Review of Related Literature

This paper will lay down a survey of available literature, studies, journals, and

researches that are relevant to employee satisfaction. Their inclusion in this paper will

further the understanding and appreciation of the topic. The succeeding literature

maybe categorized into as follows:

1. Definition of employee satisfaction;

2. Factors affecting employee satisfaction in private enterprises and public

institutions; and

3. Impact of employee satisfaction to the organization and to the employees.

I. Definition

The term or concept of job satisfaction is derived from psychology, sociology and

humanities and it is considered a variable in different categories related to how each

employee evaluates and thinks about his work (Sypniewska, 2014).

It is considered as one of the most important variables in the life of an employee

in any organization or institution (Motlou, Singh, & Karodia, 2016).

Job satisfaction serves as an assessment on how the employees feel about their

individual jobs (Maheswari, 2014)

It is also a positive emotional state of employees resulting from appreciation of

their job experiences as noted by Crisci, Sepe & Malafronte, (2019).

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 Pandey and Asthana (2017) supposed that job satisfaction can also refer to the

optimistic attitude of an employee towards their personal experience based on their

expected result.

And although the employees are regarded as the most important asset for an

entity, evaluating their level of satisfaction can be dubious and uncertain might lead to

differing conclusions and findings and ultimately will lead to unsound decisions and

finally, detrimental consequences (Basidurin et. al., 2016).

Job satisfaction, along with job engagement, is used as independent variables

linked to productivity outcomes (accountability) and exit (intent to leave).

Global satisfaction clearly provides a useful measure for productivity outcomes and

exit. Job engagement adds usefully with regard to the accountability productivity

outcome (Daley, 2017).

And just like any concept used and upheld in any work environment or

organization, job satisfaction is dictated by numerous factors (Günay & Boylu, 2014).

Due to its importance, job satisfaction has attracted researchers to study more on

its practical implications on the employee, in particular and on the organization, as a

whole (Alias, et. al., 2018).

II. Factors

Woking Conditions

Tadesse (2018) discovered that working environment has a very strong

relationship with job satisfaction through his case study of public institutions in Ethiopia.

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This is also held true with the research on Thailand public school teachers

(Homyamyen, Kulachai & Phuangthuean, 2017). Such a statement is supported by the

research done on the academic librarians in university libraries in Nigeria (Oyovwe

Tinuoye, Omeluzor & Akpojotor, 2016).

Since work is constantly reshaped by technological advancements, the

government and the organization’s management must know how to manage such

changes and make the best out of it to come up with better, if not the best, working

conditions (Djankov & Saliola, 2019) since working environment is one of the key

factors determining job satisfaction (Pandey & Asthana, 2017).

Yesilyaprak and Boysan (2015) found out that working in the academe or in rural

settings can significantly predict job satisfaction and that school counsellors are

reported to be more satisfied than the rest of work groups they studied. Public sector

respondents were comparatively more satisfied than their private sector counterparts

(Fatima & Bhatti, 2014).

Management must provide a work environment conducive for growth and

development since it will boost job satisfaction as proven by studies conducted on

public primary school teachers (Raza & Nazir, 2017), government tax service officers

(Idris, Zuhri, & Efendi, 2018), telecommunication industry employees (Aamir, Salman,

Asif & Bahar, 2014) and immigrant workers (Wang & Jing, 2018). In contrast, poor

working environment (Memon, Ting, Salleh, Ali & Yacob, 2016) and deficient working

facilities (Alemi, 2014) can cause high level of stress and low level of satisfaction.

Unfavourable working hours (Raza & Kamran, 2017; Filiz, 2014; Yeh, 2015) and

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unbearable workloads (Yerdelen, Sungur, Semra & Klassen, 2016) can affect job

satisfaction.

However, no significant relationship was established by the research of Can,

Holt, and Hendy (2016) between work hours and job satisfaction.

Job Position, Safety & Security

Job position has been concluded as one of the determinants of job satisfaction

as proven by Tso, Fai & Li (2015) in their study of Chinese resource-based state-owned

enterprises. Not only the position, but also the guarantee of stay on such position or job

security also dictates job satisfaction as established in the studies of paraprofessional

staff in Pakistani university libraries (Hussain, Soroya, & Hanif, 2017) and

telecommunication sectors in Pakistan (Aamir, Salman, Asif & Bahar, 2014). Identical

results were derived from the research on South Korean elder workers on the basis of

their re-employment (Kim, 2019), non-Omanis or immigrants working in Omani

university hospitals (Alrawahi, Sellgren, Alwahaibi, & Altouby, 2019), and government

municipal employees at the Municipality of Padmanabhapuram in India (Maheswari,

2014). Same conclusion was drawn from the 2017 study of Onyebu and Omotayo.

Training & Development

In 2017, the National Centre for Vocational Education Research stated that

employer-supported training can lead to better jobs and greater job satisfaction and

investigated the factors of participation in training, and how the factors affect employees'

demand for training and employers' willingness to provide training. Especially now that

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technology is changing how the employees work and cooperate with one another and

workers need to be better at complex problem solving, teamwork, and adaptability and

investing in human capital must be a priority for governments in order for workers to

build the skills that are in demand in the labor market. In addition, governments need to

enhance social protection and extend it to all people in society, irrespective of the terms

on which they work (Djankov & Saliola, 2019).

Also, professional development is seen as the most significant predictor of

satisfaction among the 183 Saudi physiotherapists studied by Aleisa, Tse, Alkassabi,

Buragadda & Melama (2015) and eighty-eight Nigerian academic librarians subjected to

research by Oyovwe, et. al, (2016).

Managers must also be trained on different management strategies so that they

will be able to implement one that is fit for the organization they are leading (Liu, 2016).

Pay & Promotion

The financial factor that significantly predicts job satisfaction the most would be

remuneration or pay (Aamir, et. al, 2014). This is supported by Hussain and Soroya

(2017) in their study of university libraries, by Maheswari (2014) in his assessment of

Municipal employees, and by Pandey & Asthana (2017).

Perceived economic profitability from the job predicts the level of satisfaction

among the Malaysian young workers in the oil palm plantation industry (Kamaruddin, et.

al., 2018). Yeh (2015) arrived to the same conclusion when studying about Japanese,

Taiwanese and Korean workers. Same insights were provided by the research of

Onyebu (2017) on Nigerian hotel employees and of Oyovwe Tinuoye and Omeluzor

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(2016) in their study on university libraries. The organization’s reward practice can also

dictate satisfaction (Tadesse, 2018).

Workplace Relations

Interpersonal relationships also considerably dictate levels of job satisfaction

(Yeh, 2015). Internal communication plays a vital role and is also a statistically

important predictor of satisfaction levels (Borovec & Balgac, 2017).

The different facets of satisfaction from communication such as satisfaction from

feedback, satisfaction from supervisory communication and media of communication

also help in the determination and assurance of job satisfaction (ibid.).

Ranaweera (2018) warned that co-worker relationships are stained by the

absence of appropriate appreciation mechanism and communication gaps and if worker

relations are affected, employees tend to be less satisfied. Wakashima, Asai, Hiraizumi

and Noguchi (2019) added that individuals with poor workplace communication

experience more job stress which is inversely related on their level of job satisfaction

and ultimately their job productivity. Neha, Phogat and Kundu (2019) stated that co-

worker and supervisory support indicate favourable conditions for the employees. All of

these are supported by various studies around the globe (Aamir, et. al, 2014;

Homyamyen, et. al., 2017).

Organizational Policy & Management Strategies

Employer policies also play a vital role in the determination and prediction of job

satisfaction (Kamaruddin, et. al., 2018). The type of leadership being employed by

6
managers also affects job satisfaction (Shah S., Shah A., & Pathan, 2017) with the

democratic type regarded as the most effective in positively influencing job satisfaction

(Jerome, 2018) and ethical leadership also having positive effects on the employees

(Shafique, Kalyar & Bashir, 2018). Organizational policies also contribute to job

satisfaction (Homyamyen, Kulachai & Phuanthuean, 2017; Pandey & Asthana, 2017).

Management strategies such as Total Quality Management, if implemented

successfully, can also increase employee satisfaction (Liu, 2016). Liu added that it is

also observed that organization leaders do have critical influences over the success or

failure in TQM implementation. Furthermore, organizations with holistic TQM

implementation can effectively enhance their performance. In disparity, poor managerial

support can lead to dissatisfied employees (Memon, et. al., 2016).

Other Factors

There are other factors that are not common among those previously cited but

are still listed out by different research proponents and they are presented below:

Educational level or background is also found to be an important factor as proved

by Tso, Fai & Li (2015) in their study of Chinese resource-based state-owned

enterprises while Kamaruddin, Abdullah & Ayob (2018) found out that government

policies positively contributed to job satisfaction among employees in a Malaysian oil

plantation sector.

Personal demographics such as marital statuses, ages and genders were found

to also influence levels of employee’s satisfaction (Filiz, 2014). Psychological factors

such as hope, optimism and family emotional support were enumerated by Kwok,

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Cheng and Wong (2015) in their study about Chinese white-collar workers but the effect

of family emotional support on job satisfaction was mediated by optimism and self-

efficacy. Other psychological factor such as social support and emotional intelligence

were listed by Onyebu and Omotayo (2017) when they studied selected hotels in

Nigeria. Social identity was identified by Saha, Kumar and Sikder (2015) as a

determinant as well along with professional identity (Sabanciogullari & Dogan, 2015).

Work experience and occupational well-being were thought to be determinants

by Yerdelen, Sungurm and Klassen (2016).

The person’s quality of life and their level of internal locus of control are also

directly related to their job satisfaction (Gunay & Boylu, 2014).

Findings of Eason Mazerolle, Monsma and Mensch (2015) were as follows:

extroversion and conscientious both showed a positive, although weak, relationship with

job satisfaction; moderate positive relationship between agreeableness and job

satisfaction; and a moderate negative relationship between neuroticism and job

satisfaction.

Kazemi and Shahtalebi (2014) investigated the relationship between moral

atmosphere and job satisfaction while Lee, Chen and and Tsui (2014) studied about the

relationship between open innovation climate and job satisfaction and both researchers

arrived at positive correlations between the two variables.

Gunawan, Barsa, and Tua (2018) added that work-life balance also predicts job

satisfaction.

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 For immigrants, cultural-related factors (e.g. language, cultural traits, and

acculturation), general demographics, and community-related factors play important

roles in determining their level of satisfaction (Wang & Jing, 2018).

The descriptive statistics of the 2014 study by Fatima and Bhatti show that the

respondents who are librarians from both public and private sector universities were

overall satisfied with their jobs, followed by the value of their views and participation,

their own moral, with a feeling of personal accomplishment which they get after

performing work, with their direct supervisor, with the feeling of fairness of their work

responsibilities, with the environment they have to influence the quality of their work,

with a reasonable balance which they have maintained between family life and work life,

with the role of leaders in their work environment, with understanding of how their goals

are linked to institution goals, with the team spirit of work environment and with

appropriate recognition which they receive for their contribution in the institution.

In East Asia, the non-financial aspects of job quality have a greater effect

on job satisfaction than the earning factor. The findings of this study further indicate

that job resources (i.e., earnings, job content, and workplace relations)

increase job satisfaction more than job demands (i.e., working hours, workloads, and

work/family conflict) decrease job satisfaction (Yeh, 2015).

As Basirudin (2016) pointed out, previous research found that different motivation

and inspiration exist between public and private sector employees and it can cause

some difference between the levels of satisfaction of these sectors.

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 Psychological stress brought about by unexpected disasters such as the Great

East Japan Earthquake can also affect job satisfaction (Wakashima, Asai, Hiraizumi

and Noguchi 2019).

Alias, et al. (2018) believed that job rotation, job enlargement and job enrichment

and job satisfaction revealed statistically significant and are positively correlated.

Teachers having children appeared to experience more emotional exhaustion but

less job satisfaction (Yerdelen, Sungur & Klassen, 2016).

However, the 2016 study of Can, Holt and Hendy on patrol officer job satisfaction

scale (POJSS) found no significant associations between personal or department

demographics (gender, age, education, marital status, service years, city location) and

any of the POJSS dimensions. One area of improvement suggested by the proponents

is to do a random sampling on successive research about same topics since they

utilized convenience sampling during the research process. In addition, other studies or

literature about job satisfaction among patrol officers often used either secondary data

(Ingram & Lee, 2015).

The negative relationship between working environment and perception of

social job status with job satisfaction proven that these two factors were

repulsion factors (Kamaruddin, Abdullah, & Ayob, 2018).

It was suggested by Akram, Vafa, and Pejman (2017) in their study that

organizational and administrative support, including training in the effective

communication skills between couples, making balance between work and family and

flexibility in shift work programs can improve the job satisfaction translating to improved

quality of life and marital satisfaction

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 III. Impact

Higher job satisfaction results in lower abseenteism and turnover intent, higher

job performance, and better mental and physical health (Lambert, Oko & Smart, 2019)

among prison staff in Nigeria, while it also affect Turkish nurses’ intention to leave their

profession (Sabanciogullari & Dogan, 2015).

The same factors that drive job satisfaction also dictate turnover intention

(Kulachai & Amaraphibal, 2017). Common factors among the two were pays and

rewards and job stress.

Satisfied public officials are more likely to present citizenship behaviour for the

benefit of their employees and as well as the whole nation, without expecting any

returns and this is a natural reciprocate of gestures and feedback presenting the

satisfaction or dissatisfaction of individuals with their job. (Basirudin, et. al., 2016).

If employees are skilled and are subjected to employer-supported training, it can

lead to job satisfaction and increased job performance which in turn leads to national

productivity (NCVER, 2017).

There was significant difference between job and life satisfaction levels of the

academicians depending on the variables like the faculties that academic personnel

working at, their titles, educational backgrounds, marital statuses, periods of duty, ages

and genders (Filiz, 2014).

Job satisfaction is closely related to the performance and quality of work

performed by an employee and, consequently, translates into the success of an

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organization, because a satisfied employee builds and participates in the success of

any organization (Sypniewska, 2014).

Maheswari (2014) believes that job satisfaction is a key aspect to make increase

productive, encourage innovation and strengthen commitment among employees.

On the other hand, low job satisfaction has recently been cited as a possible

cause of the current teaching crisis in Italy (Crisci, Sepe & Malafronte, 2019).

. Oyovwe Tinuoye, Omeluzor & Akpojotor in 2016, found out that

librarians' job satisfaction serves as stimulus for employee's productivity and delivery of

quality services to clientele.

In a multivariate ordinary least squares regression analysis by Lambert, Oko and

Smart (2019) in their study on Nigerian prison staff, job stress had significant negative

effects on life satisfaction, and job involvement and job satisfaction had significant

positive effects. The findings for job stress and job involvement are consistent with that

found among U.S. correctional staff. The finding that job involvement had a significant

positive effect differs from that reported for U.S. staff. The results suggest that prison

administrators should attempt to lower job stress and increase job involvement and job

satisfaction.

Since job satisfaction is important, the findings of the study by Pandey and

Asthana (2017) suggest that the taken factors have explained the job satisfaction and

the policy framers and managers have to think about inclusion of the factors that

affect satisfaction to enhance their business.

Study result showed that job satisfaction as well as organization commitment

affect organization citizenship behavior (Sawitri, Suswati & Huda, 2016).

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 Research suggests that job satisfaction along with job stress, job involvement,

affective commitment, and continuance commitment have effects on burnout among

Indian officers, as has been found among Western officers (Lambert, Qureshi, Frank,

Klahm & Smith, 2018).

Bootstrap results via serial mediation model establish that job satisfaction,

career satisfaction, and family satisfaction mediate individually and serially the

relationships between various workplace support variables and life satisfaction (Neha,

Phogat & Kundu, 2019)

Summary of Existing Literature

The first part of the review introduced the idea and concept of job satisfaction.

Various definitions were cited and they all point out that satisfaction is a matter of

perception. It was highlighted that satisfaction is a positive emotion and if an employee

is more satisfied it could simply be interpreted as he or she is happier or more joyful

with what he or she is doing or is tasked to do so. And just like any concept or idea used

in every organization, it is determined or is being predicted by numerous factors. A

literature entry also opined that job satisfaction as a research topic has become more

attractive drawing the attention of many research proponents acknowledging its

practical implications, importance and relevance to the employee, to the organization

and to the whole nation.

The middle and the longest part of this paper focused on all possible factors that

could help determine or affect job satisfaction. Different authors or researchers have

differing lists of factors. But perhaps the most common and cited as the most significant

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indicators would include the pay and promotion, job security, management, working

conditions and worker relations. These four are repeatedly identified as the most

important and most considerable in a research or two. The first two might have been

identified as one of the most significant since they are financial in nature. And it is

undeniable that the very reason for persons who opted to get a job is the monetary

benefit or remuneration. Since it is human instinct to survive, he will definitely find ways

and means to earn money and put food on the table. The third factor, which is

management, is also a significant one since it’s the management who is more influential

in a workplace and are more proximate to the employees. Management have a say in

almost all circumstances that cover an employee’s life in an organization from hiring, to

promotion or retention and eventually to firing. The last two factors are more of

psychological in nature. They talk about how the surroundings or the place where

employees perform. It is very important to have an environment that encourages the

employees to excel, contribute, innovate and participate. It is also equally important for

management to develop a rewards system that boosts employee confidence to perform.

Apart from, organizations must ensure that organizational culture must foster and

encourage communication among workers and management. Communication is

considered as the lifeblood of an entity therefore, important attention is required to make

sure that the best communication practices are in place.

Finally, the review, with the third and final part, draws attention to impacts of job

satisfaction. Various studies believed that job satisfaction dictates job performance and

they are directly related. Apart from that, employee retention is strengthened through

strengthening of employee commitment. Career satisfaction also is strengthened

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thereby positively affecting the turnover intention of workers; either it’s about leaving the

organization or leaving the industry itself. Increase in performance and fortified retention

can lead to increased organizational productivity which in turn translates to increase in

national productivity. Increased life satisfaction is also seen as the positive effect of

increased job satisfaction. Simply said, if an employee is happy employee, then he or

she also is a happy friend, a happy citizen and a happy person. In contrast, low

satisfaction translates to low productivity, low self-esteem, low career satisfaction, and

low life satisfaction. All of which would result to high turnover intention.

With those being said, studies about factors affecting job satisfaction of

employees in either public institutions or private enterprises generally have the same

results and conclusions. Although a few outliers declines the such factors as

determinants of satisfaction, this discrepancy is caused by non-random sampling

technique or the use of obsolete, although reevaluated, data. Apart from that, the other

only difference is the number of factors or which one of the factors has the most

significant influence. All in all, however, the literature presented enumerated identical

findings and listings of factors affecting employee satisfaction.

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