The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Chapter 31
The ingenuity of many inventors and engineers has
been devoted to the application of fossil fuel-fired
steam boilers and engines to ship propulsion. The need
for higher power, lower weight and smaller volume de-
signs for ships drove many of the boiler system ad-
vances that ultimately appeared in stationary boilers
designed and used today.
The primary propulsion systems in ships today, how-
ever, have progressed to diesel engines, gas turbines
and even nuclear power systems in naval applications.
(See Chapter 46.) Nevertheless, there remain require-
ments aboard new ships to produce steam for a vari-
ety of needs. In addition, a large existing population
of contemporary ships, such as the LASH (lighter
aboard ship) class container ships (Fig. 1), continues
to use steam boilers as their primary source of power.
Finally, increasing fuel costs have led to investigations
of burning coal-water mixtures, coal-oil mixtures and
other fuels in steam-based systems for use in the future.
The Babcock & Wilcox Company (B&W) marine boil-
ers have established a reputation for dependability
and efficiency. The history of these boilers reflects
sound principles of design and fabrication. Since the
first installation in the S.S. Monroe in 1875, B&W boil-
ers have been installed in more than 4000 ships of the
United States (U.S.) Navy and the Merchant Marine.
During World War I, B&W boilers were installed in
50 mine sweepers, 100 destroyers, and 500 Shipping
Board vessels. During World War II, B&W boilers
were furnished to the Navy for all but two battleships
(such as the U.S.S. Missouri, shown in the chapter
frontispiece), all the cruisers, all aircraft carriers (see
U.S.S. John F. Kennedy in the chapter frontispiece),
90% of the destroyers, 33% of the destroyer escorts and
numerous miscellaneous small craft.
General design considerations
Steam generating equipment for marine service is
designed in accordance with the principles and con-
siderations that apply to stationary units with modi-
fications to meet specific requirements for operation
at sea. The boiler must fit within a minimum engine
room space, yet be accessible for operation, inspection
and maintenance. Although lightweight, it must be
sufficiently rugged to operate dependably under ad-
verse sea conditions and to absorb vibration and forces
resulting from rolling and pitching in heavy seas or
from shocks that may result from accidental causes
Steam 41 / Marine Applications
Marine Applications
such as groundings and collisions. Special steam drum
design requirements must be met to accommodate roll
of the ship from side to side, pitch variations from bow
up to bow down, permanent list to either side and per-
manent trim to either bow or stern. In the case of na-
val vessels, the shock effects of the detonation of ex-
plosives must also be considered. Operation over a wide
load range with operating characteristics compatible
with a high degree of automation is also required. Fi-
nally, the factors used in both the thermal and struc-
tural design must be conservative so that continuous
operation over extended periods of time will be pro-
vided with minimum maintenance. These factors com-
bined with the use of several different fuels have led
to a variety of B&W marine boiler designs.
Integral Furnace naval boiler
The Integral Furnace naval type boiler (Fig. 2) is
fitted with welded high strength, low weight stainless
or low-alloy steel casings. Furnace roof, side and rear
walls are water-cooled by 2 in. (50.8 mm) outside di-
ameter (OD) close-spaced tubes. Front (burner) wall
and floor are usually refractory, but some recent boil-
ers have water-cooled front walls. Steam drum diam-
eters range from 54 to 60 in. (1.37 to 1.52 m) and wa-
ter drums vary from 27 to 36 in. (0.69 to 0.91 m). Two
to four rows of 2 in. (50.8 mm) OD tubes form the su-
perheater screen. The superheater has 1.00 or 1.25
in. (25.4 or 31.8 mm) OD tubes arranged in a maxi-
mum of 8 rows deep with provision for complete
drainability. The boiler bank is usually inclined and
Fig. 1 S.S. President Tyler, LASH Class container ship (courtesy of
American President Companies, Ltd.).
31-1
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 2 Two-drum boiler, naval type.
has from 18 to 23 rows of 1.00 in. (25.4 mm) OD tubes.
For maximum efficiency, the boiler is fitted with a stud-
tube economizer and in some cases, steam air heaters.
Range in size, steam output:
To 350,000 lb/h (44.1 kg/s) in no fixed increments
Operating pressure:
Up to 1200 psig (8.27 MPa)
Steam temperature:
Saturation to 1000F (538C)
Fuel:
Navy special fuel oil (residual)
Multipurpose fuel oil
Operational control:
Manual to complete automatic, combustion and
feedwater regulation.
Draft loss at maximum output:
Up to about 75 in. wg (18.7 kPa) total through
all components
Dimensions outside setting:
Smallest – 14 ft 2 in. high × 15 ft 1 in. wide × 10
ft 6 in. deep (4.32 m × 4.60 m × 3.20 m)
Largest – 21 ft 5 in. high × 18 ft 11 in. wide × 16
ft deep (6.53 m × 5.77 m × 4.88 m)
Indicated field of application
The primary use of these boilers is for combat or
auxiliary naval vessels or special installations.
General comments
The nature of the construction and the rating at
which these boilers operate limit their use to naval or
high speed naval auxiliary vessels requiring maximum
power in minimum space. They are designed for maxi-
mum efficiency at cruising speed, and some attainable
efficiency is sacrificed to develop high power-to-weight
and power-to-boiler volume ratios. The construction in-
31-2
cludes lightweight tubes, high-tensile drum plates, and
other special features to minimize weight.
Integral Furnace merchant boiler
The Integral Furnace merchant boiler became the
marine industry standard after World War II. The
boilers were originally designed as tangent tube (Figs.
3 and 4) and refractory construction (water-cooled fur-
nace) and more recently, membrane furnace construc-
tion (water-cooled, welded-wall furnace). Both types
have a single gas pass with a 2 row, 2 in. (50.8 mm)
OD screen before the superheater, steam drum diam-
eters ranging from 54 to 72 in. (1.37 to 1.83 m) and
water drums from 30 to 36 in. (0.76 to 0.91 m).
The tangent tube furnace is water-cooled by closely
spaced 2 in. (50.8 mm) OD tubes on the side, roof, front
and rear walls. Recent designs have sloped and bare
furnace floor tubes with consequent reduction in ex-
posed refractory. In designs with refractory floors, the
tubes are usually buried in the floor to reduce refrac-
tory temperature and increase refractory life.
The membrane furnace is water-cooled by welded-wall
construction consisting of 2.75 in. (69.9 mm) OD tubes
on 3-9/16 in. (90.5 mm) centers. This applies to the fur-
nace floor, front, rear and side walls. The floor is covered
with firebrick to protect the tubes from overheating.
In either style boiler, an inclined or vertical boiler
tube bank, composed of 2 to 4 rows of 2 in. (50.8 mm)
OD screen tubes and 17 to 24 rows of 1.25 in. (31.8
mm) OD generating tubes, may be used. The super-
heater consists of either horizontal or vertical 1.25 in.
(31.8 mm) OD tubes and has one or two access cavi-
ties to facilitate water washing, cleaning, inspection,
and maintenance of the superheater and boiler bank.
A single cavity is normally provided when the fouling
characteristics of Bunker C oil are average, and two
Steam 41 / Marine Applications
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

cavities are used when fouling characteristics are

more severe. The boiler is generally equipped with
steam atomizing burners, retractable sootblowers, and
an air heater or an economizer.
Indicated field of application
These designs are primarily used for propulsion
power, although they are also used without a super-
heater for auxiliary or heating service in the smaller sizes
where space is at a premium, a compact lightweight
design is needed, and feedwater is of good quality.
Range in size, steam output:
To 400,000 lb/h (50.4 kg/s) in no fixed increments
Operating pressure:
up to 1200 psig (0.69 to 8.27 MPa)
Steam temperature:
Saturation to 1000F (538C)
Fuel:
Oil (light fractions to heavy residuals) and
liquified natural gas (LNG)
Operational control:
Manual or completely automatic, including feed-
water flow, combustion and steam temperature
controls
Draft loss at maximum output:
From 15 to 30 in. wg (3.7 to 7.5 kPa) total through
all components
Dimensions outside setting:
Smallest – 7 ft 8 in. high × 5 ft 5 in. wide × 5 ft 6
in. deep (2.34 m × 1.65 m × 1.68 m) Fig. 3 Two-drum Integral Furnace boiler with vertical superheater.
Largest – 41 ft 6 in. high × 34 ft 3 in. wide × 24
ft 1 in. deep (12.65 m × 10.44 m × 7.34 m)

General comments
Designs of this type are suitable for vessels where
large power plants must be installed in a minimum of
space, and where weight saving is a vital consider-
ation. Many possible variations in configuration per-
mit application under limited space conditions. Mass
action retractable sootblowers are recommended for
the superheater zones.

Reheat boilers
Although reheat boilers have not been extensively
used in the marine industry, there have been several
applications. In considering a reheat boiler for shipboard
applications, one design feature must be considered.
That feature is the protection of the reheater tubes when
the main propulsion turbine is in astern operation or
stopped. B&W has designed the boiler with damper and
bypass systems, as well as with extensive screen tube
protection systems in front of the reheater.
The marine reheat boiler is of the two-drum divided
inclined boiler bank type, capable of burning fuel oil
or natural gas. Other than the reheater, reheat screen,
baffle wall and damper system, the reheat boiler is
similar to the tangent tube boiler.

Coal-fired marine boilers

Up until the late 1970s, coal-fired marine boilers
put into service were for vessels on the Great Lakes. Fig. 4 Two-drum Integral Furnace boiler with horizontal superheater.

Steam 41 / Marine Applications 31-3

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
These units were built in the late 1950s, and were for
relatively low-pressure and low-temperature condi-
tions. The boiler designs were either the sectional
header type or the two-drum type. This two-drum
boiler had the same physical appearance as many of
the newer oil-fired two-drum boilers. However, because
coal firing requires a much lower furnace heat release
rate than oil firing for proper combustion, the result
was less steam generating capacity for the same ship-
board space availability.
As with a land-based unit, boiler design begins with
the stoker. The maximum stoker grate release rate for
good operation and for prevention of grate overload-
ing is 750,000 Btu/h ft2 (2.37 MWt /m2) of grate sur-
face. Another requirement for good stoker operation,
particularly when flyash and unburned carbon are
re-injected into the furnace, is a limit of input to the
stoker of 13 × 106 Btu/h ft (12.5 MWt /m) of stoker
width. Exceeding this limit can cause poor fuel distri-
bution on the grate, resulting in uneven burning.
The furnace volume should be set so that the fur-
nace liberation does not exceed 30,000 Btu/h ft3 (0.31
MWt /m3). Adherence to this value will ensure suffi-
cient residence time in the furnace to properly burn
the fuel and minimize slagging and fouling.
The coal-fired marine boiler has a totally different
appearance than that of the customary oil-fired ma-
rine boiler. The furnace extends considerably below
the centerline of the lower drum. This dimension, com-
monly called the setting height of the furnace, is the
dimension from the top of the stoker to the centerline
of the water drum. Generally, on units of this capacity,
setting heights range from 16 to 20 ft (4.9 to 6.1 m).
This boiler has been specifically designed to make
full power by either burning 100% coal or 100% oil.
When burning coal and with a grate release rate of
750,000 Btu/h ft2 (2.37 MWt /m2), the approximate
turndown ratio of the stoker will be 3:1. However, with
the oil burners, the turndown ratio can be as high as
16:1. Therefore, if required during maneuvering
modes of operation, the boiler can be readily fired by
oil and have the full flexibility and response time
needed for this condition. The design operating con-
ditions are 875 psig (6.03 MPa) and 900F (482C) with
steam capacity ranging from 60,000 to 150,000 lb/h
(7.6 to 18.9 kg/s).
Additional features of this design address other
impacts of coal and its associated ash loading. Retract-
able sootblowers, hoppers, dust collection equipment
and flyash re-injection are all included.
Auxiliary package marine boilers
As the marine industry has shifted its emphasis
from main steam propulsion systems to diesel propul-
sion, the need developed for a simple, low-cost, self-
contained auxiliary boiler.
B&W developed an Integral Furnace, two-drum D-
type package boiler (FMB) that could operate as a
stand-alone unit or in conjunction with a diesel or gas
turbine exhaust waste heat boiler.
The boiler in Fig. 5 represents the marine package
design conforming to the requirements of U.S. Coast
31-4
Guard (USCG) and American Bureau of Shipping (ABS)
Rules. The unit is shop-assembled, including furnace
and firing equipment. It is not intended for ship propul-
sion, but as a means of supplying auxiliary steam.
The boiler incorporates a compact vertical bank of
2 in. (50.8 mm) OD tubes arranged between and ter-
minating in an upper and lower drum. The tube ends
are expanded into tube seats that are grooved to ob-
tain maximum tightness.
A 54 in. (1.37 m) nominal diameter steam drum is
required to promote water level stability even during
wide variations in load, and helps to ensure dry, satu-
rated steam. The requirements for this drum include
satisfactory operation under the following conditions:
30 degree roll to each side for a 15 second period,
10 degree pitch from bow up to bow down for a 6
second period,
15 degree permanent list to either side, and
5 degree permanent trim to either the bow or stern.
Under any of these adverse conditions, the downcom-
ers and boiler bank generating tubes will not uncover.
The furnace and boiler are covered by a 20 gauge
(0.9 mm) nonpressurized galvanized steel ribbed lag-
ging except in areas such as the steam drum joints and
bent tube portions of the walls, which are covered by
a 12 gauge (2.7 mm) carbon steel casing.
The boiler furnace unit is arranged for upward ex-
pansion and is mounted on a welded structural base
frame, ready for positioning on the ship’s foundations.
The unit has a furnace with a refractory covered flat
floor, and a boiler bank. The furnace side wall, roof,
floor and rear wall are completely water-cooled and
form an integral part of the boiler circuitry. One burner
is used in the refractory front wall.
Water-cooled furnace wall tubes, comprising the side
wall, roof and floor, are of membrane construction. The
rear furnace wall is 2 in. (50.8 mm) OD flat-studded
tubes on 4 in. (101.6 mm) centers. A 10 gauge (3.4 mm)
steel inner casing backs the flat-studded wall. The fur-
nace wall tubes receive their flow from the lower drum
Fig. 5 Auxiliary package marine boiler.
Steam 41 / Marine Applications
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

and discharge the steam-water mixture into the steam

drum. The 2.75 in. (69.9 mm) OD furnace, roof and floor
tubes are a part of the furnace side wall circuitry. The
furnace front wall (burner wall) is of refractory an-
chored construction and is backed by insulation and a
gas-tight casing.
These marine auxiliary package boilers are de-
signed to provide unattended operation with controls
that are fully automatic after the boiler is on line.
Range in size, steam output:
To 100,000 lb/h (12.6 kg/s) in no fixed increments
Operating pressure:
225 psig (1.55 MPa)
Steam temperature:
Saturation only
Fuel:
Fig. 6 M.V. Potomac Trader, LaJolla Class vessel with diesel
Oil, light fractions to heavy residuals propulsion plus waste heat and auxiliary steam boilers (courtesy
Dimensions outside setting: Penn-Attransco Corp.).
Overall width is 12 ft 6.25 in. (3.82 m), overall
height (base to face of steam outlet flange) is One mode of operation has an auxiliary boiler op-
16 ft 9.75 in. (5.12 m) with drum centers at 12 erating in conjunction with the waste heat boiler sys-
ft 10 in. (3.91 m). These dimensions are con- tem. (See Fig. 8.) The main diesel engine exhaust gas
stant for all boiler sizes. The length is variable is directed to the waste heat boiler. The gas then en-
to establish the various boiler sizes and ranges ters the boiler and crossflows over the in-line extended
from about 12 to 18 ft (3.66 to 5.49 m). surface to the waste heat boiler exit where it is then
sent to the stack.
Waste heat marine boilers The auxiliary boiler feed pump supplies condensate
With the use of diesel or gas turbine propulsion sys- to the auxiliary boiler steam drum. The circulating
tems, such as aboard the LaJolla class ship, shown in pumps take suction from the auxiliary boiler lower
Fig. 6, it is often advantageous to incorporate a waste drum and feed the waste heat boiler. Flow is upward
heat (exhaust gas) boiler system that, in addition to through the waste heat boiler to its outlet where the
an auxiliary boiler, supplies saturated steam and im- resulting steam-water mixture is conducted through
proves overall plant efficiency. piping to the auxiliary boiler’s steam drum. All steam
The waste heat boiler system is composed of a forced for ship services is drawn through the auxiliary boiler’s
circulation, spiral wound, finned tube or studded tube cyclone steam separators so that the auxiliary boiler
boiler (Fig. 7); auxiliary steam drum; and control acts as the steam drum of the exhaust gas boiler. The
equipment. auxiliary boiler will fire automatically to maintain the
The waste heat boiler unit is arranged for upward steam pressure within an adjustable band.
expansion and is ready for positioning on the ship’s The alternate mode of operation for this system, with
foundation. It is designed to operate under either a wet the auxiliary boiler, has the boiler feed pump supply
or dry condition and can serve as a muffler or sound condensate to the auxiliary steam drum. The circu-
reducer whether filled with water or in a dry state. lating pumps take suction from the auxiliary steam
The horizontal waste heat boiler uses the B&W con-
tinuous stud tube extended surface or a spiral wound,
finned type surface. The elements including the inlet
and outlet headers are located inside a welded gas-tight
casing, arranged for bottom support. This boiler consists
of 1.5 in. (38.1 mm) OD steel tubes and studs or fins.
The boiler elements, headers, casing, integral sup-
port steel and framing angles are shop-assembled. The
tubes are supported by tube support plates. The unit
is single-cased and of welded construction. The cas-
ing provides a gas-tight seal and is fitted with access
panels for inspection purposes. Support of the exhaust
gas boiler is on the ship’s structural members.
A 36 or 42 in. (0.91 or 1.07 m) nominal diameter
auxiliary steam drum is provided to meet anticipated
list and trip operating conditions as well as to promote
water level stability. The effect of shrink and swell is
controlled by forced circulation with a minimum 4:1
circulation ratio, cyclone steam separators and the
large diameter steam drum. Fig. 7 Waste heat marine boiler.

Steam 41 / Marine Applications 31-5

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 8 Shipboard steam system combining auxiliary boiler and waste heat boiler.
drum and feed the waste heat boiler. Flow is upward
through the boiler to its outlet, where the resulting
steam-water mixture is conducted through piping to
the auxiliary steam drum. The auxiliary boiler may
be isolated and unfired in this condition for mainte-
nance or to accommodate steam demand. It may also
be fired automatically to maintain the steam pressure
within an adjustable band.
Marine boiler design
The techniques used in the design of marine boil-
ers are similar to those applied to stationary units
(Chapters 19, 20 and 21). However, the design of
marine boilers is also subject to constraints and re-
quirements that are specific to marine plants. These
include space conditions, fireroom configuration, list
and trim, pitch and roll, and ship maneuverability. In
addition to the codes and standards used for station-
ary boilers (i.e., ASME, ANSI), other codes apply. Ex-
amples include the United States Coast Guard Marine
Engineering Regulations, subchapter F and other
subchapters, American Bureau of Shipping (ABS)
Rules, and Lloyd’s Register of Shipping Rules.
Design procedures and guidelines for marine boil-
ers are generally set in the Society of Naval Architects
and Marine Engineers (SNAME) Technical Bulletin
No. 3-32 (Furnace Performance Criteria for Gas, Oil
and Coal Fired Boilers, 1981) and No. 3-11 (Marine
Steam Plant Heat Balance Practices).
Fuel characteristics can have considerable bearing
on the design. Regardless of whether oil or coal is used,
the chemical analysis and ash characteristics are par-
ticularly important and should be specified so that heat
transfer surface can be arranged to minimize corro-
sion and deposition from ash and slag.
Boiler design for a particular application starts by
establishing the dimensions and arrangement of the
furnace. Within this volume the desired fuel-burning
equipment can be installed and the fuel burned effi-
31-6
ciently, without exceeding allowable furnace heat ab-
sorption rates. This is a major concern where small
furnaces are needed to fit into restricted shipboard
engine room space.
The furnace arrangement and dimensions gener-
ally establish the overall size of the boiler bank. There-
fore, the first step in designing a new boiler is to pre-
pare a preliminary layout of a suitable furnace. To do
this, the amount of fuel to be fired is calculated based
on the required steam flow, pressure and temperature,
as well as on feedwater temperature and efficiency. It
is then possible to estimate the type and number of
burners to be used, the allowable pressure drop
through the burners for good combustion conditions,
the size and shape of the furnace to properly accom-
modate the burners for good combustion, and the al-
lowable furnace heat absorption rate.
Oil burners
The type and number of oil burners selected depend
on the fuel rate and the allowable air resistance. The
number is usually not less than two, so that at least
one burner operates at all times, even when chang-
ing sprayer plates or cleaning atomizers of the idle
burners. Many types of oil burners are available. The
burners described in Chapter 11 are for stationary
boilers and are for burning natural gas and oil, as well
as other gaseous type fuels or mixtures.
Marine burners are generally designed solely for
burning oil. Since World War II, three types or sizes
of registers were applied to most merchant marine and
naval vessels. They were the Iowa, Saratoga and
Progress types and covered oil flow rates up to 7000
lb/h (0.9 kg/s) or 130 × 106 Btu/h (38.1 MWt) input per
register with excess air of 10 to 20%.
With the pursuit of more efficient steam propulsion
systems in the 1970s, B&W developed a low excess air
burner (5 to 10%) to be used on merchant ships. These
burners were designed to burn natural gas or oil up
to 130 × 106 Btu/h (38.1 MWt) input. The burners are
Steam 41 / Marine Applications
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
available in throat sizes from 15 to 30 in. (381 to 762
mm) (Fig. 9) and have pressure drops of 8 in. wg (2
kPa) at normal operating conditions.
Prior to 1970, most steam ships used a mechanical
atomizer. However, B&W developed and introduced the
wide range Racer® steam atomizers or sprayer plate.
This steam atomizing sprayer plate provided coverage
over the full range of operation. The properly sized and
selected sprayer plate will cover the range from mini-
mum to the designed maximum overload firing rate as
long as atomizing steam is available. This steam atom-
izer and burner are capable of operating at extremely
low firing rates without loss of good combustion or ig-
nition as long as proper fuel oil temperature and proper
air flow (air/oil ratio) are maintained.
When maneuvering, or at any time during port op-
eration or normal operation at sea, it should not be
necessary to secure burners unless the steam demand
is less than that produced with all burners in service
at the minimum fuel oil pressure. During normal op-
eration, all burners should be kept in use for all rates
of operation.
For all fuel oil pressures, the atomizing steam pres-
sure should be constant and should be maintained at
135 psig (0.93 MPa) at the burner. Due to the pres-
sure drop between the atomizing steam header and
the burner, this is equivalent to a steam pressure of
approximately 150 psig (1.03 MPa) at the atomizing
steam header.
When burning heavy residual fuel oil, certain mini-
mum clearances are required around the burners to
prevent flame impingement and carbon deposits. To
assure complete combustion of the fuel, the furnace
depth is usually limited to a minimum of 6 ft (1.83 m),
although both diesel and bunker oils have been
burned successfully in furnaces 5 ft (1.52 m) or less
in depth.
Furnace heat absorption
In the marine field, the heat release rate per unit
furnace volume is frequently used for comparing boil-
ers without regard to similarity of design. This ratio is
not an important design criterion as it provides only an
approximation of the time required for the products of
combustion to pass through the furnace. However, it
may be used to indicate the operating range for which
the firing equipment is to maintain satisfactory com-
bustion conditions. In naval vessels, the availability of
suitable oil burners has permitted the installation of
high capacity lightweight boiler units with heat released
at a rate of 200,000 Btu/h ft3 (2.07 MWt /m3) of furnace
volume at cruising conditions and more than 1,000,000
Btu/h ft3 (10.3 MWt /m3) at the maximum evaporative
condition with satisfactory results. For merchant ships,
arbitrary limits of 75,000 to 90,000 Btu/h ft3 (0.77 to
0.93 MWt /m3) at the normal rate of operation are com-
monly specified.
A more meaningful criterion of furnace design is the
heat absorbed by the cold surfaces of the furnace, ex-
pressed as the amount of heat absorbed per square
feet of radiant heat-absorbing surface as discussed in
Chapter 19. The considerations described also apply
to marine units, with particular emphasis on the de-
Steam 41 / Marine Applications
termination of the furnace exit gas temperature to
assure satisfactory superheater design and to estab-
lish the heat absorption by the furnace wall tubes for
adequate circulation margins.
Marine boilers operate with higher heat input rates
per square foot of boiler and superheater surfaces than
stationary boilers designed for the same steam outputs.
They have less heating surface and smaller overall di-
mensions. Flame temperatures more closely approach
the adiabatic temperature, and furnace exit gas tem-
peratures are considerably higher than those encoun-
tered in stationary boilers. Fig. 10a indicates the effect
of excess air on furnace temperature.
The effectiveness of the water-cooled surface in the
furnace is determined by applying the factors shown
in Chapter 4 to the flat projected areas of the furnace
walls and tube banks facing the furnace. Bare tan-
gent tubes or membrane tubes are used wherever
possible in furnace waterwalls. Where tubes must be
spaced to facilitate replacement, it is preferable to limit
the width of the exposed refractory areas between
tubes to 1 in. (25.4 mm) or less to avoid wastage re-
sulting from sodium compounds in the oil ash. The
effect of wall tube spacing, or the ratio of water-cooled
surface to refractory surface, on furnace heat absorp-
tion is shown in Fig. 10b. The heat absorption rate in
the furnace increases with increased firing rate. How-
ever, furnace absorption as a percentage of the total
boiler absorption decreases with increased firing rate
as indicated in Fig. 10c.
Furnace tube temperatures
In all boiler tubes and particularly in tubes exposed
to the high heat absorption rates of marine furnaces,
adequate circulation must be provided to avoid criti-
cal heat flux (CHF) or departure from nucleate boil-
ing (DNB) as discussed in Chapter 5. This is gener-
ally accomplished by empirical data and methods
based on tests and operating experience. Tube wall
thickness is usually set close to the minimum required
for the design pressure, because weight is a primary
consideration and excess thickness increases external
tube temperature. The heat transfer coefficient across
the boiling water film in the furnace steam generat-
ing tubes can be as high as 20,000 Btu/h ft2 F (114
kW/m2 K). However, in estimating tube temperature,
a conservative value may be used, e.g., 2000 Btu/h
ft2 F (11.4 kW/m2 K), to obtain a somewhat higher
estimated tube temperature, resulting in lower allow-
able stress in the tube metal and therefore a somewhat
more conservative tube thickness.
Fig. 9 B&W Progress-type oil burner with Racer ® steam atomizer.
31-7
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 10 General effect of excess air (a), ratio of heat-absorbing to refractory surface (b), and firing rate (c) on furnace heat absorption and
temperature based on 18,500 Btu/lb (43 MJ/kg) fuel oil.
Scale deposits on the water side of boiler tubes are
a long recognized cause of tube failure. These depos-
its can be particularly serious in the furnace tubes of
marine units because of the high heat absorption
rates. As an example, a calcium sulfate scale deposit
on the inside of a tube with a thickness of only 0.024
in. (0.61 mm) and a thermal conductivity of 0.83 Btu/
h ft F (1.44 W/m K) results in a 362F (201C) tempera-
ture differential across the scale. For a boiler operat-
ing at 665 psig (4.59 MPa), this scale would increase
the tube outside metal temperature to 1004F (540C).
This temperature exceeds the oxidation limit for steel,
and oxidation and ultimate tube burnout will likely
occur, even though boiler circulation may be adequate.
Scale must be avoided by proper water conditioning.
(See Chapter 42.)
Boiler tube banks
The boiler bank, composed of multiple rows of tubes
where steam is generated, generally consists of a
screen ahead of the superheater and a convection
bank behind it. Both sections generate saturated
steam but they are considered separately during the
design stage. The screen tubes, by virtue of their lo-
cation, absorb heat at a considerably higher rate than
the main bank tubes. Consequently, to assure an ad-
equate flow of water, the furnace screen tubes should
be larger in diameter. For this reason, marine boilers
are designed with two sizes of steam generating tubes.
The diameters of screen tubes are generally 2 in. (50.8
mm) while those of the other generating tubes are 1,
1.25 or 2 in. (25.4, 31.8 or 50.8 mm), swaged to 1.5 in.
(38.1 mm) at the drums. Circulation and the amount
of heating surface required to obtain the desired gas
temperature leaving the tube bank are the major fac-
tors in determining the tube size and the number of
tube rows to be installed, although resistance to gas flow
is also a factor.
31-8
In the design of the superheater screen, consider-
ation must be given to the effect of tube spacing and
the number of rows, the desired superheater outlet
temperature and the maximum allowable superheater
tube metal temperatures. The screen must be designed
so that the gas temperature entering the superheater
and the radiant heat penetration from the furnace will
provide the desired steam temperature with a super-
heater of reasonable size and arrangement. Fig. 11
shows the effect of radiant heat penetration on the
performance of the superheater over the designed load
range of the boiler. The number of rows in the boiler
bank is usually established by analyzing the economic
advantages of economizers and air heaters as compared
with boiler surface. The proper proportions of boiler
surface and additional heat-absorbing surface beyond
the boiler bank are based on the efficiency desired.
Superheaters
Superheaters of the convection type are generally
used in marine boilers. While some radiant superheat-
ers have been used, the difficulty of providing adequate
cooling during fast startups and under maneuvering
conditions has severely limited their application.
In the convection superheater, there is usually
enough absorption by radiant heat penetration of the
screen to give a flatter steam temperature character-
istic than would be obtainable by convection alone.
The characteristic steam temperature curves of radiant
and convection superheaters are shown in Chapter 19.
With a properly designed screen between the con-
vection superheater and the furnace, it is possible to
maintain a high temperature differential between the
gas and the steam. This minimizes the amount of heat-
ing surface necessary to obtain the desired steam tem-
perature and reduces the size and weight of the su-
perheater. Superheater heating surface usually con-
sists of U-shaped tubes connected to headers at each
Steam 41 / Marine Applications
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
end, although continuous tube superheaters are used
in special designs.
Either a vertical or a horizontal arrangement may
be used in drum-type boilers. The horizontal arrange-
ment can be vented, drained, and readily cleaned by
mechanical or chemical means. However, complete
draining and venting is possible only with the vessel
on an even keel. Vertical superheaters have inverted
loops and, although drainable at all times, they can
not be vented. Typical superheater arrangements for
a two-drum boiler are shown in Figs. 3 and 4.
Superheater surface is arranged in loops of in-line
tubes (usually one to four loops), and the most com-
monly used tube size is 1.25 in. (31.8 mm) OD. Because
the tubes are relatively short, adequate strength is
available in the usual range of thicknesses to maintain
proper alignment with a minimum of supports. The
number of steam passes is selected to provide sufficient
pressure drop to obtain proper steam distribution and
to assure satisfactory tube metal temperatures.
Good practice requires that maldistribution of gas and
steam be kept to a minimum to maintain proper super-
heater tube temperatures. However, with various fuels
and operating demands it is not possible to maintain the
conditions necessary for perfect distribution. To provide
a satisfactory margin when calculating steam and tube
temperatures, the average gas side heat transfer rate is
increased and the steam side rate is reduced.
For steam temperatures below 850F (454C), tubes
are usually expanded into headers to minimize leak-
age and to reduce maintenance costs. For tempera-
tures above 850F (454C), rolled and seal welded joints,
or joints of the stub welded type, are necessary for sat-
isfactory service.
In addition to being supported by the headers, su-
perheater tubes may also be supported at one or more
Fig. 11 Typical curves showing the effect of superheater location and
firing rate on superheat.
Steam 41 / Marine Applications
points by alloy castings dovetailed into brackets
welded to water-cooled support tubes. With these de-
signs, the superheater tubes can be replaced without
removing the supports.
Superheater fouling and high
temperature corrosion
The use of higher steam temperatures has resulted
in rapid fouling of superheater surfaces and corrosion
and wastage of superheater supports. The heavy ash
deposits come from burning oils with 0.05 to 0.20% or
more ash by weight. The most significant constituents
of the ash are vanadium, sodium and sulfur. Experi-
ence indicates that heavy deposits occur with a com-
bination of high gas and heat-receiving surface tempera-
tures. The heaviest ash accumulations occur on the fur-
nace side of a superheater, where the gas temperatures
are relatively high, while less ash forms at the back side,
where the gas temperatures are much lower. Because
of the potential of high corrosion rates, superheater metal
temperatures should not exceed 1100F (593C). For fur-
ther discussion of high temperature corrosion in oil-fired
boilers, see Oil ash corrosion in Chapter 21.
Steam temperature control
In the marine power plant, just as in the stationary
power plant, accurate control of steam temperature is
required. In most cases steam temperature controls are
used to assure that the allowable metal temperatures
of the main steam piping and the main turbine are not
exceeded. Close control of the maximum steam tempera-
ture permits the use of less expensive alloys in the su-
perheater and piping. Several methods are used for
superheat control, as described in Chapter 19. One or
more methods may be used to alter the characteristic
steam temperature curve of a particular unit design.
One method used in marine boilers is the dual or
two-furnace boiler design. As shown in Fig. 12, the fur-
nace is divided into two sections separated by a su-
perheater and screen tube section. The flue gas flows
successively through the superheat furnace (left hand
furnace), the superheater heat transfer surfaces, the
second furnace (where fuel and air are burned) and,
finally, the boiler bank before being exhausted to the
stack. By varying the oil firing rate in the superheater
furnace, the quantity and temperature of the gases
flowing across the superheater are controlled to ob-
tain the desired steam temperature. At the same time,
the firing rate in the saturated furnace, which con-
tains no superheater surface, is adjusted to hold the
desired steam pressure.
In most modern two-drum boilers, steam tempera-
ture is controlled, where required, through the use of
a drum-type surface attemperator. With this type of
control, all of the flue gas passes over the superheater,
but a portion of the steam is passed through the
attemperator, which is a steam-to-water heat ex-
changer submerged in boiler water in the steam or
water drum. Fig. 13 indicates two piping arrange-
ments for control attemperators. In a submerged
attemperator where the inlet steam temperature ex-
ceeds 850F (454C), 16Cr-1Ni alloy should be consid-
ered to protect against methane gas corrosion.
31-9
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

added. The choice of which to use depends on the de-

sign of the power plant and the desired performance
characteristics of the unit.
Where the design includes a deaerating feedwater
heater and a single stage of feedwater heating to sup-
ply water at 240 to 280F (116 to 138C), an economizer
can be used to provide reasonably high boiler effi-
ciency. The economizer can be used either alone or in
conjunction with a steam air heater. In this range of
feedwater temperature, an economizer can be eco-
nomically designed to reduce the products of combus-
tion to within 30F (17C) of the inlet water tempera-
ture at the normal rating. Therefore, with 280F (138C)
feedwater, a boiler efficiency of 88.6% can be attained
with an economizer alone and about 88.8% if a steam
air heater is added.
When the feedwater temperature to the economizer
is higher, the efficiency is limited, because the tem-
perature of the gas leaving the economizer can not be
lower than the inlet feedwater temperature. Conse-
quently, when additional stages of regenerative feed-
water heating are used, the inlet feedwater to the
economizer may be at a temperature of 300 to 450F
(149 to 232C), and it may not be economical to use an
Fig. 12 Twin furnace design used for marine boiler superheat economizer unless it is followed by an air heater. Cycle
temperature control. efficiency is increased approximately 1% for each 100F
(56C) rise in feedwater temperature through regen-
Auxiliary desuperheaters erative feedwater heating.
Steam for auxiliary use may be required at a lower An air heater contributes additional efficiency even
temperature than that delivered by the superheater to when the maximum practical amount of regenerative
the main engine. To satisfy these demands, auxiliary feedwater heating is used. At normal operating rates
desuperheaters are used, often in conjunction with and an inlet air temperature of 100F (38C), exit gas
pressure reducing stations. These desuperheaters may temperatures of 300 to 320F (149 to 160C) are readily
be inside the drum as discussed above or separate ex-
ternal spray types.
Reheaters
The use of steam reheat in a marine plant is more
attractive as the speed and power requirements of the
ship increase. Although reheaters increase the complex-
ity of the boiler design and the first cost of the plant,
fuel savings in high horsepower, high utilization plants
can be significant. Design considerations are similar to
those for superheaters but must be augmented by the
requirements to protect the reheater from overheating
during periods when there is no steam flow during
maneuvering, running astern or at a stop bell.
Economizer and air heater cycles
Economizers or air heaters, and in some instances
both, are required if a high boiler efficiency is to be
obtained. The temperature of flue gas leaving the
boiler bank at full power (the design rate) is a func-
tion of the saturation temperature corresponding to
the drum pressure at which the unit is operating.
Space, weight and economic considerations usually
result in a boiler bank sized to reduce the exit gas tem-
perature to within 50 to 100F (28 to 56C) of the satu-
ration temperature. Gas temperatures in the range of
550 to 650F (288 to 343C) leaving the boiler bank are
typical of merchant ship boilers. To reduce this flue
gas temperature sufficiently in order to obtain accept-
able efficiency, economizers and/or air heaters may be Fig. 13 Internal attemperators – (a) inter-pass, (b) after-pass.

31-10 Steam 41 / Marine Applications

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

obtained, corresponding to 88.5 to 88.0% efficiency. Air

temperatures leaving air heaters are normally in the
range of 300 to 450F (149 to 232C).
As an alternate to the standard economizer/air heater
cycle, a dual economizer steam air heater cycle (DESAH),
using a primary and secondary economizer, can be used.
This arrangement will improve the cycle efficiency and
reduce the fuel rate by utilizing turbine bleed steam to
a high pressure feedwater heater. The actual cycle im-
provement will depend on the turbine characteristics
with the additional bleed for the high pressure heater.
The overall boiler efficiency will remain essentially un-
changed over that with the regular economizer cycle;
however, the fuel oil consumed will decrease because of
additional heat added to the feedwater.
The cycle would use a feedwater temperature leav-
ing the deaerator feedwater heater of about 285 to
300F (141 to 149C), presently being used on single
economizer, steam air heater cycles. A feedwater tem-
perature lower than this could result in economizer
corrosion and plugging problems. If higher feedwa-
ter temperatures are desired in order to more effi-
ciently use turbine bleeds, it should be pointed out
that the boiler efficiency will correspondingly decrease.
This is due to the higher gas temperatures occurring at
the secondary economizer outlet because a terminal end
temperature difference of 25F (14C) is required.
The feedwater would pass through the secondary
economizer and be heated to about 335F (168C). It
would then pass through a high pressure feedwater
heater, that would raise the feedwater temperature
about 50F (28C) before returning the water to the
primary economizer and the steam drum (Fig. 14).
This cycle shows a reduction in all purpose fuel use
over that associated with the single economizer steam
air heater cycle while being only slightly more com- Fig. 14 Dual economizer steam air heater (DESAH) cycle schematic.
plicated. Equipment costs rise somewhat due to the ad-
dition of a high pressure feedwater heater and its con- structed of 1.5 in. (38.1 mm) OD tubes formed into con-
trol. In addition, in order to realize the same exit gas tinuous loops. This construction requires only two
temperature, the economizer heating surface would headers. Tube-to-header joints are welded, or expanded
have to be increased 1.5 times the surface amount and seal welded, to eliminate seat leakage. In the most
used with the single economizer cycle. recent designs, handhole fittings, except those required
Economizers Two general types of economizers, the for inspection, are eliminated by externally welding the
bare tube and extended surface types, are used in tubes in sockets or to stubs on the headers. A typical
marine service. Both are nonsteaming and are almost arrangement of an extended surface economizer with
always arranged for counterflow of water and flue gas studded tubes is shown in Fig. 15.
to obtain the best possible heat transfer characteris- When used alone, economizers are generally de-
tics. (See Chapter 20.) The bare tube type is used signed to reduce gas temperatures by 200 to 300F (111
where high feedwater temperature makes the appli- to 167C), with a corresponding increase in the water
cation of both an economizer and air heater desirable. temperature of 70 to 100F (39 to 56C). If the inlet
These economizers are designed to reduce the gas tem- water temperature is 280F (138C), the exit water tem-
perature about 100F (56C), with the remainder of the perature normally will range from 350 to 365F (177
required temperature drop obtained with an air to 185C), far enough below saturation temperature at a
heater. All are drainable and ventable. pressure of 600 psig (4.14 MPa) to prevent steaming.
The second and more common type uses extended In designing an economizer, the possibility of sul-
surface to reduce the size of the economizer. There are furic acid corrosion of the economizer tubes must be
many types of extended surface, including cast iron considered. (See Chapter 20.) The tube metal tempera-
or aluminum gill rings, spiral fins and small metal studs ture of bare tube economizers is essentially the same
welded to the tubes. B&W has chosen the latter for its as that of the water within the tube. This is also true
marine economizers due to the shape and size of the stud for the tube metal of extended surface elements, but
and because the method of attachment eliminates soot- the tip temperature of the studs is considerably higher.
collecting crevices where corrosion usually begins. In order to minimize gas side corrosion of carbon
Extended surface economizers are usually con- steel economizer tubes, B&W recommends that feed

Steam 41 / Marine Applications 31-11

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 15 Extended surface stud tube economizer.
temperature be kept above 246F (119C) when burn-
ing Navy Special Fuel Oil (NSFO) and above 270F
(132C) when burning Bunker C oil. Where these tem-
peratures are not obtainable, the use of a corrosion
resistant alloy tube is advised. The use of cast iron is
not recommended as the corrosion resistance of cast
iron is less than that of standard carbon steel, and any
improvement in tube life with cast iron cladding is only
due to its greater mass.
A bypass line is usually provided for operation of
the boiler with the economizer out of service. During
such operation, it is necessary to fire more fuel to
maintain the required evaporative rating because of
the decreased efficiency. This increases the steam tem-
perature and requires either more attemperation or a
reduction in rating to prevent overheating of super-
heater tubes or turbine. Normally there is no danger
of metal oxidation in the economizer during bypass
operation, because the gas temperatures entering the
economizer are usually less than 850F (454C).
When economizers are included in the design, de-
aerating feedwater heaters should be installed to re-
move all traces of oxygen from the feedwater and to
prevent internal corrosion of tubes and headers.
Air heaters (gas to air) Tubular and regenerative air
heaters (see Chapter 20) have both been used for ma-
rine boiler applications. However, the tubular air heat-
ers have become virtually obsolete due primarily to
their extremely large space requirements and their
relatively poor metal temperature characteristics.
Air heater corrosion can be reduced or practically
eliminated by several means. For a given exit gas tem-
perature, metal temperatures are somewhat higher
with a regenerative air heater than with a recupera-
tive type. Therefore, for a given satisfactory metal tem-
perature, a lower exit gas temperature and a higher
unit efficiency can be obtained with a tubular type air
heater. With a regenerative air heater, air temperatures
of 550F (288C) or higher can be produced with a re-
sulting exit gas temperature of 235F (113C) or less. This
in turn can result in a boiler efficiency of about 90.3%
when using low excess air values.
31-12
As with the tubular air heater, corrosion can be a
problem when the regenerative air heater is designed
for low exit gas temperature and the corresponding
high air temperature. This can result in an average
cold-end metal temperature well below the acid dew
point of the combustion gas. Corrosion can be reduced
by the use of porcelain-enameled cold-end surface.
Another alternative available when using a rotary
regenerative air heater is to place a small economizer
in the gas stream and/or a steam air heater on the air
side ahead of the regenerative air heater. Without the
economizer, the regenerative air heater becomes large
due to the relatively low heat transfer rates inherent
in a gas-to-air heat exchanger. Often space and
weight limitations, along with the increased cost as-
sociated with a large air preheater, dictate a reduc-
tion in its size. The addition of an economizer designed
to reduce the gas temperature entering the air heater
by 100 to 125F (56 to 69C) reduces the size of the air
heater; the air temperature to the furnace is corre-
spondingly reduced. This can frequently provide a
better arrangement and at a lower overall cost.
Boiler casing
In marine service, the walls that form the boiler and
furnace enclosure, together with those surrounding the
economizer and air heater, are normally made gas-tight
by using metal casing. Therefore, the term casing is
generally used for the walls surrounding a marine unit.
To provide a comfortable fireroom, an outer casing
temperature of 130F (54C) is usually specified. In the
double case arrangement used for tangent tube boiler
construction, the space between the inner and outer
casing is pressurized with air at or near the forced
draft fan discharge pressure to prevent leakage of com-
bustion gases into the fireroom and to help maintain
the desired outer casing temperature. With welded
wall construction the boiler is, for the most part, single-
cased and pressure-sealed to prevent leakage of com-
bustion gases into the fireroom.
Circulation and steam separation
Satisfactory circulation characteristics and efficient
steam separation are of prime importance in the suc-
cessful operation of any boiler. These factors take on
increased importance in a marine boiler that is roll-
ing and pitching in a seaway or undergoing rapid load
changes. In analyzing circulation, the procedures out-
lined in Chapter 5 are applied to the design at the
maximum anticipated rate of evaporation.
Generally, steam drum diameters range from 54 to 72
in. (1.37 to 1.83 m) for merchant vessels and from 54 to
60 in. (1.37 to 1.52 m) for naval units. The drum must
accommodate the desired number of tube rows and pro-
vide sufficient space for steam separation, feedwater
introduction, distribution and treatment, and water level
fluctuations caused by sudden load variations.
Marine steam drum baffling for lower rated boilers
is usually simple in construction and arrangement. A
V-type baffle using a triple layer of perforated steel
plates is used in moderately-rated drum boilers. With
relatively small clearances between the plates, it is
installed (Fig. 15) just below the normal water level
Steam 41 / Marine Applications
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

to break up steam and water jets issuing from the riser

circuits. The duplex compartment baffle is more effec-
tive in higher-rated two-drum boilers. In current B&W
marine boiler designs, horizontal steam separators and
scrubbers are used (Fig. 16). Cyclone separators and
scrubbers are used to ensure that dry steam is sent to
the superheater where moisture and dissolved boiler
water containment carryover would not be acceptable.
The principles of these cyclone separators are similar
to those of the vertical cyclones used in stationary
units. (See Chapter 5.)
Drum boilers are generally rated conservatively
and do not require external downcomers. Adequate cir-
culation can be maintained by the rear rows of boiler
bank tubes as downcomers, where the gas tempera-
ture is 850F (454C) or less. At low loads, the first sev-
eral rows of tubes act as risers, and the remaining
tubes serve as downcomers. As the firing rate in-
creases, the high temperature gas zone moves deeper
into the tube bank, the number of tubes acting as ris-
ers increases, and the number of downcomers declines.
Excessive firing rates and rates beyond those contem-
plated in the design can reduce the number of down-
comers below the minimum requirements. For highly
rated units, it is necessary to install unheated
downcomers to supplement the number of boiler bank Fig. 16 Arrangement of horizontal cyclone separators in a marine
boiler drum.
tubes acting as downcomers. Circulation is benefited by
interposing a convection superheater in the boiler bank
because the heat absorbed by the superheater reduces bank alone would be inadequate. In vertical super-
the temperature of the gas flowing over the boiler tubes heater drum boilers (Fig. 3), furnace waterwall sup-
beyond it. More boiler tubes consequently act as down- ply headers receive water from the steam or lower
comers over a wide operating range. In vertical super- drum through external downcomers or feeder tubes.
heater units, external downcomers are also required Drum boilers should not be located with the drum
because of physical arrangement constraints. longitudinal axis athwart ship. In such a design, roll-
In most horizontal superheater drum boilers (Fig. ing motion may stop circulation in some riser tubes lo-
4), furnace waterwall supply headers receive water cated in the sides of the boiler. This can result in tube
from the lower drum through supply tubes located overheating and failures. While this difficulty is alle-
below the furnace floor. These tubes are spaced along viated by locating the drums fore and aft, ship rolling
the length of the waterwall headers to assure even can still affect boiler circulation. During rolling, some
distribution of water to the high duty furnace tubes of the rear boiler tubes in the drum may become un-
and provide cooling for the furnace floor refractory. covered and the overall downcomer water flow to the
Naval and other high-rated designs have external lower drum reduced. However, marine boilers oper-
downcomer tubes from the steam drum to the lower ating at conservative load ratings are usually able to
wall header because the supply of water from the boiler accommodate such conditions.

Steam 41 / Marine Applications 31-13

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Naval steam power then and now: U.S.S. Missouri (top) and U.S.S. John F. Kennedy.

31-14 Steam 41 / Marine Applications