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Kiess2004 PDF
Kiess2004 PDF
Kiess2004 PDF
Multidisciplinary Management of
Obesity in Children and Adolescents –
Why and How Should It Be Achieved?
Wieland Kiess, Klemens Raile, Thomas Kapellen, Roland Pfaeffle,
Eberhard Keller, Susann Blüher, Antje Böttner
Hospital for Children and Adolescents, University of Leipzig,
Leipzig, Germany
Introduction
Environmental/exogenous factors
• Increase of sedate activities (TV viewing)
• Decrease in physical activity
• Shift in diet towards more fast/prepackaged foods with
high fat/calorie content
• Loneliness and social isolation
• Psychosocial/family problems
Genetic/endogenous factors
Possibly polymorphisms and/or mutations in any of the
following:
• Adrenergic receptors
• Leptin
• Leptin receptors (Ob-R)
• Melanocortin receptor 4 (MC4-R)
• SOCS-3
• Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)
• Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC)
• Melanocyte-concentrating hormone (MCH)
• Melanocortin receptor 3 (MC3-R)
• Neuropeptide Y (NPY)
• NPY receptors
• Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
• Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
• Urocortin
• Orexin A and B
• Galanin
• Neurotensin
• Serotonin
• Others
obesity in children and adolescents of around 12% [2, 3]. Interestingly, not only
the number of obese children is increasing, but also the tendency towards even
more excessive weight [2, 3, unpubl. data].
Therapeutic Approaches
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Table 2. Comorbidity of obesity in
childhood and adolescence Psychosocial-psychiatric
• Poor self image
• Social isolation
• Autoaggression
• Suicide
• Promiscuity
• Drug and alcohol addiction
• Bulimia
• Binge eating
• Smoking
• (Enuresis)
Cardiovascular and respiratory
• Accelerated atherosclerosis
• Hypertension
• Hypoventilation
• Sleep apnea
• Snoring
• Pickwickier syndrome
• Reduced lung capacity
Endocrine/metabolic/gynecological
• Hyperinsulinemia/insulin resistance
• Early puberty
• Polycystic ovaries
• Dysmenorrhea
• Dyslipidemia
Orthopedic
• Slipped capital femoral epiphyses
• Coxa vara
• Blount’s disease
• Legg-Calve-Perthes disease
• Back pain
programs [25] and nutrition education [30] (fig. 1). In this context, the role of
regular exercise has to be emphasized [25, 31–35]. Intermittent exercise (high
intensity followed by low intensity sports) results in greater reduction in weight
and fat. Such approaches also increase compliance/adherence rates of the
youths. Optimal results are being achieved by combining programs to reduce
sedentary behaviors based on specialized, structured exercise prescriptions [33,
35–37].
Multidisciplinary outpatient treatments are considered to be the most
effective [33, 35]. Thus, networking of primary care physicians, public health/
school medicine institutions, specialists of pediatric and adolescent medicine,
social workers, child psychologists and dietitions as well as sport educators
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Sport educators/
Psychologist
trainer
Multidisciplinary
treatment
of obesity
School/
kindergarten 1) Lifestyle/behavior Dietitian
teachers modification
2) Exercise programs
3) Nutrition education
Social
worker Pharmacotherapy
should be achieved (fig. 1). Such networking concepts should be strongly sup-
ported by health insurance providers and politicians. Using such approaches,
some groups have reported high success rates and sufficient long-term weight
reduction in small groups of children studied [33–37].
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promoted by the government in order to stop the current epidemic of obesity in
the Western World [38, 39].
The fact that changes to a healthy lifestyle, including appropriate eating
patterns and exercise, is more easily incorporated into adulthood if learned
early in life strongly suggests that treatment of obesity as well as cognitive
awareness for a healthy lifestyle should start in childhood [40].
Nutritional Education
As obesity is a multifactorial disease, diet is only one of several treatment
approaches. Dietary intervention should be related to the child’s age, the sever-
ity of obesity and the presence of comorbidities. Evaluating the child’s nutri-
tional status is essential prior to prescribing any diet [44].
Children and adolescents with moderate obesity and no comorbidities can be
treated with a balanced low-caloric diet (BLCD). In a BLCD, the energy intake is
reduced by about 30%, balanced with 20% energy derived from protein, 30–35%
from fat and 45–50% derived from carbohydrates, respectively [44].
In patients with severe obesity (BMI far above the 97th percentile) and
who are already affected by secondary complications of overweight and obe-
sity, however, a very-low-calorie diet (VLCD) should be considered rather
than BLCD. In VLCD 800 kcal/day or fewer are provided [45]. The calories
can be either partially balanced (protein 25%, fat 30%, carbohydrates 45%) or
unbalanced (protein 66%, fat 24%, carbohydrates 10%). The latter is also
referred to as protein-sparing modified fast (PSMF), as it is supposed to spare
lean body mass while producing rapid weight loss. Severe obesity in childhood
and adolescence is most widely treated with PSMF [44]. However, since
VLCDs and PSMFs can produce rapid and remarkable weight loss, one has to
take into consideration that this can later lead to a ‘yo-yo’ syndrome of loss
and regain of body weight. Thus, these groups of diets should be used very
carefully in this age group of obese patients and only under strict medical
supervision.
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In general, a nutrition plan has to be developed and discussed in accordance
with the obese individual’s specific needs and the child’s social background.
Surgical Intervention
Laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding is being increasingly considered
as the treatment of choice in very obese adults [53, 54]. Early complications of
such interventions and significant late complications such as pouch dilatation
and stomach slippage have been rare [53]. However, in one series in 7.5% of
146 cases operated on reoperations were necessary [55]. Recommendations of
an international workshop on gastric banding for adult obesity are summarized
in the following: (1) good patient selection has to be made; (2) standard surgi-
cal practice has to be adhered to, and (3), last but not least, no surgery must be
performed without the support of an interdisciplinary team which has to include
internists, psychologists and dietitians [53]. Whether or not such invasive treat-
ment options will ultimately be considered in adolescents is still open to debate.
Perspectives
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seems to be the most promising and reasonable. However, primary prevention
has been proven to be difficult or impossible in most societies at this point of
time [2, 3, 61]. Again, a multidisciplinary team approach is crucial to develop
and secure preventive strategies. Good nutrition and modest exercise for preg-
nant women as well as monitoring of intrauterine growth of the child are manda-
tory. After birth, rapid weight gain should be avoided and principles of good
nutrition and physical activities should be taught at all ages. Breast-feeding
should strongly be recommended [60]. Children’s food choice can be influenced
by early intervention and guidance. Parents should be encouraged to make healthy
foods easily available to the child and serve these foods in positive mealtime
situations in order to help their child to develop healthy food habits [61]. As for
treatment strategies, multidisciplinary teams should be formed. Such teams
should always include a physician, a nutrition specialist and a psychologist but
mainly consist of school nurses, teachers and kindergarten teachers. Joint actions
by physicians, health authorities and politicians both in the community and also
using modern media and mass media are being asked for to implement nation-
wide prevention programs. Such programs have to take into account cultural and
racial preferences and attitudes in respect to food preparation and eating habits.
Taxes on fast foods and soft drinks should be considered, while nutritious foods
such as fruits and vegetables could be subsidized for the poorer income classes.
Nutrition labels should be required on fast-food packaging. Last but not least,
food advertisement and marketing directed at children should be banned while
funding for public-health campaigns for obesity prevention should be increased
[2, 3, 5]. Recent changes in federal tax laws in the United States may influence
the roles of health plans in promoting physical activity and thus may assist treat-
ment and prevention of obesity [57].
Conclusions
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