Central Women’s University

Assignment On Transmission
Course Title: Data Communication
Course Code: CSE-313
Submitted By:
Afrina Sultana
ID: 2018-1-17-016
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Submitted To:
Sher Shermin Azmiri Khan
Assistant Professor
Department of CSE, CWU
Submission Date: 16-05-2020
 Transmission

Introduction: Digital Transmission is the transmission of signals that vary

discretely with time between two values of some physical quantity, one value
representing the binary number 0 and the other representing 1. The opposite of
digital transmission is analog transmission, in which information is transmitted as
a continuously varying quantity. An analog signal might be converted to a digital
signal using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and vice versa using a digital-to-
analog converter (DAC).

Digital-To-Digital Conversion:
Digital-to-digital encoding is the representation of digital information by a digital
signal. When binary 1s and 0s generated by the computer are translated into a
sequence of voltage pulses that can be propagated over a wire, this process is
known as digital-to-digital encoding.

Line Coding: In telecommunication, a line code (also called digital baseband

modulation, also called digital baseband transmission method) is a code chosen
for use within a communications system for baseband transmission purposes.
Line coding is often used for digital data transport.
Signal Element Versus Data Element: A data element is the smallest entity
that can represent a piece of information (a bit). A signal element is the shortest
unit of a digital signal. Data elements are what we need to send; signal elements
are what we can send. Data elements are being carried; signal elements are the
carriers.

Data Rate Versus Signal Rate: Data rate is the number of data elements
transmitted per second. Signal rate is the number of signal elements transmitted
per second. The data rate is sometimes called the bit rate and the signal rate is
called the pulse rate or baud rate.

The relationship between data rate and signal rate is:

 Save =c × N × (1/r) baud

Example: A signal is carrying data in which one data element is encoded as one
signal element (r=1). If the bit rate is 200 kbps, what is the average value of the
baud rate if c is between 0 and 1?

Ans: S=c ×N × (1/r)=1/2 × 200,000 × (1/1)=100,000=100 kbaud

Baseline Wandering: Decoding a digital signal, the receiver calculates a

running average of the received signal power. This average is called the baseline
wandering.

DC Components: After line coding, the signal may have zero frequency
component in the spectrum of the signal, which is known as the direct-current
(DC) component. DC component in a signal is not desirable because the DC
component does not pass through some components of a communication system
such as a transformer.

Self-Synchronization: It is the process of timing the serial transmission to

properly identify the data being sent.
Line Coding Schemes:

Unipolar Scheme: In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of
the time axis, either above or below.

NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero): It is unipolar line coding scheme in which positive

voltage defines bit 1 and the zero voltage defines bit 0. Signal does not return to
zero at the middle of the bit thus it is called NRZ. For example: Data = 10110.
But this scheme uses more power as compared to polar scheme to send one bit
per unit line resistance.

Polar Schemes: In polar schemes, the voltages are on the both sides of the axis.

NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero): Two levels of voltage amplitudes are used in polar

NRZ encoding: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.

For NRZ-L(NRZ-Level), the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit,
typically binary 1 maps to logic-level high, and binary 0 maps to logic-level low,
and for NRZ-I(NRZ-Invert), two-level signal has a transition at a boundary if the
next bit that we are going to transmit is a logical 1, and does not have a transition
if the next bit that we are going to transmit is a logical 0. In the figure we can see
that NRZ-L is determining the value of the bits where NRZ-I is inverting the value
of the bit. When the next bit is zero, there is no inversion. But if the next bit is 1,
then inversion happens.

Biphase (Manchester and Differential Manchester): Manchester encoding is a

combination of the RZ and NRZ-L schemes. The duration of the bit is divided into
two halves. In this type of coding, the transition is done at the middle of the bit-
interval. The transition for the resultant pulse is from High to Low in the middle of
the interval, for the input bit 1.While the transition is from Low to High for the
input bit 0.

Differential Manchester is a combination of the RZ and NRZ-I schemes. In this type

of coding, there always occurs a transition in the middle of the bit interval. If
there occurs a transition at the beginning of the bit interval, then the input bit is
0. If no transition occurs at the beginning of the bit interval, then the input bit is
1.
Bipolar Schemes: In telecommunication, bipolar encoding is a type of return-
to-zero (RZ) line code, where two nonzero values are used, so that the three
values are +, −, and zero.

AMI and Pseudoternary: A common bipolar encoding scheme is called bipolar

alternate mark inversion (AMI). A variation of AMI encoding is called
Pseudoternary in which the 1 bit is encoded as a zero voltage and the 0 bit is
encoded as alternating positive and negative voltages.

In AMI 0 represents neutral voltage and 1 represents alternate positive and

negative voltages. In Pseudoternary it is opposite of AMI. The 0 represents
alternate positive and negative voltages and 1 represents neutral voltage.

Multilevel Schemes:
2B1Q: Short for 2Binary 1 Quaternary, a full duplex physical layer encoding
method used in ISDN and other digital communication technologies. In 2B1Q, two
binarybits are encoded into one quaternary signal, doubling the effectiveness of
transmission. In this type of encoding m =2, n =1, and L =4(quatemary). It uses
data patterns of size 2 and encodes the 2-bit patterns as one signal element
belonging to a four-level signal.

Block Coding: Block coding changes a block of m bits into a block of n bits,
where n is larger than m. Block coding helps in error detection and re-
transmission of the signal. It is normally referred to as mB/nB coding as it replaces
each m-bit data group with an n-bit data group (where n>m). Thus, its adds extra
bits (redundancy bits) which helps in synchronization at receiver’s and sender’s
end and also providing some kind of error detecting capability.
4B/5B: This coding scheme is used in combination with NRZ-I. The problem with
NRZ-I was that it has a synchronization problem for long sequences of zeros. So,
to overcome it we substitute the bit stream from 4-bit to 5-bit data group before
encoding it with NRZ-I. So that it does not have a long stream of zeros. At the
receiver, the NRZ-I encoded digital signal is first decoded into a stream of bits and
then decoded again to remove the redundancy bits.

8B/10B: This encoding is similar to 4B/5B encoding except that a group of 8 bits of
data is now substituted by a 10-bit code and it provides greater error detection
capability than 4B/5B.It is actually a combination of 5B/6B and 3B/4B
encoding.The most five significant bits of a 10-bit block is fed into the 5B/6B
encoder; the least 3 significant bits is fed into a 3B/4B encoder.
Scrambling: Scrambling is a digital encoding technique that is used in modern
data communication schemes and can principally provide aid in retrieving
information from received data enhancing synchronization between the
transmitter and the receiver.

B8ZS: B8ZS (bipolar 8-zero substitution, also called binary 8-zero substitution,
clear channel, and clear 64) is an encoding method used on T1 circuits that inserts
two successive ones of the same voltage - referred to as a bipolar violation - into a
signal whenever eight consecutive zeros are transmitted. The device receiving the
signal interprets the bipolar violation as a timing mark, which keeps the
transmitting and receiving devices synchronized. Ordinarily, when successive ones
are transmitted, one has a positive voltage and the other has a negative voltage.
B8ZS uses bipolar violations to synchronize devices, a solution that does not
require the use of extra bits, which means a T1 circuit using B8ZS can use the full
64 Kbps for each channel for data.
HDB3: The HDB3 code is a bipolar signaling technique that relies on the
transmission of both positive and negative pulses. It is based on Alternate Mark
Inversion (AMI), but extends this by inserting violation codes whenever there is a
run of 4 or more 0's. This and similar (more complex) codes have replaced AMI in
modern distribution networks. Two pulses, called violation pulse and the
balancing pulse, are used when consecutively four or more zeros occur in the bit
stream. When there are four consecutive binary 0 bits, the pulses will be 000V,
where V will be same as the previous non-zero voltage. However, this V pulse
creates a DC component. To overcome this problem, the B bit is introduced. If
there are four consecutive binary 0 bits, the pulse train will be B00V. B is positive
or negative to make alternate Vs of opposite polarity.
Digital-To-Analog Conversion:
It is a process by which digital signals (which have a binary state) are converted to
analog signals. When data from one computer is sent to another via some analog
carrier, it is first converted into analog signals. Analog signals are modified to
reflect digital data.
An analog signal is characterized by its amplitude, frequency, and phase. There
are three kinds of digital-to-analog conversions:

Example: An analog signal carries 2 bits per signal element. If 3000 signal
elements are sent per second, find the bit rate.

Ans: Here, r=2, S=3000 and N=?

So, we know:

1
S=N × r baud

N=S × r

=3000 × 2

=6000 bps
Amplitude Shift Keying: In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier
signal isvaried to create signal elements. Both frequency and phase
remainconstant while the amplitude changes.

Binary ASK (BASK): ASK is normally implemented using only two levels. This is
referred to as binary amplitude shift keying or on-off keying (OOK). The peak
amplitude of one signal level is 0; the other is the same as the amplitude of the
carrier frequency.

Example: We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to
300 kHz. What are the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data
by using ASK with d=1?

Ans:

B=(1+d) × S=2 × N × (1/r)=2 × N= 100 kHz N= 50 kbps

Frequency Shift Keying: Frequency Shift Keying FSK is the digital modulation
technique in which the frequency of the carrier signal varies according to the
digital signal changes. FSK is a scheme of frequency modulation.

Binary FSK (BFSK): In BFSK, the frequency of the sinusoidal carrier signal is
changed according to the message level (“0” or “1”), while keeping the phase and
amplitude constant.Binary FSK (or BFSK) is to consider two carrier frequencies.
We have selected two carrier frequencies, f1 and f2. We use the first carrier if the
data element is 0; we use the second if the data element is 1. Normally the carrier
frequencies are very high, and the difference between them is very small. The
middle of one bandwidth is f1 and the middle of the other is f2. Both f1 and f2 are
Δfapart from the midpoint between the two bands. The difference between the
two frequencies is 2Δf.

Implementation: BFSK implementation takes place in two ways: Noncoherent and

Coherent. In noncoherent BFSK, there may be discontinuity in the phase when
one signal element ends and the next begins. Non coherent BFSK can be
implemented by treating BFSK as two ASK modulations and using two carrier
frequencies.
In coherent BFSK, the phase continues through the boundary of two signal
elements. Coherent BFSK can be implemented by using one voltage-controlled
oscillator (VCO) that changes its frequency according to the input voltage.

In this following figure we can see the simplified idea behind the second
implementation. The input to the oscillator is the unipolar NRZ signal. When the
amplitude of NRZ is zero, the oscillator keeps its regular frequency,when the
amplitude is positive, the frequency is increased.

Phase Shift Keying: Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation process

which conveys data by changing the phase of a constant frequency reference
signal (the carrier wave).

Binary PSK (BPSK): This is also called as 2-phase PSK or Phase Reversal Keying. In
this technique, the sine wave carrier takes two phase reversals such as 0° and
180°. Binary PSK is as simple as binary ASK with one big advantage is that it is less
susceptible to noise.
Implementation: The implementation of BPSK is very simple. The reason is that
the signal element with phase 180° can be seenas the complement of the signal
element with phase 0°. The polar NRZ signal is multiplied by the carrier
frequency,the 1 bit (positive voltage) is represented by a phase startingat 0°; the 0
bit (negative voltage) is represented by a phase starting at 180°.

Quadrature PSK (QPSK):

Constellation Diagram: A constellation diagram is a representation of a signal
modulated by a digital modulation scheme such as quadrature amplitude
modulation or phase-shift keying.

The X-axis represents the in-phase carrier and the Y-axis represents quadrature
carrier. The point from X-axis defines the amplitude of the in-phase component.
The point from Y-axis defines the amplitude of the quadrature component. The
two points connects to the origin and makes a line that is the peak amplitude of
the signal element. This line produces an angle with the X-axis which is called the
phase of the signal element.

Example: The following figure shows the constellation diagrams. Analyze each
case separately:

 For ASK, we are using only an in-phase carrier. Therefore, the two points
should be on the X axis. Binary 0 has an amplitude of 0 V; binary 1 has an
amplitude of 1 V. The points are located at the origin and at 1 unit.

 BPSK also uses only an in-phase carrier. However, we use a polar NRZ
signal for modulation. It creates two types of signal elements, one with
amplitude 1 and the other with amplitude -1. This can be stated in other
words, BPSK creates two different signal elements, one with amplitude 1 V
and in phase and the other with amplitude 1 V and 180° out of phase.

 QPSK uses two carriers, one in-phase and the other quadrature. The point
representing 11 is made of two combined signal elements, both with
amplitude of 1 V. One element is represented by an in-phase carrier, the
other by a quadrature carrier. All signal elements have amplitude of 21 /2 but
their phases are different. Of course, we could have chosen the amplitude
of the carrier to be 1/(21 /2 ¿ to make the final amplitudes 1 V.
Conclusion: A computer network is designed to send information from one
point to another. This information is needed to be converted to either a digital
signal or an analog signal for transmission. And for these reasons we need to
adapt the proper knowledge of transmission.