Chapter 6 Reviewer
Nature of Learning – It is a process that occurs in the individual’s development
that involves changes in behavior.
It occurs at the level of emotion, feeling, values, and motor-learning skills.
Types of Learning:
1. Classical Conditioning – The subject learns to associate a neutral stimuli with
a meaningful stimuli through the consistent exposure of such stimuli.
*The main proponent of this theory is IVAN PAVLOV, he did his experiment on
dogs; wherein a dog was supposed to salivate at the sight of dinner. By adding
neutral stimuli to the factor (ringing a bell or hitting a tuning fork) when dinner
was served, the dog began to be conditioned to salivate at a neutral stimuli (the
bell) because of its association with dinner.
*Classical conditioning conditions the organism to connect two stimuli together,
to the extent that they begin to share the same value.
2. Operant Conditioning – The subject in this regard is placed in a controlled
environment and exposed to various means of reinforcing wanted behavior
through reward and punishment.
*The main proponent of this theory is B.F. SKINNER’s S-R Psychology. A rat is
placed in a cage with two lights and a lever, when one of the lights flashes, the
rat may pull the lever. One of the lights will trigger a mild electric shock, while
the other light will dispense a food pellet for the rat. The rat will eventually learn
that it should only pull the lever when the light that corresponds to food is
flashed.
*The subject in this method, learns through the reinforcing factor of reward and
punishment. Since rewards is attached to pleasure, and punishment is attached
to pain, the subject begins to understand ‘proper’ behavior after several trials.
3. Cognitive Learning – The subject in this method forms a schema in which
knowledge is preserved and organized. This knowledge is reused and modified
as it becomes recalled from time to time.
*Learning is related with “knowing” and “perceiving”
*Insight – The individual is faced with a problematic situation in which he or she
would begin to see relationships that are essential to the solution of the
problem. This can happen spontaneously.
* Problem Solving – The individual fully and completely analyzes the situation,
and would try to relate its elements to other situations in the past to find
meaningful connections and possible solutions. (i.e. Narrowing down the choices
to the closest possible answer in a multiple choice test)
* Observational / Imitative Learning – The individual tries to follow the lead of
another by observing and mimicking (imitating) it.
* Trial and Error – A.K.A. ‘Fumble and Stumble.’ The subject solves a problem by
trying every method or creates, by itself, a method to solve a problem. The best
possible solution that could be derived from the attempts would be delegated as
the ‘proper’ method.
Factors Affecting The Learning Process
1. Individual Differences – can include personal characteristics, preferences,
aptitude, interests, degree of intelligence and learning processes.
2. Motivation and Interest – Can serve as a goal in which the subject is driven to
achieve because of its attraction or desire of fulfilling such goal or objective.
3. Emotions – These are the inner feelings of the subject that could lead to
bodily reactions. Negative emotions can lead to poor performance, while
positive emotions can enhance performance.
4. Practice – as a form of reinforcement, practice exposes the subject to
constant repetition and exercise of a particular activity or performance. The
subject begins to ‘absorb’ or integrate the act as it masters it through practice.
5. Subject Matter – Involves the degree of difficulty, interest, and familiarity that
is elicited by the material to be studied or learned. Familiarity for example, can
make the a certain topic easier on the individual.
6. Reinforcements and Incentives – These are forms of rewards and punishment.
Rewards are associated with pleasure while punishment becomes associated
with pain.
Principles of Effective Learning
1. Take into consideration the individual factors in learning.
2. Motivate the learners.
3. Set attainable goals.
4. Monitor progress and performance.
5. Use reinforcements and incentives.
6. Stimulate the five senses.
7. Make the learner participate in the learning activity.
8. Relate the topic with previously learned ideas.
9. Associate topics with the experience of the learner.
10. Emphasize the meaning of the topic and deliver it to the learner in a
systematic way.
Improving Academic Memory (Pinoy Style)
1. Make sure that the material to be studied is manageable; don’t
overwhelm yourself with too much information.
2. Make the material meaningful. Try to make it significant to yourself.
3. Learn the whole not the parts. Begin with an overview, rather than a
part by part outlook of the subject matter.
4. Recite to check recall. Verbally repeat what you know in order to
check your comprehension.
5. Overlearn. Review more than what you are supposed to review, to
the extent that you can remember your lessons while you are
sleeping.
6. Make use of study breaks and rewards. Motivate yourself once in a
while so as reduces lapses in concentration. Mental efficiency can
only reach its potential in short moments.
7. Space study sessions. Give more study time by spreading it evenly
throughout the day. Don’t study everything in one sitting.
8. Avoid interference. Eliminate sources of disruption and distraction in
your studies. Multitasking is an inefficient way to study.
9. Manage time properly. Avoid procrastination. Don’t delay your
studies and cram to the last minute.
Importance of Learning in Business
• The training of employees is important in the development of skills
and work efficiency.
• These learning principles will also be helpful in advertising and
selling can help reinforce certain behaviors in your consumer so as
to ‘train’ them to buy one’s products.
Thinking
• Thinking is a process of reasoning that is aimed at solving problems.
It is a collection of internal processes in which problems are solved
mentally.
• Psychology considers thinking as a complex mental process which
includes understanding, language, memory retrieval and perceiving
patterns in sensory inputs. It is now referred to as the cognitive
process.
• Thinking is also the process that gives meaning and sense to
sensory inputs. It allows us to mentally manipulate objects in our
minds as if we were simulating a possible function or solution for a
given situation.
Components of Thought
1. Mental Images – These are visual scenes, sounds, and tactile (touch)
sensations that are manipulated in our minds in a logical and
systematic way.
2. Concepts – These are mental groupings of events, objects and other
things. They are categorized according to their meaning. It is the
reduction of a perceivable object as an idea through abstraction,
and are expressed through language using words, symbols, and
signs.
Problem Solving
*Arises when there is a discrepancy between a present and a perceived goal.
*It is oriented at finding a way in which one is able to bridge this gap in a
situation and a perceived goal. (i.e. passing a difficult test; fixing the flush in
someone’s toilet that you had just used, etc.)
* It is consist of three components
a. The original state of the situation.
b. The goal state, which you want to achieve.

c. The rules or restrictions that govern the possible ways in which you could
reach your goal state. (i.e. Toilet mechanism, or difficult accounting principles.)

Stages of Problem Solving

1. Defining the problem – Knowing exactly what the hell is wrong with
the current situation. It is an assessment of problems that may arise
in your current state.

2. Generating Possible Solutions – Coming up with solutions through

methods. You can narrow them down through heuristics (a process
that is used in finding a solution and narrowing down possibilities).

3. Evaluating Solutions – Involves the application of the solution and

evaluating its effect on reaching one’s goal.

Divergent and Convergent Thinking

• These are two types of thinking that are related with problem
solving

• Divergent thinking involves the recollection of past solutions or an

innovation of new ideas for a certain problem. It tries to diverge
(develop in a different direction) through a problem by looking at
every possible angles of the situation in which various solutions
might apply themselves to.

• Convergent thinking involves the application of rules and

procedures that suitable for a given situation.

• The relationship between the two is that at first, an individual tries

various solutions through divergence. In order to narrow down the
best solution for the situation, the individual converges the best
possible solution to a problem.