The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Chapter 27
Boilers for Industry and Small Power

Most manufacturing industries require steam for Industrial boiler design

a variety of uses. Basic plant heating and air condi-
tioning, prime movers such as turbine drives for blow-
ers and compressors, drying, constant temperature re-
action processes, large presses, soaking pits, water
heating, cooking and cleaning are all examples of how
steam is used.
Steam produced by industrial boilers can also be
used to generate electricity in a cogeneration mode
which uses a conventional steam turbine for electric
power generation and low pressure extraction steam
for the process. The electricity is then used by the plant
or sold to a local electric utility company. As an alter-
nate cogenerating system, a gas turbine can be used
for power generation with a heat recovery steam gen-
erator for steam.
Thousands of boilers are installed in industrial and
municipal plants, providing lower pressure and tem-
perature steam than utility boilers dedicated to large,
central station electric power generation. In an indus-
trial plant, the dependability of steam generating
equipment is critical. Most often, the industrial opera-
tion has a single steam plant with one or more boil-
ers. If the steam flow is interrupted, production can
be seriously impacted. Accordingly, industrial boilers
must be very reliable because plant productivity relies
so heavily on their availability. Loss of a boiler for a short
time can stop production for days if, for example, mate-
rials cool and solidify in process lines. For this reason,
some industries prefer multiple smaller units.
The principles governing the selection of boilers and
related equipment are discussed in Chapter 37.
Proper equipment selection can be accomplished only
in the framework of a sound technical and cost evalu-
ation. This requires a working knowledge and under-
standing of the performance of the different steam
generating unit components under various conditions,
including the significance of the many different ar-
rangements of heat absorbing surfaces, the charac-
teristics of available fuels, combustion methods and
ash handling. The owner must also establish the
present and future steam conditions and require-
ments. All pertinent environmental regulations must
also be considered. A brief summary of boiler specifi-
cations is provided in Table 1.
Industrial boilers generally have different perfor-
mance characteristics than utility boilers. These are
most apparent in steam pressures and temperatures
as well as the fuel burning equipment.
Industrial units are built in a wide range of sizes,
pressures and temperatures – from 2 psig (13.8 kPa)
and 218F (103C) saturated steam for heating to 1800
psig (12.4 MPa) and 1000F (538C) steam for plant
power production.
In addition, industrial units often supply steam for
more than one application. For some applications, steam
demand may be cyclic or fluctuating, thereby complicat-
ing unit operation and control of the equipment.
The Babcock & Wilcox Company (B&W) industrial
boilers, such as the unit shown in Fig. 1, are water
tube design and generally rely upon natural circula-
tion for steam-water circulation.
Most utility boilers are designed to burn pulverized
or crushed coal, oil, gas, or a combination of oil or gas
with a solid fuel. Industrial boilers can be designed for
the above fuels as well as coarsely crushed coal for stoker
firing and a wide range of biomass or byproduct fuels.
Table 1
Typical Industrial Boiler Specification Factors
1. Steam pressure
2. Steam temperature and control range
3. Steam flow
Peak
Minimum
Load patterns
4. Feedwater temperature and quality
5. Standby capacity and number of units
6. Fuels and their properties
7. Ash properties
8. Firing method preferences
9. Environmental emission limitations  sulfur
dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
particulate, other compounds
10. Site space and access limitations
11. Auxiliaries
12. Operator requirements
13. Evaluation basis

Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power 27-1

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Many industrial processes generate byproducts
which can serve as boiler fuels, significantly contrib-
uting to the plant operating efficiency and effectively
reducing product cost. Examples of these are gas prod-
ucts from the steel industry (blast furnace and coke
oven gas), products from the petroleum industry (car-
bon monoxide (CO), refinery gas, petroleum coke),
products from agriculture (sugar mill bagasse, peanut
hulls, coffee grounds), waste from the pulp and pa-
per industry (wood, bark, process chemicals, sludge)
and municipal solid waste. Steam generation and fuel
handling for some of these fuels and applications have
become quite specialized. This chapter and the follow-
ing chapters are devoted to these units:
Chapter 28 – Chemical and Heat Recovery in the
Paper Industry
Chapter 29 – Waste-to-Energy Installations
Chapter 30 – Wood and Biomass Installations
Chapter 31 – Marine Applications
One of the distinguishable features of most indus-
trial boilers is a large saturated water boiler bank be-
tween the steam drum and lower drum. (See Figs. 1
and 2.) The boiler bank serves the purpose of preheat-
ing the inlet feedwater to the saturation temperature and
then evaporating the water (generating steam) while
cooling the flue gas to a cost effective exit temperature.
In lower pressure boilers, insufficient heating sur-
face is available in the furnace enclosure to absorb all
of the energy needed to accomplish this function. There-
fore, a boiler bank located downstream of the furnace
Fig. 1 Two drum Stirling® power boiler system for pulverized coal with environmental control equipment.
27-2
and superheater (if included) in the flue gas stream
provides the rest of the necessary heat transfer surface.
As shown in Fig. 3, as pressure increases, the
amount of heat absorption required to evaporate wa-
ter declines rapidly, and the absorption required for
superheating and water preheating increases. In
some modern very high pressure industrial units, a
smaller boiler module separate from the steam drum
provides the same function as the traditional boiler
bank (see Fig. 4), but at a lower cost.
A separate economizer and/or air heater can be used
downstream of the boiler bank to further reduce the
flue gas exit temperature to a more economic value.
Steam requirements
To assure prompt fulfillment of all steam demands,
i.e., the delivery of heat to all points of use at the re-
quired rates, it is necessary to select steam producing
equipment of sufficient capacity, range of output and
responsiveness. The demand may be steady, as in most
space heating systems, or it may fluctuate widely and
rapidly, as in a heavy forging plant. Many steam
heated processes, as in the initial heating of a liquid
batch, require high peak flows of short duration. Rap-
idly changing rates of steam flow characterize require-
ments to produce the electrical power to drive a steel
rolling mill. Combined cycle systems often require
rapid steam load responses during cycle transients.
The steam flow requirements should, therefore, be
accurately established for a number of conditions to
ensure that the boiler system selected will meet all of
Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Fig. 3 Effect of steam pressure on evaporation in industrial boilers –

100F (56C) constant superheat.

80 psig (0.55 MPa) in the case of space heaters. It is

seldom economical to distribute steam through long
lines at pressures below 150 psig (1.0 MPa) because
of piping costs. Furthermore, the usual requirements
for steam within the boiler house for sootblowers, feed
pumps and other auxiliaries make it desirable to op-
erate boilers at a minimum of 125 psig (0.86 MPa).
Consequently, few steam plants of any size are oper-
ated below this pressure. If the pressure required at
points of use is lower, it is common practice to use pres-
Fig. 2 Two drum Stirling® boiler for spreader-stoker firing.
sure reducing stations at or near these locations.
The pressure required at the outlet of steam produc-
its demand conditions, i.e., peak flow, maximum con-
tinuous flow (the usual steady maximum flow), mini-
mum flow, and rate of change in flow.
The peak load will, of course, establish the top ca-
pacity for the steam producing equipment and all of its
auxiliaries. For widely fluctuating loads, it is advisable
to establish the 15 minute peak. In most systems, peaks
of shorter duration can be met by the storage of heat
inherent in the steam generating equipment.
Steam for process and heating The pressure of satu-
rated steam (no superheat) used for process heating
is such that the corresponding condensing steam tem-
perature is somewhat above the required temperature
of the materials to be heated. Generally, superheat is
of no value for this kind of service and is often unde-
sirable because of its interference with temperature
control. Reclaiming or devulcanizing rubber, where
the rubber in a caustic solution is heated to 400F
(204C) by condensing saturated steam at 250 psig
(1724 kPa) and 407F (208C) in the jacket of the
devulcanizer, is a typical example of process heating
with steam.
Pressures of saturated steam for comfort heating of
buildings range from 2 psig (13.8 kPa) to as high as Fig. 4 Single drum Stirling® boiler for spreader-stoker firing.

Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power 27-3

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
ing equipment for process heating service usually
ranges from 125 to 250 psig (0.86 to 1.7 MPa) and su-
perheat is usually not required. For this service, boiler
manufacturers have generally standardized on a pres-
sure of 250 psig (1.7 MPa) for small water-tube boilers.
It is customary American stationary boiler practice
to hold the main steam line pressure practically con-
stant for all loads, on the premise that this condition
satisfies all pressure and quantity requirements of the
steam-using equipment. Automatic combustion con-
trol apparatuses are accordingly designed to function
on this basis.
Cogeneration Many manufacturing operations,
such as in paper and textile mills, in the production
of chemicals and in processing rubber, require me-
chanical or electrical power as well as steam for pro-
cess heating. For such cogeneration applications, stud-
ies are made of the relative merits and costs of: 1) a
plant where the power is purchased and steam is gen-
erated to supply the heating requirements only, and
2) a plant where steam and power are generated in
the same system. A sound appraisal of the relative
merits of the two alternatives requires knowledge of
the steam and power requirements, ability to corre-
late these requirements, economic studies and good
judgement. The following general summary may be
of assistance.
1. The basic economic advantage in generating steam
and power in the same system arises from the use
of a much larger portion of the heat supplied in
the fuel. When generating electricity alone, as
much as 60% of the heat supplied in the fuel is
lost to the condensing system, even in a modern
central station. (See Chapter 2.)
2. Despite this fundamental thermodynamic advan-
tage, it is frequently more economical to purchase
power when it is available at reasonable rates from
a dependable source, except where:
a. waste fuels and waste heat, such as bagasse,
blast furnace gas, sawdust or hogged wood, and
hot gases are available at low cost from the plant
process, and
b. the steam heating and power demands are rea-
sonably parallel and relatively large, i.e., 50,000
lb/h (6.3 kg/s) of steam or more.
3. Two approaches are used for cogeneration. Where
natural gas is available on site, a gas turbine can
be used to generate power, with the waste heat in
the turbine exhaust gas used to produce steam in
a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). HRSGs are
discussed in more detail later in this chapter. Where
a waste fuel such as petroleum coke, bark, biomass,
tires or other fossil fuel such as coal is the economic
fuel of choice, a steam turbine topping cycle is used.
Here, high pressure high temperature steam is pro-
duced in the boiler system and is first passed through
a steam turbine to generate power. The exhaust steam
is then conditioned (brought to appropriate tempera-
ture and pressure) and sent to the process.
4. Variations in process heat and power demands
usually do not coincide. To compensate for the dif-
ferences, a variety of options can be used depend-
ing upon the economic evaluation:
27-4
a. for a gas turbine-based system
1. If steam demand typically exceeds power de-
mand, auxiliary burners are supplied with
the HRSG.
2. If electrical load demand typically exceeds
the steam demand requirements, the re-
mainder of the power may be purchased
outside.
b. for a steam-based power system
1. If steam demand typically exceeds power de-
mand, the turbine exhaust steam flow can
be supplemented with boiler auxiliary firing,
and then the additional steam can be passed
through a pressure reducing and attemperating
system.
2. If power demand is typically higher, either
an extraction condensing turbine system
can be used or the incremental power can
be purchased outside.
If the process requirements for steam and power
are reasonably parallel and steady, cogeneration, in-
cluding capital, operating and maintenance costs, can
be beneficial. Where discontinuous service, low capac-
ity factor or significantly different steam and power
requirements exist, electrical supply from the local
power grid and on-site steam generation is frequently
more cost effective.
Power generation Except for small isolated instal-
lations, the high speed turbine is the prime mover of
choice for steam power generation because of its effi-
ciency, compactness and low cost. Continued improve-
ment in reliability, reduction in cost, and availability
of packaged systems have made on-site power genera-
tion more popular. Where natural gas is available and
cost effective, simple gas turbines, especially package
units, have tended to dominate on-site power produc-
tion needs. Where a waste fuel (or low cost coal) is
available, a boiler and steam turbine system can prove
to be the most economic system to supply on-site power.
The selection of steam pressure and temperature for
such systems depends upon an economic evaluation
along the guidelines presented in Chapter 37. Steam
temperature control using one or more of the meth-
ods outlined in Chapter 19 is usually provided when
electrical output exceeds 25 MW. Steam temperature
control is also very important where variations in the
flow of the fuel and the fuel quality would otherwise
lead to wide swings in power output.
Combined cycles
The concept of using waste energy for increased
steam generation in industry has been around for
many years. The progressive increase in fuel costs, the
need to capture heat from various industrial processes,
and the increasingly stringent environmental regu-
lations have created the need for using waste heat to
its fullest potential.
In the power industry, the waste heat from one
power system such as a gas turbine can serve as the
heat source for a steam turbine cycle. Such combined
cycles can push overall electrical power cycle efficiency
to nearly 50%. Overall energy use can substantially
Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
exceed even this level when electrical generation is
combined with process steam use.
Industries such as steel making, oil refining, pulp
and paper, and food processing have used many
unique steam generating systems to get the most out
of their waste heat. These systems allow reduced con-
sumption of traditional fuels, recovery of waste heat
for safety and economy, and elimination of process
byproducts.
In its broadest terms, a combined cycle plant con-
sists of the integration of two or more thermodynamic
power cycles to more fully and efficiently convert in-
put energy into work or power. With the advancements
in reliability and availability of gas turbines, the term
combined cycle plant today usually refers to a system
composed of a gas turbine, heat recovery steam gen-
erator and a steam turbine. Thermodynamically, this
implies the joining of a high temperature Brayton gas
turbine cycle with a moderate and low temperature
Rankine cycle – the waste heat from the Brayton cycle
exhaust serves as the heat input to the Rankine cycle.
The challenge in such systems is the degree of inte-
gration needed to maximize efficiency at an economic
cost. Chapter 2 discusses the thermodynamic processes
and benefits of this application.
The following brief discussion focuses on the com-
bination of a gas turbine with a heat recovery steam
generator and steam turbine.
Simple combined cycle system
As shown schematically in Figs. 5a and 5b, the
simple combined cycle system can consist of a single
gas turbine-generator, HRSG, single steam turbine-
generator, condenser, and auxiliary systems. In ad-
dition, if the environmental regulations require, a
selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system to control
emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) can be directly in-
tegrated within the steam generator. (See Chapter 34.)
This is particularly attractive because the SCR cata-
lyst can be positioned in an optimal temperature win-
dow within the HRSG. The gas temperature leaving
Fig. 5 Simplified combined cycle system schematics.
Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power
the gas turbine is usually in the range of 950 to 1050F
(510 to 566C) while the optimal SCR catalyst tempera-
ture is 650 to 750F (343 to 399C).
A variety of more complex configurations are pos-
sible. A key improvement in the steam cycle efficiency
can be obtained by adding multiple separate pressure
circuits to the HRSG to supply low pressure steam for
deaeration and feedwater heating. This replaces the
steam extraction regenerative feedwater heating used
in conventional steam power cycles.
Commercial combined cycle systems
Actual configurations are typically more complex
because of application requirements and the degree
of integration. The gas turbine-generators and steam
turbine-generators are commercially available in a
number of specific sizes and arrangements. HRSGs
are built from standardized components to suit a wide
variety of steam uses and turbine exhaust conditions.
Frequently, multiple gas turbines with HRSGs may
feed a single steam turbine system. A gas bypass stack
and silencer are typically installed downstream of the
gas turbine so that it can be operated independently
of the steam cycle. With the high levels of oxygen re-
maining in the gas turbine exhaust, supplemental fir-
ing systems can be installed upstream of the HRSG.
This permits greater operating flexibility, improved
steam temperature control, and higher overall power
capacity. The HRSG can be designed with one to four
separate operating pressure circuits to optimize heat
recovery and cycle efficiency. In selected cases, further
cycle efficiency gains are possible with the addition of
steam reheat.
A range of cycle efficiencies is possible depending upon
the complexity of the system and components. Sample
overall electrical power generation cycle efficiencies for
a system using a gas turbine with a 2200F (1204C) tur-
bine inlet temperature are provided in Table 2. These
are based upon the fuel higher heating value.
The environmental emissions from combined cycle
systems are generally low. If natural gas is fired, sul-
27-5
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Table 2
Sample Cycle Efficiencies and Heat Rates
Heat Rate
System Efficiency (%) (Btu/kWh)
Simple gas turbine 32 10,700
Gas turbine plus unfired
single pressure steam cycle 42 8200
Advanced gas turbine plus
unfired multiple pressure
steam system 48 7100
Gas turbine plus dual pressure
steam system plus process
steam use (cogeneration) 61  attemperation. A sample condenser installation is
Note: All values are calculated using the higher heating
value (HHV) of the fuel. Use of the lower heating value
(LHV) of the fuel would increase the efficiencies listed.
fur dioxide (SO2) and particulate emissions will be neg-
ligible. With current gas turbine combustor designs,
NOx emissions from the gas turbine will be low, rang-
ing generally between < 9 and 70 ppm. The final NOx
emissions then depend upon the supplemental firing
system used (if any) and the potential incorporation
of an SCR NOx control system.
Beyond thermal efficiency and low environmental
emissions, potential benefits of a gas turbine combined
cycle plant include:
Schedule Depending upon equipment size and com-
plexity, delivery and construction of the
gas turbine can take about one year. The
steam turbine cycle system delivery and
erection can frequently be completed in an
additional year. (See Fig. 6.)
Flexibility The gas turbine can be used alone for
rapid startup and peaking service. The
HRSG boiler system can usually be
brought from a cold start to full load steam
generation in about 60 minutes.
Capital The system capital cost is typically low as
a result of smaller standardized compo-
nents, modular construction, prompt de-
livery, rapid erection, and minimum sup-
port system costs.
In the system selection, these benefits must be
weighed against the usually higher cost of the cleaner
premium fuels needed for the gas turbine, potential main-
tenance and availability issues, and load requirements.
Water treatment
Industry today is intensely competitive, and a
company’s survival may often depend on uninter-
rupted production. When industrial plants generate
their own power or when steam is required for the
manufacturing process, the availability of the boiler
becomes a very important consideration.
27-6
Boiler reliability is directly related to water quality,
as discussed in Chapter 42. The lack of proper water
quality is frequently the cause of failure and lack of
availability in industrial boilers. As pressures and tem-
peratures have increased, so has the required level of
water quality. However, the need for water quality is
often underestimated and the result is expensive down-
time for pressure part replacement. Higher water qual-
ity translates to higher steam quality, which is needed
to protect superheaters and turbines.
The use of a spray water condenser (see Chapter
25) was a step taken to produce higher quality spray
water to minimize the steam contamination that is
often prevalent when using feedwater for spray
shown in Fig. 7.
The maximum allowable boiler-water concentration
(total solids in boiler water) in relation to the pressure
at the outlet of a steam generating unit (applicable to
the boiler types in the following descriptive outlines)
is given in Table 3.
It is evident that good water treatment practice
requires the proper attention be given to water qual-
ity throughout the boiler system. This includes makeup
water, steam condensate, feedwater and boiler water.
One of the major concerns in boiler operation is the
prevention of fouling, regardless of operating pressure.
This becomes more severe as operating pressures in-
crease; conditions which are not regarded as trouble-
some at lower pressures may be entirely unsatisfac-
tory at higher pressures.
Other design requirements
The other factors affecting industrial boiler evalu-
ation and selection as outlined in Table 1 are ad-
dressed in depth in Chapter 37. Key among these are
fuel and ash identification and evaluation. Chapters
9 and 21 address the characterization of fuels and the
effect of the noncombustible residue or ash on boiler
design. Chapters 11 through 17 discuss the various
fuel preparation and combustion systems which may
be used. The designs of the boiler, superheater, econo-
mizer and air heater systems are covered in Chapters
19 and 20 while auxiliaries are addressed in Chap-
ters 24 and 25.
Fig. 6 Rapid installation of modular components minimizes schedules.
Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

throughout the U.S. In 40 CFR Part 60, Subparts Db

and Dc specifically apply to fossil-fuel fired industrial
steam generating units with heat input capacities
greater than 100 million Btu per hour and greater
than 10 million Btu per hour respectively (2.9 and 29.3
MWt). The industrial boiler NSPS set minimum re-
quirements governing allowable emissions of PM, SO2,
and NOx from units constructed or substantially modi-
fied after June 19, 1984. Additional subparts under 40
CFR 60 set emissions standards for other classes of
boilers including, but not limited to, electric steam gen-
erating units (40 CFR 60, Subpart Da), municipal waste
combustors (40 CFR 60 Subpart(s) Eb, Cb, AAAA and
BBBB), and chemical recovery boilers used in the pulp
and paper industry (40 CFR 60, Subpart BB).
A large industrial power boiler with environmen-
tal control equipment is shown in Fig. 1. This pulver-
Fig. 7 B&W condenser-attemperator system supplies pure attemper- ized coal-fired Stirling® power boiler (SPB), discussed
ator spray water by condensing steam from the steam drum with below, is equipped with low NOx burners to reduce NOx
incoming boiler feedwater. emissions, an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) to con-
trol particulate emissions, and a wet flue gas desulfu-
Environmental control rization (FGD) system to control emissions of SO2.
The most common methods employed to control NOx
Atmospheric emissions from industrial boilers and emissions from industrial boilers involve combustion
other combustion sources have come under increas- modifications using low NOx burner designs, staged
ingly stringent regulation over the past 30 years. Pol- combustion with overfire air ports, and flue gas recir-
lutants emitted from fossil fuel fired industrial boilers culation techniques (see Chapters 11 and 14). Fluid-
can include particulate matter (PM), nitrogen oxides ized bed boilers, discussed in Chapter 17, can achieve
(NO x), sulfur oxides (SO x), carbon monoxide (CO), very low NOx emission rates due, in part, to the inher-
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and other com- ently low furnace combustion temperatures. If
pounds commonly referred to as HAPs (hazardous air needed, post-combustion control technologies, includ-
pollutants). These include hydrogen chloride and hy- ing selective noncatalytic reduction (SNCR) and se-
drogen fluorides (HCl and HF), mercury and other trace lective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems (see Chap-
metals, and trace organic compounds. The emissions ter 34), can be used to achieve additional NOx reduc-
characteristics of industrial boilers are largely depen- tions on many industrial boiler applications.
dent on the type of fuel(s) combusted and the use of CO and VOC emissions are best controlled by em-
selected air pollution control systems and technologies. ploying prudent combustion system design and oper-
The United States (U.S.) Environmental Protec- ating practices The combustion system should facili-
tion Agency (EPA) has promulgated various environ- tate good air/fuel mixing and allow for adequate resi-
mental performance standards that apply to different dence time at required temperatures. Traditionally this
sizes and classes of boilers firing both fossil and non- has been referred to as the three Ts of combustion:
fossil fuels. The Federal New Source Performance time, temperature, and turbulence. Any combustion
Standards (NSPS), codified under Title 40, Part 60 of technique used to achieve low NOx levels must be bal-
the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), establish mini- anced to account for associated (negative) impacts on
mum requirements for many air emission sources CO and VOC emissions.
To achieve compliance with current day particulate
emission standards, most industrial boilers firing fu-
Table 3 els other than a clean gas must utilize high efficiency
Limits for Solids Content of Boiler particulate control equipment; typically a fabric filter
Water in Drum Boilers, ppm (baghouse) or an electrostatic precipitator (ESP). (See
Chapter 33.) Baghouses and ESPs can also effectively
Pressure at Outlet control HAPs (trace organic and metal compounds)
of Steam Generating Total Total Suspended that are affixed to the particulate matter.
Unit, psi Solids Alkalinity Solids
The required levels and methods of SO2 control are
51 to 325 3500 700 15 primarily driven by fuel choice. SO2 controls are gen-
326 to 450 3000 600 10 erally not needed if an industrial unit burns a clean
451 to 600 2500 500 8 fuel such as natural gas or a low sulfur fuel oil. While
601 to 750 2000 400 6 the use of low sulfur coal is still feasible for many older
750 to 900 1500 300 4 or smaller industrial boilers, the current NSPS regu-
900 to 1000 1250 250 2 lation applicable to large industrial coal-fired boilers
1000 to 1500 100 20 1 mandate the use of SO2 control technologies capable
1501 to 2000 50 10 1 of achieving 90% removal efficiency. Available post-
combustion SO2 controls include both dry and wet

Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power 27-7

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
FGD systems. (See Chapter 35.) Fluidized-bed boil-
ers, discussed in Chapter 17, offer an alternative to
FGD systems. These boilers are capable of achieving
very high SO2 removal rates via limestone addition di-
rectly into the combustion process (bed).
The combination of FGD systems with efficient par-
ticulate control has shown the potential for effective
control of many HAPs. It is anticipated that the EPA’s
future HAP regulations may require retrofits of these
combined controls on most large (new and existing)
coal-fired industrial boilers.
B&W boilers for solid and multi-
fuel applications
Brief descriptions of the boiler types that follow are
intended to introduce the types of steam generating
units that meet the wide range of fuel and perfor-
mance requirements of the industrial sector.
Stirling® power boilers
Description The Stirling Power Boiler (SPB) is a top
supported, two drum, single gas pass unit. (See Figs.
1 and 2.) In some cases, it is cost effective to replace
the two drum design with a single drum and a smaller
shop-assembled boiler module. (See Fig. 4.)
The furnace is completely water cooled using mem-
brane wall construction [normally 3 in. (76.2 mm) tubes
on 4 in. (101.6 mm) centers] and is satisfactory for ei-
ther pressurized or balanced draft operation. Shop as-
sembly of wall panels is maximized to facilitate field erec-
tion. Wall panels always come with the headers attached,
regardless of the number of shipping pieces.
Cyclone steam-water separators, discussed in Chap-
ter 5, along with primary and secondary steam scrub-
bers, are included in the steam drum to provide the
high quality dry steam needed for present day super-
heater and turbine designs.
Furnaces include a nose arch which serves to di-
rect gas flow over the superheater section and to shield
the superheater.
SPBs are capable of firing solid, liquid or gaseous
fuels. There are several furnace configurations to
complement the type of fuel fired, as shown in Fig. 8.
A hopper-bottom furnace is used for pulverized coal
firing; a flat floor for gas or oil firing; and an open
bottom to receive a stoker for stoker coal, wood, ba-
gasse, biomass, refuse-derived fuel (RDF) and as-re-
ceived municipal solid waste (MSW).
Furnaces for fuels having a significant amount of
fines and/or high moisture such as wood, biomass,
bagasse and RDF are arranged with an overfire air
system consisting of multiple rows of nozzles. These
nozzles inject air at various locations above the grate
to provide the turbulence necessary for combustion.
The SPB is equipped with an economizer and/or air
heater to provide economical heat recovery. For many
fuels, air heating is important for combustion. Pulver-
ized coal requires hot air to dry the fuel, and hot air is
required to promote combustion of moist fuels such as
wood, bagasse and biomass.
Because of the design features, the SPB is the pre-
ferred industrial boiler for many applications. There
27-8
are some other designs that serve special fuels, capaci-
ties, pressures and temperatures, making them a good
alternative under special conditions.
Pre-engineering While the SPB is custom designed
to meet specific steam and fuel conditions, the design
is done within a framework of pre-engineered compo-
nents to minimize engineering costs and delivery time.
The furnace width and depth are pre-engineered
in 1 ft (0.3 m) increments so that all of the closures at
the corners are established. Drum centerlines, in 2 ft
(0.6 m) increments between 16 and 32 ft (4.9 and 9.8
m), have been pre-engineered to locate all of the ac-
cess doors, sootblower openings, buckstays and plat-
forms. Combinations of steam and lower drum sizes
are designed so that all of the bend angles for drum
entry are established.
These pre-engineered increments allow flexibility
in the design to satisfy the job-specific requirements
of furnace exit gas temperature, burner clearances,
residence time, grate size, gas velocity, convection
surface spacing, etc.
SPB design range
Steam capacity
pulverized coal, oil, gas up to 1,200,000 lb/h
(151.2 kg/s)
stoker coal 150,000 to 400,000 lb/h
(18.9 to 50.4 kg/s)
stoker wood, bagasse, 180,000 to 600,000 lb/h
and biomass (22.7 to 75.6 kg/s)
Steam pressure to 2200 psig (15.2 MPa)
design
Steam temperature to 1000F (538C)
Towerpak® boiler
Description The Towerpak is a version of the SPB
designed for lower capacities that are often required
by smaller industrial plants. (See Fig. 9.) It incorpo-
rates many of the features of the SPB including mem-
brane walls, cyclone steam-water separators, and stok-
ers for wood or biomass combustion.
Towerpak boilers are one drum or two drum bottom
supported units. For the smaller sizes, they can be
shipped in a single unit or in modules for ease of field
assembly (see Fig. 10). Larger units follow the SPB
format of maximum subassembly of wall panels,
again for ease of field assembly. This unit is a preferred
design at low steam capacity for hard to burn solid
fuels such as wood, biomass and stoker coal.
Pre-engineering Like the SPB, these units are custom
designed to meet specific conditions for each application,
but within the framework of pre-engineered components.
Towerpak design range
Steam capacity 40,000 to 300,000 lb/h
(5.0 to 37.8 kg/s)
Steam pressure to 1800 psig (12.4 MPa)
design
Steam temperature to 1000F (538C)
Circulating fluidized-bed boiler
Description Fluidized-bed boilers feature a unique
concept of burning fuel in a bed of particles to control
the combustion process and, when required, control
Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
SO2 and NOx emissions. Two options are offered – the
circulating fluidized-bed boiler (CFB) and the bub-
bling fluidized-bed boiler (BFB). (See Figs. 11 and 12.)
Both options can be used in new as well as in retrofit
applications. Fluidized-bed technologies are discussed
in depth in Chapter 17.
The CFB is a top supported boiler. (See Fig. 11.) One
or two drums are used depending on the need for a
generating bank to absorb heat. Fuel is admitted to the
lower part of the furnace by screws, air-assisted grav-
ity chutes or pneumatic feed, depending on fuels fired
and plant design.
The bed medium is typically composed of fuel ash
Fig. 8 Typical Stirling® power boiler furnace configurations.
Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power
and sulfated limestone particles (limestone is used as
a sorbent for SO2 removal). When firing low-ash and
low-sulfur fuel, additional inert bed material (typically
sand) may be introduced into the furnace. Compared
to the fuel quantity present in the unit, the circulat-
ing bed material is many times greater. Total solids in
the flue gas passing upwards through the furnace are
a function of how much heat must be absorbed by the
waterwalls.
Varying the bed density maintains the desired con-
stant temperature necessary for maximum SO2 re-
moval [about 1550F (843C)]. The B&W Internal Re-
circulation CFB (IR-CFB) design features a two-stage
27-9
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

solids collection system comprising U-beam particle

separators (U-beams) at the furnace exit and a multi-
cyclone dust collector (MDC) at the top of the convec-
tion downpass. Solids laden flue gas exits the furnace
to U-beams where 90 to 95% of the solids are collected
and directly (internally) returned to the furnace. Flue
gas exiting the U-beams proceeds over convection
surfaces, similar to other boiler designs. About 90% of
the solids passing the U-beams are further collected
by the MDC. The recirculation rate from the MDC is
controlled to provide the flow necessary to maintain
the required bed temperature and density.
The CFB has been selected for application with
high-sulfur, high-ash and various waste fuels such as
petroleum coke, waste coal, sludge, oil pitches, etc. It
is also used for wood and other biomass fuels, how-
Fig. 10 Field assembly of a Towerpak® boiler.

Steam Drum ever the bubbling fluidized bed is often a more eco-
nomical choice for these fuels. The CFB, because it
operates at a reduced combustion temperature, inher-
Boiler ently generates about one half the NOx as the other solid
Bank fuel-fired industrial boilers previously described.
The CFB is an alternative to the pulverized coal or
stoker coal-fired SPB which frequently must be
equipped with a wet or dry scrubber (for SO2 removal)
and ammonia injection, catalytic or non-catalytic re-
duction (NOx removal) equipment. The choice of tech-
nologies requires in depth evaluation of a number of
factors including required amount of emissions re-
moval, fuel cost, reagent cost and capital cost.
Pre-engineering The CFB is custom designed to meet
each specific application, but like the SPB, it is designed
within a framework of pre-engineered components to
minimize engineering costs and delivery time.

Burners
In-Furnace
U-Beams U-Beams

Superheater
Steam Drum

PrecisionJet Feedwater
Air System Lower Downcomer to Drum
Drum
Internal
Evaporative
Fuel PrecisionJet Circuit
Chute Air System Multi-Cyclone
Wingwall
Dust
Fuel Bunker Collector
Economizer

Ash
Recycle
System

Air
Heater
Gravimetric
Feeder
Fuel
Chute
Refractory Flue
Line Gas
Fluid Bed
Cooler

Secondary Primary Air Duct to Steam Coil

Air Duct Air Duct Fluid Bed Cooler Air Heater
Fig. 9 Towerpak® boiler. Fig. 11 Top supported circulating fluidized-bed boiler.

27-10 Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

The combustion process uses an inert material, typi-

Superheater Generating Bank cally sand, and fuel to form a bed in the bottom of the
Economizer furnace. This bed is suspended by a stream of up-
wardly flowing fluidizing air. Fuel introduced to the
bed is quickly volatized. A significant amount of vola-
tiles escape the bed and are burned in the freeboard
area above the bed using overfire air. The remaining
volatiles and fixed carbon burn in the bed. To achieve
Load efficient combustion and low emissions, the bed tem-
Burners perature is controlled in the range of 1350 to 1650F
Sludge Bin (732 to 899C).
The BFB is particularly well suited for high mois-
ture waste fuels such as sewage sludge, and various
sludges produced in pulp and paper mills and recycle
paper plants, but can also burn a variety of other fu-
Coal
Chutes
els including wood wastes, bark, coal, tire derived fuel,
Steam oil and natural gas.
Coil
Sludge
Chutes Air Heater Pre-engineering The BFB is custom designed to meet
each specific application, but like the SPB and
Startup
Burners
Towerpak, this is done within a framework of pre-en-
gineered components.
Fluidized
Bed

Steam Drum
Attemperator
Generating
Bank

Ash Secondary Fluidizing

Conveyors Air Fan Air Fan
Superheater
Fig. 12 Bottom supported bubbling fluidized-bed boiler.

Screen
CFB design range
Steam capacity up to 1,500,000 lb/h
(189 kg/s) or greater
Steam pressure to 2850 psig (19.7 MPa)
design
Steam temperature to 1040F (560C)
Economizer

Bubbling fluidized-bed boiler

Description The bubbling fluidized-bed (BFB) boiler
is also a version of the Stirling power boiler in many
ways. The unit can be top supported or bottom sup-
ported, can be a one or two drum design, and can burn
a wide variety of fuels cleanly and efficiently. A bot-
Ammonia/Urea
tom supported design similar to a Towerpak boiler (see Injectors
Fig. 12) can be supplied for steam flow capacities up (SNCR)
to 300,000 lb/h (37.8 kg/s). BFB technology is ideal Burners
for repowering an existing facility, recovery boiler con-
version (Fig. 13), or when changing fuel or firing tech- Refractory
Line
niques of an existing boiler. It is particularly attrac-
Overfire
tive in retrofit applications where the bottom of an Air
existing furnace (including a stoker) can be removed System
and replaced with a bubbling fluidized-bed without Startup
major modifications to the balance of the furnace, con- Burners
vection pass enclosures and heat transfer surfaces. Fuel
Spouts
Such conversions have been effective in regaining
boiler capacity lost because of a fuel change or a change Fluidized
Bed
in ash characteristics which are not compatible with
the original boiler furnace design. Such retrofits also
provide one option to reduce sulfur dioxide and nitro- Ash
Conveyors
gen oxides emissions from industrial and small utility
boilers. Fig. 13 Bubbling fluidized-bed retrofit of a recovery boiler.

Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power 27-11

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

BFB design range

Steam capacity 60,000 to 700,000 lb/h
(7.5 to 88.2 kg/s)
Steam pressure to 2400 psig (16.5 MPa)
Steam temperature to 950F (510C)

B&W boilers for oil and gas applications

Boilers in this category have several similarities
attributable to the fuel characteristics of oil and natu-
ral gas. Unlike coal-fired boilers, distillate oil and gas
units do not have to consider slagging and fouling is-
sues. Furnaces and convection banks can be arranged
for optimum heat transfer. Some residual oils can be
erosive and can contribute to fouling which is ad-
dressed in unit selection. The boilers in this section are
all bottom supported.
FM boiler Fig. 15 FM O-type boiler.
Description The FM is a shop-assembled (package),
two drum, bottom supported boiler. (See Fig. 14.) Pack- ppm NOx (0.036 lb/106 Btu), and 80 ppm NOx (0.1 lb/
age boilers can be shipped by rail, truck or barge. Most 106 Btu) on distillate oil. When required, 9 ppm NOx is
FM units are a D-type boiler design and have the fur- achievable on gas with advanced burners.
nace on one side and boiler bank on the other, sepa- Pre-engineering The FM is totally pre-engineered
rated by a baffle wall. In a D-type unit, firing is parallel in frame sizes to satisfy the capacity range of this
to the drums toward the rear wall where the gas turns package design. Series available are FM9, FM10,
180 degrees and flows frontward to the gas outlet. FM103, FM106, FM117 and FM120. Pre-engineered
B&W also provides an O-type FM boiler design set furnace depths are the only variables in this se-
where the furnace is located between the two drums. ries.
(See Fig. 15.) The flue gas splits at the rear of the fur-
nace and flows forward through generating tube sec- FM design range
tions on each side of the furnace. Compared to the D- Steam capacity 10,000 to 230,000 lb/h
type boiler layout, the O-type boiler has a center of (1.3 to 29.0 kg/s)
gravity that is on the unit centerline, which provides Steam pressure to 1250 psig (8.62 MPa)
advantages for shipping. Steam temperature to 800F (427C) on oil
Gas-tight furnaces, using membrane construction, 850F (454C) on natural
are features of both the O and D boilers for pressure- gas (higher pressures and
fired (forced draft fan only) operation. With today’s temperatures available)
advanced low NOx burner designs and steam separa-
tion technology, B&W offers rail-shippable units to High Capacity FM boiler
230,000 lb/h (29 kg/s). Description The High Capacity FM (HCFM) boil-
In addition to burning oil and natural gas, these ers are extensions of the FM D-type boiler design. (See
units can burn a variety of gaseous and liquid fuels Fig. 16.) High capacity boilers can be assembled in the
such as landfill gas, refinery gas, and various waste shop, at a barge dock or in the field. Shipping dimen-
liquid fuels. Emissions on natural gas are typically 30 sions of these units require that they be shipped by
barge or ocean vessel.
The design is for oil and gas firing and uses mem-
brane furnace walls for pressurized operation. Mul-
tiple burners are used for the increased capacity.
Pre-engineering Like the FM, these boilers are com-
pletely pre-engineered and set furnace depths are the
only variable.
HCFM design range
Steam capacity
HCFM 200,000 to 350,000 lb/h
(25.2 to 44.1 kg/s)
Steam pressure to 1050 psig (7.24 MPa) design
Steam temperature to 825F (441C)
PFM boiler
Description Another higher capacity and design
pressure D-type boiler, the Power for Manufacturing
Fig. 14 Type FM integral furnace boiler – membrane wall construction. (PFM), is also designed for dock or field assembly. If

27-12 Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 16 High Capacity FM boiler.
shipped assembled, the size of these units requires
special handling at the installation site. (See Fig. 17.)
This design is also for gas and oil firing and uses a
membrane furnace for pressure operation. Again, mul-
tiple burners are used for the increased capacity.
Pre-engineering Like the FM and HCFM, this boiler
series, which includes PFM 140, 180, 220, 250 and
280, is completely pre-engineered and set furnace
depths are the only variable.
PFM design range
Steam capacity 200,000 to 600,000 lb/h
(25.2 to 75.6 kg/s)
Steam pressure to 1800 psig (12.4 MPa) design
Steam temperature to 1000F (538C)
PFI boiler
Description The Power for Industry (PFI) boiler is
a two drum, bottom supported, multiple gas pass unit
designed specifically to burn liquid and/or gaseous fu-
els. (See Fig. 18.) Due to the large furnace enclosure,
the PFI is an excellent choice for harder to burn
byproduct fuels such as blast furnace gas and refin-
ery catalytic cracker CO gas.
The furnace is completely water cooled using mem-
brane wall construction [2.5 in. (63.5 mm) tubes on 3
in. (76.2 mm) centers].
The PFI was developed for maximum shop assem-
bly of components. For example, the furnace is shipped
in as few as ten membrane wall panels with headers
attached at the top and bottom. The panels include
two for each side wall and two each for roof, front wall
and floor. The burner throats are integral with the
front wall panel. The unit is bottom supported on
simple concrete piers and incorporates a drainable su-
Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power
perheater. A unique plenum encloses the upper front
wall, roof and rear of the unit. This plenum serves as
an integral air duct to the windbox and, with a divi-
sion plate in the rear, a flue gas outlet. Either an air
heater or economizer is used to reduce exit gas tem-
perature and heat recovery.
This design features a gas pass extending the full
length of the boiler bank. Flue gas flows horizontally
and parallel to the drums through the bank. A gas
baffle is used to direct the gas across the tubes in
multiple passes to maximize heat transfer.
An inverted loop, drainable superheater is located
behind a screen at the furnace outlet to protect it from
direct furnace radiation. This superheater location
gives a semi-radiant heat transfer characteristic that
produces a relatively flat temperature curve across the
load range. This temperature profile minimizes
attemperation for steam temperature control.
Cyclone steam separators with primary and second-
ary scrubbers are included in the steam drum to pro-
duce the high quality steam needed for present day
superheaters and turbines.
Pre-engineering The PFI unit is totally pre-engi-
neered in a number of frame sizes to satisfy the capac-
ity range of this boiler design. Several superheater ar-
rangements are also pre-engineered for each frame size.
Units come in three different drum centerlines.
Each centerline has a specific furnace depth and three
or four furnace widths.
PFI design range
Steam capacity 100,000 to 700,000 lb/h
(12.6 to 88.2 kg/s)
Steam pressure to 1150 psig (7.9 MPa) design
Steam temperature to 960F (516C)
PFT boiler
Description The Power for Turbine (PFT) boiler was
developed as an extension of the PFI design to accom-
modate the development of higher pressure and tem-
perature turbine cycles. This unit incorporates many
of the PFI features including: two drum, bottom sup-
ported, modularized furnace membrane walls [3 in.
Fig. 17 PFM boiler in transit.
27-13
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 18 Type PFI integral furnace boiler.
(76.2 mm) tubes on 3.75 in. (92.25 mm) centers], drum
cyclones and a drainable superheater. (See Fig. 19.)
Some of the differences include an alternate pen-
dant superheater (as shown in Fig. 19) and gas flow
path the full width of the boiler bank with flow in
vertical directions.
PFT units are particularly well suited to burn high
ash liquid fuels, blast furnace gas and CO gas because
cavities provide space for retractable sootblowers for
cleaning requirements.
Pre-engineering The PFT, like the PFI, is totally pre-
engineered in a number of frame sizes. The unit is de-
signed with two drum centerlines and several furnace
depths and widths to satisfy the capacity range of this
design.
Fig. 19 PFT integral furnace boiler.
27-14
PFT design range
Steam capacity 300,000 to 800,000 lb/h
(37.8 to 100.8 kg/s)
Steam pressure to 1800 psig (12.4 MPa) design
Steam temperature to 1000F (538C)
Enhanced Oil Recovery steam generator
Description The Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)
steam generator (Fig. 20) was developed to meet a
market need, as the name implies. High pressure, wet
steam (approximately 80% quality) is produced by the
unit and then injected into underground strata con-
taining heavy oils. The steam enhances the recovery
of oil by heating the heavy oil which reduces its vis-
cosity and thereby aids in moving the oil to the pro-
ducing wells.
A once-through steam water circuitry featuring all
series flow coils is used for smaller units. Feedwater
flows continuously in a single tube circuit through the
convective (economizer) section to the radiant (fur-
nace) section where the water is boiled to 80% (by
weight) steam quality level. A multiple pass parallel
flow design is used on larger units.
By maintaining wide flame clearances from the ra-
diant walls (i.e., no direct flame impingement) and low
heat releases, relatively poor feedwater (5000 ppm
solids) can be tolerated. This permits minimal
feedwater treatment and allows the water that is sepa-
rated from the recovered oil to be recycled to the boiler
with minimum cleanup. As stated, high solids content
water is tolerable, however, near zero hardness is re-
quired to minimize the probability of solids depositing
in the tubes. Only about 80% of the feedwater is va-
porized to provide sufficient liquid at the steam outlet
to keep water-soluble solids in solution.
Control of the process is achieved by pumping the
required amount of feedwater at the specified pres-
sure [up to 2500 psig (17.2 MPa)] into the convective
section and by regulating the burner firing rate to
maintain measured outlet steam quality.
Units are typically fired with natural gas or heavy oil.
Pre-engineering and design range Units come in
pre-engineered sizes from 5 to 50 × 106 Btu/h (1.5 to
14.7 MWt) output. The units are shop-assembled with
units through 40 × 10 6 Btu/h (11.7 MW t) trailer
Fig. 20 Enhanced oil recovery boiler on location.
Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

mounted in one piece for shipment. Larger sizes are High Intermediate Low Stack
Pressure Pressure Pressure
shop-assembled in several sections for final field as- Drum Drum Drum
sembly. Unit capacities are limited by shipping con-
straints and not because of design limitations.
EOR design range (oil and gas) Duct
Burner
Steam capacity up to 250,000 lb/h (31.5 kg/s)
Steam pressure to 2500 psig (17.2 MPa) design Non-Metallic
Expansion
Joint

B&W boilers for specialty and waste

heat applications
Heat recovery steam generator
The heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) is some-
times referred to as a waste heat recovery boiler
(WHRB) or turbine exhaust gas (TEG) boiler. The lat- CO Ammonia SCR
Non-Metallic
Expansion
ter designation indicates the main application for these Catalyst Injection Grid Catalyst Joint
units today – waste heat recovery and steam genera- Fig. 21 Heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) arrangement.
tion from gas turbine exhaust gas. The HRSG is a key
element in a combined cycle plant affecting initial capi-
tal cost, operating cost, and overall cycle efficiency. to 1800 psig (2068 to 12,410 kPa) for the high pres-
HRSGs are flexible in design depending upon the sure and intermediate pressure sections and 30 to 100
specific application. The gas flow through the unit can psig (206.8 to 689.5 kPa) for the low pressure section.
either be horizontal or vertical with a tradeoff being To accommodate rapid startup, the design includes
made between the cost of floor space for the horizon- provisions for differential expansion between pressure
tal flow unit and structural steel requirements of the parts and nonpressure parts. Expansion joints are
vertical flow unit. The horizontal flow case is the most used where a gas-tight seal is required.
common in North America, while the vertical design HRSGs are designed to handle large gas flows with
is popular in Europe. The HRSG may be designed for minimal pressure drop, resulting in greater gas tur-
operation with multiple, separate pressure steam-wa- bine net electrical output. Special consideration is also
ter loops to meet application requirements and maxi- given to the configuration of the interconnecting flue
mize heat recovery. Superheater or reheater surface gas ductwork, transitions, and diverter valves to mini-
may also be employed to further increase cycle effi- mize pressure losses caused by changes in flow pat-
ciency. Circulation may be forced or natural (see Chap- terns or excessively high velocities. Heat losses
ter 5) with most horizontal gas flow units using natu- through the boiler casing and ductwork are minimized
ral circulation. HRSGs may be unfired, i.e., only use through the use of an insulation system.
the sensible heat of the gas as supplied, or may in- In the natural circulation design, the vertical tubes
clude supplemental fuel firing to raise the gas tem- provide the pumping head necessary to develop suf-
perature to reduce heat transfer surface requirements, ficient circulation ratios for stable circulation. Circu-
increase steam production, control superheat steam lation pumps are eliminated, therefore allowing plant
temperature, or meet process steam temperature re- efficiency to be maximized. The forced circulation de-
quirements. Finally, HRSGs may be designed to in- sign consists of horizontal tubes with gas flowing ver-
corporate an SCR or CO catalyst. (SCR catalysts are tically. Floor space requirements are minimized. How-
discussed in Chapter 34.) ever, the additional load imposed by the circulation
HRSGs are suitable for use with gas turbine sizes pumps reduces cycle efficiency.
from a small 1 MW unit up to modern machines ex-
ceeding 250 MW. See Figs. 21 and 22 for typical ar-
rangements.
Heat recovery steam generators are designed to
handle the unique requirements of a variety of com-
bined cycle systems. Depending on the cycle configu-
ration, the HRSG may consist of one to four separate
boiler circuits (high pressure, two types of intermedi-
ate pressure and low pressure) within the same cas-
ing. The high pressure boiler is used for power gen-
eration [up to 1005F (541C) superheat]. The interme-
diate pressure boilers can be used for power genera-
tion, steam injection for NOx control (water or steam
injected into the gas turbine combustor to limit NOx
formation) and/or process steam. The low pressure
boiler is normally used for feedwater heating and/or
deaeration. Operating pressures can range from 300 Fig. 22 Large HRSG for enhanced oil recovery/cogeneration.

Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power 27-15

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Once-through HRSG designs are also available. In
a once-through design, feedwater is converted directly
to superheated steam without the need for a drum.
As a result, there is no distinction between economizer,
evaporator or superheater surface. The water-to-steam
transition point is variable within the unit and is depen-
dant upon the heat input and mass flow of the water.
Most heat recovery steam generators are too large
to permit shop assembly of an entire unit. Therefore,
most HRSG components are shop fabricated to the
maximum extent possible and delivered to the site as
modules. Typically, each module is structurally inde-
pendent and includes lifting lugs and temporary steel
so that field transport and setting is readily accom-
plished. Some of the smaller HRSG units can be en-
tirely shop-assembled and skid mounted.
Typical parameter ranges for HRSG units are sum-
marized in Table 4.
Special HRSG designs are also available for en-
hanced oil recovery applications. The gas turbine ex-
haust gas is used in the HRSG to generate wet steam
(approximately 80% quality) at pressures up to 2500 psig
(17.2 MPa). The steam is injected into wells to enhance
heavy oil recovery. A unique feature is that relatively
dirty (up to 10,000 ppm dissolved solids) feedwater is used
in a once-through steam generator design.
Technical considerations The HRSG is basically a
counterflow heat exchanger composed of a series of
superheater, reheater, boiler (or evaporator), and
economizer sections positioned from gas inlet to gas
outlet to maximize heat recovery and supply the rated
steam flow at proper temperature and pressure. To
provide the most economical and reliable design, it is
necessary to evaluate the following:
1. Allowable back-pressure – Back-pressure is signifi-
cantly influenced by the HRSG cross-sectional
flow area. Higher back-pressures reduce HRSG
cost but also reduce gas turbine efficiency. Back-
pressures are typically 10 to 15 in. wg (2.5 to 3.7
kPa) in most units.
Table 4
HRSG Parameters
Turbine application:
Gas turbine sizes 1 MW to 220 MW
Gas flow 25,000 to 5,000,000 lb/h (0.32 to
630 kg/s)
Gas turbine outlet
temperature ≤ 1200F (≤ 649C)
Supplemental firing
temperature ≤ 1650F (≤ 899C)
Steam flow: 15,000 to 600,000 lb/h (1.9 to 76 kg/s)
Operating pressures:
High ≥400 psig (2.76 MPa)
Intermediate 50 to 400 psig (0.34 to 2.76 MPa)
Low 15 to 50 psig (0.10 to 0.34 MPa)
Steam temperature up to 1005F (541C)
Supplemental fuels #2 oil, natural gas
27-16
2. Steam pressure and temperature – The steam
pressure and temperature are selected to provide
an economical design. In general, higher steam
pressures increase system efficiency but can limit
total heat recovery from the flue gas in single pres-
sure HRSGs due to the higher saturation tempera-
ture. To overcome this problem, multiple pressure
HRSGs are offered. One to four separate pressure
sections may be used. The superheater, reheater,
boiler and economizer sections at each pressure are
arranged to reduce overall cost and increase heat
recovery.
3. Pinch point and approach temperatures – The
pinch point temperature and approach tempera-
tures have a significant impact on overall unit
size. They are illustrated in Fig. 23 for a single
pressure HRSG. Small pinch point and super-
heater approach temperatures result in larger heat
transfer surfaces and higher capital costs, while
the economizer approach temperature is typically
set to avoid economizer steaming at the design
point. Experience has generally indicated that the
following ranges provide economical and techni-
cally satisfactory designs, although lower values
may be appropriate in specific applications:
Pinch point = ∆Tp = 20 to 50F (11 to 28C)
Superheater approach =∆TSH = 40 to 60F (22 to 33C)
Economizer approach = ∆TE = 10 to 30F (6 to 17C)
4. Stack outlet temperature – As with feedwater tem-
perature, the minimum flue gas exit or stack tem-
perature needs to be controlled to avoid corrosion
due to acid condensation. Typical values are iden-
tified in Chapter 20.
5. Load response and cycling requirements – Many
HRSGs today are cycled. That is, they are brought
up and down in load on a daily basis, thus requir-
ing frequent warm-ups and cool-downs. As a re-
Fig. 23 Temperature profile in single pressure HRSG.
Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
sult, special consideration must be given to the
thermal and mechanical stresses associated with
this type of operation. Pressure parts and their at-
tachments must be designed in a manner which
allows them to expand freely. Steaming in the
economizer is inevitable at off-design points. As a
result, economizers must incorporate up-flow tube
circuitry, recirculation lines, steam-water separa-
tion equipment in the drum, or gas bypasses.
Stack dampers may also be necessary to keep the
HRSG warm if it is to be brought off line for short
periods of time.
6. Emissions – Emission requirements can have a
physical impact on the design of an HRSG. De-
pending on permit requirements and the type of
fuels fired in the duct burner, an SCR or CO cata-
lyst may be required. In some instances, it may
be necessary to have both. The location of either
is driven by temperature (see Chapter 34). There-
fore, tube banks must be arranged to accommo-
date the SCR and/or CO catalyst blocks which are
sized to meet the removal efficiency required at the
design conditions specified. It may also be neces-
sary to install a distributor grid upstream of the
catalyst section to distribute the flue gas evenly
across the catalyst.
CO boiler
In the hydrocarbon processing industry, the opera-
tion of a fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit, depend-
ing on the FCC arrangement, produces gases rich in
carbon monoxide (CO). To reclaim the thermal energy
in these gases, the FCC unit can be designed to in-
clude a CO boiler to generate steam.
For refineries generating large quantities of CO,
field-erected boilers such as the PFI boiler are used.
Fig. 24 Shop-assembled CO boiler.
Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power
There are also many smaller refineries that have
cracking units in the general range of 12,000 barrels
(1908 m3) per day or less which produce from 75,000
to 175,000 lb/h (9.5 to 22.1 kg/s) of CO gas. CO boil-
ers for this capacity are often small enough to be shop
assembled. A shop-assembled boiler modified for CO
firing is shown in Fig. 24. CO gas is admitted through
ports in the side walls and front wall to promote mix-
ing and rapid combustion. The burners, for firing
supplementary fuel, are located in a refractory front
wall and fire into a horizontal furnace.
The maximum steam requirements of the cracking
unit may occur at normal, full load operation or dur-
ing startup of the cracking unit, depending on the
plant steam cycle. The supply of CO is normally not
sufficient to generate the maximum amount of steam
required; supplementary fuel is then needed.
Supplementary fuel is also required to raise the tem-
perature of the CO gases to the ignition point and to
assure complete burning of the combustibles in the CO
gas stream. The following design criteria have been
established:
1. The basic firing rate should produce a tempera-
ture of 1800F (982C) in the furnace for a suitable
residence to provide safe and stable combustion of
the fuels.
2. Air is supplied by the forced draft fan to provide
2% oxygen leaving the unit when burning CO
gases and supplementary fuel.
3. Supplementary firing equipment is provided
which is capable of raising the temperature of the
CO gases to 1450F (788C), the temperature
needed for ignition of the combustibles.
Because of possible variations in the combustible
and oxygen content of the CO gases, the sensible heat
of the CO gases and the amount of supplementary fir-
27-17
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
ing, it is impractical to set up a fuel-air relationship.
Consequently, it is necessary to directly determine the
amount of excess oxygen leaving the unit. This may
be determined intermittently by a portable oxygen
analyzer, or continuously by an oxygen analyzer or
combination oxygen-combustible recorder.
Water seal tanks are installed upstream of the CO
boiler to act as shutoff valves in the large gas lines so
that the CO gases from the catalyst regenerator may
be passed through the boiler or sent directly to the
stack. This permits independent operation of the CO
boiler without interfering with the operation of the re-
generator. Water seal tanks are preferred to mechani-
cal shutoff dampers because of the high gas tempera-
ture, the size of the CO ducts, and the need for leak
proof construction.
The operation of the CO boiler is coordinated with
that of the catalytic cracker. Normally, the boiler will
be required to supply steam for the operation of the
catalytic cracking unit and will be started using
supplementary fuel. The CO boiler should always be
started using only the supplementary fuel burners
and bypassing the gases from the regenerator to the
atmosphere. CO gases should not be introduced into
the boiler until it is brought up to temperature because
these gases usually are at or below 1000F (538C) and,
consequently, tend to cool the furnace. They ignite
quite readily and burn with a non-luminous flame.
As the CO is introduced to the boiler, it is necessary to
reduce the supplementary fuel and the combustion air.
This readjustment in the air requirement is deter-
mined from the oxygen recorder reading.
Because there are only slight variations in the op-
eration of the catalytic cracking unit, the CO boiler is
normally base loaded. It handles all the gases from
the regenerator regardless of the carbon dioxide (CO2)
to CO ratio. A change in this ratio merely affects the
quantity of supplementary fuel necessary to maintain
the required furnace temperature of 1800F (982C).
This temperature provides a reasonable operating
margin for possible variation in the operation of the
regenerator or the boiler. Stable operation can be
maintained at a furnace temperature as low as 1500F
(816C), but the margin above the ignition tempera-
ture of the CO gas is considerably reduced.
The economics of the CO boiler depend on the
amount of available heat in the regenerator exhaust
compared with an equivalent amount of heat from an
alternate fuel. The heat from the CO gases is calcu-
lated by taking the sensible heat above an assumed
boiler stack temperature plus all of the heat from the
combustibles. The additional steam generated in the
CO boiler by the supplementary fuel is comparable
with the steam generated in a conventional power
boiler. Normally, the supplementary fuel requirement
will account for one fourth to one third of the output
when the temperature of the entering CO gas is main-
tained at 1000F (538C).
Changes in FCC catalysts and in process conditions
have permitted reductions in the CO content of the
gases leaving the unit. These changes also result in
the gas temperature to the CO boiler increasing from
the 1000F (538C) level to as high as 1450F (788C).
27-18
Many existing CO boilers have been upgraded to
handle the new conditions. Changes have included
elimination of combustion zone refractory, use of mem-
braned water walls, and resizing of heat transfer sur-
face. (See Fig. 25.) New heat recovery boilers on FCC
units are designed for these new process conditions.
General waste heat boiler
The progressive increase in the cost of fuel has fos-
tered technical progress in the utilization of waste
energy, including specialized designs and applications
of boilers. There are many industries or processes that
generate large quantities of high temperature gases
from which the sensible heat may be extracted for
steam generation. Such gases are produced in cata-
lytic regenerators; blast furnaces; copper reverbera-
tory furnaces; annealing, forge and billet heating fur-
naces; and fired kilns of many types.
The heat contained in these exhaust gases can of-
ten generate all the steam required for an industrial
process via properly designed boiler equipment.
Where the waste gases carry some of the noncombus-
tible process material in suspension, suitable hoppers
will collect a portion of the material, and the cooled
gases leaving the boiler may be passed through dust
collectors to recover the remaining particulate. Many
types of boilers are necessary to meet the wide range
of requirements in this field. Boiler design depends on
the chemical nature of the gases and their tempera-
ture, pressure, quantity and dust loading.
Heat transfer from waste gases
The rate of heat transfer from the gas to the boiler
water depends on the temperature and thermophysical
properties of the gases, velocity and direction of flow
over the absorbing surfaces, and the surface cleanli-
ness, as discussed in Chapter 4. Temperatures of many
process gases are relatively low as shown in Table 5.
To obtain the proper velocity of the gases over the
surfaces, a sufficient pressure difference or draft must
be provided, either by a stack or a fan. The draft must
overcome the pressure losses caused by the flow of
gases through the unit, with adequate allowance for
normal heating surface fouling.
The radiation heat transfer component is low and
the tendency is to design many waste heat boilers for
higher gas velocities than prevail on fuel-fired units.
However, high velocities with dust-laden gases can
cause tube erosion, particularly where there are
changes in gas flow direction. Therefore, process-spe-
cific velocity limits must be met.
Diagrams A and B, Fig. 26, show the approximate
convection heating surface required for usual condi-
tions in waste heat boilers.
A water-cooled furnace is a feature of some waste
heat boiler applications where it is necessary to cool
the furnace gases to the temperature required to pre-
vent slagging in the following tightly spaced convec-
tion surfaces. The approximate amount of surface re-
quired for such furnace applications is given in Dia-
gram C of Fig. 26.
Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Fig. 25 Circular CO boiler modernization.

Application factors cases, deposits from processes may require periodic

The design of a boiler for a particular application manual cleaning with high pressure air, steam or
depends on many factors, most of which vary from water to keep the boiler passes open. In either case,
process to process and even within an industry. The suitable hoppers should be provided to collect the de-
cost of equipment, auxiliary power and maintenance posit material removed from the tubes.
must be compared with the expected savings. The
boiler design depends somewhat on the cost of power
at the plant. A smaller unit with closely spaced tubes
will cost less but will require more fan power, because Table 5
of high draft loss. A larger unit will be more expen- Temperature of Waste Heat Gases
sive but have a lower draft loss and therefore a lower Temperature
fan power requirement. Other important factors are Source of Gas F C
the available space, locations for the proper flue con-
nections, the corrosive nature of the gases, the effect Ammonia oxidation process 1350 to 1475 732 to 802
of dust loading on erosion, and the process operating Annealing furnace 1100 to 2000 593 to 1093
Cement kiln (dry process) 1150 to 1500 621 to 816
pressure conditions, i.e., pressurized or induced draft.
Cement kiln (wet process) 800 to 1100 427 to 593
If the gases carry dust, attention must be given to Copper reverberatory
tube spacing and to removal of dust dislodged from furnace 2000 to 2500 1093 to 1371
the heating surfaces. The tubes must be spaced rea- Diesel engine exhaust 1000 to 1200 538 to 649
sonably close for good heat transfer yet far enough Forge and billet heating
apart to prevent bridging of deposits which can lead furnaces 1700 to 2200 927 to 1204
to excessive gas-side pressure loss. Often the boiler is Open hearth steel furnace,
arranged for wide tube spacing where the gases are air blown 1000 to 1300 538 to 704
hottest, with spacing reduced where the gases are cooler Open hearth steel furnace,
to maintain gas velocities and good heat transfer. oxygen blown 1300 to 2100 704 to 1149
Basic oxygen furnace 3000 to 3500 1649 to 1927
Sometimes the particulate or dust carried into the Petroleum refinery 1000 to 1400 538 to 760
boiler from the process can be removed by mechani- Sulfur ore processing 1600 to 1900 871 to 1038
cal cleaners or sootblowers (see Chapter 24). In other

Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power 27-19

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Fig. 26 Approximate surface required in convection tube bank and
vestibule for various entering and leaving waste gas temperatures.
Gases from oil- or gas-fired process furnaces are
relatively clean and, therefore, can be used in units
with 1.0 in. (25.4 mm) clear spacing between bare
tubes with little likelihood of deposit bridging and
plugging.
Three-drum waste heat boiler An example of a simple
three-drum waste heat boiler, specially designed to
operate with dust-laden gases, is shown in Fig. 27.
This type of unit is particularly well suited for use with
high solids content waste gases from cement kilns.
Maximum precipitation of solids is assured by the hori-
zontal flow of the gases through the vertical tube
banks and by the effective arrangement of baffles.
With this tube arrangement, hand lancing is possible
from both sides of the unit. Every space in the full
width of the boiler can be lanced. Hand lancing can
27-20
also be done through the roof and above the lower
drums, making all absorbing surfaces accessible with
a short hand lance.
With high solids content gases, it is often possible
to reduce the amount of hand lancing by using long
retractable sootblowers. These are located at one or
sometimes two elevations along the depth of tube banks
at gaps formed by eliminating a single row of tubes.
To maintain optimum heat transfer conditions with-
out changing the direction of gas flow, the tubes in
the rear sections of the boiler are more closely spaced
than those at the inlet.
Circulation in this boiler is simple, with the boiler
tubes in the hot gas end acting as risers and the tubes
in the cooler gas zones acting as downcomers or sup-
ply tubes. The boiler has a relatively long drum in
which steam separation takes place without the use
of baffles. The steam is collected in a dry pipe located
in the quiet, cool gas end of the drum. Feedwater is
thoroughly mixed with the boiler water rising into the
steam drum.
Expansion and contraction of the drums and tubes
have no effect on the steel casing, firebrick, or insula-
tion. The most common source of brickwork trouble is
therefore eliminated and air infiltration is reduced to
a minimum. All pressure parts rest on supports located
below the lower drums.
The location of the superheater can be altered for
superheat temperature requirements. To increase heat
absorption further, an economizer can be installed in
the flue leaving the boiler. The economizer is arranged
for downward flow of gases to aid in the collection of
solids.
Solids collected in the hoppers under the boiler and
economizer can be readily removed while the boiler is
in service. In a single boiler behind a cement kiln, from
20 to 40 t (18.14 to 36.3 tm) of cement dust may be re-
covered each day from these hoppers.
Basic oxygen furnace/oxygen
converter hood
The basic oxygen furnace (BOF) used in the steel
industry is blown with pure oxygen through a retract-
able water-cooled lance mounted vertically above the
Fig. 27 Three-drum waste heat boiler with lance ports and
sootblowers.
Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power
 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

furnace. After each charge of molten iron, scrap steel

and fluxing material are loaded into the furnace, the
oxygen lance is lowered into position above the
charged material, and a blowing period of 15 to 20
minutes begins.
During the blowing time, the oxygen starts a chemi-
cal reaction which brings the charge up to tempera-
ture by burning out the silicon and phosphorous im-
purities and reducing the carbon content, as required,
for high grade steel. Large amounts of carbon mon-
oxide gas, at 3000 to 3500F (1649 to 1927C), are re-
leased in this conversion process. The gas is collected
in a water-cooled hood and burned with air introduced
at the mouth of the hood. The products of combustion
are then cooled by adding excess air, injecting spray
water, or water cooling of the hood. Combinations of
these cooling methods may be used.
The high temperature of the gases discharged from
the BOF and their high carbon monoxide content
(about 70% by volume) make them ideal for burning
in the water-cooled hood located above the BOF. While
there are basic similarities to usual boiler service, there
are also significant differences, particularly the
carryover of iron-bearing slag from the BOF and the
short, intermittent operating periods.
The basic oxygen furnace (BOF) hoods are fabri-
cated from membrane wall panels (Fig. 28). The mem-
brane wall can be formed into a variety of hood con-
figurations depending on plant layout. The hood may
be a long flue type used to transport the gases to an
evaporation or quench chamber, or it may be a bon-
net type that collects the gases and immediately dis-
charges them into a spark box where the temperature Fig. 28 Oxygen converter hood arrangement.
is sufficiently reduced with spray water for use in the
gas cleanup system.
Steam generator hood The oxygen converter hood, making process. The rate of steam generation varies from
when equipped with a steam drum, boiler circulation zero to a maximum and back to zero during this period
pumps, boiler mountings and controls, is an effective which is normally about 20 minutes for a converter cycle
steam generator during the oxygen blowing portion of 40 to 45 minutes. This cyclic operation, coupled with
of the converter cycle. Steam generation is limited to the outage time required for relining the converter ves-
the time of the oxygen blowing period, which is inter- sel every few weeks, limits the steam production of a
mittent or cyclical in operation because of the steel- single hood to 12 to 15% of the life of the lining.

Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power 27-21

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Type PFI Integral Furnace boiler installed in an industrial plant.

27-22 Steam 41 / Boilers for Industry and Small Power