$QVZHUV5HVHDUFK-RXUQDO 7 (2014):49–81.

www.answersingenesis.org/arj/v7/radiohalos-bathurst-batholith-granite-flood.pdf

Radiohalos in Multiple, SequentiallyIntruded Phases of the

Bathurst Batholith, NSW, Australia:
Evidence for Rapid Granite Formation during the Flood

Andrew A. Snelling, Answers in Genesis, P.O. Box 510, Hebron, Kentucky, 41048.

Abstract
The Bathurst Batholith west of Sydney, Australia, consists of an enormous pluton (the Bathurst Granite) and
numerous smaller related satellite plutons and dikes. The major pluton cuts east-west across the prevailing
north-south strike of the fossiliferous sedimentary strata, unequivocal evidence that the intrusion of the batholith
structurally disrupted the regional fabric of the host strata sequence. Sedimentary rocks in the contact zone
were metamorphosed by the hot magma. The major dike-like Evans Crown granite cuts across the Bathurst
Granite and the surrounding host strata. This dike’s central portions are coarse and even grained like the
Bathurst Granite, but the margins are chilled, testimony to intrusion of the dike as hot granite magma. Many
minor granite dikes cut across the margins of the Bathurst Granite and also across the Evans Crown dike out
into the surrounding strata. Alteration zones marginal to the sharp contacts of the dikes with the wallrocks
indicate the magma was still hot when injected. Abundant 238U and 210Po radiohalos are present in biotite
ÁDNHVRIDOOVDPSOHVRIWKH%DWKXUVW*UDQLWHDQG(YDQV&URZQGLNH 214Po and 218Po radiohalos are present
only in some samples of the Bathurst Granite. A few 210Po and 2388UDGLRKDORVDUHDOVRSUHVHQWLQELRWLWHÁDNHV
within some samples of the dikes that cut across the Bathurst Granite or the Evans Crown dike. Field and
textural data have established that these granite phases were sequentially intruded while still hot. That these
JUDQLWLFSKDVHVZHUHLQWUXGHGDVKRWPDJPDLVDOVRFRQÀUPHGE\DQDO\WLFDODQGH[SHULPHQWDOGDWD$OOWKLV
KDGWRRFFXUZLWKLQWKH)ORRG\HDUVRWKHVHPXOWLSOHJUDQLWHSKDVHVZHUHQRWFUHDWHGFROGE\ÀDW,QVWHDG
WKH3RUDGLRKDORVLQGLFDWHWKH\ZHUHIRUPHGUDSLGO\EHORZƒ&YLDK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGWUDQVSRUWRI5QDQG
3RIURPWKH]LUFRQJUDLQVHPEHGGHGLQWKHELRWLWHIODNHVWKDWDUHRIWHQWKHUDGLRFHQWHUVRIWKH8UDGLRKDORV
Furthermore, their presence in all three sequentiallyintruded granite phases is evidence that all this intrusive
activity, and the cooling of all three granite phases to 150°C, must have occurred within a week or two so that
these Po radiohalos in them formed subsequently within days to weeks.

Keywords: granite, Bathurst Batholith, magma, contact metamorphism, dikes, alteration zones, host
fossiliferous sediments, chemical analyses, experimental data, biotite, 238
U radiohalos, Po radiohalos,
K\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGVWKH)ORRG

Introduction 3LWFKHU  <RXQJ DQG 6WHDUOH\  2Q WKH

Over 50 years ago there was intense debate in other hand, a potential solution to the time issue
WKHFRQYHQWLRQDOVFLHQWLÀFFRPPXQLW\RQWKHRULJLQ and an alternative model for the origin of granites
and formation of granites (Pitcher 1993). For most was presented by Gentry (1973, 1974, 1986, 1988).
geologists it has now been conclusively resolved He argued that because the polonium (Po) radiohalos
that granitic magmas formed by partial melting within biotite grains in granites appeared to be
RI GHHS FUXVWDO FRQWLQHQWDO URFNV RU RI VXEGXFWHG “orphaned” (there apparently being no precursor
sediments at temperatures of around 630–730°C. or parent atoms in situ), and they thus had to form
The hot granitic magmas, being less dense than the H[WUHPHO\UDSLGO\GXHWRWKHÁHHWLQJH[LVWHQFHRIWZR
VXUURXQGLQJ VRXUFH URFNV WKHQ DVFHQGHG WKURXJK of the polonium isotopes), the Po radiohalos and the
fractures and feeder zones to intrude into upper granites hosting them had to have been created in a
FUXVWDO URFNV LQFOXGLQJ IRVVLOLIHURXV VHGLPHQWDU\ ÀDWPDQQHUE\*RG+HFRQFOXGHGWKHJUDQLWHVDUH
VWUDWD 2IWHQ WKH KHDW DQG K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV SULPRUGLDO URFNV DQG WHUPHG WKH 3R UDGLRKDORV DV
UHOHDVHGE\WKHFRROLQJJUDQLWLFPDJPDVEDNHGDQG *RG·V´ÀQJHUSULQWVRIFUHDWLRQµ
RU DOWHUHG WKH KRVW URFNV DURXQG WKH FRQWDFW ]RQHV The observation that many granite bodies
FRQWDFWPHWDPRUSKLVPDQGRUPHWDVRPDWLVP LQWUXGH IRVVLOEHDULQJ VHGLPHQWDU\ URFNV ZKLFK
However, there are still some unresolved issues. were deposited during the Flood is not considered
On one hand, there is the issue of the time involved an obstacle to this proposal for the instantaneous
for such a process, because the conventional geologic origin of granites. Instead, Gentry (1986, 1988, 1989)
community generally regards the time necessary proposed and insisted that primordial granite bodies
from partial melting to intrusion, crystallization and were tectonically intruded during the Flood while
FRROLQJ RI JUDQLWHV WR KDYH WDNHQ PLOOLRQV RI \HDUV they were cold, and any thermal effects surrounding
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The views expressed are those of the writer(s) and not necessarily those of the Answers Research Journal Editor or of Answers in Genesis.
50 A. A. Snelling

the margins of these granite bodies was due to )LHOGZRUN ZDV FRQGXFWHG LQ -XO\²6HSWHPEHU 
frictional heating during tectonic emplacement. His as the focus of a B.Sc. (Honors) dissertation at The
argument was aided by the observational fact that University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia, in DQ
limited exposures of the contact zones at the margins DUHDORFDWHGDERXWNPPLZHVWRIWKHFLW\RI
RIJUDQLWHERGLHVDUHGLIÀFXOWWRÀQG+RZHYHUWKLV
is because outcrops of the contact zones are often
not fully exposed or are absent due to the alteration
effects facilitating deeper weathering of both the
PDUJLQVRIWKHJUDQLWHERGLHVDQGWKHLUDGMDFHQWKRVW
URFNV
A number of previous studies have sought to
establish the case for Po radiohalos having formed
rapidly from Po atoms sourced from nearby
decaying uranium (U) atoms and transported by
K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV GXULQJ WKH FRROLQJ SKDVH RI
granite bodies (6QHOOLQJ D D G Snelling
6\GQH\ILJ'HWDLOHGILHOGREVHUYDWLRQVZHUHPDGH
of the contact zone along the margins of the Bathurst
Granite where it intruded the host fossil-bearing
sedimentary strata, and where it was itself intruded
E\ WZR JHQHUDWLRQV RI ODWHVWDJH JUDQLWLF GLNHV 7KH
resulting unpublished dissertation (Snelling 1974)
was a description and discussion of the geology of the
ILHOG DUHD DFFRPSDQLHG E\ WKH FRPSLOHG JHRORJLFDO
PDS)XUWKHUILHOGZRUNLQWKHUHJLRQZDVXQGHUWDNHQ
LQ -XO\  WR DFTXLUH D UHJLRQDO SHUVSHFWLYH LQ the
investigation of radiohalos in the granite and WKH
GLNHV7KLVVXEVHTXHQWUDGLRKDORVVWXG\XVHGsamples
DQG $UPLWDJH  6QHOOLQJ DQG *DWHV 
Only one of these studies included an investigation
of the contact zone around a granite body. Also,
no previous studies examined discrete, separate
granite bodies that had intruded into one another
sequentially. The present study encompasses these
WZRDVSHFWVLQWKHLQYHVWLJDWLRQRIDPDMRUJUDQLWH
ERG\WZRJHQHUDWLRQVRIGLNHVLQWUXGLQJLQWRLWDQG
their contained radiohalos.
collected in 1999 and archived samples from WKH 
GLVVHUWDWLRQ ILHOGZRUN 7KH UHVXOWV SURYLGH convincing
evidence that this granite and its ancillary phases were
indeed intruded rapidly as a hot magma into the
surrounding host fossiliferous sedimentary strata
during the Flood. Furthermore, the radiohalos in these
sequentially intruded phases had to have been
produced rapidly from Po atoms sourced from
GHFD\LQJ8DWRPVLQWKHVHJUDQLWLFURFNV

144° 146° 148° 150° 152°

N
Sydney Basin
Bathurst
Batholith

Sydney
34°

Murray Basin
Canberra

36°

Tasman Sea

Melbourne

38°

100 km

Fig. 1. /RFDWLRQ RI WKH %DWKXUVW %DWKROLWK UHG LQ UHODWLRQ WR RWKHU JUDQLWH EDWKROLWKV SLQN LQ VRXWKHDVWHUQ
Australia.
Radiohalos in Multiple, Sequentially-Intruded Phases of the Bathurst Batholith, NSW, Australia 51

The Bathurst Batholith composition as both the Bathurst Granite and the
Geologic setting (YDQV&URZQGLNHRIWHQZLWKWKHVDPHSRUSK\ULWLF
The Bathurst Batholith, named after the city texture (Snelling 1974).
which sits on top of it, outcrops over an area of about  5HFHQWDLUERUQHPDJQHWLFDQGUDGLRPHWULFVXUYH\V
NP2VTPLILJ,WFRQVLVWVRIDQHQRUPRXVpluton have enabled the separate bodies with different
(the Bathurst Granite) and numerous smaller UHODWHG FRPSRVLWLRQVWREHLGHQWLÀHGZLWKLQWKHPDLQRXWFURS
VDWHOOLWH SOXWRQV DQG GLNHV 7KRXJK RIWHQ deeply RI WKH EDWKROLWK %UDQDJDQ DQG 3DFNKDP 
weathered, the granite is well exposed in road and railroad The individual intrusive phases are well expressed
cuts, and in the hills around its margins which have been on modern detailed aeromagnetic maps and in
mapped in detail. At the contact with the granite the host UDGLRPHWULFGDWD'HWDLOHGPDSSLQJXVLQJVXFKGDWD
fossiliferous sedimentary strata have been combined with petrology has enabled their improved
metamorphosed and in this instance have WKXVEHHQPRUH GHSLFWLRQRQJHRORJLFDOPDSV5D\PRQGHWDO
UHVLVWDQW WR ZHDWKHULQJ -RSOLQ  6QHOOLQJ  The emplacement of these granitic plutons caused
Vallance 1969). WKHUPDO PHWDPRUSKLVP KRUQIHOV DQG VNDUQV DQG
Previous studies by Chaffer (1955) and metasomatism to the surrounding strata.
0DFND\  LQFOXGHG JHRORJLFDO PDSSLQJ DQG
investigations, as well as the measuring of the type
section for the Lambie Group at Mt. Lambie in the
map area and identifying the fossil assemblages.
Outcrops are poor over much of the Bathurst
3ODLQVDQGOLWWOHLVNQRZQRIWKHJUDQLWHLQWKDWUHJLRQ
+RZHYHUHDUO\ÀHOGZRUNE\-RSOLQ
1944) dealing with the eastern part of the batholith has
FRQWULEXWHGPXFKWRRXUNQRZOHGJHRIWKHEDWKROLWKDV
a whole as a composite body, concluding the batholith
consists of multiple plutons with variable compositions
Earlier K-Ar dating (Facer 1979) on an adamellite
IURP 'XQNHOG MXVW HDVW RI WKH FLW\ RI %DWKXUVW
\LHOGHG D WRWDO URFN DJH RI “0D DQG D ELRWLWH
DJHRI“0DIRUWKHZHVWHUQSDUWRIWKH%DWKXUVW
*UDQLWH KDV SURYHG XQUHOLDEOH 5DGLRLVRWRSH GDWLQJ
XVLQJWKH.$U5E6UDQG5H2VPHWKRGVKDVEHHQ
interpreted as indicating a mean time of emplacement
of the Bathurst Batholith at 310 Ma (Scheibner and
Basden 1998). However, Shaw and Flood (1993)
have suggested that these ages are too young.
Shaw’s unpublished data (Scheibner and Basden
ranging from minor gabbroic phases to dominant
adamellite (&KDSSHOOHWDO-RSOLQKnutson
DQG )ORRG  Vallance 1969). The main plutonic
URFN W\SHV LQ WKH HDVWHUQ SDUW RI WKH EDWKROLWK DV
HOVHZKHUHLQWKHEDWKROLWKDUHSLQNLVKHYHQJUDLQHG
ELRWLWHJUDQLWHDGDPHOOLWH JUD\ ELRWLWHJUDQLWH
DGDPHOOLWHZLWKODUJHSLQNSKHQRFU\VWVRISRWDVVLXP
IHOGVSDU KRUQEOHQGHELRWLWH JUDQLWHDGDPHOOLWH DQG
 FRQVLVWV RI PRUH H[WHQVLYH 5E6U DJH GDWLQJ
RIELRWLWHEXONURFNSDLUVDQGVKRZWKDWDOOSOXWRQV
DUHROGHUZLWKWKHPDÀFLQWUXVLRQVEHLQJWKHROGHVW
at 340 Ma (Knutson and Flood 1988). This is within
the range of 338–349 Ma from biotite in the regionally
metamorphosed Merrions Formation (Cas, Flood, and
Shaw 1976). The youngest intrusives dated are the
IHOVLF QRUWKVRXWK GLNHV FURVVFXWWLQJ WKH %DWKXUVW
KRUQEOHQGH DQG ELRWLWH JUDQRGLRULWHV -RSOLQ 
All are medium- to coarse-grained and massive with
gradational contacts between the several varieties.
Biotite granites with large potassium feldspar
phenocrysts outcrop, for example, near Sodwalls and
Tarana in the area studied by Snelling (1974). The
VDWHOOLWHVWRFNOLNHERG\DW<HWKROPHZKLFKDSSHDUV
to be related to the main mass of the batholith, also
carries similar large K-feldspar phenocrysts.
In general, age relations between the various
%DWKROLWK ZLWK WKH (YDQV &URZQ GLNH GDWLQJ DW
312 Ma. Shaw and Flood’s (1993) histogram of 33
ELRWLWH DJHV IURP DOO PDMRU SOXWRQV RI WKH EDWKROLWK
suggests an intrusive maximum around 325–330 Ma.
In its structural setting the Bathurst Batholith is
clearly discordant along much of its margin. Apart
from radiometric dating, the evidence that the
granite intruded later than the folding can be seen
in the shape of the granite body which trends east-
west, cutting across the “grain” of the folded host
granitic units in the batholith are not clear. An VHGLPHQWDU\ URFNV ÀJ  7KH ZHVWHUQ SDUW RI WKH
REYLRXV H[FHSWLRQ WR WKLV UXOH LV WKH PDMRU GLNHOLNH batholith lies against well-cleaved or foliated lower
JUDQLWHERG\NPPLORQJDQGRIWHQNP(0.5
mi) wide that forms the Evans Crown ridge near
Tarana and extends north-north-eastwards cutting
across the Bathurst Granite and the surrounding host
VHGLPHQWDU\VWUDWD1XPHURXVPLQRUJUDQLWLFGLNHVcut
across the margins of the Bathurst Granite and out
into the surrounding host strata. Good exposures RI
WKHVHGLNHVDUHVHHQLQWKHPDQ\UDLOURDGFXWVbetween
3DOHR]RLF URFNV ,Q SODFHV WKH KRVW FRXQWU\ URFNV
have been shoved locally into concordances with the
trend of the contact. Important structural features
such as the thrust fault systems to the north of the
batholith are intersected by the intrusive body which
is clearly younger than the thrust faults.
7KHJUDQLWLFERGLHVPDNLQJXSWKHEDWKROLWKLQYDGH
KRVWFRXQWU\URFNVDV\RXQJDVXSSHU'HYRQLDQDQG
Sodwalls and Tarana. Up to 45 m (about  IW on the eastern margin are overlapped by Permian
ZLGHWKHVHJUDQLWLFGLNHVKDYHWKHVDPH VHGLPHQWV7KHDYDLODEOHHYLGHQFHIURPWKHWKLFNQHVV
52 A. A. Snelling

v v v v

Tertiary v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
Volcanics

Sydn
Hill End Sofala Mesozoic- Sediments
Permian

H I L L

C A P

ey B
Carboniferous Intrusives

asin
Late Devonian Sediments
Early Devonian Sediments

E R T
and volcanics
v v v Intrusives
Orange v
v
Silurian
v
v
v
v
v
v
v v Sediments
E N D
v
and volcanics

E E
v v v v
v v v v v
v v
v v v v v
v
v
v
v v

v
v
v
v
v
v

v
v
v
v
v
v
v
Volcanics, intrusives,
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v

v
Ordovician volcaniclastic sediments
v v v v v v
Bathurst Lithgow Turbidites
v v Adaminaby Group
Batholith

Katoomba
Z O N E

Z O N E

N
JJenolan

0 10 20 km

Fig. 2.6LPSOLÀHGJHRORJLFDOPDSRIWKH/DFKODQ)ROG%HOWLQWKHUHJLRQRIWKH%DWKXUVW%DWKROLWKDIWHU%UDQDJDQ

DQG3DFNKDP

of the overlapping Permian sediments suggests that Host rocks the batholith intrudes
the depth of cover at the eastern margin, at least, was The Bathurst Batholith and related satellite
QRW JUHDW SHUKDSV QRW PRUH WKDQ NP PL ERGLHV DQG GLNHV LQWUXGH LQWR IROGHG 6LOXULDQ
The distribution of the thermal aureole indicates 'HYRQLDQ PDULQH VHGLPHQWV DQG S\URFODVWLFV 7ZR
that the contacts between the granites and the tectonically distinct zones are recognized in the local
host sedimentary strata are often rather shallowly- region—the Hill End Trough and the Capertee High
dipping, as can clearly be recognized in the Tarana ILJ  7KH +LOO (QG 7URXJK ZDV WKH VLWH RI WKLFN
DUHD 7KH QXPHURXV VWRFNV LQFOXGLQJ WKRVH DW active sedimentation—almost 7500 m (24,600 ft)
Yetholme and Meadow Flat, which are lithologically of WXUELGLWHV IO\VFK DQG S\URFODVWLFV 6FKHLEQHU
VLPLODU WR WKH URFNV RI WKH PDLQ JUDQLWH PDVV RI DQG Basden 1998). These sediments thin and
the batholith, yet separated from it at today’s land wedge out as they onlap the Capertee High, which is
surface, suggest that the granite is not deeply eroded. believed to have been the site of the active volcanism
With the folding and regional metamorphism of the responsible IRUPXFKRIWKHS\URFODVWLFPDWHULDODQG
sedimentary strata in what is now the Lachlan Fold ODYDIORZVLQthe sedimentary sequence.
%HOW QXPHURXV SRVWNLQHPDWLF PDVVLYH RURJHQLF At the base of the stratigraphic section in the
granites were intruded into these host strata, mapped area is the Silurian Chesleigh Group
including the Bathurst Granite. These granites cut 6FKHLEQHUDQG%DVGHQÀJZKLFKFURSVRXW
across the structural zones, and individual granitic VSDUVHO\VRXWKDQGHDVWRI0HDGRZ)ODWILJDQGLQ
VWRFNV DQG EDWKROLWKV VKRZ D PDUNHG SUHIHUHQFH LWV W\SH DUHD LV  P  IW WKLFN 3DFNKDP
IRU ]RQHV RI FUXVWDO ZHDNQHVV VXFK DV SUHH[LVWLQJ ,WFRQVLVWVRIWXUELGLWHVSULPDULO\JUD\ZDFNHV
lineaments and fracture zones. For example, the (well-sorted with small angular quartz and feldspar
transverse Bathurst Batholith was emplaced along fragments scattered throughout a clay matrix) with
WKH /DFKODQ 5LYHU /LQHDPHQW 6FKHLEQHU DQG interbedded shales (typically composed of extremely
Stevens 1974). Aeromagnetic data indicate the small grains of quartz and occasional feldspar set in
importance of some additional lineament directions a clay matrix). Up-sequence the amount of feldspar
for the emplacement history of the Bathurst Batholith increases, and these turbidites are interbedded with
5D\PRQGHWDO$OVRWKHLQGLYLGXDOSOXWRQV felsic tuffs, characterized by quartz, orthoclase and
their often concentric structure and the numerous SODJLRFODVH IUDJPHQWV LQ DQ XOWUDÀQH JURXQGPDVV
ODWHQRUWKVRXWKWUHQGLQJGLNHVZKLFKDUHDOVRYHU\ Among the tuffs is a porphyritic rhyodacite lava,
FRPPRQ LQ WKH VXUURXQGLQJ FRXQWU\ URFNV DUH DOO consisting of fragmented quartz, orthoclase and
well displayed in the aeromagnetic images. SODJLRFODVHSKHQRFU\VWVLQDÁRZEDQGHGJURXQGPDVV
Radiohalos in Multiple, Sequentially-Intruded Phases of the Bathurst Batholith, NSW, Australia 53

include brachiopods (including four species of

Permian Megalong Cryptospirifer), clams and clam fragments. The
Conglomerate Bathurst Granite is in direct intrusive contact with
WKH XSSHU 'HYRQLDQ /DPELH *URXS VWUDWD VR WKH
granite is clearly younger. However, unconformably
RYHUO\LQJ DOO WKHVH 6LOXULDQ'HYRQLDQ VHGLPHQWDU\
XQLWVDQGWKH%DWKXUVW*UDQLWHRQLWVHDVWHUQÁDQN
is the Permian Megalong Conglomerate, a massive
upper Lambie cobble conglomerate which is the basal unit of the
Devonian Group ZHVWHUQ6\GQH\%DVLQÀJ

Metamorphism in the host rocks

Exogenetic metamorphic products associated with
the batholith are variable. Many previously cleaved
RU IROLDWHG URFNV KDYH UHWDLQHG WUDFHV RI RULJLQDO
structures after static recrystallization. Thus in
Merrions the Newbridge area, on the extreme southwestern
Formation
margin of the batholith (Benson 1907), and to the
north of the batholith (Vallance 1969), slates develop
v
v v
v v v v vv v v v v
v
lower
Devonian porphyroblasts of andalusite or chiastolite. On the
Crudine southern margin of the batholith, some reaction
Group EHWZHHQIROLDWHGURFNVDQGWKHJUDQLWHKDVOHGORFDOO\
v v v v v v v v v vv WRWKHIRUPDWLRQRIEDQGHGTXDUW]RIHOGVSDWKLFURFNV
described as migmatites by Binns (1958).
To the east, the batholith comes into contact
Chesleigh ZLWKOHVVGHIRUPHGURFNVDQGPDVVLYHJUDQREODVWLF
Silurian Group hornfelses are typical in the aureole. Similar
products have been examined in detail at Hartley
-RSOLQZKHUHWKHXSSHU'HYRQLDQVHGLPHQWV
include quartz-rich sandstones, shales and impure
Fig. 3. The local stratigraphic column (approximately
P>IW@WKLFNVKRZLQJWKHRUGHURIGHSRVLWLRQ FDOFDUHRXV URFNV $PRQJ WKH VDQGVWRQH DQG
RI WKH VHGLPHQWDU\ URFN XQLWV WKDW KRVW WKH %DWKXUVW shale hornfelses, the most common minerals are
Granite in the Tarana-Sodwalls area. quartz, biotite, andalusite, and cordierite. More
FDOFDUHRXV URFNV LQFOXGH SODJLRFODVH GLRSVLGH
There is a sharp change in the conformably hornblende, wollastonite, grossular, or vesuvianite.
RYHUO\LQJ ORZHU 'HYRQLDQ &UXGLQH *URXS IURP Local variations in grade are common and not
quartz-rich sedimentation into volcanogenic all hornfelses carry equilibrium assemblages.
deposition of felsic tuffs, tuffaceous breccias, banded Andalusite-biotite-potassium feldspar hornfelses
WXIIV LQWHUEHGGHG ZLWK JUD\ZDFNHV VLOWVWRQHV DQG (indicating pyroxene hornfels facies conditions) and
shales. Then followed the accumulation of the KRUQEOHQGHGLRSVLGHSODJLRFODVH URFNV KRUQEOHQGH
widespread, grossly tabulated volcanogenic Merrions KRUQIHOVIDFLHVERWKRFFXUDW+DUWOH\-RSOLQ
)RUPDWLRQ ÀJ  ZKLFK FRQVLVWV RI VKHHWOLNH WR 1936). At granite contacts near Tarana, calc-
lobate horizons of dacite lavas and volcaniclastics. VLOLFDWHURFNVDUHGHULYHGIURPOLPHVWRQHV6LOLFDWHG
7KHVH WZR ORZHU 'HYRQLDQ VWUDWLJUDSKLF XQLWV DUH hornfelses (andradite-wollastonite) occur between
WRJHWKHU DERXW  P  IW WKLFN LQ WKH VWXG\ recrystallized pure limestone and granite suggesting
DUHD (Snelling 1974) transfer of material across the contact. Andradite-
,QWKHPLGGOH'HYRQLDQWKHVHGLPHQWVGHSRVLWHGLQ KHGHQEHUJLWHVNDUQVRFFXUDWYDULRXVORFDOLWLHVVXFK
WKH +LOO (QG 7URXJK DQG RQ DGMRLQLQJ KLJKV ZHUH DVDW<HWKROPHZKHUHDVDWHOOLWHVWRFNKDVLQYDGHGD
deformed regionally into north-south trending folds succession containing limestones and conglomerates
with an axial slaty cleavage. This was followed by with limestone pebbles (Vallance 1969).
RQVHW RI XSSHU 'HYRQLDQ PRODVVLF VHGLPHQWDWLRQ ZLWK
GHSRVLWLRQ RI WKH /DPELH *URXS ILJ  ,Q WKH W\SH +LVWRU\DQG6LJQLILFDQFHRI8DQG3R5DGLRKDORV
VHFWLRQRQ0W/DPELH0DFND\measured :KHQ UDGLRKDORV ZHUH ILUVW UHSRUWHG EHWZHHQ
3405 m (11,170 ft) of reddish shales, 1880 and 1890, they remained a mystery until the
siltstones, sandstones, conglomerate and massive discovery of radioactivity. Now they are recognized
TXDUW]LWHV8SSHU'HYRQLDQIRVVLOVUHFRUGHGLQWKHDUHD as any type of discolored radiation-damaged region
54 A. A. Snelling

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65
Dm
27’ Psb
66

28’ 64

65 17 Mount
40
Lambie 63
Dlg
1284 m
40
82 22 35
30
35 25 50
64 28’ S-Dc 40 45
35
45 40

21 Dm 62
ge
29’
Psb
63 ge De
ad
m Rydal
50 an 61
’s
100
gec
62
29’
Dlg 60
45 30

35
33° 30’

Cre
61 44
Dlg
35

e
65

k
50 Bald
Bald
46 45
40 59
33°30’ Dlg 35 51
40
70
35

60 Ridge 57 7
58 k gb
PAR ee
59 KE 55 Cr 24 58
S 23
ry 34 31+
lita
So 32
110 gb
31’
59 TO RAIL
109 WA
Sodwalls
NEY Y 57
SYD
31’
58
gb
56

57 Tarana 55’ 56’ 57’ 58’ 59’ 150° 0’ 1’ 2’

gb

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01

Megalong Conglomerate gec Evans Crown dike km

Psb (Shoalhaven Gp. - Permian) 0 0.5 1 2 3

gb Bathurst Granite scale

Basic dikes
Lambie Group G.N.
Dlg (upper Devonian)
Acid dikes

gmf Meadow Flat Stock Dm Merrions Formation

(lower Devonian)
17 Samples N
Meadow Flat Crudine Group Bedding
qp S-Dc 40

“Quartz Porphyry” (lower Devonian)

Chesleigh Group
ge Eusdah Stock S-Cg (Silurian)
Fig. 4. Geological map of the Tarana-Sodwalls-Mt. Lambie-Meadow Flat area, west of Sydney, New South Wales,
Australia (from Snelling 1974).

ZLWKLQDPLQHUDOUHVXOWLQJIURPWKHǂHPLVVLRQVIURP EF7KXVELRWLWHLVWKHPDMRUPLQHUDOLQZKLFK

a central radioactive inclusion or radiocenter (Gentry the radiohalos occur. While initially observed mainly
5DGLRKDORVZKHQYLHZHGLQURFNWKLQVHFWLRQV LQ 3UHFDPEULDQ URFNV *HQWU\   
usually appear as concentric rings that were initiated +HQGHUVRQDQG%DWHVRQ+HQGHUVRQ0XVKNDW
E\ WKH ǂGHFD\ LQ WKH 238U or 232Th series (Gentry DQG &UDZIRUG  ,LPRUL DQG <RVKLPXUD 
5DGLRKDORVDUHXVXDOO\IRXQGLQLJQHRXV -RO\DE.HUU/DZVRQ
URFNV PRVW FRPPRQO\ LQ JUDQLWLF URFNV LQ ZKLFK 2ZHQ  :LPDQ  UDGLRKDORV KDYH VLQFH
ELRWLWH LV D PDMRU PLQHUDO +RZHYHU PRUH UHFHQWO\ EHHQ VKRZQ WR H[LVW LQ URFNV VWUHWFKLQJ IURP WKH
radiohalos have also been reported as common in 3UHFDPEULDQWRWKH7HUWLDU\+ROPHV6QHOOLQJ
ELRWLWHLQVRPHPHWDPRUSKLFURFNV6QHOOLQJD D6WDUN:LVH
5DGLRKDORVLQ0XOWLSOH6HTXHQWLDOO\,QWUXGHG3KDVHVRIWKH%DWKXUVW%DWKROLWK16:$XVWUDOLD 55

(a) 218 Po Halo (b) 238U Halo

Nuclide (Į0H9
238
U 4.19
234
218
Po U 4.77
230
214
Po Th 4.68
226
210
Po Ra 4.78
222
Rn 5.49
218
Po 6.00
214
Po 7.69
210
Po 5.30

214
Po
210
Po 210
Po

(c) 214 Po Halo (d) 210 Po Halo

Fig. 5. Composite schematic drawing of (a) a 218Po halo, (b) a 238U halo, (c) a 214Po halo, and (d) a 210Po halo, with radii
SURSRUWLRQDO WR WKH UDQJHV RI WKH ǂSDUWLFOHV LQ DLU 7KH QXFOLGHV UHVSRQVLEOH IRU WKH ǂSDUWLFOHV DUH OLVWHG IRU WKH
different halo rings (after Gentry 1973).
Within the 238U decay series, the three Po isotopes Subsequently, Snelling and Armitage (2003)
KDYH EHHQ WKH RQO\ ǂHPLWWHUV REVHUYHG WR IRUP investigated the radiohalos in biotite within three
radiohalos other than 2388LWVHOIÀJ7KHVHLVRWRSHV
and their respective half-lives are 218Po (3.1 minutes),
214
Po (164 microseconds), and 210Po (138 days),
respectively. Their very short half-lives constrain the
formation of the granites in which they are found to a
short time frame because the Po radiohalos can only
form after the granites have crystallized and cooled
granite plutons, demonstrating that these granite
plutons had been intruded and cooled during the
Flood. They found that the biotite grains contained
both fully¬formed 238U and 232Th radiohalos around
zircon and monazite inclusions (radiocenters)
respectively, thus providing a physical, integral,
historical record of at least 100 million years’ worth (at
*HQWU\6QHOOLQJD7KXVLI
granite magma emplacement and pluton cooling are
not extremely rapid, then these Po isotopes would
not have survived to form the Po radiohalos (Snelling
2008a). This is consistent with, and in support of, a
young earth model.
Because the rings which should be produced by the
3RSUHFXUVRUVDUHPLVVLQJLQPDQ\3RUDGLRKDORVÀJ
5) (Snelling, Baumgardner, and Vardiman 2003),
the source of the Po for the radiohalos has been an
area of contention (Snelling 2000). Was it primary, or
did a secondary process transport it? Gentry (1986)
proposed that the Po radiohalos had been produced
by primordial Po, having an origin independent of
DQ\8VXJJHVWLQJDOOJUDQLWHVDQGJUDQLWLFURFNVZHUH
IRUPHGE\ÀDWFUHDWLRQGXULQJWKH&UHDWLRQZHHN,Q
contrast, based on all the available evidence, Snelling
(2000) suggested a possible model for transporting
WKH 3R YLD K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV GXULQJ WKH ODWWHU
today’s rates) of accelerated radioactive decay during
the recent year-long Flood. However, Po radiohalos
ZHUHDOVRRIWHQIRXQGLQWKHVDPHELRWLWHÁDNHVDVWKH
U radiohalos, usually less than 1 mm (0.04 in) away.
Thus, they argued that the source of the Po isotopes
must have been the U in the zircon grains within the
ELRWLWHÁDNHVWKHVDPH]LUFRQLQFOXVLRQVWKDWDUHWKH
radiocenters to the U radiohalos.
Because the precursor to 218Po is the inert gas
222
5QZKLFKLVSURGXFHGE\ 238U decay in the zircon
grains and is then capable of diffusing out of the
zircon crystal lattice, Snelling and Armitage (2003)
UHDVRQHG WKDW WKH HYLGHQFH FRQÀUPHG WKH WHQWDWLYH
model suggested by Snelling (2000). Concurrently, as
the emplaced granite magma crystallizes and cools,
the water dissolved in it is released below 400°C,
FDXVLQJK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGVWREHJLQÁRZLQJDURXQG
the constituent minerals and through the granite
pluton, including along the cleavage planes within
stages of cooling of granite plutons to sites where WKHELRWLWHÁDNHV6QHOOLQJDQG$UPLWDJHDQG
the Po isotopes would have been precipitated and 6QHOOLQJ D DUJXHG WKHVH K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV
concentrated in radiocenters that then formed the were capable of transporting 2225QDQGLWVGDXJKWHU
respective Po radiohalos in the granites. Po isotopes) from the zircon inclusions to sites
56
where new radiocenters were formed by Po isotopes
precipitating in lattice imperfections containing
rare ions of S, Se, Pb, halides or other species with a
JHRFKHPLFDODIÀQLW\IRU3R&RQWLQXHGK\GURWKHUPDO
ÁXLG WUDQVSRUW RI 3R ZRXOG KDYH DOVR UHSODFHG WKH
3R DWRPV LQ WKH UDGLRFHQWHUV DV WKH\ ǂGHFD\HG
to produce the Po radiohalos, thus progressively
supplying the 5 × 109 Po atoms needed to form fully
registered Po radiohalos.
6LJQLÀFDQWO\ QRQH RI WKH UDGLRKDORV 3R RU
U) could form or be preserved until the biotite
crystals had formed and cooled below the thermal
annealing temperature for ǂWUDFNVRIƒ&/DQH\
A. A. Snelling
processes occur must therefore be governed by the 138
day half-life of 210Po. To get 218Po and 214Po radiohalos
these processes would have to have occurred even
faster. (Snelling 2005a)
If the U and Po radiohalos both formed during the
6–10 days while the granite plutons cooled during
the Flood, then this implies 100 million years’ worth
of accelerated 238U decay occurred in a time frame of a
few days. Thus the U-Pb isotopic systematics within
WKH ]LUFRQV LQ WKHVH JUDQLWH SOXWRQV DUH GHÀQLWHO\
not providing absolute “ages” as conventionally
interpreted.
DQG /DXJKOLQ  <HW K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV
SUREDEO\VWDUWHGWUDQVSRUWLQJ5QDQGWKH3RLVRWRSHV
immediately after they were expelled from the
crystallized granite at temperatures below 400°C.
This implies that cooling of the Po-radiohalo-
containing granite plutons had to be extremely
Field and Laboratory Methods
Mapping and sampling
-XO\²6HSWHPEHU  ZDV VSHQW JHRORJLFDO
PDSSLQJDQDUHDRIDOPRVWNP2 (almost 37 sq. mi)
straddling the margins of the Bathurst Granite and
WKH DGMRLQLQJ IRVVLOEHDULQJ VHGLPHQWDU\ KRVW URFNV
rapid, in only 6–10 days (Snelling 2008a). Snelling, ILJVDQG7KHVWXG\DUHDHPEUDFHVWKHYLOODJHV
Baumgardner, and Vardiman (2003) and Snelling of Sodwalls and Tarana in the southeastern and
(2005a) have summarized this model for hydrothermal southwestern corners respectively, and the village
ÁXLG WUDQVSRUW RI 8GHFD\ SURGXFWV 5Q 3R LQ D
VL[VWHSGLDJUDP7KHÀQDOVWHSFRQFOXGHVZLWKWKH
comment:
With further passing of time and more ǂ-decays
both the 238U and 210Po radiohalos are fully formed,
WKHJUDQLWHFRROVFRPSOHWHO\DQGK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLG
ÁRZFHDVHV1RWHWKDWERWKUDGLRKDORVKDYHWRIRUP
concurrently below 150°C. The rate at which these
RI 0HDGRZ )ODW LQ WKH QRUWKZHVW FRUQHU ILJ 
Access to much of the area was facilitated by the
PDMRUZHVWHUQUDLOURDGIURP6\GQH\DQGWKH*UHDW
Western Highway traverses across the northern
boundary and passes through Meadow Flat.
Mapping was accomplished by using 1964 air-
photo coverage of the Bathurst district (Bathurst
5XQ1XPEHUVDQG3KRWR1XPEHUV

mapped and
Bathurst sampled area
RBG-2
*

*
RBG-3 Lithgow
*
RBG-4 Tarana Hartley
RBG-1*

N
RBG regional
* samples

0 10 20 km

Fig. 6.5HJLRQDORXWOLQHRIWKH%DWKXUVW%DWKROLWKVKRZLQJWKHORFDWLRQRIWKHDUHDPDSSHGDQGVDPSOHGLQ-XO\²
6HSWHPEHUDQGORFDWLRQVRIWKHUHJLRQDOVDPSOHVFROOHFWHGLQ-XO\
Radiohalos in Multiple, Sequentially-Intruded Phases of the Bathurst Batholith, NSW, Australia 57

and 5057-5062, respectively). Pairs of aerial photos
were closely examined through a stereoscopic viewer
DQG WKH WHQWDWLYH ERXQGDULHV EHWZHHQ YDULRXV URFN
units were annotated on the photos, along with the
locations of outcrops. A tentative geologic map was
then compiled from this air-photo interpretation by
transferring it to a composite overlay. The geological
were heated in a platinum crucible to 1000°C,
IXVHG ZLWK D OLWKLXP WHWUDERUDWH EDVHG ÁX[ DQG
TXHQFKHGTXLFNO\$FRXQWLQJSUHFLVLRQRI“ZDV
obtained by accumulating more than 2500 counts
SHU HOHPHQW SHDN 'HWHFWLRQ OLPLWV ZHUH UDWKHU
less than 500 ppm, depending on the matrix.
2. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) was used
PDSSURGXFHGÀJZDVRULJLQDOO\DWWKHDLUSKRWR
scale of 1:38,000.
7KLV WHQWDWLYH JHRORJLFDO PDS ZDV ÀHOG FKHFNHG
along the boundaries between the different strata,
recording geologic details at different outcrops.
Traverses were done on foot along the railroad,
DORQJFUHHNVDQGWKHLUWULEXWDULHVDQGDFURVVULGJHV
to analyze for Mg, Mn, Na, Cu, and Mo following
WRWDODFLGDWWDFNRIWKHSXOYHUL]HGVDPSOHV:KLOH
0J DQG 0Q ZHUH LQFOXGHG LQ WKH ;5) IXVLRQ
determination, the AAS method allows a 100-fold
reduction in the detection limit. Precision, based
on the measuring of light intensities, was better
WKDQ'HWHFWLRQOLPLWVZHUHDOOURXWLQHO\SSP
and hills. Various outcrops were appropriately
VDPSOHG DQG VLJQLÀFDQW IHDWXUHV SKRWRJUDSKHG
with the locations of these being carefully recorded
on the geological map being compiled. Samples were
named and numbered appropriately according to the
YDULRXV URFN W\SHV :KHUH DSSURSULDWH VWULNH DQG
dip measurements were made on bedding planes
LQ WKH RXWFURSV RI WKH VHGLPHQWDU\ URFN XQLWV DQG
such details were also recorded on the geological map
being compiled.
)XUWKHUÀHOGZRUNZDVXQGHUWDNHQLQWKHUHJLRQLQ
-XO\7KHDLPZDVWRJLYHDUHJLRQDOSHUVSHFWLYH
to the previously mapped and sampled area, which
represented only a small fraction of the margins of
 ;UD\ )OXRUHVFHQFH ;5) SUHVVHG SRZGHU SHOOHW
analysis was used to determine S concentrations,
DVVXPLQJ OHYHOV QRW PXFK KLJKHU WKDQ 
Precision depended to a large extent on particle
VL]HEXWDSUHFLVLRQRI“RU“SSPKDVEHHQ
consistently demonstrated at this laboratory.
Once all the results were obtained the weight
SHUFHQWV RI WKH PDMRU HOHPHQWV ZHUH FDOFXODWHG
followed by distribution of oxygen proportionally to
the various oxides in order to recalculate the oxide
percentages. Trace elements were reported as ppm
concentrations.
Samples selected for radiohalos counting were
thin-sectioned in order to characterize the mineralogy
WKH%DWKXUVW%DWKROLWKÀJ6HYHUDORXWFURSVZHUH
sampled along the highways and minor roads that
VNLUW DURXQG DQG FURVV WKH EDWKROLWK WKH FKRVHQ
samples being representative of the margins of the
batholith for comparison with similar samples in the
earlier intensely mapped area.
Chemical analyses
6HYHQVDPSOHVFROOHFWHGGXULQJWKHÀHOGZRUN
were selected for further chemical analyses. These
included two from the Bathurst Granite, three from
WKH(YDQV&URZQGLNHRQHIURPDIHHGHUGLNHRQH
from the coarse-grained phase, and one from the
DQGWH[WXUHVRIWKHGLIIHUHQWURFNW\SHVSDUWLFXODUO\
the granites from the main batholith mass and
VDWHOOLWHVWRFNVWKHJUDQLWLFURFNVIURPWKHGLNHVDQG
WKHKRVWURFNVDGMRLQLQJWKHPDUJLQVRIWKHJUDQLWH
where metamorphism had occurred. Furthermore,
an accurate assessment of the mineral content of
several samples of the Bathurst Granite and the
(YDQV&URZQGLNHZHUHREWDLQHGE\SRLQWFRXQWLQJ
of thin sections for statistical analyses.
Counting of radiohalos
7ZHQW\IRXU VDPSOHV RI JUDQLWLF URFNV ZHUH
selected from those collected in 1974, and four granite
FKLOOHGPDUJLQDQGWZRVDPSOHVRISRUSK\U\GLNHV samples collected in 1999. Of these 28 samples,
that cross-cut both the Bathurst Granite and the twelve were of the Bathurst Granite, eight were
(YDQV&URZQGLNH7KHVHVDPSOHVZHUHVHQWWRWKH IURPWKH(YDQV&URZQGLNHVHYHQRIFRDUVHJUDLQHG
Perth (Western Australia) laboratories of Associated JUDQLWLF GLNH URFN DQG RQH IURP WKH GLNH·V FKLOOHG
/DERUDWRULHV RI $XVWUDOLD 3W\ /WG IRU ZKROHURFN PDUJLQ IRXU ZHUH IURP JUDQLWLF GLNHV LQWUXGHG
analyses. across the Bathurst Granite, two were from granitic
GLNHVLQWUXGLQJWKURXJKWKH(YDQV&URZQGLNHDQG
Laboratory methods WZR ZHUH IURP JUDQLWLF GLNHV FURVVFXWWLQJ WKH KRVW
Samples were crushed and pulverized. The VHGLPHQWDU\URFNV
following methods were then used to analyze the Portions of the 28 samples were crushed to
FKHPLFDOFRPSRVLWLRQVRIWKHVHURFNV OLEHUDWH WKH ELRWLWH JUDLQV %LRWLWH ÁDNHV ZHUH WKHQ
 ;UD\ )OXRUHVFHQFH ;5) IXVLRQ DQDO\VLV ZDV KDQGSLFNHGZLWKWZHH]HUVIURPHDFKFUXVKHGVDPSOH
used to determine Si, Al, Fe, Ti, Ca, and K DQGSODFHGRQDSLHFHRI6FRWFKWDSHŒÀ[HGWRWKHÁDW
concentrations, as well as the loss on ignition surface of a laminated board on a laboratory table
(H22“7RDFFRPSOLVKWKLVWKHSXOYHUL]HGVDPSOHV with its adhesive side up. Once numerous biotite
58 A. A. Snelling

Fig. 7.3DQRUDPLFYLHZORRNLQJVRXWKZHVWDQGZHVWIURPWKHVXPPLWRI0W/DPELHIURP6QHOOLQJ7RWKHOHIW

LQWKHGLVWDQFHWKH(YDQV&URZQGLNHLVHDVLO\UHFRJQL]HGZLWKLWVSURPLQHQWJUDQLWHWRUVRQWKHPLGGOH0RYLQJ
ULJKWWKHWRSRJUDSKLFKROORZRIWKH6ROLWDU\&UHHNYDOOH\LVVHHQDVPDUNHGRQ)LJ7KH(YDQV&URZQGLNHFURVVHV
WKDWYDOOH\DQGIRUPVWKHULGJH(YDQV&URZQLQWKHPLGGOHRIWKHYLHZFHQWHUDQGULJKW7KH'HDGPDQ·V&UHHN
YDOOH\ VHSDUDWHV WKH ODWWHU ULGJH DQG 0W /DPELH MXVW EH\RQG WKH IRUHJURXQG 7KH 7DUDQD 5DQJH ORRPV LQ WKH
EDFNJURXQGPLGGOHULJKW
ÁDNHV KDG EHHQ PRXQWHG RQ WKH DGKHVLYH VLGH RI
this piece of tape, a fresh piece of Scotch tape™ was
SODFHGRYHUWKHPDQGÀUPO\SUHVVHGDORQJLWVOHQJWK
VR DV WR HQVXUH WKH WZR SLHFHV ZHUH VWXFN WRJHWKHU
ZLWKWKHELRWLWHÁDNHVÀUPO\ZHGJHGEHWZHHQWKHP
7KH XSSHU SLHFH RI WDSH ZDV WKHQ SHHOHG EDFN LQ
order to pull apart the sheets composing the biotite
ÁDNHVDQGWKLVSLHFHRIWDSHZLWKWKLQELRWLWHVKHHWV
adhering to it was then placed over a standard glass
microscope slide so that the adhesive side and the
WKLQ PLFD ÁDNHV DGKHUHG WR LW 7KLV SURFHGXUH ZDV
repeated with another piece of Scotch tape™ placed
polarized light and all radiohalos present were
LGHQWLÀHG QRWLQJ DQ\ UHODWLRQVKLSV EHWZHHQ WKH
different radiohalo types and any unusual features.
The numbers of each type of radiohalo in each slide
were counted by progressively moving the slide
EDFNZDUGV DQG IRUZDUGV DFURVV WKH ÀHOG RI YLHZ
and the numbers for each slide were then tallied and
tabulated for each sample.
Results
Mapping and sampling
The geological map resulting from the intense
RYHUWKHRULJLQDOWDSHDQGELRWLWHÁDNHVDIÀ[HGWRWKH
ERDUGWKHDGKHULQJELRWLWHÁDNHVEHLQJSURJUHVVLYHO\
pulled apart and transferred to microscope sides.
$V QHFHVVDU\ IXUWKHU KDQGSLFNHG ELRWLWH ÁDNHV
were added to replace those fully pulled apart. In
this way tens of microscope slides were prepared
for each sample, each with many (at least 20) thin
ELRWLWH ÁDNHV PRXQWHG RQ LW 7KLV LV VLPLODU WR WKH
method pioneered by Gentry (1988). A minimum
of 50 microscope slides was prepared for each
ÀHOGZRUNLVVKRZQLQ)LJ6QHOOLQJ0DUNHG
on the map are the interpreted boundaries between
WKH YDULRXV RXWFURSSLQJ URFN XQLWV LQ WKH DUHD WKH
FUHHN GUDLQDJHV WKH YLOODJHV WKH PDMRU URDGV DQG
WKHUDLOURDG7KHVWULNHDQGGLSPHDVXUHPHQWVRIWKH
bedding in the host sedimentary units are recorded on
the map in the locations they were obtained, and the
QXPEHUHGEODFNGRWVUHSUHVHQWWKHVDPSOHFROOHFWLRQ
sites. Only those samples used in this radiohalos study
DUHPDUNHGRQWKHPDS$QGDURXQGWKHERUGHUVRIWKH
VDPSOHDWOHDVWELRWLWHÁDNHVWRHQVXUHJRRG map not only are the longitude east and latitude south
representative sampling statistics. FRRUGLQDWHVPDUNHGEXWWKHUHLVDOVRDRQHNLORPHWHU
Each slide for each sample was then carefully E\RQHNLORPHWHUJULGFRRUGLQDWHVV\VWHPPDUNHGDQG
examined under a petrological microscope in plane annotated for ease of referencing map locations.
Mount
Lambie
W E
La
+
v

m
v

M
+ Evans+ bi
v

er
v

e
v

Ch rio G
v

+ + + C
v

e + Crown ns ro
v

Gr sle
v

up
v
v

+ ou igh + + + rudin Fm
v

+
v

v
v
v

p
v
v

+ dike eG
+ +
v v

+ + rou
v
v

+ + + +
v

p
v

+
v
v

+ +
v
v

Fig. 8. The local composite stratigraphic cross-section, drawn approximately east-west through the summit of Mt.
Lambie (from Snelling 1974).
Radiohalos in Multiple, Sequentially-Intruded Phases of the Bathurst Batholith, NSW, Australia 59

Fig. 9. 9LHZRIWKH6ROLWDU\&UHHNYDOOH\ZLWKWKHUDLOURDGIURP6\GQH\ZHVWWR3DUNHVRQWKHH[WUHPHULJKWIURP

6QHOOLQJ%DOG5LGJHPDUNHGRQÀJOLHVLQWKHFHQWHURIWKHYLHZZLWKWKH(YDQV&URZQGLNHFURSSLQJRXW
DORQJWKHULGJHWRWKHOHIW,QWKHUDLOURDGFXWVWRWKHLPPHGLDWHULJKWRI%DOG5LGJHWKH(YDQV&URZQGLNHLVIRXQG
WRVSOLWLQWRDPXOWLWXGHRIFRDOHVFLQJVPDOOHUGLNHV7KHPDUJLQVRIWKH%DWKXUVW*UDQLWHRFFXS\WKHORZO\LQJODQG
DORQJ6ROLWDU\&UHHNEHFDXVHWKHJUDQLWHLVPRUHZHDWKHUHG

7KH KRVW VHGLPHQWDU\ URFNV DQG VWUDWLJUDSKLF the margin of the Bathurst Granite near Tarana and
sequences and relationships are shown in Fig. 3. then through the surrounding host sedimentary
Because they have been regionally metamorphosed, URFNVURXJKO\QRUWKZDUGVWRIRUP%DOG5LGJHÀJV
they are more resistant to weathering and erosion, so DQGDQG(YDQV&URZQÀJLVWKHJUDQLWLF(YDQV
they form the higher ground in the panoramic view in &URZQ GLNH ILJ  ZKLFK LV HVWLPDWHG WR EH 
)LJ7KLVYLHZLVORRNLQJZHVWDQGVRXWKZHVWIURP NPPLORQJDQGRIWHQNPPLZLGH,QWKH
the summit of Mt. Lambie, at 1284 m (4213 ft) UDLOURDGFXWVEHVLGH6ROLWDU\&UHHNWRWKHLPPHGLDWH
the KLJKHVWSRLQWLQWKHPDSDUHDILJ7KHQH[W VRXWKRI%DOG5LGJHZLWKLQWKH%DWKXUVW*UDQLWHWKH
ULGJH WR WKH ZHVW FHQWHU DQG ULJKW LQ ILJ  LV WKH (YDQV&URZQGLNHZDVIRXQGWRVSOLWLQWRPXOWLSOH
(YDQV &URZQ GLNH 7KHVH WRSRJUDSKLF YDULDWLRQV FRDOHVFLQJ VPDOOHU GLNHV ,Q WKH VDPH DUHD VHYHUDO
DFFRUGLQJ WR WKH URFN W\SHV FDQ DOVR EH VHHQ LQ WKH JUDQLWLF DFLG GLNHV DUH IRXQG ZLWKLQ WKH (YDQV
JHRORJLFDO cross-section in Fig. 8, which cuts &URZQGLNHIROORZLQJDQGSDUDOOHOLQJMRLQWLQJ$IHZ
approximately east-west across Fig. 4 through the EDVDOWLF EDVLF GLNHV ÀJ  DQG QXPHURXV PLQRU
summit of Mt. Lambie. Because the Bathurst JUDQLWLF GLNHV VLPLODU WR WKRVH WKDW DUH ZLWKLQ WKH
Granite is more weathered, it RFFXSLHV WKH ORZHU (YDQV &URZQ GLNH DOVR FXW DFURVV WKH PDUJLQV RI
JURXQGDORQJ6ROLWDU\&UHHNLQWKHVRXWKHUQSRUWLRQ the Bathurst Granite, also following and paralleling
RIWKHPDSDUHDILJDVREVHUYHGin Figs. 7 and 9. MRLQWLQJ DQG H[WHQG RXW LQWR WKH VXUURXQGLQJ KRVW
$GMDFHQWWRWKHPDUJLQVRIWKH%DWKXUVW*UDQLWH VHGLPHQWDU\VWUDWDÀJ*RRGH[SRVXUHVRIWKHVH
in the west and north of the map area are outlying GLNHV DUH VHHQ LQ WKH PDQ\ UDLOURDG FXWV EHWZHHQ
VWRFNVRIWKHVDPHJUDQLWH³WKH(XVGDKDQG0HDGRZ
)ODWVWRFNVUHVSHFWLYHO\ÀJVDQG&URVVFXWWLQJ
Fig. 10. Prominent outcrop of the Bathurst Granite in
WKH0HDGRZ)ODWVWRFNDWJULGUHIHUHQFHLQ)LJ
(from Snelling 1974).
Fig. 11.2XWFURSRIWKHJUDQLWLF(YDQV&URZQGLNHDWJULG
reference 939636 in Fig. 4 (from Snelling 1974). Mineral
YDULDWLRQVZLWKLQWKLVGLNHSDUDOOHOWKHMRLQWLQJZKLFK
can be seen prominently running through the crest of
the outcrop.
60 A. A. Snelling

The regional context of the mapped area in relation

to the whole Bathurst Batholith is shown in Fig. 6.
The sites from which the regional samples of the
%DWKXUVW*UDQLWHZHUHFROOHFWHGDUHPDUNHG7KHVH
chosen samples were representative of the batholith
and very similar in appearance and composition to
the Bathurst Granite in the mapped area.

Chemical analyses
7KHZKROHURFNFKHPLFDODQDO\VHVIRUWKHVHOHFWHG
JUDQLWLFURFNVDUHOLVWHGLQ7DEOH,QFOXGHGLQWKLV
table is a sample of the Bathurst Granite from the
Sodwalls area (sample 2) whose chemical analysis
ZDVUHSRUWHGE\-RSOLQ
Photomicrographs representative of some of the
samples of the Bathurst Granite, the Evans Crown
GLNH DQG WKH PLQRU JUDQLWLF GLNHV DUH SURYLGHG LQ
Fig. 14. The mineral contents of selected samples
RIWKH%DWKXUVW*UDQLWHDQGWKH(YDQV&URZQGLNH
obtained by point counting of thin sections, the modal
analyses, are listed in Table 2.

Counting of radiohalos
Photomicrographs of some representative
radiohalos are shown in Fig. 15. The statistics of the
counted radiohalos in the 28 chosen granitic samples
are listed in Table 3. The number of radiohalos per
Fig. 12. $EDVDOWLFEDVLFGLNHFXWWLQJDFURVVWKH%DWKXUVW slide was calculated by adding up the total number
granite in a railroad cut at grid reference 948587 in Fig. 4
of all radiohalos found in each sample, divided by
IURP6QHOOLQJ1RWLFHWKHSDUDOOHOMRLQWLQJLQERWK
WKH GLNH DQG WKH JUDQLWH GXH WR WKH EDVDOWLF PDJPD the number of slides made and viewed for counting
KDYLQJLQWUXGHGDORQJWKHMRLQWLQJLQWKHJUDQLWH of radiohalos. The number of Po radiohalos per slide
was calculated in a similar way, except it was the
6RGZDOOVDQG7DUDQDILJ8SWRPDERXW total number of Po radiohalos divided by the number
IWZLGHWKHVHJUDQLWLFGLNHVKDYHWKHVDPHPLQHUDO RIVOLGHVH[DPLQHGIRUWKDWVDPSOH$QGÀQDOO\WKH
composition as both the Bathurst Granite and the UDWLR LQ WKH ODVW FROXPQ ZDV FDOFXODWHG E\ WDNLQJ
(YDQV&URZQGLNHRIWHQZLWKWKHVDPHSRUSK\ULWLF the number of 210Po radiohalos and dividing by the
texture. number of 238U halos.

Discussion
Results of the present study
,QWKHPDSSHGDUHDWKHUHLVDGHÀQLWHVHTXHQFHIRU
WKHIRUPDWLRQRIWKHJUDQLWLFURFNV7KHIRVVLOEHDULQJ
VHGLPHQWDU\URFNVZHUHÀUVWLQWUXGHGE\WKHPDMRU
pluton of the Bathurst Granite. Fig. 16 shows the
contact of the Bathurst Granite (right) with the host
fossil-bearing Lambie Group sedimentary strata in a
railroad cut at grid reference 993589 in Fig. 4 (from
Fig. 13. View of the weathered Bathurst Granite along
WKH 6ROLWDU\ &UHHN YDOOH\ DW JULG UHIHUHQFH  LQ
Fig. 4 (from Snelling 1974), showing the linear outcrops
RI FURVVFXWWLQJ GLNHV ZKLFK FDQ EH WUDFHG DFURVV WKH
ÀHOGV
6QHOOLQJ  1RWLFH WKH YHLQOLNH DSRWK\VHV RI
granite protruding into the sedimentary strata from
the granite to the left of the line of contact. Also notice
that the bedding of the sedimentary layers has been
disturbed near the contact. Both these observations
indicate the granite had the constituency of a hot
PDJPDWKDWÁRZHGDVLWIRUFHGLWVZD\XSDQGLQWR
the host sedimentary strata, rather than being a
cold, solid body that was tectonically emplaced.
Radiohalos in Multiple, Sequentially-Intruded Phases of the Bathurst Batholith, NSW, Australia 61

Table 1.:KROHURFNFKHPLFDODQDO\VHVH[SUHVVHGLQR[LGHSHUFHQWRI%DWKXUVW*UDQLWHDQGJUDQLWLFGLNHVRIWKH
Tarana-Sodwalls area (from Snelling 1974).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
SiO2 66.73% 69.36% 72.65% 73.75% 73.96% 74.94% 76.96% 77.51%
Al2O3 15.32% 13.46% 13.36% 13.16% 13.74% 12.86% 12.65% 12.25%
Fe2O3 3.00%
3.95% 2.05% 1.68% 1.51% 1.57% 1.09% 0.86%
FeO 0.81%
MgO 0.42% 0.86% 0.24% 0.10% 0.11% 0.07% 0.04% 0.02%
CaO 3.29% 2.20% 1.27% 0.93% 0.81% 0.43% 0.44% 0.30%
Na2O 3.22% 3.78% 3.36% 3.73% 3.88% 3.49% 2.08% 4.03%
K2O 4.75% 4.29% 4.97% 5.32% 5.44% 5.35% 4.79% 4.68%
±
H2O 0.96& 1.82% 1.74% 1.09% 0.81% 0.69% 1.10% 0.67%
TiO2 0.64% 0.50% 0.34% 0.28% 0.27% 0.25% 0.07% 0.05%
MnO 0.04% 0.14% 0.03% 0.03% 0.03% 0.02% 0.03% 0.03%
Total 99.32% 100.22% 100.01% 100.07% 101.56% 99.67% 99.25% 100.40%
S 93 ppm — 61 ppm 86 ppm 54 ppm 15 ppm 15 ppm 20 ppm
Cu 20 ppm — 15 ppm 15 ppm 15 ppm 177 ppm 58 ppm 27 ppm
Mo 5 ppm — 8 ppm 2 ppm 2 ppm 4 ppm 2 ppm 5 ppm
1. Granite, Sodwalls. Analyst—Associated Laboratories of Australia
2. Granite, Sodwalls. Analyst—W. G. Stone (Joplin 1963)
3. Porphyry dike, between Sodwalls and Tarana. Analyst—Associated Laboratories of Australia
4. Dikes of the Evans Crown dike Railway Cuttings. Analyst—Associated Laboratories of Australia
5. Chilled Margin, Evans Crown dike. Analyst—Associated Laboratories of Australia
6. Coarse-grained phase, Evans Crown dike. Analyst—Associated Laboratories of Australia
7. Porphyry dike near Sodwalls. Analyst—Associated Laboratories of Australia
8. Granite, Meadow Flat. Analyst—Associated Laboratories of Australia

Further observations to answer this question of
whether the granite was hot or cold when intruded
are readily available. The granite at the contact and
in the apothyses in Fig. 16 is coarse-grained and is
the same as the granite outcropping elsewhere in the
of a hot magma, rather than tectonic emplacement of a
FROGERG\1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHGHÀQLWLYHREVHUYDWLRQWKDW
is consistent with intrusion of a hot granitic magma
is the contact metamorphism of the host sedimentary
VWUDWDDGMDFHQWWRWKHJUDQLWHPDUJLQ
pluton, so the intruding granite body appears to have %RWK0DFND\DQG6QHOOLQJFDWDORJHG
been at a uniform temperature. If the pluton had been the contact metamorphic mineral assemblages in
tectonically emplaced there should be evidence in the WKHDXUHROHDGMDFHQWWRWKHPDUJLQVRIWKH%DWKXUVW
contact zone either of melting and recrystallization
or of mechanical crushing of the granite. If melting
and recrystallization had occurred, then the granite
at the contact with the sedimentary strata and in
the apothyses could be expected to be of a noticeably
different grain size than the granite in the main
body, contrary to what is observed. Alternately, if
any mechanical crushing had occurred at the margin
of the granite body, then the granite and the host
sedimentary layers at the contact should exhibit
signs of mylonitization, which is not evident. Also,
QR YHLQOLNH DSRWK\VHV ZRXOG EH H[SHFWHG DV WKRVH
LQGLFDWHÁXLGÁRZDQGQRWPHFKDQLFDOFUXVKLQJ
Additionally the hot granite intrusion would have
LPSDFWHGWKHDGMDFHQWKRVWIRVVLOEHDULQJVHGLPHQWDU\
strata, creating the observable contact metamorphic
aureole. As already noted (Fig. 16), it is evident that
the sedimentary layering very close to the granite
FRQWDFWKDVEHHQGLVWXUEHGQRWFUXVKHGOLNHO\ERWKE\
intrusion of the main granite body and of the apothyses.
7KLVZRXOGKDYHEHHQGXHWRWKHPHFKDQLFVRIÁXLGÁRZ
*UDQLWH LQ WKH 6RGZDOOV7DUDQD DUHD ÀJ  7KHVH
PLQHUDODVVHPEODJHVDUHVXPPDUL]HGLQWKH$&)$Ļ.)
diagrams in Fig. 17. The depicted mineral assemblages
of the albite-epidote-hornfels facies are found in the
KRVW VHGLPHQWDU\ URFNV LQ WKH RXWHU IULQJHV RI WKH
contact aureole where the temperatures of contact
metamorphism were very low. Furthermore, many
of these same minerals characterize the assemblages
typical of the greenschist facies produced by the
regional burial metamorphism of these sedimentary
strata. However, the mineral assemblages of the
hornblende-hornfels facies in the aureole closer to the
contact with the Bathurst Granite stand out in clear
contrast to the regional burial metamorphism of the
surrounding host sedimentary strata. This facies
HPEUDFHVWKHPDMRULW\RIURFNVWKDWIRUPWKHREYLRXV
FRQWDFWDXUHROH,WLVDOVRVLJQLÀFDQWWKDWVLOOLPDQLWH
which is characteristic of the even higher temperature
pyroxene-hornfels facies, is not present in the aureole
even closer to the contact, but is found in the granite
right at the boundary (Snelling 1974).
62 A. A. Snelling

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Fig. 14. 3KRWRPLFURJUDSKVUHSUHVHQWDWLYHRIVRPHRIWKHVDPSOHVRIWKH%DWKXUVW*UDQLWH(YDQV&URZQGLNHDQG

JUDQLWLFGLNHVLQWUXGLQJWKHPXVHGLQWKLVVWXG\DVVHHQXQGHUWKHPLFURVFRSH7KHLUORFDWLRQVDUHSORWWHGRQ)LJ
 $OOSKRWRPLFURJUDSKVDUHDWWKHVDPHVFDOHðRUPP ǍPDQGWKHJUDQLWHVDUHDVYLHZHGXQGHUFURVVHG
polarized light.
Bathurst Granite:–
D6DPSOH5%*.IHOGVSDUSODLQPLGJUD\TXDUW]OLJKWFRORUELRWLWHEULJKWFRORUVSDUWO\H[WLQJXLVKHG
(b) Sample ASI-32: plagioclase (striped gray), K-feldspar (plain dull gray), biotite (bright colors), sphene (prismatic
crystal), quartz (light color).
(c) Sample ASI-32: quartz (light yellowish color), biotite (bright colors partly extinguished), sphene (prismatic
FU\VWDO.IHOGVSDUSODLQPLGDQGGXOOJUD\PDJQHWLWHEODFN
G6DPSOH$6,SODJLRFODVHVWULSHGJUD\.IHOGVSDUSODLQPLGJUD\ELRWLWHEULJKWFRORUVPDJQHWLWHEODFN
(e) Sample ASI-23: plagioclase (striped gray), quartz (light yellowish color), biotite (bright colors), K-feldspar (plain
mid gray).
(f) Sample ASI-23: plagioclase (striped gray), quartz (light yellowish color), K-feldspar (plain mid gray), biotite
(bright colors).
Radiohalos in Multiple, Sequentially-Intruded Phases of the Bathurst Batholith, NSW, Australia 63

(g) (h)

(i) (j)
Fig. 14 (continued).(YDQV&URZQGLNH²
J6DPSOH$6,ELRWLWHEULJKWFRORUV.IHOGVSDUSODLQPLGJUD\SODJLRFODVHVSHFNOHGJUD\GXHWRDOWHUDWLRQWR
sericite).
K6DPSOH$6,.IHOGVSDUSODLQPLGJUD\SODJLRFODVHUHPQDQWVWULSLQJDQGVSHFNOHGJUD\GXHWRDOWHUDWLRQ
to sericite).
L6DPSOH$6,ELRWLWHGDUNEURZQGXHWRDOWHUDWLRQDOWHUHGSODJLRFODVHULJKWVWULSHGVSHFNOHGPLGJUD\DQG
.IHOGVSDUOHIWVSHFNOHGPLGJUD\
M6DPSOH$6,DOWHUHGSODJLRFODVHDQG.IHOGVSDUVSHFNOHGPLGJUD\DQGEODFNPLQRUTXDUW]OLJKW\HOORZLVK
color).
The pressure-temperature (P-T) conditions in the
contact aureole can be determined by the experimental
calibration curves for the mineral reactions. Fig.
 GHSLFWV WKH 37 ÀHOGV RI WKHVH IDFLHV RI FRQWDFW
metamorphism (Turner 1968). The position of the
minimum melting curve for quartz-orthoclase-albite
(Qz-Or-Ab) implies the highest temperature at the
least pressure (that is, the shallowest depth) at which
the hornblende-hornfels facies would be produced in
this aureole against the molten Bathurst Granite is
ƒ& DQG  NE SUHVVXUH DSSUR[LPDWHO\ HTXLYDOHQW
IRUPDWLRQ-RKDQQHVDQG+ROW]Tuttle and
Bowen 1958).
Field relationships clearly indicate that the Evans
&URZQGLNHLQWUXGHGLQWRDPDMRUIUDFWXUHWKURXJK
the Bathurst Granite and also penetrated across
LQWRWKHVXUURXQGLQJVHGLPHQWDU\VWUDWD7KHGLNH·V
FHQWUDO SRUWLRQV DUH FRDUVH DQG HYHQJUDLQHG OLNH
the Bathurst Granite, but the margins are chilled
against the host granite. These relations indicate the
GLNHLQWUXGHGDVDKRWJUDQLWLFPDJPDVLPLODUWRWKDW
RI WKH %DWKXUVW *UDQLWH DQG OLNHO\ HYHQ IURP WKH
WRDGHSWKRIOHVVWKDQNPPL%XFKHUDQG)U\ same magma source). Other observations indicate
 &RQILUPDWLRQ WKDW WKH GHSWK RI JUDQLWH
HPSODFHPHQW ZDV VKDOORZ LV LQGLFDWHG E\ WKH
REVHUYDWLRQV RI MRLQWLQJ DQG IORZ EDQGLQJ LQ WKH
JUDQLWHFRQVLVWHQWZLWKWKRVHoutcrops near the roof
of the pluton (Snelling 1974), DQG FRQILUPHG E\
PHDVXUHPHQWVRIWKHVWUDWLJUDSKLFWKLFNQHVVHVDERYH
WKH JUDQLWH ,QGHSHQGHQW FRQILUPDWLRQ WKDW WKH
JUDQLWHZRXOGKDYHEHHQPROWHQat 700°C (or more)
is  consistent  with experimental ZRUN RQ  JUDQLWH
the Bathurst Granite had cooled considerably prior
WRWKLVGLNH·VLQWUXVLRQ6RPHRIWKHFKLOOHGPDUJLQV
LQWKHGLNHH[KLELWSURQRXQFHGÁRZEDQGLQJWH[WXUH
parallel to the contact (Snelling 1974). Furthermore,
the development of graphic quartz-feldspar
LQWHUJURZWKV P\UPHNLWLF RXWJURZWKV DQG UHDFWLRQ
ULPPHGJUDLQVLQWKHGLNHDOVRVXJJHVWWKH%DWKXUVW
*UDQLWHKDGFRROHGSULRUWRWKHGLNH·VLQWUXVLRQ
64 A. A. Snelling

(k) (l)

(m) (n)
Fig. 14 (continued).*UDQLWHGLNHV²
N6DPSOH$6,PLQRUTXDUW]OLJKW\HOORZLVKFRORUDOWHUHGSODJLRFODVHFU\VWDOVKDSHULJKWVSHFNOHGPLGJUD\DQG
.IHOGVSDUVSHFNOHGPLGJUD\DQGEODFN
O6DPSOH$6,PLQRUTXDUW]OLJKW\HOORZLVKFRORUDOWHUHGSODJLRFODVHFU\VWDOVKDSHWRSVSHFNOHGPLGJUD\DQG
.IHOGVSDUVSHFNOHGPLGJUD\DQGEODFN
P6DPSOH$6,SODJLRFODVHVSHFNOHGJUD\DQGEURZQGXHWRDOWHUDWLRQWRVHULFLWHDQGLURQR[LGHV.IHOGVSDUSODLQ
mid gray), biotite (bright colors).
Q6DPSOH$6,SODJLRFODVHVSHFNOHGJUD\DQGEURZQGXHWRDOWHUDWLRQWRVHULFLWHDQGLURQR[LGHVELRWLWHEULJKW
colors), K-feldspar (plain mid gray).

Table 2.0RGDODQDO\VHVRIWKHPLQHUDOFRQWHQWVRIWKH%DWKXUVW*UDQLWHDQGWKH(YDQV&URZQGLNHRIWKH7DUDQD
Sodwalls area obtained by point counting of thin sections.
Mineral 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Quartz 29.3% 27.6% 28.7% 27.3% 26.2% 26.9% 27.3% 28.1%
Orthoclase 22.5% 21.4% 31.3% 31.5% 27.5% 31.6% 32.7% 33.9%
Plagioclase 42.1% 41.0% 32.8% 33.2% 43.6% 40.8% 39.1% 36.5%
Hornblende — — — —
5.0% 8.6% 5.5% 6.2%
Biotite 2.7% 0.6% 0.9% 1.5%
Opaques 0.5% 0.9% 0.8% 1.3% (0.01%) (0.01%) (0.02%) (0.03%)
Sphene 0.6% 1.5% 0.9% 0.5% — — — —

1. Bathurst Granite, Sodwalls. (Mackay 1959) 5. Evans Crown dike. (Mackay 1959)
2. Bathurst Granite, Sodwalls. (Mackay 1959) 6. Evans Crown dike. (Mackay 1959)
3. Bathurst Granite, Sodwalls. 7. Evans Crown dike.
4. Bathurst Granite, Sodwalls. 8. Evans Crown dike.
Radiohalos in Multiple, Sequentially-Intruded Phases of the Bathurst Batholith, NSW, Australia 65

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)
Fig. 15. Photomicrographs of some representative 238U and 2103RUDGLRKDORVLQELRWLWHÁDNHVLQVDPSOHVRIWKH%DWKXUVW
*UDQLWH(YDQV&URZQGLNHDQGJUDQLWLFGLNHVLQWUXGLQJWKHPDVVHHQXQGHUWKHPLFURVFRSH$OOWKHELRWLWHJUDLQV
DUHDVYLHZHGLQSODQHSRODUL]HGOLJKWDQGWKHVFDOHEDUVDUHDOOǍPPLFURQVORQJ%DWKXUVW*UDQLWHVDPSOHV
$6,DEFDQGG$6,HDQGI

)ROORZLQJ LQWUXVLRQ RI WKH (YDQV &URZQ GLNH WKH VKDUS FRQWDFWV RI WKH GLNHV ZLWK WKH ZDOOURFNV
UHVLGXDO JUDQLWLF PDJPD LQWUXGHG DV VPDOOHU GLNHV LQGLFDWHWKHPDJPDZDVVWLOOKRWZKHQLQMHFWHGDQG
WKDW FXW DFURVV WKH %DWKXUVW *UDQLWH 7KHVH GLNHV WKHGLNHVDUHIUHTXHQWO\ÁRZEDQGHGSDUDOOHOWRWKHVH
IROORZ MRLQWV DQG IUDFWXUHV ZLWKLQ DQG SDUDOOHO WR
WKH (YDQV &URZQ GLNH DQG WKH\ DOVR FRQWLQXH
out into and across the host sedimentary strata.
Both reaction textures and mineral intergrowths
ZLWKLQWKHVHJUDQLWLFGLNHVVXJJHVWWKHSKHQRFU\VWV
FU\VWDOOL]HGSULRUWRWKHLQMHFWLRQRIWKHGLNHVLQWRWKH
FRQWDFWVÀJ
:KROHURFNFKHPLFDODQDO\VHVRIWKHJUDQLWLFURFNV
are listed in Table 1 in order of increasing silica (SiO2)
content. Note that the Bathurst Granite samples have
WKHORZHVWVLOLFDFRQWHQWDQGWKDWLQWKHODWHUGLNH
SKDVHVERWKWKH(YDQV&URZQGLNHDQGWKHVPDOOHU
Bathurst Granite, and also across the Evans Crown GLNHVWKDWLQWUXGHLWDQGWKH%DWKXUVW*UDQLWHWKH
GLNH 6QHOOLQJ  $OWHUDWLRQ ]RQHV PDUJLQDO WR silica content is increased. This silica trend somewhat
66 A. A. Snelling

(g) (h)

(i) (j)

(k) (l)
Fig.15 (continued). Photomicrographs of some representative 238U and 2103RUDGLRKDORVLQELRWLWHÁDNHVLQVDPSOHV
RIWKH%DWKXUVW*UDQLWH(YDQV&URZQGLNHDQGJUDQLWLFGLNHVLQWUXGLQJWKHPDVVHHQXQGHUWKHPLFURVFRSH$OO
WKHELRWLWHJUDLQVDUHDVYLHZHGLQSODQHSRODUL]HGOLJKWDQGWKHVFDOHEDUVDUHDOOǍPPLFURQVORQJ%DWKXUVW
*UDQLWHVDPSOHV$6,J5%*KDQGL$6,MDQGNDQG$6,O

parallels the time sequence of intrusion, which is
consistent with the interpretation that later granitic
GLNH SKDVHV ZHUH GHULYHG IURP UHVLGXDO PDJPD
of the Bathurst Granite. This relationship is well-
recognized and characterized in the literature (Hall
1996). The exception is the Meadow Flat Granite in
of the batholith, it intruded laterally as a residual
magma from the main Bathurst Granite pluton.
7KH SLRQHHULQJ H[SHULPHQWDO ZRUN RI 7XWWOH DQG
Bowen (1958) led to the development of graphical
VFKHPHVIRUWKHFODVVLÀFDWLRQRIJUDQLWLFURFNVEDVHG
on both modal and normative analyses. Modal
WKHVDWHOOLWHVWRFNQRUWKRIWKHPDSSHGDUHDÀJ
which is lithologically similar to the Bathurst
Granite, but has the highest silica content of the
samples (table 1). This may suggest that because the
VWRFN ZDV LQWUXGHG SHULSKHUDOO\ WR WKH PDLQ ERG\
analyses are obtained by direct point counting of the
REVHUYHGPLQHUDOFRQWHQWVRIWKHURFNVLQWKLQVHFWLRQV
whereas normative analyses rely on calculating the
ideal mineral contents from the oxides obtained
LQ ZKROHURFN FKHPLFDO DQDO\VHV 2QFH REWDLQHG
Radiohalos in Multiple, Sequentially-Intruded Phases of the Bathurst Batholith, NSW, Australia 67

(m) (n)

(o) (p)

(q) (r)
Fig.15 (continued). Photomicrographs of some representative 238U and 2103RUDGLRKDORVLQELRWLWHÁDNHVLQVDPSOHVRI
WKH%DWKXUVW*UDQLWH(YDQV&URZQGLNHDQGJUDQLWLFGLNHVLQWUXGLQJWKHPDVVHHQXQGHUWKHPLFURVFRSH$OOWKH
ELRWLWHJUDLQVDUHDVYLHZHGLQSODQHSRODUL]HGOLJKWDQGWKHVFDOHEDUVDUHDOOǍPPLFURQVORQJ(YDQV&URZQ
GLNH VDPSOHV $6, P DQG $6, Q *UDQLWLF GLNH LQWUXGLQJ %DWKXUVW *UDQLWH VDPSOH $6, R DQG S
*UDQLWLFGLNHLQWUXGLQJ(YDQV&URZQ'LNHVDPSOH$6,TDQGU

the modal and normative analyses were recast or representing one third of each mineral component,
normalized so that the three components quartz, and corresponded exactly with the results of their
orthoclase and plagioclase, and quartz, orthoclase ODERUDWRU\ZRUNRQDUWLÀFLDOVLOLFDWHV\VWHPV
DQGDOELWHUHVSHFWLYHO\WRWDOOHGIRUHDFKURFN Tuttle (1955), Tuttle and Bowen (1958) and
These were then plotted on triangular composition -RKDQQHV DQG +ROW]  GLVFXVV WKH PDJPDWLF
diagrams with the respective minerals at their apices RULJLQ RI JUDQLWH EDVHG RQ H[SHULPHQWDO ZRUN RQ
ÀJVDQG7KHVXUSULVLQJUHVXOWVZHUHWKDWERWK DUWLÀFLDO VLOLFDWH V\VWHPV 7XWWOH DQG %RZHQ 
schemes plotted around the same point, the point demonstrated that the path of crystallization in the
68 A. A. Snelling

Table 3.5DGLRKDORVFRXQWVWDWLVWLFVIRUVDPSOHVRIWKH%DWKXUVW*UDQLWHDQGJUDQLWLFGLNHVRIWKH7DUDQD6RGZDOOV
area.
Numbers of Radiohalos Number Number
Number
Sample of of Po Ratio
Rock Unit Location of 210
Number 210
Po 214
Po 218
Po 238
U 232
Th Radiohalos Radiohalos Po:238U
Slides
per Slide per Slide
Hartley RBG-1 51 45 — — 3 — 0.94 0.88 15:!
Yetholme RBG-2 50 39 — — 3 — 0.84 0.78 13:1
Newbridge RBG-3 50 206 — 7 54 — 5.34 4.26 3.8:1
Tarana RBG-4 51 2270 23 520 1694 31 88.98 55.16 1.3:1
ASI-23 50 102 — — 1 — 2.06 2.04 102:1
Bathurst ASI-31 50 142 — — 5 — 2.94 2.84 28.4:1
Sodwalls
Granite ASI-32 50 181 — — 100 — 5.62 3.62 1.8:1
ASI-55 50 58 — — 2 — 1.20 1.16 27.5:1
ASI-37 50 220 — — 81 — 6.02 4.40 27:1
Meadow ASI-38 50 13 — — 3 — 0.32 0.26 4.3:1
Flat ASI-66 50 60 1 — 18 — 1.58 1.22 3.3:1
ASI-68 50 102 — — 29 — 2.62 2.04 3.5:1
ASI-21 50 7 — — — — 0.14 0.14 —
ASI-22 50 11 — — — — 0.22 0.22 —
ASI-44 50 74 — — 9 — 1.66 1.48 8.2:1
coarse-
Evans ASI-46 50 90 — — 6 — 1.92 1.80 15:1
grained
Crown ASI-51 50 21 — — 12 — 0.66 0.42 1.8:1
dike
ASI-58 50 1 — — 5 — 0.12 0.02 0.2:1
ASI-59 50 22 — — 2 — 0.48 0.44 11:1
chilled
ASI-17 50 1 — — — — 0.02 0.02 —
margin
ASI-07 50 — — — — — — — —
intruding ASI-24 50 — — — — — — — —
Dikes Bathurst
Granite ASI-34 50 — — — — — — — —
ASI-57 50 5 — — — — 0.10 0.10 —
intruding ASI-109 50 — — — — — — — —
Evans
Dikes
Crown
dike ASI-110 50 7 — — 1 — 0.16 0.14 7:1

intruding ASI-82 50 — — — — — — — —
Dikes host
sediments ASI-100 50 — — — — — — — —

three component system quartz-orthoclase-albite DWWKHJUDQLWHFRQWDFWNEDQGƒ&WKH%DWKXUVW

reaches its minimum temperature of 660–700°C Granite would have to have been intruded with a
ZKHQWKHFRPSRQHQWVDUHLQHTXDOSURSRUWLRQVÀJ ZDWHUFRQWHQWRI²ZWLQWKHPDJPDZKLFKKDV
22). This point coincides with the clustering of the been found to be a common water content for granitic
modal and normative analyses of the same three PDJPDV+DOO-RKDQQHVDQG+ROW]
components on the same triangular compositional The results of both the modal and normative
GLDJUDP ÀJV  DQG  WKXV OHDGLQJ WR WKH DQDO\VHVRIWKHJUDQLWLFURFNVRI%DWKXUVW%DWKROLWK
overwhelming conclusion that the analyzed granites in the Tarana-Sodwalls area (Tables 1 and 4A) can
were truly of magmatic origin. Tuttle and Bowen thus be recast or normalized so that their three
ZHQWRQWRVKRZWKDWVHGLPHQWVDWNP(23 components quartz, orthoclase, and plagioclase,
mi) depth could melt to form a granitic magma and quartz, orthoclase, and albite respectively
DWƒ&LIVXIÀFLHQWZDWHUZHUHSUHVHQW-RKDQQHV WRWDOOHG  IRU HDFK URFN WDEOHV % DQG 
and Holtz (1996) have subsequently shown that at These compositions were then plotted on the three
the pressure and temperature conditions indicated component triangular diagrams in Figs. 23 and 24.
for the contact metamorphism of the host sediments 1RWVXUSULVLQJO\WKH%DWKXUVW%DWKROLWKJUDQLWLFURFN
Radiohalos in Multiple, Sequentially-Intruded Phases of the Bathurst Batholith, NSW, Australia 69

Andalusite
A $‫މ‬ Muscovite K

Epidote
Chlorite

Bio
tite
C Actinolite F F
Calcite Tremolite Amphibole
Fig. 17.$&)$Ļ.)GLDJUDPVIRUWKHFRQWDFWPHWDPRUSKLVP
Fig.16. The contact of the Bathurst Granite (right) RI WKH VHGLPHQWDU\ VWUDWD LQ WKH DXUHROH DGMRLQLQJ WKH
with the host Lambie Group sedimentary strata in a margin of the Bathurst Granite in the Tarana-Sodwalls
railroad cut at grid reference 993589 in Fig. 4 (from area (from Snelling 1974). (A) The albite-epidote-hornfels
6QHOOLQJ1RWLFHWKHYHLQOLNHDSRWK\VHVRIJUDQLWH facies. (B) The hornblende-hornfels facies.
protruding into the sedimentary strata from the granite
to the left of the line of contact.

3
ornfels

Minim

2
P = PH20 kb

rnfels
ote-H

um m
e-Ho

e
Epid

lting

1
lend

Qz
ite-

-A
-O
rn b

Pyroxene b
A lb

r
Ho

-Hornfels
Sanidinite
0 Fig. 19.$W\SLFDOJUDQLWLFDFLGGLNHZLWKLQWKH%DWKXUVW
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 Granite in a railroad cut at grid reference 963586 in Fig. 4
T, °C IURP6QHOOLQJ1RWLFHWKHMRLQWLQJLQWKHGLNHDQG
Fig. 18. 'LDJUDP VKRZLQJ WKH SUHVVXUHWHPSHUDWXUH the alteration zones in the Bathurst Granite marginal to
37 ÀHOGV RI WKH IRXU IDFLHV RI ORZSUHVVXUH FRQWDFW WKHGLNHGXHWRWKHKHDWDQGÁXLGVGXULQJLWVLQWUXVLRQ
metamorphism (after Turner 1968). Quartz
v
v

Quartz
v
v

v
v

c
v
v

v
v

v
v
v

a b
v
v

v
v

v v v v v v v v v
Albite Orthoclase
Weight Percent
Fig. 21. Contoured triangular diagram showing the
Plagioclase Orthoclase distribution of normative albite, orthoclase and quartz
Fig. 20. Triangular plot of modal plagioclase, orthoclase LQ DOO  DQDO\]HG URFNV LQ :DVKLQJWRQ·V  WDEOHV
and quartz in 260 thin sections of granites from the FRQWDLQLQJRUPRUHFRPELQHGDOELWHRUWKRFODVHTXDUW]
HDVWHUQ 8QLWHG 6WDWHV DIWHU &KD\HV  7XWWOH DQG (after Tuttle and Bowen 1958). The internal triangle labeled
Bowen 1958). The contours from the outside inwards are abc indicates the compositions considered to be granites (or
PRUHWKDQDQGUHVSHFWLYHO\FRXQWHU UK\ROLWHVLQWKHSUHVHQWFODVVLÀFDWLRQRIVLDOLFDFLGURFNV
70 A. A. Snelling

Quartz Abundant 238U and 210Po radiohalos are present in

ELRWLWHÁDNHVRIDOOVDPSOHVRIWKH%DWKXUVW*UDQLWH
DQG (YDQV &URZQ GLNH WDEOH  DQG ÀJ D²O DQG
m–n respectively). 214Po and 218Po radiohalos are only
present in some samples of the Bathurst Granite
WDEOHEXWLQRQHVDPSOH5%*WKH\DUHSUHVHQW
in comparatively large numbers, especially the 218Po
radiohalos. A few 210Po and 238U radiohalos are also
A B
SUHVHQWLQELRWLWHÁDNHVZLWKLQVRPHVDPSOHVRIWKH
740° M
GLNHV WKDW FXW DFURVV WKH %DWKXUVW *UDQLWH RU WKH
(YDQV &URZQ GLNH WDEOH  DQG ÀJ R²S DQG T²U
820°
respectively).
86
0° The 238U radiohalos in Fig. 15 are “over exposed,”
meaning there has been so much rapid 238U decay
that the resultant heavy discoloration of the biotite
Albite C Orthoclase KDVEOXUUHGDOOWKHLQQHUULQJVFRPSDUHZLWKÀJ
Fig. 22. Paths of crystallization in the three component Often only holes remain in the centers of the 238U
TXDUW]RUWKRFODVHDOELWH´PDJPDµWRZDUGVWKHSRLQW
radiohalos where the tiny zircon radiocenters have
of lowest temperature, 660–700°C (point M) (after
7XWWOH7XWWOHDQG%RZHQ been lost during the peeling apart of the biotite
ÁDNHVWRWDSHWKHPWRWKHPLFURVFRSHVOLGHV,Q)LJ
values cluster in much the same way as Tuttle and 15g a visible zircon radiocenter is so large it has
%RZHQ·VGDWDÀJVDQG)XUWKHUPRUHD
TXLFNFRPSDULVRQRIWKHPRGDODQGQRUPDWLYHYDOXHV
RIWKH7DUDQD6RGZDOOVJUDQLWLFURFNVSORWWHGLQÀJV
23 and 24, respectively) with the path of magmatic
crystallization to its minimum temperature of
660–700°C when the quartz-orthoclase-albite
distorted the radiohalo’s shape. In Fig. 15 there are
also numerous examples of incomplete radiohalos
stains. These are due to the biotite sheets not peeling
apart through the radiocenters of these (spherical)
radiohalos during preparation of the microscope
slides. These stains usually represent 238U radiohalos,
FRPSRQHQWV DUH LQ HTXDO SURSRUWLRQV ÀJ  but sometimes 210Po radiohalos. Nevertheless,
demonstrates that they also coincide to Tuttle and only the visible complete radiohalos where the
%RZHQ·VGDWDÀJVDQG7KLVVXJJHVWV radiocenters were visible are recorded in Table 3. The
WKDWWKHJUDQLWLFURFNVRIWKH%DWKXUVW%DWKROLWKDOVR 210
3RUDGLRKDORVDUHHDVLO\LGHQWLÀHGE\WKHLUVLQJOH
have a magmatic origin. RXWHUULQJDERXWǍPPLFURQVLQGLDPHWHUÀJ
Table 4. Normative analyses of orthoclase, albite (plagioclase) and quartz in the Bathurst Granite and Evans Crown
GLNHRIWKH7DUDQD6RGZDOOVDUHDGHULYHGIURPWKHFKHPLFDODQDO\VHVLQ7DEOH$7KHUDZQRUPDWLYHSURSRUWLRQV
%7KHDGMXVWHGSURSRUWLRQVQRUPDOL]HGWR
A.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Orthoclase 28.36% 25.58% 29.4% 31.14% 31.69% 31.69% 28.36% 27.80%
Albite 27.25% 40.25% 28.30% 31.44% 33.01% 29.34% 17.82% 34.06%
Quartz 22.56% 21.60% 31.50% 30.06% 28.75% 33.06% 45.30% 35.52%
TOTAL 73.17% 87.53% 89.27% 92.64% 93.34% 95.09% 91.48% 97.38%
B.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Orthoclase 36.82% 29.22% 33.01% 33.62% 33.94% 33.33% 31.00% 28.54%
Albite 34.81% 46.10% 31.71% 33.94% 35.36% 30.86% 19.48% 34.97%
Quartz 28.37% 24.68% 35.28% 32.44% 30.90% 35.81% 49.52% 36.49%
TOTAL 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%
1. Bathurst Granite, Sodwalls. (Mackay 1959)
2. Bathurst Granite, Sodwalls. (Mackay 1959)
3. Bathurst Granite, Sodwalls. Analyst—W. G. Stone (Joplin 1963)
4. Bathurst Granite, Sodwalls. Analyst—Associated Laboratories of Australia
5. Evans Crown dike. (Mackay 1959)
6. Evans Crown dike. (Mackay 1959)
7. Evans Crown dike. Analyst—Associated Laboratories of Australia
8. Evans Crown dike. Analyst—Associated Laboratories of Australia
Radiohalos in Multiple, Sequentially-Intruded Phases of the Bathurst Batholith, NSW, Australia 71

Table 5. 0RGDODQDO\VHVRIWKH%DWKXUVW*UDQLWHDQG(YDQV&URZQGLNHRIWKH7DUDQD6RGZDOOVDUHDDGMXVWHGWRRQO\
their quartz, orthoclase and plagioclase contents.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Quartz 31.2% 31.0% 30.9% 29.7% 26.9% 27.1% 27.6% 28.5%
Orthoclase 24.0% 24.0% 33.7% 34.2% 28.3% 31.8% 33.0% 34.4%
Plagioclase 44.8% 45.0% 35..4% 36.1% 44.8% 41.1% 39.4% 37.1%
1. Bathurst Granite, Sodwalls. (Mackay 1959) 5. Evans Crown dike. (Mackay 1959)
2. Bathurst Granite, Sodwalls. (Mackay 1959) 6. Evans Crown dike. (Mackay 1959)
3. Bathurst Granite, Sodwalls. 7. Evans Crown dike
4. Bathurst Granite, Sodwalls. 8. Evans Crown dike

Usually their radiocenters are hollow “bubbles”
or empty holes where former “bubbles” were
destroyed, which is consistent with hydrothermal
ÁXLGVKDYLQJGHSRVLWHGWKH210Po atoms there, which
WKHQ ǂGHFD\HG WR GLVFRORU WKH ELRWLWH DQG IRUP WKH
radiohalos. Sometimes the 210Po radiocenters are
at all). There is a distinct pattern in the radiohalo
abundances according to the sequence of intrusion of
WKHGLIIHUHQWJUDQLWLFURFNV
7KH UDGLRKDOR DEXQGDQFH IRU WKH %DWKXUVW *UDQLWH
DUHKLJKO\LQIODWHGE\RQHVDPSOH5%*ZKLFKFRPHV
IURP MXVW RQ WKH HGJH RI WKH PDLQ VWXG\ DUHD QHDU
RQO\DERXWǍPIURPWKHQHDUE\238U radiocenters 7DUDQD ILJ  7KLV VDPSOH FRPHV IURP QHDU D VPDOO
LQ WKH VDPH ELRWLWH ÁDNH ÀJ F G O DQG P SURVSHFWRU·V PLQH ZKHUH WKHUH ZDV FRSSHU DQG JROG
7KH K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV WKXV GLG QRW KDYH IDU WR PLQHUDOL]DWLRQIRXQGLQK\GURWKHUPDOYHLQV5D\PRQG
transport 2225QDQG3RIURPWKH238U radiocenters to
form and supply the 2103R UDGLRFHQWHUV 7KLV OLNHO\
RFFXUUHG ZLWKLQ ZHHNV VR WKDW WKH 238U and 210Po
radiohalos formed concurrently. Fig. 15 (a, e, l, m, n,
and r) shows “over-exposed” 210Po radiohalos. This is
indicative of a lot of 210Po atoms having been in the
radiocenters that then decayed. Spreading of the
radiation damage is often due to the large sizes of
many radiocenters, which appear to now be empty
HWDO6QHOOLQJ6QHOOLQJDIRXQGWKDW
WKHUH ZHUH KLJKHU QXPEHUV RI UDGLRKDORV LQ JUDQLWHV
DVVRFLDWHGZLWKK\GURWKHUPDORUHYHLQVDQGORGHVVXFK
DVWKRVHKRVWHGE\WKH/DQG·V(QG*UDQLWHLQ&RUQZDOO
8. DQG LQ DQG DURXQG WKH 0ROH *UDQLWH LQ WKH 1HZ
(QJODQG DUHD RI HDVWHUQ $XVWUDOLD 7KXV WKLV VROLWDU\
DQRPDORXV %DWKXUVW *UDQLWH VDPSOH ZLWK KLJK
QXPEHUVRIUDGLRKDORV 3RUDGLRKDORV 3R
UDGLRKDORV 3RUDGLRKDORV 8UDGLRKDORV
´KROHVµ WKDW PD\ RULJLQDOO\ KDYH EHHQ ÁXLGÀOOHG DQG 7KUDGLRKDORV³VHH5%*LQWDEOHZRXOG
“bubbles.” There are also remnants of much larger DSSHDUWREHFRQVLVWHQWZLWKLWVSUR[LPLW\WRDQDUHDRI
ÁXLGLQFOXVLRQVLQVHYHUDOELRWLWHÁDNHVÀJEHI KLJKHU K\GURWKHUPDO IOXLG IORZV ZKLFK OHQGV VXSSRUW
K LTDQGU$QGÀQDOO\LQ)LJHNRDQGTDUH WRWKHK\GURWKHUPDOIOXLGIORZPRGHOIRU3RWUDQVSRUW
210
Po radiohalos consisting of 210Po radiation staining WR IRUP 3R UDGLRKDORV 6QHOOLQJ  D 6QHOOLQJ
around elongated radiocenters that appear to have
EHHQÁXLGLQFOXVLRQV
7KHGDWDIRUDOOWKHVDPSOHVIURPHDFKURFNXQLW
are listed in Table 3 and summarized in Table 6.
$OOJUDQLWLFURFNXQLWVFRQWDLQPRUH210Po radiohalos
than 2388UDGLRKDORVH[FHSWWKHGLNHVZKLFKLQWUXGH
WKH VHGLPHQWDU\ URFNV DQG FRQWDLQ QR UDGLRKDORV
DQG$UPLWDJH
([FOXGLQJ VDPSOH 5%* WKH %DWKXUVW *UDQLWH
has on average 2.22 210Po radiohalos and 2.7 total
radiohalos per microscope slide, with a ratio of 1.6
210
Po radiohalos for every 238U radiohalo (table 6).
$V H[SHFWHG WKH 0HDGRZ )ODW VWRFN ZKLFK LV DQ

Table 6. 6XPPDU\RIWKHUDGLRKDORVGDWDIRUWKHGLIIHUHQWJUDQLWLFURFNXQLWVRIWKH7DUDQD6RGZDOOVDUHDLQFOXGLQJ
several regional samples of the Bathurst Granite (see table 3).
No. of Radiohalos
No. of No. of Radiohalos Radio
Rock Unit per Slide
210
Samples Slides Po:238U
210 214 218 238 210
Po Po Po U Total Po
8 402 3043 23 527 1862 13.57 8.94 1.6:1
Bathurst Granite
(7) (351) (773) (—) (7) (168) (2.70) (2.22) (4.6:1)
Meadow Flat Granite 4 200 395 1 — 131 2.64 1.98 3:1
8 400 227 34 0.65 0.57 6.7:1
Evans Crown dike — —
(7) (350) (226) (34) (0.74) (0.65) (6.6:1)
Dikes through Bathurst Granite 4 200 5 — — — 0.03 0.03 —
Dikes through Evans Crown dike 2 100 7 — — 1 0.08 0.07 7:1
Dikes through the host sedimentary rocks 2 100 — — — — — — —
72 A. A. Snelling

Quartz 0.03 210Po radiohalos and 0.03 total radiohalos per

microscope slide and 0.07 210Po radiohalos and 0.08
total radiohalos per microscope slide, respectively.

v
v
But the ratio at seven 210Po radiohalos for every 238U

v
v
UDGLRKDOR LQ WKH GLNHV FXWWLQJ WKURXJK WKH (YDQV

v
v
&URZQGLNHLVKLJKHU

v
v

rit
e Results compared to previous models

v
v

G
io ra
d Adamellite ni In conventional thought, the Po radiohalos
no te
v

v
G
ra 1 78 3 observed in the Bathurst Granite are “a very tiny
6
v

v
4
2 5 P\VWHU\µ*%UHQW'DOU\PSOHDVTXRWHGE\*HQWU\
1988, p. 122) that can be conveniently ignored because
v

v
WKH\ KDYH OLWWOH DSSDUHQW VLJQLÀFDQFH +RZHYHU

v
v

the reality is that the mystery of the Po radiohalos

Plagioclase
v v v v v v v v v
Orthoclase
is often ignored because it constitutes a profound
challenge to conventional wisdom.
Fig. 23. Triangular plot of the modal quartz, orthoclase
and plagioclase in the samples of the Bathurst Granite
Comprehensive reviews of what these Po
DQGWKH(YDQV&URZQGLNHLQWKH7DUDQD6RGZDOOVDUHD radiohalos are and how they may have formed are
as recorded and numbered in Table 4. All samples plot provided by Gentry (1973, 1974, 1986, 1988) and
ZLWKLQWKHDGDPHOOLWHÀHOG Snelling (2000). Gentry (1974) has established that all
Quartz the observed Po radiohalos are generated exclusively
from the Po radioisotopes in the 238U decay series,
namely, 218Po, 214Po, and 210Po, with contributions
v

from none of the other species in the 2388 ǂGHFD\

v

chain. Furthermore, it has been estimated that,

OLNH WKH 238U radiohalos, each visible Po radiohalo
v

a
UHTXLUHVEHWZHHQPLOOLRQDQGELOOLRQǂGHFD\V
v

7
(Gentry 1988), equating to a corresponding number
v

of Po atoms in each radiocenter. Yet the half-lives of

these Po radioisotopes are only 3.1 minutes (218Po),
v

8 3 6
4
5 1 164 microseconds (214Po), and 138 days (210Po), so how
v

b
2
c
did so many Po atoms get concentrated into these
v
v

radiocenters, before they decayed, to then generate

the Po radiohalos?
v
v

v v v v v v v v v Gentry (1986, 1988, 1989) insists that the Po must

Albite Orthoclase
be primordial, that is, God created the Po radioisotopes
Fig. 24. Triangular plot of the normative quartz, instantaneously in place in the radiocenters in the
orthoclase and albite in the samples of the Bathurst ELRWLWHÁDNHVLQWKHJUDQLWHVDQGWKXVWKHJUDQLWHV
*UDQLWH DQG WKH (YDQV &URZQ GLNH LQ WKH 7DUDQD DUHDOVRFUHDWHGURFNV,QRWKHUZRUGVKHDUJXHVWKDW
Sodwalls area as recorded and numbered in Table 5.
All samples plot within the triangle abc indicating the
granites did not form from the crystallization and
FRPSRVLWLRQVDUHJUDQLWHVDVIRUPDOO\FODVVLÀHG cooling of magmas, but rather are the earth’s original
IRXQGDWLRQURFNV
outlying extension of the Bathurst Granite, has Moreover, where granites such as the Bathurst
similar radiohalo statistics to the Bathurst Granite, Granite have intruded into fossiliferous Flood-
with an average of 1.98 210Po radiohalos and 2.64 deposited strata, Gentry (1989) insists that these
total radiohalos per microscope slide, with a ratio of 3 JUDQLWHVDOVRUHSUHVHQWRULJLQDOO\FUHDWHGURFNV+H
210
Po radiohalos for every 238U radiohalo. In contrast, argues that during the Flood they were tectonically
the coarse-grained inner section of the Evans Crown intruded as cold bodies, and that the contact
GLNH KDV RQ DYHUDJH  210Po radiohalos and 0.74 metamorphic aureoles were produced by the heat and
total radiohalos per microscope slide, but a ratio pressure generated during tectonic emplacement,
of 6.6 210Po radiohalos for every 238U radiohalo (see DXJPHQWHGLQVRPHFDVHVE\KRWÁXLGVIURPGHSWK
WKHVDPSOHVLQEUDFNHWVLQWDEOHFRPSDUHGWRWKH Thus, in the case of the Bathurst Granite, he
WRWDOÀJXUHVWKDWLQFOXGHWKHVDPSOHIURPWKHÀQH would surmise it was tectonically emplaced during
grained margin). Similarly, radiohalo numbers the Flood, but he would have to also argue that
DUH ORZ LQ WKH GLNHV FXWWLQJ WKURXJK WKH %DWKXUVW WKH (YDQV &URZQ GLNH DQG WKH GLNHV LQWUXGLQJ LW
*UDQLWH DQG (YDQV &URZQ GLNH ZLWK DYHUDJHV RI and the Bathurst Granite were subsequently and
Radiohalos in Multiple, Sequentially-Intruded Phases of the Bathurst Batholith, NSW, Australia 73

sequentially emplaced tectonically. Alternately he K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLG PRGHO IRU WUDQVSRUW RI WKH 3R
would argue the Bathurst Granite was created then atoms as a requirement to form the Po radiohalos
tectonically emplaced during the Flood, yet somehow
WKH (YDQV &URZQ DQG WKH RWKHU GLNHV ZHUH WKHQ
sequentially intruded into the Bathurst Granite and
the host sediments.
Such interpretations are inconsistent with the
ÀHOG DQG SHWURORJLFDO HYLGHQFH IURP WKH %DWKXUVW
*UDQLWH DQG WKH GLNHV DQG ZLWK WKH H[SHULPHQWDO
evidence discussed above. The contact between the
6QHOOLQJD6QHOOLQJDQG$UPLWDJH
Evidence supporting the
K\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGWUDQVSRUWPRGHO
:H FRQFOXGH WKDW WKH SUHVHQWO\ REVHUYHG 3R
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JUDQLWLF GLNHV FRXOG RQO\ KDYH EHHQ JHQHUDWHG DIWHU
WKH JUDQLWH KDG FRROHG EHORZ ƒ& /DQH\ DQG
Bathurst Granite and the regionally metamorphosed /DXJKOLQ7KXVWKH3RUDGLRKDORVZHUHIRUPHG
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fracturing, brecciation, or mylonization that should
EHHYLGHQWLQHLWKHUWKHJUDQLWHRUKRVWURFNVLIWKH
granite had been intruded tectonically as a cold
DIWHU WKH %DWKXUVW *UDQLWH ZDV LQWUXGHG DV PDJPD
DQG DIWHU LW DQG LWV FRQWDFW PHWDPRUSKLF DXUHROH LQ
WKH KRVW URFNV KDG FRROHG 7KH RQO\ RWKHU PRGHO DW
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of granite intruding into the host sedimentary
layers, and a contact metamorphic aureole with
mineralogy consistent with the temperatures of
WKH JUDQLWH PDJPD ZKHQ LW LQWUXGHG ÀJV  DQG
22). Furthermore, the mineralogy and textures of
WKH(YDQV&URZQGLNHDQGWKHGLNHVZKLFKLQWUXGH
into it and the Bathurst Granite are very similar
to and identical with those of the Bathurst Granite
6QHOOLQJD6QHOOLQJDQG$UPLWDJH,QWKDW
PRGHOLWLVSRVWXODWHGWKDWWKH3RLVRWRSHVDVZHOODV
WKH 5Q SDUHQW RI 3R ZHUH SURGXFHG IURP 8
GHFD\ LQ WKH ]LUFRQV ZKLFK DUH WKH UDGLRFHQWHUV RI
QHDUE\ 8 UDGLRKDORV ORFDWHG LQ WKH VDPH ELRWLWH
IODNHVDVWKH3RUDGLRKDORV7KHK\GURWKHUPDOIOXLGV
UHOHDVHG E\ WKH FU\VWDOOL]LQJ DQG FRROLQJ JUDQLWH
PDJPD IORZHG DORQJ WKH ELRWLWH FOHDYDJH SODQHV DQG
WUDQVSRUWHGWKH 5QDQG3RLVRWRSHVIURPWKH]LUFRQ
ÀJ7KLVLVHQWLUHO\FRQVLVWHQWZLWKDPDJPDWLF UDGLRFHQWHUV ILJ  7KH 3R LVRWRSHV LQFOXGLQJ WKH
origin for all these granitic phases from the same
magma source, but is not in any way consistent
with the Bathurst Granite being created cold and
WKH VXEVHTXHQW JUDQLWLF GLNHV EHLQJ D UHVXOW RI
local melting of the Bathurst Granite during its
cold tectonic emplacement during the Flood. The
FKLOOHGPDUJLQRIWKH(YDQV&URZQGLNHDJDLQVWWKH
%DWKXUVW*UDQLWHDQGWKHKRVWVHGLPHQWDU\URFNVLV
also consistent with its intrusive magmatic origin.
3RSURGXFHGE\ 5QϟGHFD\KDOIOLIHRIGD\V
OLNHO\ SUHFLSLWDWHG LQ ODWWLFH GHIHFWV DORQJ WKH VDPH
ELRWLWHFOHDYDJHSODQHVZKHUH6&ODQGRWKHUDWRPV
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7KHVH 3R SUHFLSLWDWLRQ VLWHV EHFDPH WKH VXEVHTXHQW
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UDGLRFHQWHUV ϟGHFD\HG QHZ 3R DWRPV ZHUH VXSSOLHG
IURPK\GURWKHUPDOIOXLGVIORZLQJWKURXJKWKHELRWLWH
*HQWU\  SRVWXODWHG KRW ÁXLGV DXJPHQWHG
the heat and pressure during tectonic emplacement
of cold granite bodies to produce the contact aureoles,
and presumably the local melting of the granite at
its margin to produce veins and apothyses, and in
the case of the Bathurst Granite, also the formation
of the granitic magma that then intruded as the
(YDQV&URZQGLNHDQGVXEVHTXHQWGLNHV+RZHYHU
LIWKHWKHRUL]HGDFFRPSDQ\LQJKRWÁXLGVIURPGHSWK
KDG D WHPSHUDWXUH RI !ƒ& DV OLNHO\ WKH\ ZRXOG
have to locally melt granite, then they would have
left evidence of their passage within the Bathurst
Granite and annealed all the radiohalos in it (Laney
and Laughlin 1981). There is no observable evidence
of any pervasive alteration produced by hydrothermal
ÁXLGV HLWKHU PDFURVFRSLFDOO\ RU PLFURVFRSLFDOO\ LQ
the Bathurst Granite. In fact, the only evidence of
H[WHQVLYH K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLG ÁRZV LQ WKH %DWKXUVW
ODWWLFH ILJ  7KXV SURYLGHG WKH VXSSO\ RI 3R
LVRWRSHV ZDV VXIILFLHQW DQG WKH K\GURWKHUPDO IOXLG
IORZV ZHUH VXVWDLQHG DQG UDSLG WKH UHTXLUHG 3R
FRQFHQWUDWLRQV FRXOG KDYH EHHQ VXSSOLHG WR WKH
UDGLRFHQWHUVWRSURGXFHWKHPLOOLRQ²ELOOLRQ3Rϟ
GHFD\VWRJHQHUDWHWKH3RUDGLRKDORVZLWKLQKRXUVRU
GD\V FRQVLVWHQW ZLWK WKH YHU\ VKRUW KDOIOLYHV RI WKH
3RLVRWRSHV
%HFDXVHK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGÁRZVDUHFUXFLDOWRWKLV
Po radiohalos formation model, it might be expected
WKDWWKHJUHDWHUWKHYROXPHDQGÁRZRIK\GURWKHUPDO
ÁXLGV WKH JUHDWHU WKH SUREDELOLW\ WKDW PRUH 3R
radiohalos would be generated. This prediction
has shown to hold true in several situations. First,
in granites where hydrothermal ore deposits have
formed in veins due to large, sustained hydrothermal
ÁXLGÁRZVWKHUHDUHKXJHQXPEHUVRI3RUDGLRKDORV
(for example, the Land’s End Granite, Cornwall
*UDQLWH LV LQ WKH RQH VDPSOH 5%* LQ SUR[LPLW\ >6QHOOLQJD@6HFRQGZKHUHK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGV
to hydrothermal ore veins, showing an increase in ZHUH SURGXFHG E\ PLQHUDO UHDFWLRQV DW D VSHFLÀF
the numbers of Po radiohalos, consistent with the pressure-temperature boundary during regional
74 A. A. Snelling

(a) (d)
238
U radiohalo no visible inclusion
150°C

sheet structure of
biotite separated Po
by perfect cleavages U Rn, Po Po Po

~1 mm
210
included zircon crystal Po radiohalo

(b) (e)

150°C

α α α
hydrothermal fluid flowU α
U Rn, Po U Rn, Po Po Po Po
along cleavages
α α α α

(c) (f)

150°C

U Rn, Po S

Fig. 25. Time sequence of diagrams to show schematically the formation of 238U and 210Po radiohalos concurrently
DVDUHVXOWRIK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGÁRZDORQJWKHELRWLWHÁDNHVZLWKLQDFRROLQJJUDQLWHPDVVDIWHU6QHOOLQJD
D 'LDJUDPPDWLF FURVVVHFWLRQ WKURXJK D ELRWLWH ÁDNH VKRZLQJ WKH VKHHW VWUXFWXUH DQG SHUIHFW FOHDYDJH $ WLQ\
zircon crystal (left) has been included between two sheets and its 238U content has generated a 238U radiohalo. A 210Po
radiohalo (right) has also developed around a tiny radiocenter between the same two sheets. Its radiocenter contains
QRYLVLEOHLQFOXVLRQEHLQJMXVWDEXEEOHOLNH´KROHµOHIWEHKLQGE\ORVVRIWKHRULJLQDOLQFOXVLRQSUREDEO\E\GLVVROXWLRQ
of the solid phases.
E (QODUJHG GLDJUDPPDWLF FURVVVHFWLRQ WKURXJK D ELRWLWH ÁDNH WKDW KDV FU\VWDOOL]HG IURP D JUDQLWH PDJPD WR
300°C. The radioactive 2388LQDQLQFOXGHG]LUFRQFU\VWDOLVHPLWWLQJǂSDUWLFOHVZKLOHK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGVUHOHDVHG
IURP WKH FRROLQJ PDJPD DUH ÁRZLQJ DORQJ WKH FOHDYDJH SODQHV GLVVROYLQJ WKH 8 GHFD\ SURGXFWV³2225Q DQG 3R
LVRWRSHV³WKDWKDYHGLIIXVHGRXWRIWKHWLQ\]LUFRQFU\VWDODQGFDUU\LQJWKHPGRZQÁRZDVKRUWGLVWDQFHZKHUHWKH\
DOVRHPLWǂSDUWLFOHV
F+RZHYHUDWWHPSHUDWXUHV!ƒ&WKHǂWUDFNVDUHDQQHDOHGVRQRUDGLRKDORVIRUPDQGWKHUHLVQRǂWUDFNUHFRUG
RIWKHK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGVFRQWDLQLQJ5QDQG3RÁRZLQJDWDUDWHRIXSWRFPLQSHUGD\DORQJWKHFOHDYDJHSODQH
$IHZ6DWRPVDOVRWUDQVSRUWHGLQWKHK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGVEHFRPHORGJHGLQODWWLFHGHIHFWVGRZQÁRZRIWKH]LUFRQ
crystal.
(d) As the temperatures approach 150°C and 2225QGHFD\VWR2183RWKH3RLVRWRSHVLQWKHK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGVZKLFK
KDYHDJHRFKHPLFDODIÀQLW\IRU6SUHFLSLWDWHWRIRUP3R6DVWKHÁXLGVÁRZE\WKH6DWRPVLQWKHODWWLFHGHIHFWV7KH
238
8LQWKH]LUFRQFRQWLQXHVWRGHFD\DQGUHSOHQLVKWKHVXSSO\RI5QDQG3RLVRWRSHVLQWKHÁXLGV
H2QFHWKHWHPSHUDWXUHGURSVWREHORZƒ&WKHǂWUDFNVSURGXFHGE\FRQWLQXHGGHFD\RIERWKWKH 238U in the
zircon and the Po in the PoS are no longer annealed and so start discoloring the biotite sheets, forming both 238U and
210
3RUDGLRKDORVFRQFXUUHQWO\0RUH3RLVRWRSHVLQWKHÁRZLQJK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGVUHSODFHWKH3RLQWKH3R6DIWHULW
GHFD\VWR3EWKH´IUHHGµ6DWRPVVFDYHQJLQJ\HWPRUH3RIURPWKHSDVVLQJÁXLGV
I:LWKIXUWKHUSDVVLQJRIWLPHDQGPRUHǂGHFD\VERWKWKH 238U and 210Po radiohalos are fully formed, the granite
FRROV FRPSOHWHO\ DQG K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLG ÁRZ FHDVHV 1RWH WKDW ERWK UDGLRKDORV KDYH WR IRUP FRQFXUUHQWO\ EHORZ
150°C, and that the original content at the center of the 210Po radiohalo has been dissolved and carried away. The
rate at which these processes occur must therefore be governed by the 138 day half-life of 210Po. To get 218Po and 214Po
radiohalos the processes would have to have occurred even faster.
Radiohalos in Multiple, Sequentially-Intruded Phases of the Bathurst Batholith, NSW, Australia 75

PHWDPRUSKLVPIRXUWRÀYHWLPHVPRUH3RUDGLRKDORV LV UHWDLQHG LQ WKH ELRWLWH ÁDNHV RQO\ EHORZ ƒ&
ZHUHJHQHUDWHGSUHFLVHO\DWWKDWVSHFLÀFPHWDPRUSKLF
boundary (Snelling 2008b). Third, the Po radiohalos
numbers also progressively decreased where the
K\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGVJHQHUDWHGLQWKHFHQWUDOJUDQLWH
at the highest grade within a regional metamorphic
FRPSOH[ ÁRZHG DQG GHFUHDVHG RXWZDUGV LQWR WKDW
complex (Snelling 2008c). Fourth, in a granite pluton
which has an atypically wide contact metamorphic
/DQH\ DQG /DXJKOLQ  $ERYH WKLV ǂSDUWLFOH
annealing temperature the damage either doesn’t
register or is obliterated. Thus all the radiohalos
now observed in the Bathurst Granite had to form
below 150°C, late in the cooling history of the
granite. Granite magmas intrude at temperatures
RI ²ƒ& DQG WKH K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV DUH
released at temperatures of 370–410°C, after most of
and metasomatic aureole around it due to the high
YROXPHRIK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGVLWUHOHDVHGGXULQJLWV
crystallization, Po radiohalos numbers were shown
to be higher than in other granite plutons (Snelling
2008d). Fifth, in a sequentially intruded suite of
QHVWHGJUDQLWHSOXWRQVZKHUHWKHK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLG
content of the granites correspondingly increased, so
that the last intruded central pluton was connected
to coeval explosive, steam-driven volcanism, the
numbers of Po radiohalos generated increased
inwards within the nested suite of granite plutons
(Snelling and Gates 2009). Such evidence provides
WKH FRQVWLWXHQW PLQHUDOV KDYH FU\VWDOOL]HG ÀJ 
However, the accessory zircon grains, containing the
238
U, crystallize very early at higher temperatures,
DQGOLNHO\ZHUHDOUHDG\IRUPHGLQWKHPDJPDEHIRUH
and during intrusion. Thus the 238U decay producing
the Po isotopes had begun well before the granite
had fully crystallized, and before the hydrothermal
ÁXLGVKDGEHJXQÁRZLQJ)XUWKHUPRUHE\WKHWLPH
the temperature of the granite and the hydrothermal
ÁXLGVKDGFRROHGWRƒ&WKHKHDWHQHUJ\GULYLQJ
K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLG FRQYHFWLRQ ZRXOG KDYH OLNHO\
begun to wane and the vigor of the hydrothermal
FRQÀUPDWLRQ WKDW WKH K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLG WUDQVSRUW
model can explain the generation of the Po radiohalos.
Suggested model for the Bathurst Granite
7KH K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV JHQHUDWHG E\ WKH
crystallization and cooling of the Bathurst Granite
produced several effects indicating a large volume
RIVXVWDLQHGÁXLGÁRZZDVLQYROYHG+\GURWKHUPDO
ÁXLGVGLVSHUVHGWKHKHDWUHOHDVHGE\WKHFU\VWDOOL]LQJ
JUDQLWHE\FRQYHFWLRQLQWRWKHKRVWURFNV7KHKHDW
IURPWKHVHÁXLGVOLNHO\KHOSHGWRJHQHUDWHWKHFRQWDFW
PHWDPRUSKLF DXUHROH DURXQG WKH JUDQLWH 0DFND\
ÁRZZRXOGDOVRKDYHEHJXQWRGLPLQLVKÀJ,I
the processes of magma intrusion, crystallization
and cooling required 100,000–1 million years, as is
FRQYHQWLRQDOO\ FODLPHG 3LWFKHU  <RXQJ DQG
Stearley 2008), most of the Po would have already
decayed and thus been lost from the hydrothermal
ÁXLGVE\WKHWLPHWKHJUDQLWHDQGÁXLGVKDGFRROHGWR
150°C, leaving no Po isotopes left to generate the Po
radiohalos (Snelling 2008a).
The data in Tables 3 and 6 show that Po radiohalos
greatly outnumber 238U radiohalos in the Bathurst
*UDQLWH7KHUHDUHOLNHO\WZRUHDVRQVIRUWKLV)LUVW
 6QHOOLQJ  $GGLWLRQDOO\ LQ RQH ORFDWLRQ many of the 2388UDGLRKDORVDUHGDUNDQGRYHUH[SRVHG
QHDU 7DUDQD WKH K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV SHQHWUDWHG
DORQJIUDFWXUHVLQWKHKRVWURFNVEH\RQGWKHDXUHROH
to deposit ore veins of copper and gold (5D\PRQGHW
DO  Snelling 1974). Then, within the granite
itself, the numbers of Po radiohalos are consistent
ZLWK VXVWDLQHG K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLG ÁRZV 7KH WLQ\
zircon grains that are still at the centers of the many
238
U radiohalos in the Bathurst Granite would have
been the source of the Po isotopes transported by the
K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV WR JHQHUDWH WKH 3R UDGLRKDORV
However, the general absence of 214Po and 218Po
radiohalos in the Bathurst Granite and the granitic
GLNHV LPSOLHV ERWK D JHQHUDOO\ UHGXFHG VXSSO\ RI
K\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGVDQGDVORZUDWHRIK\GURWKHUPDO
ÁXLG WUDQVSRUW UHVWULFWLQJ WKH IRUPDWLRQ RI WKRVH
radiohalos due to their very short half-lives. It
also implies that 2225Q ZDV OLNHO\ DEVHQW LQ WKH
K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV 7KHUHIRUH 3R ZDV PRVW OLNHO\
transported primarily as 2103R LQ WKH ÁXLGV WR WKH
nucleation sites where the 210Po radiohalos formed.
A constraining factor on the preservation of the Po
UDGLRKDORVLVWKDWWKHGDPDJHOHIWE\WKHǂSDUWLFOHV
ZLWKEOXUUHGLQQHUULQJVÀJZKLFKLQGLFDWHVWKDW
there has been an enormous amount of 238U decay,
much more than the 500 million–1 billion atoms
needed to produce a radiohalo with distinct inner
ULQJV7KLVLPSOLHVWKDWWKHUHOLNHO\ZRXOGKDYHEHHQ
enough Po generated to form multiple Po radiohalos
in the vicinity of each 238U radiohalo. Second, as
noted above, much evidence suggests that the
JUHDWHUWKHYROXPHDQGÁRZRIK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGV
the greater the number of Po radiohalos generated.
$ UHDVRQDEO\ ODUJH YROXPH RI K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV
DSSDUHQWO\ÁRZHGZLWKLQDQGWKURXJKWKH%DWKXUVW
*UDQLWHDQGWKHDVVRFLDWHGGLNHV7KXVWKHUHZDVD
JUHDWFDSDFLW\IRUK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGWUDQVSRUWRI3R
atoms to supply the observed Po radiohalos.
Rapid formation of the Bathurst Granite
&RQYHQWLRQDO WKLQNLQJ RQ WKH WLPHVFDOH IRU
the granite intrusion, crystallization, and cooling
SURFHVVHV XVHG WR FODLP JUDQLWH IRUPDWLRQ WRRN
PRUH WKDQ D PLOOLRQ \HDUV 3LWFKHU  <RXQJ
and Stearley 2008). However, it is now recognized
76 A. A. Snelling

800 Intrusion of granite magma into pluton

(with zircon grains already releasing Po)
735 First mineral grains begin crystallizing
700 (plagioclase, biotite, orthoclase,quartz)
Crystallization of
Biotite grains have crystallized Magma

600
573 All mineral grains have crystallized

Resi
and are stable

dua
500
Temperature (°C)

l ma
400 gm
385
a First release of hydrothermal fluids
so Rn and Po transport commences
Hy
300 ot
dr
he
rm
al
fl uid
s Time/Temperature “Window” for the
200 Formation of Polonium Radiohalos
Annealing temperature
150 Polon
of radiohalos ium ra
diohalo
100 Hydrothermal convection too slow s form
75

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (days)

Fig. 26. Schematic, conceptual, temperature versus time cooling curve diagram to show the timescale for granite
FU\VWDOOL]DWLRQDQGFRROLQJK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGWUDQVSRUWDQGWKHIRUPDWLRQRISRORQLXPUDGLRKDORVDIWHU6QHOOLQJ
2008a).

that granite formation is a rapid, dynamic process of both those processes (Snelling 2005a). If 238U in
operating on timescales as short as thousands of the zircon radiocenters supplied the Po isotopes
years (&OHPHQV  Petford et al. 2000). Various required to generate the Po radiohalos, the 238U
studies have shown that emplacement of a melt and Po radiohalos must have formed in hours or
LV UDSLG YLD GLNHV DQG IUDFWXUHV DQG DVVLVWHG E\ days, as required by the Po isotopes’ short half-lives.
WHFWRQLFV&OHPHQVDQG0DZHU&ROHPDQ*UD\ This requires 238U production of Po to be grossly
and Glazner 2004). Other studies have shown that DFFHOHUDWHG 7KH  PLOOLRQ² ELOOLRQ ǂGHFD\V
PHOW FRROLQJ LV DLGHG E\ K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV DQG necessary to generate each 238U radiohalo, equivalent
JURXQGZDWHU ÁRZ %URZQ  %XUQKDP  to at least 100 million years’ worth of 238U decay
&DWKOHV+DUGHH+D\EDDQG,QJHEULWVHQ DW WRGD\·V GHFD\ UDWHV KDG WR KDYH WDNHQ SODFH LQ
1997). Formation of these granites, from emplacement hours to days to supply the required concentration
to cooling, therefore had to have been on a timescale of Po for producing Po radiohalos. However, because
that previously has been considered impossible. accelerated 238U decay in the zircons would have
The processes of magma generation, segregation, occurred as the zircons crystallized at 650–750°C
ascent, emplacement, crystallization, and cooling ÀJ  WKH JUDQLWH PDJPD PXVW KDYH IXOO\
are now being viewed even as catastrophic (Snelling crystallized and cooled to below 150°C very rapidly.
D6QHOOLQJDQG:RRGPRUDSSH9DUGLPDQ If not, the 238U in the zircons would have rapidly
6QHOOLQJDQG&KDIÀQ decayed away, as would have also the daughter Po
LVRWRSHV EHIRUH WKH ELRWLWH ÁDNHV ZHUH FRRO HQRXJK
Catastrophic granite formation and for the 238U and Po radiohalos to form and survive
accelerated decay without annealing. Furthermore, the hydrothermal
Both catastrophic granite formation and ÁXLGÁRZVQHHGHGWRWUDQVSRUWWKH3RLVRWRSHVDORQJ
accelerated radioisotope decay are relevant to the the biotite cleavage planes from the zircons to the
K\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGWUDQVSRUWPRGHOIRU3RUDGLRKDOR Po radiocenters are not long sustained, even in the
IRUPDWLRQ 9DUGLPDQ 6QHOOLQJ DQG &KDIÀQ  FRQYHQWLRQDO IUDPHZRUN EXW GHFUHDVH UDSLGO\ GXH
Halo formation provides constraints on the rates WR FRROLQJ RI WKH JUDQLWH ÀJ  6QHOOLQJ D
Radiohalos in Multiple, Sequentially-Intruded Phases of the Bathurst Batholith, NSW, Australia 77

Therefore, Snelling (2005a) concluded that granite DQGLWVK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGVFRROWREHORZƒ&PRVW

intrusion, crystallization, and cooling processes of the energy to drive the hydrothermal convection
occurred together over a timescale of only about 6–10 V\VWHPDQGÁXLGÁRZKDVDOUHDG\GLVVLSDWHG6QHOOLQJ
days. D 7KH K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV DUH H[SHOOHG IURP
7KXVVXIÀFLHQW3RKDGWREHWUDQVSRUWHGTXLFNO\WR WKHFU\VWDOOL]LQJJUDQLWHDQGVWDUWÁRZLQJDWEHWZHHQ
the Po radiocenters to form the Po radiohalos while
there was still enough energy at and below 150°C to
GULYH WKH K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLG ÁRZV UDSLGO\ HQRXJK
to get the Po isotopes to the deposition sites before
they decayed. This is the time and temperature
“window” depicted schematically in Fig. 26. It would
thus simply be impossible for the Po radiohalos to
form slowly over many thousands of years at today’s
DQGƒ&ÀJVRXQOHVVWKHJUDQLWHFRROHG
rapidly from 400°C to below 150°C, most of the Po
WUDQVSRUWHGE\WKHK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGVZRXOGKDYH
EHHQ ÁXVKHG RXW RI WKH JUDQLWH E\ WKH YLJRURXV
K\GURWKHUPDO FRQYHFWLYH ÁRZV DV WKH\ GLPLQLVKHG
Simultaneously, much of the energy to drive
WKHVH ÁXLG ÁRZV GLVVLSDWHV UDSLGO\ DV WKH JUDQLWH
temperature drops. Thus, below 150°C (when the Po
groundwater temperatures and chemistries in cold
granites.¬Hot chemically enriched hydrothermal
IOXLGVDUHQHHGHGWRGLVVROYHDQGFDUU\WKH3RDWRPV
and heat is needed to drive rapid hydrothermal
FRQYHFWLRQ WR PRYH 3R WUDQVSRUWLQJ IOXLGV IDVW
HQRXJKto supply the Po radiocenters to generate
the Po radiohalos. Furthermore, the required
heat cannot be sustained for the 100 million years
or more while VXIILFLHQW238U decays at today’s rates
to produce the 500 million–1 billion Po atoms
needed for each Po radiohalo.
One consequence of accelerated 238U decay is that
the decay of the Po isotopes might also be similarly
accelerated, and thus there would not have been
HQRXJK WLPH IRU K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLG WUDQVSRUW RI
WKH UDGLRDFWLYH 3R DWRPV ZLWKLQ WKH ELRWLWH ÁDNHV
However, Austin (2005) and Snelling (2005b) have
VKRZQ WKDW LQ DQ DFFHOHUDWHG ǂGHFD\ HSLVRGH WKH
parent isotopes which today have the slowest decay
rates (and thus yield the oldest ages on the same
UDGLRKDORV VWDUW IRUPLQJ WKH K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV
have slowed down to such an extent that they cannot
VXVWDLQSURWUDFWHGÁRZ0RUHRYHUWKHFDSDFLW\RIWKH
K\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGVWRFDUU\GLVVROYHG3RGHFUHDVHV
dramatically as their temperature decreases.
,QVXPPDU\IRUWKHUHWREHVXIÀFLHQW3RWRSURGXFH
Po radiohalos after the Bathurst Granite cooled to
150°C, the timescales of the decay process as well
as the cooling both must be on same order as the
OLIHWLPHVRIWKH3RLVRWRSHV7KHK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLG
ÁRZVKDGWREHUDSLGDVWKHFRQYHFWLRQV\VWHPZDV
short-lived while the granite crystallized and cooled
rapidly within 6–10 days, and as they transported
VXIÀFLHQW 3R DWRPV WR JHQHUDWH WKH 3R UDGLRKDORV
within hours to a few days.
Furthermore, if the formation of the large volume,
Bathurst Granite was rapid in order for the radiohalos
present in it to exist, it follows that the formation of
WKH LQWUXGHG JUDQLWLF GLNHV LQ WKLV ÀHOG DUHD ZKLFK
DOVRFRQWDLQ3RUDGLRKDORVKDGWREHOLNHZLVHUDSLG
URFNVDPSOHVKDGWKHLUGHFD\DFFHOHUDWHGWKHPRVW The numbers of Po radiohalos in these subsequent
The implication of this observation is that in an JUDQLWLF GLNHV GHFUHDVH LQ RUGHU RI WKHLU LQWUXVLRQ
DFFHOHUDWHG ǂGHFD\ HSLVRGH WKH 3R LVRWRSHV ZKLFK ZLWK WKH QDUURZHU JUDQLWLF GLNHV FRQWDLQLQJ IHZHU
decay at extremely high rates today should have Po radiohalos intruded after the Evans Crown
experienced almost no acceleration of their decay.
This inverse relationship of decay rate to accelerated
decay would, therefore, have allowed enough time
IRUK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGWUDQVSRUWRIWKH3RDWRPVWR
generate the Po radiohalos.
+RZHYHU ZKDW UHTXLUHV WKH K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLG
ÁRZLQWHUYDOWREHVREULHI"6XUHO\EHFDXVHWKH]LUFRQ
radiocenters and their 238U radiohalos are near to
(typically within only 1 mm [0.04 in] or so) the Po
UDGLRFHQWHUVLQWKHVDPHELRWLWHÁDNHVFRXOGQRWWKH
K\GURWKHUPDOÁRZKDYHLQGHHGFDUULHGHDFK3RDWRP
GLNHWDEOH2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHUDWLRRI 210Po
radiohalo numbers per each 238U radiohalo increases
according to the time sequence in which these units
were intruded, from around 4:1 in the Bathurst
*UDQLWHWRLQWKH(YDQV&URZQGLNHWRLQWKH
JUDQLWLFGLNHVLQWUXGLQJWKH(YDQV&URZQGLNH7KLV
LVFRQVLVWHQWZLWKDQLQFUHDVHLQK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGV
being progressively released with each subsequent
granitic intrusion. This is further corroborated by
the evidence of increased hydrothermal alteration
REVHUYHG LQ WKH (YDQV &URZQ GLNH DQG WKH
from the 238U radiocenters to the Po radiocenters
within minutes, but the interval of hydrothermal
ÁXLG ÁRZ SHUVLVW RYHU PDQ\ WKRXVDQGV RI \HDUV
during which the billion Po atoms needed for each Po
radiohalo are transported that short distance? In this
case the 238U decay and the generation of Po atoms
could be stretched over that longer interval. However,
as already noted above, by the time a granite body
VXEVHTXHQWO\ LQWUXGHG JUDQLWLF GLNHV ÀJ  DQG
LV FRQVLVWHQW ZLWK DOO WKHVH JUDQLWLF URFNV EHLQJ
sourced from the same magma body late in its “life.”
Thus the granitic magma that was intruded as the
(YDQV&URZQGLNHZDVOLNHO\UHVLGXDOPDJPDIURP
the Bathurst Granite, while the remaining residual
PDJPD WKHQ LQWUXGHG LQWR WKH (YDQV &URZQ GLNH
Such an increase in the volume of hydrothermal
78
ÁXLGVLQDVHTXHQFHRIJUDQLWLFLQWUXVLRQVKDVDOUHDG\
been documented by Snelling and Armitage (2003) in
WKH]RQHG/D3RVWD3OXWRQLQWKH3HQLQVXODU5DQJHV
%DWKROLWK HDVW RI 6DQ 'LHJR DQG E\ 6QHOOLQJ DQG
Gates (2009) in the nested plutons of the Tuolumne
Intrusive Suite of Yosemite, California.
7KXV WKH VLJQLÀFDQFH RI WKH SURJUHVVLYHO\
increasing Po radiohalo numbers relative to 238U
radiohalos numbers in granitic intrusions within the
Bathurst Batholith (table 6), according to the order
in which they were intruded, implies that there were
SURJUHVVLYHO\PRUHK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGVSHUYROXPH
with each successive intrusion from the Bathurst
*UDQLWH SOXWRQ WR WKH ODUJH (YDQV &URZQ GLNH WR
WKHQDUURZJUDQLWLFGLNHVLQWUXGLQJWKHPERWK7KH
LQFUHDVH LQ WKH K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV LQ WKH ODWHU
VWDJHVRIWKHLQWUXVLYHVHTXHQFHLVOLNHO\GXHWRWKH
water released as the intrusive phases crystallized
and cooled building up in the later residual intrusive
SKDVHV SDUWLFXODUO\ LI WKH K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV DUH
not readily escaping out into the surrounding host
A. A. Snelling
the batholith was a relatively rapid emplacement
process. However, so that annealing of the radiohalos
would not occur above 150°C, all the phases of the
batholith had to have intruded so rapidly that the
%DWKXUVW *UDQLWH SOXWRQ DQG WKH VWRFNV VDWHOOLWH
ERGLHVDQGVXEVHTXHQWODUJHDQGVPDOOGLNHVPDNLQJ
up the batholith cooled below 150°C more or less at
the same time. Furthermore, because of the short
half-life of 210Po and the need for the hydrothermal
ÁXLGV ZLWKLQ WKH FRROLQJ JUDQLWH PDVVHV WR UDSLGO\
WUDQVSRUWVXIÀFLHQW 210Po to supply the radiocenters
to form the 210Po radiohalos before the 210Po decayed,
the successive emplacement and cooling of this
VXFFHVVLYHVHULHVRILQWUXVLRQVFRXOGQRWKDYHWDNHQ
PRUHWKDQDZHHNRUWZR
Survival of the Po radiohalos as a result of the
rapid sequential emplacement of these intrusions
also implies that there could not have been a “heat
problem” due to accelerated radioactive decay
(Snelling 2005a). The mechanisms that dissipated
the heat from these crystallizing and cooling magmas
URFNV:KHUHDVPDQ\RWKHUJUDQLWHSOXWRQVLQWUXGHG
LQWR VHGLPHQWDU\ URFNV FRQWDLQLQJ FRQQDWH DQG
ground waters that assisted rapid granite cooling
by convection outwards from the plutons (Snelling
and Woodmorappe 1998), the large Evans Crown
GLNHLQWUXGHGLQWRWKH%DWKXUVW*UDQLWHSOXWRQDQG
WKHQQDUURZHUJUDQLWLFGLNHVVXEVHTXHQWO\LQWUXGHG
into them both. Consequently, since granites
have poor connective porosities and therefore
poor permeabilities, the successively generated
K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV ZRXOG KDYH EHHQ HVVHQWLDOO\
“trapped” in the later intrusive phases.
Since these granitic intrusions in the Bathurst
Batholith were successively intruded into one
another, there were severe constraints, due to
the 150°C thermal annealing temperature of the
radiohalos. The lapse of time between the intrusion
of each phase of the batholith had to be extremely
short, as each phase had to be rapidly emplaced,
crystallized and cooled before the next phases were
LQMHFWHG VR WKDW WKH HQWLUH LQWUXVLRQ VHTXHQFH RI
SOXWRQDQGGLNHVZDVLQSODFHEHIRUHWKHUDGLRKDORV
began forming below 150°C. Otherwise, the heat
given off by each successively emplaced phase, which
intruded its predecessors, would have annealed all
UDGLRKDORV LQ WKHP &RQÀUPDWLRQ WKDW HDFK SKDVH
had crystallized and cooled before the next phase
ZDVLQWUXGHGLVGHPRQVWUDWHGE\WKHODFNRIFRQWDFW
PHWDPRUSKLF HIIHFWV ZKHUH WKH (YDQV &URZQ GLNH
intrudes the Bathurst Granite and where the smaller
GLNHVFXWLQWRWKH%DWKXUVW*UDQLWHDQGWKH(YDQV
&URZQ GLNH E\ WKH FKLOOHG PDUJLQ RI WKH (YDQV
&URZQ GLNH DQG E\ DOWHUDWLRQ ]RQHV PDUJLQDO WR
6QHOOLQJ D 6QHOOLQJ DQG :RRGPRUDSSH 
GLGVRUDSLGO\DQGHIÀFLHQWO\ZLWKRXWDQQHDOLQJWKH
Po radiohalos in the surrounding earlier intruded
phases of this suite of intrusions. Thus this entire
LQWUXVLYH HYHQW WKDW ODVWHG RQO\ D ZHHN RU WZR
consisting of successive pulses of granite magma
HPSODFHPHQWDQGFRROLQJÀWVHDVLO\ZLWKLQWKHWLPH
frame of the year-long Flood event.
Extension of model to other granites
The Bathurst Granite does not appear to be
unique, but rather is typical of other granites, in
terms of its mineralogy, chemistry, texture, and
WKH K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV LW JHQHUDWHG 7KXV WKLV
model for its rapid formation and cooling can be
extended to other granite bodies, as has been done
by Snelling (2005a, 2008a, d), Snelling and Armitage
(2003), and Snelling and Gates (2009). Many other
granites are surrounded by aureoles, though many
are often larger. Almost all granites show evidence
RI WKH K\GURWKHUPDO ÁXLGV WKH\ JHQHUDWHG DV WKH\
crystallized and cooled. The ubiquitous presence of Po
radiohalos (Snelling 2005a) is also testimony to these
K\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGV,QWKRVHJUDQLWHVZKHUHIHZHU
3RUDGLRKDORVVXJJHVWOHVVK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGVZHUH
produced, the presence of Po radiohalos indicates
WKHUHZHUHVWLOOVXIÀFLHQWK\GURWKHUPDOÁXLGVWRFRRO
them rapidly. The volume of the Bathurst Batholith
is very large. Yet, the volume of the nested granite
plutons of the Tuolumne Intrusive Suite of Yosemite,
California, is comparable to that of the Bathurst
Batholith, and Snelling and Gates (2009) built a
strong case that each of those plutons also formed and
WKH VPDOOHU GLNHV 6QHOOLQJ  ,W FDQ WKHUHIRUH cooled rapidly. Because this model of rapid formation
be concluded that the successive development of and cooling has been applied successfully to other
Radiohalos in Multiple, Sequentially-Intruded Phases of the Bathurst Batholith, NSW, Australia
granite bodies, it can be concluded that each of the
SOXWRQVVWRFNVVDWHOOLWHERGLHVDQGVXEVHTXHQWODUJH
DQGVPDOOGLNHVPDNLQJXSWKH%DWKXUVW%DWKROLWK
OLNHZLVHIRUPHGDQGFRROHGUDSLGO\
Conclusions
The Bathurst Granite intruded Flood-deposited,
fossiliferous sedimentary strata, disrupting them
and producing a contact metamorphic zone. It was
WKHQLWVHOILQWUXGHGE\WKH(YDQV&URZQGLNHZKLFK
KDVDFKLOOHGPDUJLQ)LQDOO\VPDOOHUJUDQLWHGLNHV
intruded both the Bathurst Granite, Evans Crown
GLNH DQG WKH KRVW VHGLPHQWDU\ VWUDWD SURGXFLQJ
DGMDFHQW DOWHUDWLRQ ]RQHV )LHOG DQG WH[WXUDO GDWD
have established that these granite phases were
sequentially intruded while still hot. Analytical and
H[SHULPHQWDOGDWDFRQÀUPWKDWWKHVHJUDQLWLFSKDVHV
were intruded rapidly as hot magma, contradicting
Gentry’s concept of their cold creation and tectonic
emplacement during the Flood. Evidence suggests
all granitic phases were intruded from the same
magma source, with the release of hydrothermal
ÁXLGV DV WKH PDJPDV FU\VWDOOL]HG DQG FRROHG $OO
three granite phases contain 238U and Po radiohalos.
The Po radiohalos indicate rapid formation after all
the granites cooled below 150°C via hydrothermal
ÁXLG WUDQVSRUW RI 3R IURP 238U d ecay i n t he z ircon
JUDLQV LQ WKH ELRWLWH ÁDNHV WKDW DUH XVXDOO\ LQ WKH
radiocenters of the 238U radiohalos. Their presence
in all three, sequentially intruded, granite
phases is evidence that all this intrusive activity,
and the cooling of all three granite phases to
below 150°C, PXVWKDYHRFFXUUHGZLWKLQDZHHNRU
WZR VR WKDW WKH Po radiohalos in them
subsequently formed within GD\V WR ZHHNV GXULQJ
WKH)ORRG\HDU
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