Chapter 6

Photolithography

2005/10/18 1
 Objectives
•List the four components of the photoresist
•Describe the difference between +PR and PR
•Describe a photolithography process sequence
•List four alignment and exposure systems
•Describe the wafer movement in a track-stepper
integrated system.
•Explain relationships of resolution and depth of
focus to wavelength and numerical aperture.
2005/10/18 2
 Introduction
Photolithography is :
•Temporarily coat photoresist on wafer and
Transfers designed pattern to photoresist
•Most important process in IC fabrication
•To consume 40 to 50% total wafer process
time
•Determines the minimum feature size, e.g.
0.18um technology in 2000, 70nm technology in
2004
2005/10/18 3
 Applications of Photolithography
•Main application: IC patterning process
•Other applications: Printed electronic board,
nameplate, printer plate, and et al.

2005/10/18 4
 IC Fabrication Flow

e-Beam or Photo
Ion Implant
Mask or
EDA PR Chip
Reticle Etch
Photolithography

EDA: Electronic Design Automation

PR: Photoresist

2005/10/18 5
 Photolithography Requirements
•High Resolution
•High PR Sensitivity
•Precision Alignment, say within 10% of
minimum feature size
•Precise Process Parameters Control
•Low Defect Density

2005/10/18 6
 Photoresist
•Photo sensitive material, sensitive to ultraviolet
(UV) but to visible light
•It’s why we use yellow light to illuminate and call
“yellow room”
•Transfer design image on it through exposure and
development
•Very similar to the photo sensitive coating on the
film for camera
•Positive and negative types

2005/10/18 7
 Photoresist
Negative Photoresist Positive Photoresist
•Becomes insoluble •Becomes soluble
after exposure after exposure,
(photosolubilization)
•When developed,
the unexposed parts •When developed, the
dissolved. exposed parts
dissolved
•Cheaper with poor
resolution •Expensive with better
resolution
2005/10/18 8
Negative and Positive Photoresists
Photoresist
Substrate

UV light
Mask/reticle
Photoresist Exposure
Substrate
Negative
Photoresist
Substrate After
Positive Development
Photoresist
Substrate
2005/10/18 9
 Photoresist Composition

•Polymer
•Solvents
•Sensitizers
•Additives

2005/10/18 10
 Polymer
•Solid organic material
•Transfers designed pattern to wafer surface
•Changes solubility due to photochemical
reaction when exposed to UV light.
•Positive PR: from insoluble to soluble
•Negative PR: from soluble to insoluble

2005/10/18 11
 Solvent
•Dissolves polymers into liquid
•Allow application of thin PR layers by spinning
•75% of PR before spin coating
•Acetate-type solvent for positive PR; xylene
(C8H10) for negative PR

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 Sensitizers
•Controls and/or modifies photochemical
reaction of resist during exposure.
•Determines exposure time and intensity

Additives
•Various added chemical to achieve desired
process results, such as dyes to reduce
reflection.
2005/10/18 13
 Negative Resist

•Most negative PR are polyisoprene type

•Exposed PR becomes cross-linked polymer
•Cross-linked polymer has higher chemical
etch resistance.
•Unexposed part will be dissolved in
development solution.

2005/10/18 14
 Negative Photoresist

Mask
Negative
Photoresist
Expose

Development

2005/10/18 15
 Negative Photoresist
Disadvantages
•Polymer absorbs the development solvent
•Poor resolution due to PR swelling
•Environmental and safety issues due to the
main solvents xylene.

2005/10/18 16
 Comparison of Photoresists

PR + PR
Film Film

Substrate Substrate

2005/10/18 17
 Positive Photoresist
•Exposed part dissolve in developer solution
•Image the same that on the mask
•Higher resolution
•Commonly used in advanced IC fabs

2005/10/18 18
 Question
•Positive photoresist can achieve much higher
resolution than negative photoresist, why
didn’t people use it before the 1980s?

•Positive photoresist is much more expensive

therefore negative photoresist was used until
it had to be replaced when the minimum
feature size was shrunk to smaller than 3 m.
2005/10/18 19
Chemically Amplified Photoresists
•To pattern a small feature, a shorter wavelength
light source is required
•For deep ultraviolet (DUV), 248 nm or 193 nm
•Light source: excimer lasers
•Light intensity is lower than I-line (365 nm) or G-
line (436 nm) from high-pressure mercury lamp
•Need different kind of photoresist

2005/10/18 20
Chemically Amplified Photoresists
•Catalysis effect is used to increase the effective
sensitivity of the photoresist
•A photo-acid is created in PR when it exposes to
DUV light
•During PEB, head-induced acid diffusion causes
amplification in a catalytic reaction
•Acid removes protection groups
•Exposed part will be removed by developer

2005/10/18 21
 Requirement of Photoresist
•High resolution
–Thinner PR film has higher the resolution
–Thinner PR film, the lower the etching and ion
implantation resistance
•High etch resistance
•Good adhesion
•Wider process latitude
–Higher tolerance to process conditions like spin
rate, baking temperature and exposure flux

2005/10/18 22
 Photoresist Physical Properties
•Photoresist must be able to withstand
process conditions
•Coating, spinning, baking, developing.
•Etch resistance
•Ion implantation blocking

2005/10/18 23
Photoresist Performance Factors :
•Resolution
•Adhesion
•Expose rate, Sensitivity and Exposure Source
•Process latitude
•Pinholes
•Particle and Contamination Levels
•Step Coverage
•Thermal Flow

2005/10/18 24
 Resolution Capability
•The smallest opening or space that can
produced in a photoresist layer.
•Related to particular processes including expose
source and developing process.
•Thinner layer has better resolution.
•Etch and implantation barrier and pinhole-free
require thicker layer
•Positive resist has better resolution due to the
smaller size of polymer.
2005/10/18 25
 Photoresist Characteristics
Summary
Parameter Negative Positive
Polymer Polyisoprene Novolac Resin
Photo-reaction Polymerization Photo-solubilization
Provide free radicals Changes film
Sensitizer for polymer cross-
to base soluble
link
Additives Dyes Dyes

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 Photolithography Process

2005/10/18 27
 Basic Steps of Photolithography
1. Photoresist coating
2. Alignment and exposure
3. Development

2005/10/18 28
 Basic Steps, Old Technology
•Wafer clean
•Dehydration bake
PR coating
•Spin coating primer and PR
•Soft bake
•Alignment and exposure
•Development
•Pattern inspection Development
•Hard bake
2005/10/18 29
 Basic Steps, Advanced Technology
•Wafer clean
•Pre-bake and primer coating
PR coating
•Photoresist spin coating
Track- •Soft bake
stepper •Alignment and exposure
integrated
•Post exposure bake
system
•Development Development
•Hard bake
•Pattern inspection
2005/10/18 30
 Wafer Clean
Gate Oxide

Polysilicon
STI USG
P-Well
2005/10/18 31
 Pre-bake and Primer Vapor
Primer

Polysilicon
STI USG
P-Well
2005/10/18 32
 Photoresist Coating
Primer

Photoresist
Polysilicon
STI USG
P-Well
2005/10/18 33
 Soft Bake

Photoresist
Polysilicon
STI USG
P-Well
2005/10/18 34
 Alignment and Exposure
Gate Mask

Photoresist
Polysilicon
STI USG
P-Well
2005/10/18 35
 Alignment and Exposure
Gate Mask

Photoresist
Polysilicon
STI USG
P-Well
2005/10/18 36
 Post Exposure Bake

Photoresist
Polysilicon
STI USG
P-Well
2005/10/18 37
 Development

PR
Polysilicon
STI USG
P-Well
2005/10/18 38
 Hard Bake

PR
Polysilicon
STI USG
P-Well
2005/10/18 39
 Pattern Inspection

PR
Polysilicon
STI USG
P-Well
2005/10/18 40
 Wafer Clean
•Remove contaminants
•Remove particulate
•Reduce pinholes and other defects
•Improve photoresist adhesion
•Basic steps
–Chemical clean
–Rinse
–Dry
2005/10/18 41
Photolithography Process, Clean

•Older ways
–High-pressure nitrogen blow-off
–Rotating brush scrubber
–High-pressure water stream

2005/10/18 42
 Wafer Clean Process

Chemical Clean Rinse Dry

2005/10/18 43
Photolithography Process, Prebake

•Dehydration bake
•Remove moisture from wafer surface
•Promote adhesion between PR and surface
•Usually around 100 °C
•Integration with primer coating

2005/10/18 44
 Photolithography Process, Primer

•Promotes adhesion of PR to wafer surface

•Wildly used: Hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS)
•HMDS vapor coating prior to PR spin coating
•Usually performed in-situ with pre-bake
•Chill plate to cool down wafer before PR coating

2005/10/18 45
Pre-bake and Primer Vapor Coating

Prep Chamber Primer Layer

Wafer
Wafer HMDS
Vapor

Hot Plate Hot Plate

Dehydration Bake Primer Vapor Coating

2005/10/18 46
 Wafer Cooling
•Wafer need to cool down
•Water-cooled chill plate
•Temperature can affect PR viscosity
–Affect PR spin coating thickness

2005/10/18 47
 Spin Coating
•Wafer sit on a vacuum chuck
•Rotate at high speed
•Liquid photoresist applied at center of
wafer
•Photoresist spread by centrifugal force
•Evenly coat on wafer surface

2005/10/18 48
 Photoresist Spin Coater
PR
Wafer

EBR
Water
Sleeve
Chuck
Drain Exhaust
Vacuum

2005/10/18 49
 Viscosity
•Fluids stick on the solid surface
•Affect PR thickness in spin coating
•Related to PR type and temperature
•Need high spin rate for uniform coating

2005/10/18 50
Relationship of Photoresist Thickness
to Spin Rate and Viscosity
3.5
100 cst
3.0
50 cst
2.5
Thickness (mm)
2.0
27 cst
20 cst
1.5

1.0 10 cst

5 cst
0.5

0
2k 3k 4k 5k 6k 7k
Spin Rate (rpm)
2005/10/18 51
 Spin rate Dynamic Spin Rate

Time
2005/10/18 52
 PR Spin Coater

Photoresist spread on spinning wafer surface

Wafer held on a vacuum chuck
Slow spin ~ 500 rpm
Ramp up to ~ 3000 - 7000 rpm

2005/10/18 53
 Photoresist Applying

PR dispenser
nozzle
Wafer

Chuck
Spindle

To vacuum
pump
2005/10/18 54
 Photoresist Suck Back

PR dispenser
PR suck back nozzle
Wafer

Chuck
Spindle

To vacuum
pump
2005/10/18 55
 Photoresist Spin Coating

PR dispenser
PR suck back nozzle
Wafer

Chuck
Spindle

To vacuum
pump
2005/10/18 56
 Photoresist Spin Coating

PR dispenser
PR suck back nozzle
Wafer

Chuck
Spindle

To vacuum
pump
2005/10/18 57
 Edge Bead Removal (EBR)

•PR spread to the edges and backside

•PR could flakes off during mechanical
handling and causes particles
•Front and back chemical EBR

2005/10/18 58
 Edge Bead Removal

Solvent
Wafer

Chuck
Spindle

To vacuum
pump
2005/10/18 59
 Optical Edge Bead Removal
•After alignment and exposure
•Front-side wafer edge expose (WEE)
•Exposed photoresist at edge dissolves
during development

2005/10/18 60
 Optical Edge Bead Removal

Photoresist

Wafer

Chuck
Spindle

2005/10/18 61
 Developer Spin Off

Edge PR removed Patterned photoresist

Wafer

Chuck
Spindle

To vacuum
pump

2005/10/18 62
 Soft Bake
•Evaporating most of solvent (> 80%) in PR
•Solvents help to make a thin PR but absorb radiation
and affect adhesion
•Soft baking time and temperature are determined by PR
types and specific process
•90~110°C for 30 min. in oven; 10~15 min. for hotplate
•Over bake: polymerized, less photo-sensitivity
•Under bake: affect adhesion and exposure

2005/10/18 63
 Baking Tools

Wafer MW Source

Heater Heated N 2 Photoresist

Chuck
Wafers

Vacuum Wafer
Heater Vacuum

Hot plate Convection oven Microwave oven

2005/10/18 64
 Hot Plates
•Widely used in the
industry
•Back side heating, no
Wafer
surface “ crust”
Heater
•In-line track system

2005/10/18 65
 Wafer Cooling
•Need to cool down to ambient temperature
after baking
•Water-cooled chill plate
•Silicon thermal expansion rate: 2.5106/
C
•For 8 inch (200 mm) wafer, 1 C thermal
change causes 0.5 m difference in
diameter

2005/10/18 66
 Alignment and Exposure
•Most critical process for IC fabrication
•Most expensive tool (stepper) in an IC fab.
•Most challenging technology
•Determines the minimum feature size
•Currently 0.18 m and pushing to 0.13 m

2005/10/18 67
 Alignment and Exposure Tools
 Contact printer
 Proximity printer
 Projection printer
 Stepper

2005/10/18 68
 Contact Printer
•Simple equipment. Widely used before mid-
70s
•Resolution: capable for sub-micron
•Use of UV light source
•Image ratio 1:1
•Direct mask-wafer contact, limited mask
lifetime
•Particle contamination issue

2005/10/18 69
 Contact Printer
Light Source

Lenses

Mask

Photoresist
Wafer

2005/10/18 70
 Proximity Printer
•10 ~ 20 m distance from wafer
surface. No direct contact
•Use of UV light
•Image ratio 1:1
•Less particles and longer mask
lifetime
•Resolution: > 2 m
2005/10/18 71
 Proximity Printer
Light Source

Lenses

Mask

Photoresist ~10 m
Wafer

2005/10/18 72
 Projection Printer
•Works like an overhead projector
•Mask to wafer ratio, 1:1
•Resolution to reach at 1 m
•The scanning projection exposure system
- the mask and wafer stage move synchronously, allowing UV
light source scanning across the mask to refocus and expose
PR across the wafer

2005/10/18 73
 Projection System

Light Source

Lenses

Mask

Photoresist
Wafer

2005/10/18 74
 Scanning Projection System
Light Source Slit

Lens

Synchronized Mask
mask and wafer
movement Lens

Photoresist

Wafer
2005/10/18 75
 Stepper
•Most popular used photolithography tool in the
advanced IC fabs
•Reduction of wafer image gives high resolution
•Use of deep UV light
•Reticle-to-wafer ratio ~ 10:1
•A reticle with 1.25 m min. feature size say can achieve
0.125 m min. feature size on wafer
•Very expensive ! (extremely complicated and precise)

2005/10/18 76
 Q&A
Q : Why does the 5:1 shrink ratio is more
popular than the 10:1 shrink ratio?

A : 10:1 image shrink has better resolution

than 5:1 image shrink. However, it only
exposes a quarter of the area, which means
total exposure time will be quadrupled. A
trade-off between resolution and
throughput.
2005/10/18 77
Step-&-Repeat Alignment/Exposure
Light
Source

Projection
Lens

Reticle

Projection
Lens

Wafer
Wafer Stage

2005/10/18 78
 Step&Repeat Alignment System
Light Source Reference Mark

Alignment Laser
Reticle Stage
Reticle

Interferometer
Laser Projection Lens

X
Interferometer
Mirror Set
Wafer
2005/10/18 79
Wafer Stage
 Exposure Light Source
Should have :
–Short wavelength
–High intensity
–Stability
Includes :
High-pressure mercury lamp
Excimer laser

2005/10/18 80
 Spectrum of the Mercury Lamp

I-line G-line
(365) (436)
Intensity (a.u)

H-line
(405)

Deep UV
(<260)

300 400 500 600

Wavelength (nm)

2005/10/18 81
 Photolithography Light Sources
Name Wavelength (nm) Application feature
size (m)
G-line 436 0.50
Mercury Lamp H-line 405
I-line 365 0.35 to 0.25
XeF 351
XeCl 308
Excimer Laser KrF (DUV) 248 0.25 to 0.15
ArF 193 0.18 to 0.13
Fluorine Laser F2 157 0.13 to 0.1

2005/10/18 82
 Exposure Control
•Exposure light flux is controlled by production
of light intensity and exposure time
•Very similar to the exposure of a camera
•Intensity controlled by electrical power
•Adjustable light intensity
•Routine light intensity calibration is required.
Intensity, I, measured in mW/cm2

2005/10/18 83
 Standing Wave Effect
•Interference of the incident and reflection lights
•Due to constructive and destructive interference
at different depth
•Periodically overexposure and underexposure
•Affects photolithography resolution.

2005/10/18 84
 Standing Wave Intensity
Constructive Destructive
Average Interference, Interference,
Intensity Overexpose Underexpose
Light Intensity

Surface Surface of
the of PR /nPR the substrate
2005/10/18 85
Standing Wave Effect on Photoresist

/nPR
Photoresist
Substrate

Overexposure
Underexposure
2005/10/18 86
 Post Exposure Bake (PEB)
•Photoresist’
s glass transition temperature, Tg
•Baking temperature is higher than Tg
•Induce thermal movement of photoresist
molecules
•Rearrangement of the overexposed and
underexposed PR molecules
•Average out standing wave effect,
•Smooth PR sidewall and improve resolution

2005/10/18 87
 PEB (cont.)
•For DUV chemical amplified photoresist, PEB
provides the heat needed for acid diffusion
and amplification.
•After the PEB process, the images of the
exposed areas appear on the photoresist, due
to the significant chemical change after the
acid amplification

2005/10/18 88
 Post Exposure Bake Steps
•PEB normally uses hot plate at 110 to 130 C
for about 1 minute.
•For the same kind of PR, PEB usually requires
a higher temperature than soft bake.
•Insufficient PEB will not completely eliminate
the standing wave pattern,
•Overbaking will cause polymerization and
affects photoresist development
2005/10/18 89
 Development
•Developer solvent dissolves the softened
part of photoresist
•Transfer the pattern from mask or reticle to
photoresist
•Three basic steps:
–Development
–Rinse
–Dry
2005/10/18 90
 Development: Immersion

Develop Rinse Spin Dry

2005/10/18 91
 Development –to make etch or
implantation perfect
Mask

PR PR
Film Film
Substrate Substrate
PR Coating Exposure

PR PR
Film Film
Substrate Substrate
Etching Development
2005/10/18 92
 Development Profiles

PR PR

Substrate Substrate

Normal Development Incomplete Development

PR PR

Substrate Substrate

Under Development Over Development

2005/10/18 93
 Developer Solutions

Positive PR Negative PR
Developer TMAH Xylene

Rinse DI Water n-Butylacetate

2005/10/18 94
 Hard Bake
•Evaporating all solvents in PR
•Improving etch and implantation resistance
•Improve PR adhesion with surface
•Polymerize and stabilize photoresist
•PR flow to fill pinhole

2005/10/18 95
 PR Pinhole Fill by Thermal Flow

Pinhole

PR PR

Substrate Substrate

2005/10/18 96
 Hard Bake (cont.)
•Hot plate is commonly used
•Can be performed in a oven after inspection
•Hard bake temperature: 100 to 130  C
•Baking time is about 1 to 2 minutes
•Hard bake temperature normally is higher than
the soft bake temperature for the same kind of
photoresist
2005/10/18 97
 Improper Hard Bake
•Under-bake
–Photoresist is not filly polymerized
–High photoresist etch rate
–Poor adhesion
•Over-baking
–PR flow and bad resolution

2005/10/18 98
 Photoresist Flow
•Over-baking can causes too much PR flow,
which affects photolithography resolution.

PR PR
Substrate Substrate
Normal Baking Over Baking

2005/10/18 99
 Pattern Inspection
•Inspection, stripped PR and rework
–Photoresist pattern is temporary
–Etch or ion implantation pattern is permanent.
•Photolithography process can rework
•Can’t rework after etch or implantation.
•Scanning electron microscope (SEM) for
small feature size (< 0.5 um)
•Optical microscope for large feature size
2005/10/18 100
 Q&A
•Why can’ t optical microscope be used for
the 0.25 m feature inspection?

•Because the feature size (0.25 m = 2500

Å) is smaller than the wavelength of the
visible light, which is from 3900 Å (violet)
to 7500 Å (red)..

2005/10/18 101
 Pattern Inspection
•Overlay or alignment
–run-out, run-in, reticle rotation, wafer rotation,
misplacement in X-direction, and misplacement
in Y-direction
•Critical dimension (CD) loss
•Surface irregularities such as scratches, pin
holes, stains, contamination, etc.

2005/10/18 102
 Misalignment Cases
Run-out

Run-in

 Reticle rotation
Wafer rotation

Misplacement in x-direction

Misplacement in y-direction

2005/10/18 103
 Critical Dimension
PR PR PR
Substrate Substrate Substrate

Good CD CD Loss Sloped Edge

2005/10/18 104
Track-Stepper System or Photo Cell
•Integrated process system of photoresist
coating, exposure and development
•Center track robot
•Higher throughput
•Improves process yield

2005/10/18 105
 Wafer In
Hot Plate Spin Station

Stepper

Track Robot

Developer Hot Plate Track

dispenser
2005/10/18 106
 Stacked Track System

Developers
Hot Plates
Chill Plates

Spin
Coaters
Prep Chamber

2005/10/18 107
 Future Trends

•Smaller feature size

•Higher resolution
•Reducing wavelength
•Phase-shift mask

2005/10/18 108
 Optical Lithography

•Optics
•Light diffraction
•Resolution
•Depth of focus (DOF)

2005/10/18 109
 Light Diffraction Without Lens

Diffracted light Mask

Intensity of the
projected light

2005/10/18 110
 Diffraction Reduction
•Short wavelength waves have less diffraction
•Optical lens can collect diffracted light and
enhance the image

2005/10/18 111
 Light Diffraction With Lens

Strayed
refracted light D Mask

Lens ro
Diffracted light
collected by the Less diffraction after
lens focused by the lens

Ideal light
Intensity pattern

2005/10/18 112
 Numerical Aperture

•NA is the ability of a lens to collect diffracted

light
•NA = 2 r0 / D
–r0 : radius of the lens
–D : the distance of the object from the lens
•Lens with larger NA can capture higher order
of diffracted light and generate sharper image.

2005/10/18 113
 (Optical) Resolution
•The achievable, repeatable minimum
feature size
•Determined by the wavelength of the light
and the numerical aperture of the system.
The resolution can be expressed as
K1
R
NA
K1 : the system constant, is the wavelength of the light,
NA = 2 ro/D, the numerical aperture
2005/10/18 114
 Exercise 1, K1 = 0.6

K 1
R
NA

    
R
G-line 436 nm 0.60 ___ m
I-line 365 nm 0.60 ___ m
DUV 248 nm 0.60 ___ m
193 nm 0.60 ___ m
2005/10/18 115
 To Improve Resolution
•Increase NA
–Larger lens, could be too expensive and unpractical
–Reduce DOF and cause fabrication difficulties
•Reduce wavelength
–Need to develop light source, PR and equipment
–Limitation for reducing wavelength
–From UV to DUV, to EUV, and to X-Ray
•Reduce K1
–Phase shift mask (PSM)
2005/10/18 116
 Wavelength and Frequency of
Electromagnetic Wave
Visible
RF MW IR UV X-ray 
-ray

4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 f (Hz)

2 4 6 8 10 12
10
4
10
2
10
0
10 10 10 10 10 10 
(meter)

RF: Radio frequency; MW: Microwave; IR: infrared; and UV: ultraviolet

2005/10/18 117
 Depth of focus
•The range that light is in focus and can
achieve good resolution of projected image
•Depth of focus can be expressed as:

K 2
DOF  2
2 ( NA )

2005/10/18 118
 Depth of Focus

K2 
DOF  Focus
2 ( NA ) 2

2005/10/18 119
 Depth of Focus
•Smaller numerical aperture, larger DOF
–Disposable cameras with very small lenses
–Almost everything is in focus
–But, with bad resolution
•Prefer to reduce wavelength than increase
NA to improve resolution
•High resolution, small DOF
•Focus at the middle plane of PR layer
2005/10/18 120
 Focus on the Mid-Plain to
Optimize the Resolution

Center of focus Depth of focus

Photoresist
Substrate

2005/10/18 121
 Surface Planarization Requirement
•Higher resolution requires
–Shorter 
–Larger NA.
•Both reduces DOF
•Wafer surface must be highly planarized.
•That’s why CMP is significantly required for
0.25 m feature patterning.

2005/10/18 122
 I-line and DUV
•Mercury i-line, 365 nm
–Commonly used in 0.35 m lithography
•DUV KrF excimer laser, 248 nm
–0.25 m, 0.18 m and 0.13 m lithography
•ArF excimer laser,193 nm
–Application: < 0.13 m
•F2 excimer laser 157 nm
–Still in R&D, < 0.10 m application
2005/10/18 123
 Silica and DUV
•SiO2 strongly absorbs UV when < 180 nm
•Silica lenses and masks can’t be used
•157 nm F2 laser photolithography
–Fused silica with low OH concentration, fluorine
doped silica, and calcium fluoride (CaF2),
–With phase-shift mask, even 0.035 m is possible
•Further delay next generation lithography

2005/10/18 124
 Future Trends
Photolithography
1.6
1.5
1.4
Maybe photo-
1.2
Feature Size (mm)

1.0 lithography
1
0.8 0.8 Next Generation
0.6 0.5 Lithography
0.35
0.4 0.25
0.18 0.13
0.2 0.10 0.07
0
84 88 90 93 95 98 01 04 07 10 14
Year

2005/10/18 125
 Phase Shift Mask

Pellicle Chrome pattern Phase shift coating

nf Quartz substrate

d(nf 1) = /2

nf : Refractive index of phase shift coating
2005/10/18 126
 Phase Shift Mask
Pellicle Chrome pattern Phase-shifting etch

d ng
Quartz substrate

d(ng 1) = /2

ng: refractive index of the quartz substrate
2005/10/18 127
 Phase Shift Mask Patterning
Normal Mask Phase Shift Mask

Constructive Phase shift

Interference coating Total Light
Intensity
Total Light
Intensity Destructive
Interference

PR PR
Substrate Substrate
Final Pattern Final Pattern

PR PR
Substrate Substrate
Designed Pattern Designed Pattern
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Next Generation Lithography (NGL)
 Extreme UV (EUV) lithography
 X-Ray lithography
 Maskless lithography - electron beam or ion beam
 Immersion lithography

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 EUV
•= 10 to 14 nm
•Short wavelength and reduced NA
•Mirror basis due to strong absorption at
short wavelength
•Use a mask with Pd/C and Mo/Si
multilayer coatings
•For 0.1 m technology and beyond
•Still in development (support from Intel)
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 EUV Lithography

Mask
Wafer
Mirror 2 Mirror 1

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 X-ray lithography
•Similar to proximity printer
•Difficult to find pure X-ray source
(synchrotron radiation facility)
•Challenge on mask making (1:1)
•Very expensive! unlikely will be used in
production

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 X-ray Printing

Beryllium X-ray

Gold

Photoresist

Substrate

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 Optical Mask and X-ray Mask

Glass Beryllium
Gold

Chromium

Aspect ratio < 1:5 Aspect ratio > 1:1

Photo Mask X-ray Mask

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 E-Beam
•Used for making mask and reticles
•Smallest geometry achieved : 0.014 m
•Direct print possible, no mask is required
–Low throughput
•Scattering exposure system (SCALPEL) looks
promising
–Tool development
–Reticle making
–Resist development
–Very similar to stepper lithography

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Electron Beam Lithography System
Electron Gun

Lens
Blanking Plate

Lens

Stigmator
Deflection
Coils
Lens

Wafer

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 SCALPEL

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 Ion Beam Lithography
•Can achieve higher resolution
–Direct writing and projection resist exposing
–Direct ion implantation and ion beam sputtering
patterned etch, save some process steps
•Serial writing, low throughput
•Unlikely will be used in the mass production
•Appropriate for mask and reticle repairing
•IC device defect detection and repairing

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 Immersion Lithography
•Fill DI water between light source and wafer
•Reach higher DOF
K 
DOF  w 2
2( NA)
Kw : refractive index of water (1.43)
•Applied in 193 nm or 248 nm systems
•Likely to push further to 90 or beyond if
refractive index increased
•TSMC proved result in 90 nm product with
ASML

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