobe and anterior lobe.

Attentional and emotional process

Besides memory, the amygdala also seems to be an important brain region involved in
attentional and emotional processes. First, to define attention in cognitive terms, attention is the
ability to focus on some stimuli while ignoring others. Thus, the amygdala seems to be an
important structure in this ability. Foremost, however, this structure was historically thought to
be linked to fear, allowing the individual to take action in response to that fear.

The parts of brain known as Limbic system consist of portion of the cerebrum and the
diencephalon. The system has been called the emotional brain and is associated with feelings of
fear and anxiety, anger and with sexuality and social behaviour

Limbic system:

The parts of brain known as Limbic system consist of portion of the cerebrum and the
diencephalon. The system has been called the emotional brain and is associated with feelings of
fear and anxiety, anger and with sexuality and social behaviour.
Mesencephalon:

Mesencephalon extends from the pons to hypothalamus and is responsible for integration
of various reflexes including visual reflexes and righting reflexes.

PONS:

The Pons is a bulbous structure that lies between the mid brain and the medulla and it
also contains the central connection of cranial nerves V through the VIII and centre for
respiration and skeletal muscle tone.

MEDULLA:

The vital centres are contained in the medulla, and are responsible for the regulation of
heart rate, blood pressure and respiration and also in the medulla reflex centre for swallowing,
sneezing, coughing and vomiting.

CEREBELLUM:

The Cerebellum is separated from the brain by the IV ventricle but has connection to the
brain stem through bundle of fibre tracks. It is situated just below the occipital lobes of the
cerebrum and the functions of the cerebellum are concerned with involuntary movement.

Pain
There is a general consensus that the cerebellum is involved in pain processing. The cerebellum
receives pain input from both descending cortico-cerebellar pathways and ascending spino-
cerebellar pathways, through the pontine nuclei and inferior olives. Some of this information is
transferred to the motor system inducing a conscious motor avoidance of pain, graded according
to pain intensity.

These direct pain inputs, as well as indirect inputs, are thought to induce long-term pain
avoidance behaviour that results in chronic posture changes and consequently, in functional and
anatomical remodeling of vestibular and proprioceptive nuclei. As a result, chronic neuropathic
pain can induce macroscopic anatomical remodeling of the hindbrain, including the
cerebellum. The magnitude of this remodeling and the induction of neuron progenitor markers
suggest the contribution of adult neurogenesis to these change.
LIMBIC SYSTEM:

It is mainly concerned with emotion expression and genesis of emotions. A small part of
the limbic system is concerned with smell. It has few connections with the neo cortex .i.e. neo
cortical activity modifies the emotional behaviour and vice versa. However emotion cannot
turned on and off at will. Another characteristic of the limbic system is prolonged after discharge
following stimulation this may explain in part of emotional responses are generally prolonged
then the stimuli that initiate them.

Functions of limbic system:

 The Limbic system is concerned with autonomic responses in addition to the role of in olfaction.
 The autonomic responses produced or changes in blood pressure and respiration.
 The structures and interacting areas of the limbic system are involved in motivation,
emotion, learning, and memory. The limbic system is where the subcortical structures
meet the cerebral cortex. The limbic system operates by influencing the endocrine
system and the autonomic nervous system.

 To cure severe emotional disorders, this connection was sometimes surgically severed, a
procedure of psychosurgery, called a prefrontal lobotomy Patients having undergone this
procedure often became passive and lacked all motivation.

 These interactions are closely linked to olfaction, emotions, drives, autonomic regulation,
memory, and pathologically to encephalopathy, epilepsy, psychotic symptoms, cognitive
defects.

 The functional relevance of the limbic system has proven to serve many different
functions such as affects emotions, memory, sensory processing, time perception,
attention, consciousness, instincts, autonomic vegetative control, and actions motor
behavior. Some of the disorders associated with the limbic system and its interacting
components are epilepsy and schizophrenia.
NERVE TISSUE:

The nervous system consists of vast number of cells called neurons supported by special type
of connective tissue, neuralgia. Each neuron consists of cell body and its process and one axon
and many dendrites. Neurons are commonly referred to simply as nerve cells. Bundles of axon
bound together are called nerves.

Properties of Neurons:

 Neurons are the characteristic of the irritability and conductivity

 Outside the body
 Inside the body

Cell Bodies:

Nerve cells vary considerable in size and shape but they are all too small to be seen by
the naked eye. Groups of cell body are called nuclei in the central nervous system.

Axon and Dendrites:

Axons are found deep in the brain and in groups called tracts, at the periphery of the
spinal cord. They are referred to as nerves or nerve fibre outside the brain and spinal cord.

Axon:

Each nerve cell has only one axon, carrying nerve impulses away from the cell body.
They are usually longer than the dendrites, sometimes as long as 100 cm.

Dendrites:

The Dendrites are the process or nerve fibres which carry impulse towards cell body.
Types of nerves:

1. Sensory or afferent nerves

2. Moto or efferent nerves
3. Mixed nerves
4. Termination of nerves

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:

The autonomic nervous system, formerly the vegetative nervous system, is a division of
the peripheral nervous system that supplies smooth muscle and glands, and thus influences the
function of internal organs. The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely
unconsciously and regulates bodily functions such as the heart rate, digestion, respiratory
rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in
control of the fight-or-flight response.

Within the brain, the autonomic nervous system is regulated by the hypothalamus. Autonomic
functions include control of respiration, cardiac regulation (the cardiac control
center), vasomotor activity (the vasomotor center), and certain reflex actions such
as coughing, sneezing, swallowing and vomiting. Those are then subdivided into other areas and
are also linked to ANS subsystems and nervous systems external to the brain. The hypothalamus,
just above the brain stem, acts as an integrator for autonomic functions, receiving
ANS regulatory input from the limbic system

The autonomic or involuntary part of the nervous system controls the function of the
body carried out automatically. i.e. initiated in the brain below the level of the cerebrum. The
autonomic nervous system is divided into two division:

a. Sympathetic Nervous system

 The sympathetic nervous system is one of the two main divisions of the autonomic
nervous system, the other being the parasympathetic nervous system. The enteric nervous
system (ENS) is now usually referred to as separate from the autonomic nervous
system since it has its own independent reflex activity.)
  The autonomic nervous system functions to regulate the body's unconscious actions. The
sympathetic nervous system's primary process is to stimulate the body's fight-flight-or-
freeze response. It is, however, constantly active at a basic level to
maintain homeostasis homeodynamics. The sympathetic nervous system is described as
being antagonistic to the parasympathetic nervous system which stimulates the body to
"feed and breed" and to then "rest-and-digest". The sympathetic nervous system (SNS)
is one of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the other being
the parasympathetic nervous system. (The enteric nervous system (ENS) is now usually
referred to as separate from the autonomic nervous system since it has its own
independent reflex activity.)

Sympathetic nervous system is divided into two division:

Neurons convey impulses from their origin in the hypothalamus, reticular formation
and medulla oblongata to effector organs and tissue.

 The pre ganglionic neurone: This has its cell body in the lateral column of grey
matter in the spinal cord between the first thoracic and second or third lumbar
vertebrae.

 The post ganglionic neurone: This has its cell body in the ganglion and
terminates in the organ or tissue supplied nor adrenaline is usually in the
neurotransmitter.

B. Para Sympathetic nervous system:

The parasympathetic nervous system is one of the two divisions of the autonomic nervous
system (a division of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)), the other being the sympathetic
nervous system. The enteric nervous system (ENS) is now usually referred to as separate from
the autonomic nervous system since it has its own independent reflex activity. The autonomic
nervous system is responsible for regulating the body's unconscious actions. The
parasympathetic system is responsible for stimulation of "rest-and-digest" or "feed and
breed" activities that occur when the body is at rest, especially after eating, including sexual
arousal, salivation, lacrimation (tears), urination, digestion and defecation. Its action is described
as being complementary to that of the sympathetic nervous system, which is responsible for
stimulating activities associated with the fight-or-flight response

Two neurons i.e. pre ganglionic and post ganglionic are involved in the transmission of impulses
from their source to the effector organ. The neurotransmitter at both synopses is acetylcholine.

 Pre ganglionic neuron: This has its cell body either in the brain or in the spinal
cord. Those originating in the brain are the cranial nerves III, VII, IX and X,
arising from nuclei in the midbrain and brain stem, and their nerve fibres
terminate outside the brain.

 Post ganglionic neuron: This has its cell body either in the ganglion or in the
wall of the organ supplied.

C. Functions of the autonomic nervous system:

 The majority of the organs of the body are supplied by both sympathetic and para
sympathetic nerves which have opposite effects that are finely balanced to ensure
the optimum functioning of the organ.

 Sympathetic stimulation prepares the body to deal with exciting and stressful
situation the adrenal gland are stimulated to secrete the hormones adrenaline and
nor adrenaline into the effects of sympathetic simulation.

 Sometime said that sympathetic stimulation mobilizes the body for fight or flight.

 Para Sympathetic stimulation has a tendency to slow down body processes

expect digestion and absorption of food and the functions of the genito urinary
systems.

 Its general effect is that of a „peace maker‟ allowing restoration processes to occur
quietly and peacefully.

Functions of Sympathetic nervous system

 Promotes a fight-or-flight response, corresponds with arousal and energy generation, and
inhibits digestion
  Diverts blood flow away from the gastro-intestinal (GI) tract
and skin via vasoconstriction.

 Blood flow to skeletal muscles and the lungs is enhanced (by as much as 1200% in the
case of skeletal muscle.

 Increases heart rate and the contractility of cardiac cells (myocytes), thereby providing a
mechanism for enhanced blood flow to skeletal muscles

 Dilates pupils and relaxes the ciliary muscle to the lens, allowing more light to enter the
eye and enhances far vision.
 Provides vasodilation for the coronary vessels of the heart
 Constricts all the intestinal sphincters and the urinary sphincter
 Inhibits peristalsis
 Stimulates orgasm

Function of Parasympathetic nervous system

 Dilating blood vessels leading to the GI tract, increasing the blood flow.
 Constricting the bronchiolar diameter when the need for oxygen has diminished
 Dedicated cardiac branches of the vagus and thoracic spinal accessory nerves impart
parasympathetic control of the heart.
 Constriction of the pupil and contraction of the ciliary muscles,
facilitating accommodation and allowing for closer vision
 Stimulating salivary gland secretion, and accelerates peristalsis, mediating digestion of
food and, indirectly, the absorption of nutrients.
 Sexual. Nerves of the peripheral nervous system are involved in the erection of genital
tissues via the pelvic splanchnic nerves 2–4. They are also responsible for stimulating
sexual arousal.
NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY:

The endocrine system functions through neurochemical messengers in the blood stream
called hormones .The endocrine system is a communication system. Hormones secreted from the
hypothalamus instruct the pituitary to stimulate the target tissue, glands. The major glands of the
body are adrenals, the gonads and the thyroid gland their function is releasing hormones.
Irregularities of neuroendocrine function have been linked to depression, postpartunpsychosis,
and schizophrenia, panic disorder, anorexia nervosa, Alzheimer‟s disease and OCD. Hormones
secreted by the hypothalamus and pituitary are peptides, largecomplex chain of amino acids
linked together and synthesized by ribosomes in the neuronal cell body through the description
of DNA.

PITUITARY GLAND:

The pituitary gland and the hypothalamus act as a unit ,regulating the activity of most of the
other endocrine gland lies in the hypophyseal fossa of the sphenoid bone below the
hypothalamus. It is the size of the pea, weighs about 500mg and consists of three distinct parts
that originate from the different types of cell.

a) ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND:

The hypothalamus produces releasing hormones that pass through capillaries and
veins of the hypophyseal portal system. Where they stimulate secretion of specialized
hormones.The hormones of the anterior pituitary gland regulate multiple body functions and
growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, prolactin, ACTH, gonadotropins stimulating
hormones and melanocyte stimulating hormone

Growth hormone:

The release of growth hormone also called somatotrophin,is stimulated by the growth
hormone releasing hormone from the hypothalamus. It is responsible for growth in children,as
well as continued protein synthesis throughout life. During periods of fasting, it stimulates the
release of fats from the adipose tissue to be used for increased energy.
Thyroid stimulating hormone:

TSH stimulates the thyroid glands to secrete triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine
(T4).Thyroid hormones are integral for the metabolism of food and regulation of body
temperature. Symptoms of fatigue, decreased libido, memory impairment, depression, suicidal
ideations have been associated with chronic hypothyroidism.

Adenocorticotropic hormone:

Corticotrophin releasing hormone from the hypothalamus stimulates the release of ACTH
from the anterior pituitary. Addison‟s disease is the result of hypo secretion of the hormones of
the adrenal cortex. Behavioural symptoms of hypo secretion include mood changes, social
withdrawal, impaired sleep and fatigue.

Prolactin:

Serum prolactin levels are regulated by prolactin releasing hormone from the
hypothalamus. Prolactin stimulates milk production by the mammary glands in the presence of
high levels of oestrogen and progesterone during pregnancy.

Gonadotrophic hormones:

The gonadotrophic hormones are so called because they produce an effect on the gonads
the ovaries and the testes. LH is responsible for ovulation and the secretion of progesterone from
the corpus luteum. Melanocyte stimulating hormone from the hypothalamus stimulates the pineal
gland to secrete melatonin. The release of melatonin appears to depend on the onset of darkness
and suppressed by light.

b) POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND:

The hypothalamus has a direct control over the posterior pituitary through efferent
neural pathways. Two hormones are found in the posterior pituitary are vasopressin
(Antidiuretic hormone) and oxytocin.

1. Antidiuretic hormone: The main function of ADH to conserve body water and
maintain blood pressure. The release of ADH is stimulated by pain, emotional stress,
 dehydration and decreased in blood volume.ADH also play role in learning and
memory, in alteration of the pain response, and in the modification of sleep patterns.

2. Oxytocin: Oxytocin stimulates contraction of the uterus at the end of the pregnancy
and stimulates release of milk from mammary glands. It is also released in response
to stress and during sexual arousal. Its role in behavioural functioning is unclear,
although it is possible that oxytocin may act in certain situation to stimulate the
release of adrenocorticotropic hormone, there by planning a key role in the overall
hormonal response to stress.

THYROID GLAND:

The thyroid gland is situated in the neck in front of the larynx and trachea at the level of
the 5 ,6th and 7th cervical and 1st thoracic vertebrae. It is highly vascular gland that weighs about
th

25g and is surrounded by a fibrous tissue. It resembles a butterfly in shape, consisting of two
lobes, one on either side of the thyroid cartilage and upper cartilaginous rings of the trachea. The
lobes are roughly cone shaped, about 5cm long and 3cm wide.

Thyroxin and triiodothyronine:

Iodine is essential for the formation of the thyroid gland hormones

thyroxine&triiodothyronine. The body‟s main sources of iodine are seafood, vegetables grown in
iodine rich soil and iodinated table salts in the diet.T3 and T4 affects most cells of the body by
increasing basal metabolic rate and heat production and it is essential for normal growth and
development.

Calcitonin:

This hormone is secreted by the Para follicular or C-cells in the thyroid gland. It acts on
the bone and the kidneys to reduce the blood calcium level when it is raised. Release of
calcitonin is stimulated by an increase in the blood calcium levels.
PARATHYROID GLAND:

These are four small parathyroid gland, two embedded in the posterior surface of each lobe of
the thyroid gland. They are surrounded by fine connective tissue capsules. The main function of
PTH is to increase the blood calcium level when it is low and it is needed for muscle contraction,
blood clotting and nerve impulse transmission.

Parathyroid glands are small endocrine glands in the neck of humans and other tetrapods.
Humans usually have four parathyroid glands, located on the back of the thyroid gland in
variable locations. The parathyroid gland produces and secretes parathyroid hormone in response
to a low blood calcium, which plays a key role in regulating the amount of calcium in the blood
and within the bones.

Parathyroid glands share a similar blood supply, venous drainage, and lymphatic drainage to the
thyroid glands. Parathyroid glands are derived from the epithelial lining of the third and
fourth pharyngeal pouches, with the superior glands arising from the fourth pouch and the
inferior glands arising from the higher third pouch. The relative position of the inferior and
superior glands, which are named according to their final location, changes because of the
migration of embryological tissues.

Hyperparathyroidism and hypoparathyroidism, characterized by alterations in the blood calcium

levels and bone metabolism, are states of either surplus or deficient parathyroid function.

The major function of the parathyroid glands is to maintain the

body's calcium and phosphate levels within a very narrow range, so that
the nervous and muscular systems can function properly. The parathyroid glands do this by
secreting parathyroid hormone (PTH).

 Calcium. PTH increases blood calcium levels by directly stimulating osteoblasts and thereby
indirectly stimulating osteoclasts mechanism to break down bone and release calcium. PTH
increases gastrointestinal calcium absorption by activating vitamin D, and promotes calcium
conservation reabsorption by the kidneys.
 Phosphate. PTH is the major regulator of serum phosphate concentrations via actions on the
kidney. It is an inhibitor of proximal tubular reabsorption of phosphorus. Through activation
of vitamin D the absorption intestinal of Phosphate is increased.
These are four small parathyroid gland, two embedded in the posterior surface of each lobe of
the thyroid gland. They are surrounded by fine connective tissue capsules. The main function of
PTH is to increase the blood calcium level when it is low and it is needed for muscle contraction,
blood clotting and nerve impulse transmission.

CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS:

The human sleep and awaken in a 24 - hour cycle called circadian rhythms. A person
who is awake is in a state of readiness and is able to react consciously to various stimuli. EEG
recordings show that the cerebral cortex is very active during wakefulness, whereas fewer
impulses arise during most stages of sleep. Circadian rhythm is like a network of internal clocks
that coordinate events in the body according to a 24 – hour cycle. Because the body‟s fluids and
tissues function according to circadian rhythms, physical and mental abilities and moods may
vary widely from onetime of day to another. One of the most important internal timekeepers is
located in the hypothalamus. It consists of two clusters of nerve cells called SCN. A direct track
leads from the retina to these two clusters of cells, which in turn respond to the light signals from
the retina. The SCN is the pacemaker of circadian rhythm; it sends electrical and chemical
messages to other parts of the brain, including the hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal gland and parts
of the brainstem.

SLEEP:

Sleep is a state of altered consciousness of partial unconsciousness from which an

individual can be aroused. Normal sleep consists of two components, non-rapid eye movement
(NREM) sleep and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. NREM sleep consists of four gradually
merging stages, each of which is characterized by a different kind of EEG activity.

Stage 1: It is a transition stage between wakefulness and sleep that normally lasts 1-7 minutes
the person is relaxed with eyes closed and has fleeting thoughts. People awakened during this
stage often say they have not been sleeping.

Stage 2: Or Light sleep is the first stage of the sleep. In it, a person is a little more difficult to
awaken. Fragments of dreams may be experienced, and the eyes may slowly roll from side to
side.
Stage 3: Is a period of moderately deep sleep. Body temperature and blood pressure decreases.
This stage occurs about 20 minutes after falling asleep.

Stage 4: Or slow – wave sleep is the deepest level of sleep. Although brain metabolism
decreases significantly during slow – wave sleep and body temperature drops slightly, most
reflexes are intact, and muscle tone is decreased only slightly. When sleepwalking occurs, it
occurs in this stage.

REM and NREM sleep alternate throughout the night. REM periods, which occur
approximately every 90 minutes, gradually lengthen, until the final one lasts about 50 minutes.

GENES:

Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with the study of genes, genetic variation,
and heredity in organisms. Though heredity had been observed for millennia, Gregor Mendel, a
scientist and Augustinian friar working in the 19th century, was the first to study genetics
scientifically. Mendel studied "trait inheritance", patterns in the way traits are handed down from
parents to offspring. He observed that organisms (pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete
"units of inheritance". This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is
referred to as a gene.

Trait inheritance and molecular inheritance mechanisms of genes are still primary principles of
genetics in the 21st century, but modern genetics has expanded beyond inheritance to studying
the function and behaviour of genes. Gene structure and function, variation, and distribution are
studied within the context of the cell, the organism (e.g. dominance), and within the context of a
population. Genetics has given rise to a number of subfields, including molecular
genetics, epigenetics and population genetics.

Genetic processes work in combination with an organism's environment and experiences to

influence development and behaviour, often referred to as nature versus nurture.
The intracellular or extracellular environment of a living cell or organism may switch gene
transcription on or off. A classic example is two seeds of genetically identical corn, one placed in
a temperate climate and one in an arid climate (lacking sufficient waterfall or rain). While the
average height of the two corn stalks may be genetically determined to be equal, the one in
the arid climate only grows to half the height of the one in the temperate climate due to lack of
water and nutrients in its environment.

Genes are located on chromosomes each person has 23 pairs, for a total of 46. One set of
23 comes from the mother and the other set from the father at the time of conception. Genes are
composed of pairs of nucleic acids in specific sequences that contain an enormous amount of
coding information. This information serves as a “blueprint” for biological processes. First DNA,
a double – stranded molecule, divides in half of replication. Second the DNA is “read” by
another molecule, specifically transfer RNA (tRNA) and messenger RNA (mRNA) the sequence
for a given protein is deciphered. The mRNA is then used in the construction of a new protein
molecule and the body uses this and other molecules as building blocks. For example, Down
syndrome involves an extra replication of chromosome 21, resulting in three copies instead of
the normal two. Hence, Down syndrome is also known as trisomy 21. A number of studies
support observations that mental illness is not transmitted by typical Mendelian genetics.

Researchers can determine the probabilities of inheritance of a gene by examining twins

with a given disorder. In monozygotic (identical) twins, the genes are the same; dizygotic
(fraternal) twins share only 50% of their genes. In both cases, the twins share approximately the
same in utero environment as well as many aspects of their environment during postnatal
development. In contrast only 30% of dizygotic twins will show the learning disorder between
sets of twins. Concordance rates of schizophrenia in monozygotic twins are only 50% suggesting
that the relationship between environment and genetics is more complicated.

The second type of commonly used genetic study is an adoption study, in which one
sibling is removed from a given environment at the time of adoption. Results from adoptive
studies are not as conclusive as twin studies, and more effort has been expended on the collection
of genetic information from monozygotic twins than any other type of genetic study.

The search for the genes that cause mental illness has been difficult but it has stimulated of
mental illness difficult.

Genes are located on chromosomes each person has 23 pairs, for a total of 46. One set of
23 comes from the mother and the other set from the father at the time of conception. Genes are
composed of pairs of nucleic acids in specific sequences that contain an enormous amount of
coding information. This information serves as a “blueprint” for biological processes. First DNA,
a double – stranded molecule, divides in half of replication. Second the DNA is “read” by
another molecule, specifically transfer RNA (tRNA) and messenger RNA (mRNA) the sequence
for a given protein is deciphered. The mRNA is then used in the construction of a new protein
molecule and the body uses this and other molecules as building blocks. For example, Down
syndrome involves an extra replication of chromosome 21, resulting in three copies instead of
the normal two. Hence, Down syndrome is also known as trisomy 21. A number of studies
support observations that mental illness is not transmitted by typical Mendelian genetics.

Researchers can determine the probabilities of inheritance of a gene by examining twins

with a given disorder. In monozygotic (identical) twins, the genes are the same; dizygotic
(fraternal) twins share only 50% of their genes. In both cases, the twins share approximately the
same in utero environment as well as many aspects of their environment during postnatal
development. In contrast only 30% of dizygotic twins will show the learning disorder between
sets of twins. Concordance rates of schizophrenia in monozygotic twins are only 50% suggesting
that the relationship between environment and genetics is more complicated. Other etiologic
factors in schizophrenia include the season of birth, viral infection, and obstetric complications.

The second type of commonly used genetic study is an adoption study, in which one
sibling is removed from a given environment at the time of adoption. Results from adoptive
studies are not as conclusive as twin studies, and more effort has been expended on the collection
of genetic information from monozygotic twins than any other type of genetic study.

The search for the genes that cause mental illness has been difficult but it has stimulated
significant scientific, political, and clinical debate. Several issues make research on the
inheritance of mental illness difficult. These include;

 The psychiatric diagnostic classification system continues to change.

 The psychiatric diagnostic system is organized by symptom clusters, an increasingly
confusing approach because abnormalities in different brain systems often cause similar
and overlapping symptoms.
 A gene that sometimes produces a psychiatric disorder may not always do so.
  The presence of several different genes may be necessary to produce psychiatric
disorders.
 Non – genetic factors also contribute to the development of a disorder

NEUROPSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS:

A) Biological implications of psychiatric disorders:

Various psychiatric disorders and possible biological influences are discussed as follows

Biological factors consist of anything physical that can cause adverse effects on a person's
mental health. This includes genetics, prenatal damage, infections, exposure to toxins, brain
defects or injuries, and substance abuse. .

Genetics

Family-linkage and twin studies have indicated that genetic factors often play an important role
in the development of mental disorders. The reliable identification of specific genetic
susceptibility to particular disorders, through linkage or association studies, has proven
difficult. This has been reported to be likely due to the complexity of interactions between genes,
environmental events, and early development or to the need for new research strategies.

Research has shown that many conditions are polygenic meaning there are multiple defective
genes rather than only one that are responsible for a disorder. Schizophrenia and Alzheimer's are
both examples of hereditary mental disorders.

Prenatal damage

Any damage that occurs to a fetus while still in its mother's womb is considered prenatal
damage. If the pregnant mother uses drugs or alcohol or is exposed to illnesses or infections then
mental disorders can develop in the fetus. According to research, certain conditions, such
as autism result from a disruption of early fetal brain progression..

Infection, disease and toxins

A number of psychiatric disorders have often been tentatively linked with microbial pathogens,
particularly viruses; however while there have been some suggestions of links from animal
studies, and some inconsistent evidence for infectious and immune mechanisms including
prenatally in some human disorders, infectious disease models in psychiatry are reported to have
not yet shown significant promise except in isolated cases.

Any damage that occurs to a fetus while still in its mother's womb is considered prenatal
damage. If the pregnant mother uses drugs or alcohol or is exposed to illnesses or infections then
mental disorders can develop in the fetus. According to research, certain conditions, such
as autism result from a disruption of early fetal brain progression.

Injury and brain defects

Any damage to the brain can cause a mental disorder. The brain is the control system for the
nervous system and the rest of the body. Without it the body cannot function properly.

Head trauma is classified as either open or closed head injury. Symptoms of closed injury head
trauma tend to be the experience of intellectual deficits in abstract reasoning ability, judgement,
and memory, and also marked personality changes. Symptoms of open injury head trauma tend
to be the experience of classic neuropsychological syndromes like aphasia, visual-spatial
disorders, and types of memory or perceptual disorders.

Neurotransmitter systems

Abnormal levels of dopamine activity have been correlated with a number of disorders e.g.,
reduced in ADHD and OCD, and increased in schizophrenia. Dysfunction in serotonin and
other monoamine neurotransmitters (e.g., norepinephrine and dopamine), and their associated
neural networks, are also moderately correlated with certain mental disorders, including major
depression, obsessive compulsive disorder, phobias, posttraumatic stress disorder,
and generalized anxiety disorder. Studies of depleted levels of monoamine neurotransmitters
show an association with depression and other psychiatric disorders.

Substance abuse

Substance abuse, especially long-term abuse, can cause or exacerbate many mental
disorders. Alcoholism is linked to depression while abuse of amphetamines can leave a person
feeling paranoid and anxious.
Life events and emotional stress.

It is reported that treatment in childhood and in adulthood, including sexual abuse, physical
abuse, emotional abuse, domestic violence and bullying, has been linked to the development of
mental disorders, through a complex interaction of societal, family, psychological and biological
factors. Negative or stressful life events more generally have been implicated in the development
of a range of disorders, including mood and anxiety disorders.

Poor parenting, abuse and neglect

Poor parenting has been found to be a risk factor for depression and anxiety. Separation or
bereavement in families, and childhood trauma, have been found to be risk factors for psychosis
and schizophrenia.

Social expectations and esteem

How individuals view themselves ultimately determines who they are, their abilities and what
they can be. Having both too low of self-esteem as well as too high of one can be detrimental to
an individual's mental health. A person's self-esteem plays a much larger role in their overall
happiness and quality of life. Poor self-esteem whether it be too high or too low can result in
aggression, violence, self-deprecating behaviour, anxiety, and other mental disorders.

Not fitting in with the masses can result in bullying and other types of emotional abuse. Bullying
can result in depression, feelings of anger, loneliness.

Poverty

This increased risk for psychiatric complications remains consistent for all individuals among the
impoverished population, regardless of any in-group demographic differences that they may
possess. These families must deal with economic stressors like unemployment and lack of
affordable housing, which can lead to mental health disorders. A person's socioeconomic class
outlines the psychosocial, environmental, behavioral, and biomedical risk factors that are
associated with mental health.

Communities and cultures

Mental disorders have been linked to the overarching social, economic and cultural
system. Some non-Western views take this community approach.
Problems in communities or cultures, including poverty, unemployment or underemployment,
lack of social cohesion, and migration, have been associated with the development of mental
disorders.

Disorder

There are many different categories of mental disorder, and many different facets of human
behaviour and personality that can become disordered.

Anxiety disorder

Anxiety disorder: Anxiety or fear that interferes with normal functioning may be classified as an
anxiety disorder. Commonly recognized categories include specific phobias, generalized anxiety
disorder, social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, agoraphobia, obsessive-compulsive
disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder.

Mood disorder

Mood disorder: Other affective emotion/mood processes can also become disordered. Mood
disorder involving unusually intense and sustained sadness, melancholia, or despair is known
as major depression (also known as unipolar or clinical depression). Milder but still
prolonged depression can be diagnosed as dysthymia. Bipolar disorder (also known as manic
depression) involves abnormally "high" or pressured mood states, known
as mania or hypomania, alternating with normal or depressed moods.

Psychotic disorder

Psychotic disorder: Patterns of belief, language use and perception of reality can become
dysregulated (e.g., delusions, thought disorder, hallucinations). Psychotic disorders in this
domain include schizophrenia, and delusional disorder. Schizoaffective disorder is a category
used for individuals showing aspects of both schizophrenia and affective disorders.

Personality disorder

The personality disorders, in general, are defined as emerging in childhood, or at least by

adolescence or early adulthood. The ICD also has a category for enduring personality change
after a catastrophic experience or psychiatric illness. If an inability to sufficiently adjust to life
circumstances begins within three months of a particular event or situation, and ends within six
months after the stressor stops or is eliminated, it may instead be classed as an adjustment
disorder. There is an emerging consensus that so-called "personality disorders", like personality
traits in general, actually incorporate a mixture of acute dysfunctional behaviours that may
resolve in short periods, and maladaptive temperamental traits that are more enduring.

Eating disorder

Eating disorder: These disorders involve disproportionate concern in matters of food and
weight. Categories of disorder in this area include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, exercise
bulimia or binge eating disorder.

Sleep disorder

Sleep disorder: These conditions are associated with disruption to normal sleep patterns. A
common sleep disorder is insomnia, which is described as difficulty falling and or staying asleep.

Sexuality disorder

Sexual disorders and gender dysphoria: These disorders include dyspareunia and various kinds
of paraphilia (sexual arousal to objects, situations, or individuals that are considered abnormal or
harmful to the person or others).

Other

Various behavioral addictions, such as gambling addiction, may be classed as a disorder.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder can sometimes involve an inability to resist certain acts but is
classed separately as being primarily an anxiety disorder.

Substance use disorder:

This disorder refers to the use of drugs (legal or illegal, including alcohol) that persists despite
significant problems or harm related to its use. Substance dependence and substance abuse fall
under this umbrella category in the DSM. Substance use disorder may be due to a pattern of
compulsive and repetitive use of a drug that results in tolerance to its effects and withdrawal
symptoms when use is reduced or stopped.

Dissociative disorder:

People who suffer severe disturbances of their self-identity, memory and general awareness of
themselves and their surroundings may be classified as having these types of disorders,
including depersonalization disorder or dissociative identity disorder (which was previously
referred to as multiple personality disorder or "split personality").

Cognitive disorder: These affect cognitive abilities, including learning and memory. This
category includes delirium and mild and major neurocognitive disorder (previously
termed dementia).

Developmental disorder: These disorders initially occur in childhood. Some examples

include autism spectrum disorders, oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder,
and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which may continue into adulthood.
Conduct disorder, if continuing into adulthood, may be diagnosed as antisocial personality
disorder (dissocial personality disorder in the ICD).

Anatomical Brain
Neurotransmitters Endocrine
structures Genetic link
involvement involvement
involved
Schizophrenia –
Frontal cortex, Decreased Prolactin Twin, familial,
Increased Dopamine
temporal lobes, limbic levels adoption studies
system
Depressive disorders Decreased levels of
Increased cortisol
– Frontal lobes, norepinephrine, Twin, familial and
levels; increased
limbic system, dopamine, and adoption studies
melatonin
temporal lobes serotonin
Bipolar disorder – Increased levels of
Frontal lobes, limbic norepinephrine, Elevated thyroid Twin, familial and
system, temporal dopamine and hormones adoption studies
lobes serotonin
Panic disorder – Increased levels of
Elevated thyroid Twin and familial
limbic system, norepinephrine,
hormones studies
midbrain decreased GABA
 activity
Anorexia nervosa – Decreased levels of
Decreased levels of
Limbic system, norepinephrine, Twin and familial
gonadotropins and
particularly the serotonin and studies
growth hormone
hypothalamus dopamine
Obsessive –
Compulsive disorder - Decreased levels of Increased levels of
Twin studies
Limbic system, basal serotonin cortisol levels
ganglia
Decreased levels of
Alzheimer‟s disease –
acetylcholine, Decreased
temporal, parietal and
norepinephrine, corticotrophin Familial studies
occipital regions of
serotonin and releasing hormone
cerebral cortex
somatostain

B) Neurotransmitters implications in psychiatric disorders:

Dopamine

It provides the drive and focus needed to do what needs to be done. Dopamine has another
important role as the brain chemical in charge of the body‟s pleasure-reward system. Signs of
low dopamine include apathy, low energy and motivation, low libido, and inability to experience
pleasure. Dopamine deficiency can manifest as a lethargic and apathetic form of depression
unlike serotonin-based depression which is usually linked to anxiety. Many people self-medicate
with addictive substances like caffeine, alcohol, sugar, nicotine, and recreational drugs to
increase dopamine.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

Typical symptoms of low GABA are being easily stressed out, overstimulated, and
overwhelmed. Other signs and symptoms of low GABA are lying awake with racing thoughts,
feeling dread for no particular reason, and experiencing heart palpitations, cold hands, and
shortness of breath. Low GABA is associated with anxiety disorders and panic attacks, as well as
physical disorders with an emotional component such as irritable bowel syndrome and
fibromyalgia.

Examples of
Increased Decreased
Neurotransmitters disorder
disorders disorders
involving it
Alzheimer‟s
diseases is
Alzheimer‟s
associated with a
Huntington‟s
1. Acetylchlorine Depression lack of
Parkinson‟s
acetylcholine in
disease
certain regions of
the brain.
The losses of
dopamine in
certain parts of the
Parkinson‟s
Mania and brain causes the
2. Dopamine disease and
Schizophrenia muscle rigidity
depression
typical of
Parkinson‟s
disease.
Some drug the
increase of the
Huntington‟s, level of GABA in
3. GABA
Anxiety, the brain are used
(Gamma Amino
Schizophrenia and to treat epilepsy
Butyric Acid)
Epilepsy and to calm the
trembling of
people suffering
 from Huntington‟s
disease
It plays a role in
Mania, anxiety mood disorders
4. Nor epinephrine Depression
and schizophrenia such as manic
depression
It is also thought
to be associated
Huntington‟s,
with Alzheimer‟s
spinal
5. Glutamine disease whose first
degeneration and
symptoms include
Epilepsy
memory
malfunctions.
Depression,
suicide, impulsive
behavior and
Manic state
6. Serotonin Depression aggressiveness all
Anxiety
appear to involve
certain imbalance
in serotonin
Spastic motor
7. Glycine
movements
Huntington‟s and
8. Substance P Depression Alzheimer‟s
disease
Huntington‟s Alzheimer‟s
9. Somatostain
disease disease
10. Endorphins and
Schizophrenia
Enkephalins
PSYCHOIMMUNOLOGY

Definition: The study of the connections between the mind and the immune system. The basic
concept of psycho immunology is the concept that the mind and body are inseparable. It follows
that stress affects the body‟s ability to resist disease.

Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)

Definition: It is the study of the interaction between psychological processes and the nervous and
immune systems of the human body. PNI takes an interdisciplinary approach, incorporating
psychology, neuroscience, immunology, physiology, pharmacology, molecular biology,
psychiatry, behavioral medicine, infectious diseases, endocrinology, and rheumatology.

NORMAL IMMUNE RESPONSE:

Brain – immune system interactions:

Evidence for nervous system – immune system interactions exists at several biological
levels. Primary and secondary lymphoid organs are innervated by the sympathetic nervous
system, and lymphoid cells bear receptors for many hormones and neurotransmitters.

Stress and immunity:

The link between behavior and immune function is suggested by experimental and
clinical observations of a relationship between psychosocial factors, including stress, and
susceptibility to or progression of disease processes that involve immunologic mechanisms.

Psychoneuroimmunological effects:

There is now sufficient data to conclude that immune modulation by psychosocial

stressors and/or interventions can lead to actual health changes. Although changes related to
infectious disease and wound healing have provided the strongest evidence to date, the clinical
importance of immunological deregulation is highlighted by increased risks across diverse
conditions and diseases.

Communication between the brain and immune system

 Stimulation of brain sites alters immunity (stressed animals have altered immune systems).
 Damage to brain hemispheres alters immunity (hemispheric lateralization effects).
 Immune cells produce cytokines that act on the CNS.
 Immune cells respond to signals from the CNS.

Communication between neuroendocrine and immune system

 Glucocorticoids and catecholamine influence immune cells.

 Endorphins from pituitary and adrenal medulla act on immune system.
 Activity of the immune system is correlated with neurochemical/neuroendocrine activity of
brain cells.

Connections between glucocorticoids and immune system

 Anti-inflammatory hormones that enhance the organism's response to a stressor.

 Prevent the overreaction of the body's own defense system.
 Regulators of the immune system.
 Affect cell growth, proliferation and differentiation.
 Cause immune suppression.
 Suppress cell adhesion, antigen presentation, chemotaxis and cytotoxicity.
 Increase apoptosis.
There is now sufficient data to conclude that immune modulation by psychosocial
stressors and/or interventions can lead to actual health changes. Although changes related to
infectious disease and wound healing have provided the strongest evidence to date, the clinical
importance of immunological deregulation is highlighted by increased risks across diverse
conditions and diseases.

Link between stress and disease:

1) Stressors can produce profound health consequences. In one epidemiological study, for
example, all-cause mortality increased in the month following a severe stressor – the
death of a spouse.
 2) Stress is thought to affect immune function through emotional and/or behavioral
manifestations such as anxiety, fear, tension, anger and sadness and physiological
changes such as heart rate, blood pressure, and sweating.
3) Immune changes in response to very brief stressors have been a central theme in the last
decade of PNI research..

Connections between glucocorticoids and immune system:

 Anti – inflammatory hormones that enhance the organisms response to a stressor.

 Prevent the overreaction of the body own defense system.
 Regulators of the immune system.
 Affect cell growth, proliferation & differentiation.
 Cause immunosuppression.
 Suppress cell adhesion, antigen presentation chemo taxis & cytotoxicity.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PSYCHIATRIC ILLNESS:

Immune function and mental illness:

Stress greatly influences psychological functioning and the exacerbation of symptoms in

psychiatric clients. Stress can also impact how the immune system functions; it is a powerful
psychological influence on the body‟s overall functioning the emerging field of
Psychoimmunology is dedicated to elucidating the mechanisms of this process.

The relationship between immune function and the nervous system is to protect the
individual; that is, if a person is injured of ill, it is important to modulate behavioral responses
appropriately. Another aspect of immune functioning that can influence nervous system
functioning is autoimmune disease, in which the body fails to recognize itself as “self”.

Finally from a different perspective on immune dysfunction and the nervous system, very
few bacteria or viruses can directly attack the brain because of the protective blood brain barrier.
One theory of obsessive – compulsive disorder posits that antibodies produced during repeated
exposure to strep throat in genetically vulnerable individuals attack the basal ganglia, thereby
producing obsessive compulsive like symptoms. Other illness that can pass through this barrier
are rabies and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) presumably because these disease
break down the barrier itself.

IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING:

Psychiatric nurses must integrate knowledge of the biological sciences into their practices
if they are to ensure safe and effective care to people with mental illness.

Nurse must understand the following:

1. Neuroanatomy and neurophysiology: The structure and functioning of the various parts
of the brain and their correlation to human behavior and psychopathology.
2. Neuronal process: The various functions of the nerve cells, including the role of
neurotransmitters, receptors, synaptic activity and informational pathways.
3. Neuroendocrinology: The interaction of the endocrine and nervous systems, and the role
that the endocrine glands and their respective hormones play in behavioral functioning.
4. Circadian rhythms: Regulation of biochemical functioning over periods of rhythmic
cycles and their influence in predicting certain behaviors.
5. Genetic influence: Heredity factors that predispose individuals to certain psychiatric
disorders.
6. Psychoimmunology: The influence of stress on the immune system and its role in
susceptibility to illness.
7. Psychopharmacology: The increasing use of psychotropic in the treatment of mental
illness, demanding greater knowledge of psychopharmacological principles and nursing
interventions necessary for safe and effective management.
8. Diagnostic technology: The importance of keeping informed about the latest in
technological procedures for diagnosing alterations is brain structure and function.

Psychobiological perspectives must be incorporated into nursing practice, education, and

research to attain the evidence based outcomes necessary for the delivery of competent care.

It is also important for nurses to keep abreast of the expanding diagnostic technologies
available for detecting alterations in psychobiological functioning.
Integrating knowledge of the expanding biological focus into psychiatric nursing is essential if
nurses are to meet the changing needs of today‟s psychiatric clients.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

 D.Ellakkuvanabhaskararaj published by EMMESS medical publishers page no 39-56.

 Dr.N.Mmuthayya published by jaypee brothers page no 48-54.

 Basavanthappa.B.T. (2007), Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, Second Edition,

New Delhi, Jaypee Publishers.
 Bhatia (1998), A concised text on Psychiatric Nursing, First edition, New Delhi,
C.B.S.Publishers and Distributors.
 Brooking.J.I (1996), A Text Book of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, First
edition, NewYork: Churchill Livingstone.
 BimlaKapoor.(2009), A Text Book of Psychiatric Nursing, Volume-1, New Delhi :
Kumar Publication
 Cecelia.M.T(1990). Essentials of Psychiatric Nursing, Fourteenth edition, Philadelphia
Mosby Publications.
 Neeraja. K.P (2008). Essentials of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing,first edition,
New Delhi : Jaypee Publishers.