Application of Computers and Operations Research in the Mineral Industry –

Dessureault, Ganguli, Kecojevic & Dwyer (eds)

© 2005 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1537 449 9

Integrated sensor networks for rock-mass characterization and

material handling

D. Hopkins, W.B. Davis & D. Türler

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California, USA

J. Kemeny
University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA

ABSTRACT: Work is underway to develop techniques to integrate, analyze and display data collected during
mining that builds upon previous work focused on development of technology to collect data while drilling to
improve blasting results and material handling in open-pit mines. This research demonstrated the feasibility of
measuring the elemental composition of the rock mass from samples automatically collected during drilling,
and drill vibration data measured by a wireless system mounted to the drill stem. The project demonstrated
how these data can be used in conjunction with drilling, geological, and post-blast-fragmentation data for blast
design, material handling, and potentially, to improve mineral processing. This paper describes how these newly
developed rock-mass characterization techniques can be further developed so that they are sufficiently automated
to allow the data collected to be easily integrated into a mine-wide information system. Emerging technologies in
sensors, networking, communications, and probabilistic network modeling are described that promise to enable
process-control applications.

1 INTRODUCTION allow identification of relationships among rock char-

There is increasing realization in the mining industry
that a systems approach to managing operations can
have a tremendous impact on energy use and mining
costs. Emerging sensor and information technologies
stand to dramatically impact mining operations by
greatly increasing the amount of information available
and providing a means to integrate and present the data
in formats customized for the end user. A necessary
requirement for optimization over the complete mine-
to-mill feedback loop is continuous and accurate data
at all steps of the mining process. These data include
the characteristics of the rock about to be blasted; the
mineralogy and precise location of ore as required
to route the blasted rock to the appropriate process-
ing stream; and the characteristics of the rock at each
stage of the reduction process. This information would
allow mineral content and the blastability, crushabil-
ity, grindability, and leachability of the blasted rock to
be evaluated simultaneously with other key variables.
Only recently have on-line systems been developed
to provide some of this information on a continuous
basis. In an ideal system, these data would be ana-
lyzed and used in a feedback loop to modify mining
operations and process-control variables as necessary
to improve performance. Process monitoring in con-
junction with monitoring of the rock at each step would
acteristics, process variables and energy consumption
that could be used to improve efficiency and lower
costs.
Advances in sensor, communication, engineering,
manufacturing, and computing technologies are all
contributing to making devices and systems that meet
the cost, ease-of-use, portability, robustness and reli-
ability required for mining applications. Advances in
sensor technology are reducing costs while improv-
ing resolution and expanding the range of what can
be measured. Emerging wireless technologies have
the advantage of relatively low installation costs, and
will allow deployment of large numbers of sensors
that can be networked to enable distributed process-
ing and communication between sensors and other
devices. These systems promise networks of small,
self-powered, wireless radio nodes that require little
more than placement before they automatically form
an ad-hoc network and begin delivering sensor data
to process-control computers. Advances in machine
intelligence promise to improve the performance of a
variety of tasks useful in sensor networks, including
sensor validation and “fusion,” data mining, pattern
recognition, and probabilistic forecasting. These and
other emerging technologies in sensor networking,
communications, and graphical interfaces promise to
enable new process-control applications. In parallel,

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 advances in micro, nano, and MEMS engineering are
resulting in smaller and lighter components that are
helping to make portable systems that are well suited
for use in the field.
As these new technologies increase the amount of
information that can be obtained during mining and
processing, they create new challenges in understand-
ing how this information can best be analyzed and syn-
thesized to reduce dilution and increase the efficiency
of downstream mineral processing. These issues are
being addressed by increasingly affordable comput-
ing power combined with high-speed data acquisition
and transmission options that are making real-time
data processing feasible. At the same time, research
underway in mathematics, statistics, and computer
science is yielding powerful tools for data analysis
and display. The challenge of creating an effective
user interface is to utilize information visualization
and other tools to facilitate the rapid and accurate
analysis of large quantities of complex and quickly
changing data. Effective process control and opti-
mization relies on decision making based on this
information.
Work underway to develop techniques to integrate,
analyze and display data collected during mining
builds upon previous work focused on development
of technology to collect data while drilling to improve
blasting results and material handling in open-pit
mines funded by the Department of Energy’s Office of
Industrial Technologies (Hopkins et al. 2000, Hopkins
et al. 2002).This research, conducted as part of a highly
collaborative project among the Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory, the University of Arizona, and
partners in the mining industry, demonstrated the fea-
sibility of measuring the elemental composition of the
rock mass from samples automatically collected at
five-foot intervals during drilling, and drill-vibration
data collected using a wireless acoustic-monitoring
system installed in a steel collar mounted to the drill
stem. The project demonstrated how these data can
be used in conjunction with drilling, geological, and
post-blast-fragmentation data for blast design, mate-
rial handling, and potentially, to improve mineral
processing. However, to fully realize the benefits of the
available information requires tools that allow integra-
tion, analysis and visualization of data from a variety
of sources in a manner that allows mine personnel to
effectively utilize the information.
This paper describes how newly developed rock-
mass characterization techniques can be further devel-
oped so that they are sufficiently automated to allow
the data collected to be easily integrated into a mine-
wide information system. Probabilistic Network Mod-
eling (PNM) is well suited for data processing in
networks of many small, low-power processors. In
addition to providing application-specific software,
PNM can also be utilized to perform a variety of
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Copyright © 2005 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK
lower-level functions necessary for any sensor net-
work, including data compression, channel coding,
adaptive filtering, sensor fusion, sensor validation,
and pattern recognition. Some of the theoretical
advantages of Probabilistic Network Modeling are
described, and a scenario is outlined in which PNM is
used to manage a distributed sensor network. Exam-
ples are used to illustrate how these technologies
are creating new opportunities for improved process
efficiency and energy savings in mining and other
industries.
1.1 Implications for mining
The technologies discussed above have potential appli-
cations in all mining processes. Adoption of new
and emerging technologies for mining applications
depends on the ability of these technologies to
meet challenging constraints including reliability, cost,
portability, ease-of-use, and the ability to survive in
harsh environments. The examples discussed in the
following sections focus on two areas: (1) charac-
terization of the rock mass and potential benefits
in extraction operations and material handling, and
(2) process monitoring for crushing and grinding
operations and potential cost and energy savings.
As discussed above, a necessary requirement for
optimization over the complete mine/mill/leach oper-
ation is continuous and accurate data at all steps of
the process allowing such things as fragmentation,
crushability/grindability/leachability, slope stability,
and safety to be evaluated simultaneously. In an ideal
system, these data would be analyzed and used in
a feedback loop to modify mining operations and
process-control variables as necessary to improve per-
formance. Figure 1 shows some of the kinds of data and
information that could be gathered and the potential
flow of information among processes.
Although adopting new technologies requires
investment, there is increasing evidence that providing
additional information has the potential to yield overall
cost savings. For example, because the size distribution
of the blasted rock mass has a significant impact on
the total energy required to reach the targeted material-
size distribution, improved blasting practices that lead
to better control of fragmentation can result in sub-
stantial economic benefits. Significant improvements
in process-plant throughput resulting from improved
blasting strategies have been documented in practice.
For a diamond mine, Bulow et al. (1998) demonstrated
that a 17% increase in blasting costs resulted in dou-
ble that degree of cost savings downstream and a net
decrease in total mining costs. For run-of-mine heap
leaching, Floyd (1998) concludes that fragmentation
resulting from blasting is one of the major factors
controlling the percentage of ore recovered.

Figure 1. Existing and potential information flows.
Cost savings that result from improved blast designs
are largely derived from a reduction in energy costs
associated with downstream crushing, grinding, and
processing operations. Recent work indicates that the
reduction in energy required to crush and grind rock
results not only from reductions in fragment size,
but also from a higher degree of microfracturing that
occurs in relatively small fragments, which reduces
their compressive strength (Tunstall & Bearman 1997,
Nielsen & Kristiansen 1995). The potential energy
savings resulting from improved blast design can be
quantified in terms of the size of rock headed to the
primary crusher. For a mine crushing 100,000 short
tons of rock per day and operating 365 days a year, a
three-inch reduction in the 80% passing size can result
in energy savings on the order of several millions of
KWh per year.
In addition to cost savings associated with improved
control of fragmentation, the technologies under
development would provide data on rock properties
and mineral content that could be used to improve the
efficiency of material handling. Knowing the exact
location of waste rock, rock to be milled, and rock
to be leached can minimize the amount of dilution
that occurs during mucking and hauling. Improved
blast designs also confer substantial environmental and
safety benefits. Undesirable blast vibration effects are
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Copyright © 2005 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK
reduced, and the potential for damage to structures in
the vicinity of the mine is minimized. Wall and slope
stability are improved, thereby improving the safety of
the mine, and blast noise and dangerous flyrock are
also reduced.
In the following section, emerging technologies
for sensors and sensor networks are briefly discussed
along with mathematical tools for managing the net-
works and the resulting data. Challenges in realizing
viable mining systems are also discussed. In the final
section of the paper, two scenarios are presented to
illustrate how new sensor and information technolo-
gies could be used to improve blasting results and
improve efficiency during crushing and grinding.
2 ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES
2.1 Sensors
Advances in sensor technology are reducing costs
while improving resolution and expanding the range
of what can be measured. Sensors exist or are being
developed for a wide range of applications including
detection and analysis of chemicals and radionuclei-
des; detection and enumeration of bacterial indicators;
measurement of stress, strain, and acceleration; and
measurement of a host of environmental variables
including temperature, pressure, moisture content, and
light. Technologies allowing miniaturization of sen-
sors are enabling new applications, while also reducing
power requirements. Micro Electro Mechanical Sys-
tems (MEMS) refers to silicon micro devices that
are composed of miniature electromechanical compo-
nents that are fabricated with processing techniques
originally developed in the semiconductor industry.
MEMS technologies stand to enable development of
relatively low-cost, extremely small sensors.
2.1.1 Wireless sensors
Wireless sensors under development offer new func-
tionality. Sensors are typically integrated with a micro-
processor, wireless communication, and an operating
system. These features enable onboard processing
and storage of data, networking and communication
between sensors and other devices, and distributed pro-
cessing, allowing sensors to work together. Among the
sensors that have recently become available are those
developed by the University of California at Berkeley
and Crossbow Technology, Inc. who partnered to man-
ufacture wireless sensors called MICA Motes. MICA
Motes run the open-source Tiny OS Operating System,
which is a modular, embedded software platform for
the Motes. The embedded software allows multi-hop
ad-hoc routing, and allows programmers to write cus-
tom applications. This ability is essential to enabling
large-scale demonstration projects.
 For wireless technologies, power management is
an issue at all levels of the sensor component that
includes the communications level, operating system
application level, and microprocessor level. Technolo-
gies are required that address battery life, transmission
distance, frequency (sampling rate), and power con-
sumption. At the communication level, power supply
limits range, data rate, and quality of service. Power
issues for sensors include operation time, sampling
rate, and onboard processing capability. At the sen-
sor level, research is underway to develop wireless
and battery-free sensors that would power themselves
by converting energy from mechanical vibrations or
changes in temperature or light into electrical power.
The concept is based on using different energy con-
verters to produce electricity from natural energy
variations. For example, piezoelectric materials pro-
duce electricity when subjected to strain, pyroelectric
materials produce energy when differences in temper-
ature occur, and solar cells convert natural light into
electricity. The difference in energy induces a potential
that is used to supply the low-power electronics and
to generate radio signals. This enables measurement
and data transmission without batteries or an exter-
nal power supply. The amount of energy generated by
these devices is small and varies from one converter to
another. However, if used in conjunction with capac-
itors, they would be able to store energy. In addition,
sensor miniaturization reduces power requirements,
and improves the viability of these converters for
powering micro sensors.
2.1.2 Fiber-optic sensors
Fiber-optic sensors and instrumentation are well suited
for long-term monitoring of many variables of inter-
est including stress, strain, temperature, fluid pressure,
chemistry, and radionucleides. Fiber-optic technolo-
gies allow buildings and other structures to be instru-
mented with high-resolution sensors that have proven
to be extremely reliable in harsh environments. Fiber-
optic sensors have the advantage of being passive
components, which are generally more reliable than
competing technologies based on active components
that are more susceptible to failure. Fiber-optic sensors
have the additional advantage of being well suited for
installation in tight spaces and small-diameter holes;
a fully protected multi-mode fiber-optic sensor can
be fabricated and housed in a cable with a diame-
ter as small as 250 microns. On the order of 20–40
optical fibers can be housed in a single half-inch-
diameter cable. Reliability is increased at marginal
cost by installing multiple sensors in the same cable.
The most cost-effective long-term strategy for the
use of fiber-optic technologies in monitoring applica-
tions is a distributed communication network in which
data from sensor arrays and control signals are pro-
cessed centrally and used in a feedback loop. A viable
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Copyright © 2005 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK
approach is to design a passive optical-sensor network
and configure it for testing in a particular application.
One advantage of fiber optics is that it allows a pas-
sive sensor array to be deployed throughout a harsh
environment, while allowing associated electronics
and electro-optics to be centrally located in a con-
trolled environment to increase reliability and allow
easy access for maintenance and repairs. The passive
sensor array can be optically multiplexed, providing a
highly reliable low-maintenance system. Systems of
this type have been proven to be extremely robust and
reliable in harsh operating environments.
2.2 Sensor networks
In addition to power consumption, network commu-
nication technologies must meet specifications for
range, data throughput, reliability, and quality of ser-
vice.As described above, for wireless communications
these functions are all sensitive to power. Existing
technologies that help address the power manage-
ment issues at the communications level include RF
protocols (such as Bluetooth and 802.11b) and ultra
wideband (UWB). Recent advances in sensor net-
working are consolidated in the IEEE 1451 standards
for transducer networking. Compliant devices promise
to be “plug-and-play” interoperable, greatly facilitat-
ing integration of systems requiring a diversity of
off-the-shelf components, including multiple sensor
modalities. Transducers include sensors as well as
actuators, and nodes in IEEE 1451 networks can also
include DSPs, CPUs, RAM, power and communica-
tions. These networks are ad-hoc, dynamically self-
forming and self-healing. IEEE 1451 includes close
tie-ins to and in some areas is largely based on IEEE
802.11.x for radio ethernet, allowing these networks
to be wireless (or wired). Wireless 1451 networks
promise to greatly improve the ability of industry to
acquire and process control data in real time.
Wireless sensor networks offer additional advan-
tages, and the main disadvantages for WLANs have
been greatly reduced. The principal advantages of
wiring, that electricity is easily delivered along with
high data rates, have been lost, as low power sensors
and high data rate wireless communications are devel-
oped, in combination with better batteries and new
“self-powering” alternatives. Resistance to multipath
and electromagnetic interference, which is impor-
tant in many industrial environments, has also been
improved, and security issues have been addressed.
The principal advantage of wireless is the reduction
or complete elimination of expensive, bulky, unreli-
able cabling, resulting in more robust sensor networks
that are easily installed, repositioned, and removed.
This enables applications requiring retrofit, and tem-
porary installations that previously were impossible
or economically infeasible when wiring was required.
 Wireless can extend network coverage to almost all
areas of the mine.
UWB communication is based upon transmission of
modulated pulses of energy, less than one nanosecond
in duration, using a wide signal bandwidth. In terms
of signal power, the advantage of UWB transmitters is
that they send short bursts of energy with extremely
low power rather than transmitting continuous waves.
The processing of RF signals requires complex mod-
ulation onto an analog carrier and demodulation at
the receiver end, and thus requires a constant use
of power. In contrast, UWB transmitters only need
to send pulses intermittently, and thus require less
energy than RF. UWB enables high transmission data
speeds with good penetration, and has the additional
advantages of being low power and low cost. UWB
also enables very precise local positioning of sensor
nodes, which is extremely useful in some applica-
tions. A challenge in implementing UWB technology
is that receivers require pulse-decoding techniques
to extract extremely precise timing and amplitude
information.
2.3 Mathematical tools for managing
sensor networks
These sensor applications have common require-
ments including: calibrating sensors and eliminating
noise; collecting and integrating data from multi-
ple data streams (sensor fusion); synchronizing the
data; adding and removing sensors dynamically dur-
ing operation without interruption; and monitoring
sensor status and the reliability of incoming data.
Tools are also required for node and network manage-
ment, application administration, data management,
and representing information in a useful manner. A
challenging task is sensor fusion, which synthesizes
the output from many sensors, possibly of different
types, to increase the accuracy of the estimate of
the state of the object being sensed. PNM is a very
promising approach to sensor fusion and data manage-
ment in general (Davis 2004). For the applications of
interest, where nodes are sensors with processors, net-
work computation is parallel and distributed, requiring
communication protocols. PNM allows utilization of
multiple channels of sensor data, possibly from differ-
ent types of sensors, for increased speed and accuracy
of the estimation of the state of the object being sensed.
The approach is appealing because it allows algorithms
to be defined in terms of graphical representations that
closely correspond to the network map, embedding the
underlying mathematics. Graphical model theory also
provides methods that enable the network to self diag-
nose sensor errors. Algorithms for noise reduction and
calibration can also be described in the framework, as
can many techniques for interpreting the sensor data
and automating decision making in the network.
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Advances in machine intelligence and data visual-
ization allow real-time interpretation of the volumes
of information that can be generated by high data
rate, dense sensor networks. As described above,
probabilistic network models, also known as graph-
ical models (GMs), are particularly powerful. Intel
corporation has recently released a beta version of its
Probabilistic Network Library, an open-source library
of probabilistic GM algorithms. Applications of prob-
abilistic GMs are wide-ranging, including: automating
human interface elements including language recog-
nition and biometrics; data mining and visualization;
sensor fusion and validation; machine vision and
pattern recognition; reliability modeling, fault diag-
nostics, and process control. GMs are amenable to
network implementations, where processing and con-
trol are distributed and decentralized. GMs are also
scaleable, supporting: ad hoc (sets of) and lost nodes;
prior (and lost) information; and new and discon-
tinued processes. GMs support all standard signal
processing, filtering, and control operations, and have
advantages in real-time performance for many cases.
GMs perform well for many automation tasks, and
when the control remains supervised, GMs provide
graphical interface elements for screen display that
prompt the memory of users, and encode process
control information in a natural language.
Graphical models for intelligent transducer net-
works combine these trends synergistically, offering
many new opportunities for mining process control
and optimization.A wireless sensor network, with soft-
ware for sensor fusion and validation, and other types
of inference, optimization, and control, can find appli-
cations throughout all phases of mining operations.
Local positioning locators can improve asset allocation
and workforce deployment, safety, and security. Equip-
ment could be monitored to anticipate maintenance
needs, and prevent damage and outages, increasing
productivity. The wireless network could also be used
to deliver synthesized information to miners in the
field, helping to direct their activities for improved
yield. We expect that wireless data networks will
become more pervasive than phone networks, and will
eventually become as essential and taken for granted.
The widespread availability of these networks, with
standards for incorporating sensors and actuators, and
with improved data processing and decision support,
will improve process efficiency in many industries,
including mining.
2.4 Examples of new mining technologies
The collaborative project described in the introduc-
tion focused on rock-mass characterization with three
primary goals: (1) to provide better information on
rock properties during drilling, particularly on frac-
tures and discontinuities that can be used to optimize
 blast design; (2) to develop technology to sample and dust samples drop out at the bottom of the cyclone
analyze rock dust/cuttings during drilling to allow con- and clean air exits at the top, through an exhaust port.
struction of a three-dimensional mineralogical map of Recovery of up to 99% of the solid material is possi-
the bench; and (3) to develop an adaptive blast-design ble. Figure 4 shows a picture of the prototype collection
tool. The technology developed and used as part of the system mounted on a drill rig.
project is described in the following sections. Several hundred dust/cutting samples have been
collected during drilling using the collection system
described in the previous section. Samples were
2.4.1 Online sample collection during drilling
collected continuously over the entire drilling length of
and measurement of mineral content
60 ft. The collection jar was changed manually approx-
Determining mineralogy prior to mucking in an open-
imately every five feet; thus, each sample represents
pit mine is important for routing the material to the
an average over the sample length. XRF spectroscopy
appropriate processing stream. XRF spectroscopy is
is most accurate when applied to finely crushed mate-
one approach that is routinely used to analyze atomic
rial. An open question is whether dust and cuttings
composition in a wide range of applications. The chal-
collected directly from the borehole are suitable for
lenges in adapting the technology for use as a field
XRF analysis as is, or whether they should be crushed
measurement tool include ensuring reliable and accu-
further. For the results presented here, the samples
rate measurements under field conditions, creating a
collected in the field were crushed to powder with a
robust system that can survive the harsh mining envi-
small ball mill and analyzed with XRF spectroscopy.
ronment with minimal maintenance, and minimizing
Figure 5 shows the copper concentration measured
interference with drilling operations. Measurements
in six boreholes located on the same bench. Copper
are made by irradiating a sample with high-energy
concentrations can be measured reliably with a high
photons such as X-rays or gamma rays and measur-
level of accuracy (greater than 1 ppm). The borehole
ing the resulting radiation emitted by the material
profiles shown in the figure indicate that the distribu-
(Giauque et al. 1993). Because of the well-defined
tion of copper ore varies considerably over the length
energy signature of each element, it is possible to deter-
of the borehole, and between boreholes on the same
mine the elemental composition of a sample with very
bench. These results must be confirmed by analyzing
high precision. Detection resolution depends on the
the effect of sampling bias introduced by the collection
source, but is on the order of 1–25 ppm. Accuracy
method.
improves with increasing time of exposure; measure-
A next step in moving toward a stand-alone field
ment times are on the order of seconds to a few
system is automating the sample collection. The sys-
minutes. Accuracy also depends on the atomic num-
tem could include an XRF analysis capability, or the
ber of the element being measured; elements with high
samples could be logged and analyzed elsewhere.
atomic numbers are easier to measure than those with
There is also interest in determining if the XRF
low numbers. However, other techniques can be used
data can be used to help identify rock types or rock
in this case that may be viable for mining applications.
properties such as hardness that would be valuable
XRF spectroscopy requires only very small quan-
information for blasting engineers. As a first step
tities of material for analysis. During drilling, large
toward this goal, the XRF measurements described
amounts of dust are produced and flushed out of the
above were grouped using an empirical-classification
borehole with compressed air. To obtain representative
scheme (Fig. 6). The technique is described in detail in
borehole samples during drilling, a prototype dust-
Türler et al. (2002), along with descriptive data analy-
collection system was designed and fabricated (see
sis and statistical clustering techniques being applied
Fig. 3). A detailed description of the system is given
to the same data. The graphs displayed in Figure 5 are
in Türler et al. (2002). The harsh mining environment
based on XRF analysis of 71 samples, for which 11
and vibration of the drill rig require that the system be
groups were identified. The rock classification task
robust and simple, making it desirable to have as few
is complicated by several factors including sampling
moving parts as possible. It is also essential that the col-
errors, mixing of dust particles in the borehole, and the
lection system not interfere with the drilling process,
difficulty of trying to discern rock properties based on
or require special handling when the drill is moving
elemental composition. The accuracy of classification
between locations. For the prototype system, dust and
techniques can be improved by including site-specific
cuttings are collected through a nozzle placed near the
information in the analysis.
borehole. A venturi-suction system using compressed
air supplied from the drill rig provides a continuous
sampling of material during drilling. Exhaust from the 2.4.2 Wireless drill monitoring system
venturi system is routed to the cyclone where the solid As discussed above, fractures in the rock play a
material is separated from the air. The cyclone operates very significant role in blast fragmentation. Although
without any moving parts, and does not contain filters parameters such as penetration rate and pull-down
or any other consumables that need to be replaced. The force that can be obtained from existing drill systems

540

Copyright © 2005 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK

 Microphone Sounder Magnetometer

Temperature
Sensor

Light Sensor Accelerometer

Figure 2. Sensor board for wireless MICA Motes developed by UC Berkeley and Crossbow Technologies. The board includes
several sensors, as well as an Atmel 4 MHz processor, 4 K of RAM, 128 K of code space, and a 916 MHz RF communication
capability at 10/40 kbits.

Figure 3. Schematic drawing of prototype dust collection Figure 4. Prototype dust collection system mounted on a
system. drill rig.

are related to the degree of fracturing in the rock,
a more direct measure of fracture properties is
highly desirable. To determine the feasibility of using
accelerometers to measure drill-rig vibration data dur-
ing drilling, and using the data to infer information
about rock and fracture properties, field tests have been
conducted using sensors attached to the rig. For max-
imum sensitivity to rock conditions, acoustic sensors
should be placed as close to the drill bit as possible. In
placing the sensors, care must also be taken to iden-
tify the position of vibration dampners installed by the
drill manufacturer. For field experiments conducted at

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Copyright © 2005 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK

 Figure 5. Mineral content measured during drilling in
six adjacent boreholes. White corresponds to high copper
concentrations compared to darker colors, which indicate
relatively low copper concentrations.
Figure 6. Rock groups identified in six adjacent boreholes
using an empirical classification scheme (copper concen-
trations measured in the same boreholes are displayed in
Figure 5).
the Morenci and Sierrita mines, vertical and tangen-
tial capacitive accelerometers were potted in epoxy in
a steel collar. Two of each kind of sensor were installed
in the collar so that coherency between signals could
be monitored, and to provide backup against sensor
failure. A picture showing the accelerometer collar
being installed on the drill rig is shown in Figure 7.
The accelerometers have a bandwidth of 400 Hz, and
a range of ±40 g. The collar was placed around the
drill stem just below a vibration dampner that is origi-
nal equipment on the drill rig. This placement allowed
the accelerometers to be as close to the drill bit as
possible. Data was transmitted via FM radio at 418
and 433 MHz to a PC-based data-acquisition system.
A sampling rate of 2000 samples/sec/channel was used
to collect the data. The use of a wireless transmission
system allowed installation of the collar on the drill
stem and data collection during drilling with mini-mal
impact on the rig and drilling operation.
2.4.3 Fragmentation analysis
An important part of the project was post-blast char-
acterization of fragmentation. This information is
being used initially to help determine and verify
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Copyright © 2005 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK
Figure 7. Installation of steel collar housing accelerometers
and a wireless transmission system on a drill rig.
relationships between data collected during drilling
and blast results, and to help construct blast models.
In the longterm, online fragmentation analysis is envi-
sioned as an important part of the information system,
providing continuous data that can be used to monitor
blasting results, improve site-specific blasting mod-
els, and provide feedback to crushing and grinding
processes. A proven method to assess fragmentation
is to acquire digital images of rock fragments, and to
process these images using digital image-processing
techniques (Scoble et al. 1996). For post-blast size
characterization, this is the only practical method to
estimate fragmentation because screening is impracti-
cal on a large scale. The image processing techniques
used for the assessment of fragmentation were devel-
oped at the University of Arizona between 1990 and
1997. Since 1997, development work has continued at
Split Engineering, LLC. These steps are described in
detail in Kemeny et al. (1999) and Kemeny (1994).
At the Phelps Dodge Sierrita Mine in Arizona, a
Split-Online system is installed at the in-pit primary
crusher, where digital images of both feed and product
are continually processed and recorded. These sys-
tems are set to process three contiguous images of
either feed or product approximately every 90 sec-
onds. The feed cameras are located at the truck dump
bays; the product cameras are located above the dis-
charge belts. The resulting size data from the Split
system is imported into a mine-wide database where
truck-by-truck averages of the feed and product sizes
are determined. Several new technologies are being
utilized to trace the crusher feed and product size infor-
mation back to the original position of the rock on
the bench. This is accomplished on a truck-by-truck
basis utilizing technologies that include an accurate
time/date stamp incorporated into the Split data asso-
ciated with each truckload of ore, Modular Mining’s
dispatch system to trace the trucks back to the bench,
and GPS-equipped shovels to determine the location
of the material dumped into each truck.
 2.4.4 Adaptive blast design
There are many strategies currently being used for
blast design in open-pit hard-rock mines (Cunningham
1987, Segui 2001). In mines that have relatively uni-
form rock conditions, using uniform hole patterns
and blast energies produces good results. In mines
with predictable variations in rock properties, the
hole patterns and blast energies can be systematically
varied from one region to the next. It is not uncom-
mon, however, for in-situ rock conditions to change
dramatically and unpredictably from one area of the
mine to another, even within relatively small areas such
as those that constitute a single shot. It is only recently
that technologies have become available to character-
ize these dramatic variations in rock-mass conditions
accurately enough for blast design purposes. Even
where variations in rock mass conditions were known,
reliable mine-specific blast models did not exist to
allow variations in rock-mass strength to be accounted
for in determining optimum hole patterns and blast
energies.
Adaptive blast design means that the blast design
can be modified in real time, by changing hole patterns
or the type and amount of explosive, based on newly
acquired information about the rock mass. In order to
implement an adaptive blast-design strategy for open-
pit mines, two problems must first be solved. First
of all, technologies must be developed to accurately
predict in-situ rock-mass properties. These properties
must be available for a given shot before or during the
drilling of holes for the shot. Secondly, accurate blast
models must be available to provide guidance on how
modifications to the blast design should be made in
light of new information. For greatest accuracy, these
models must be mine specific, and constantly evolving
based on new data.This requires feedback mechanisms
in the operation that provide updated information on
in-situ rock conditions, blasting parameters, and post-
blast fragmentation.
Two technologies form the basis for the adaptive
blast-design strategy: (1) drill monitoring systems that
allow characterization of in-situ rock mass conditions,
and (2) image-analysis software to assess post-blast
fragmentation. Drill monitoring systems encompass
existing technologies that measure drilling parame-
ters such as torque, down-hole pressure, and rotational
speed, in addition to new technologies such as those
that are presently being investigated (vibration of the
drill stem and XRF analysis of the drill cuttings). For
rock-mass characterization during drilling, the small-
est data unit in the proposed strategy is the volume of
rock associated with each blast hole. The in-situ con-
ditions of this rock volume are determined from the
drill monitoring system, either during drilling, or by
extrapolating properties measured during the drilling
of neighboring holes. The blasting parameters associ-
ated with this rock volume are based on the measured
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Copyright © 2005 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK
rock properties, as well as the volume and shape of
the rock unit (burden, spacing, and height). Blasting
parameters include the amount and type of explosive
used in each hole, as well as the hole diameter, powder
factor, and delay. After blasting, the fragmentation of
the rock volume is characterized by the image anal-
ysis system. Imaging can take place at the muck pile
during digging, or by monitoring trucks at the primary
crusher or leach pile. As explained below, image data
is tracked so that the original position of the rock in
the shot pattern is known.
As described above, the first step in implementing
an adaptive blast-design strategy is to collect data on a
hole-by-hole basis and use this data to develop a site-
specific blast model. The second step is to utilize the
model for adaptive blast design and optimization. One
novel aspect of the adaptive strategy is that it largely
eliminates the need for separate trials testing new blast
designs. Rather, the system develops its own intelli-
gence based on the natural variations in rock-mass
properties throughout the mine and the response of
the blasting parameters to these variations.
As described in the previous sections, recent tech-
nologies have allowed important pre- and post-blast
information to be obtained on a hole-by-hole basis.
This includes the fragment-size distribution that comes
from the Split system and the drilling specific energy.
The explosive energy per ton of rock (kcal/t) can
also be estimated for each hole. The approach used
to date is simple, and is based on only three vari-
ables per hole: drilling specific energy, blast energy
(kcal/ton), and post-blast F80 (Kemeny et al. 2001).
We recommend this as a first step in implementing an
adaptive blast-design strategy. However, a limitation of
this relatively simple approach is that it does not take
into account several other important parameters, most
notably fractures and the specific mineralogy of each
volume unit of the rock mass. In addition, it uses only
single variables to account for the blast parameters
(kcal/ton) and to characterize post-blast fragmentation
(F80). Although the model predicts fragmentation, it
does not predict other quantities that are critical for
downstream processing such as the crushability and
grindability of the fragments (for mill processing), or
the leachability of the fragments (for SX-EW process-
ing). Technologies under development that provide
data during drilling can be used to improve adaptive
blast-design models.
3 SCENARIOS FOR IMPLEMENTATION
OF SENSOR NETWORKS AND DATA
VISUALIZATION
The DOE task force on the future of the mining
industry has identified hauling and comminution as
 Figure 8. Gold mining process overview.

the mining processes that use the largest share of

energy consumed in the mining sector, and are there-
fore high priorities to target for improved efficiency
and energy savings. The emerging technologies dis-
cussed in the previous section promise to reduce
mining energy consumption in all stages of material
handling and processing. This paper concentrates on
emerging technologies for upstream, mine-to-mill pro-
cessing, distinguished from downstream processing,
as indicated in Figure 9.
Upstream (or mine-to-mill) processing includes
in-situ rock-mass characterization, drill and blast opti- Figure 9. Mine-to-Mill processing stream.
mization, grade identification, loading and hauling,
and all stages of comminution. Upstream processing
does not include chemical treatment and refining. The Table 1. Typical comminution costs.
arcs in Figure 8 (and Fig. 9) may represent materi-
als or information flows, or both. While concentrating Costs
on so-called upstream processing, this paper takes a
Process $ per ton kWh per ton
holistic view, presenting an integrated framework for
mine-to-mill process control.An integrated framework Blasting 0.20 –
allows the relevant control variables of one subprocess Crushing 0.80 2.0
to be included in other processes, so that global rather Grinding 4.00 20.0
than local optimization can be achieved. Improved net-
working and data processing improves the availability
of sensor and other process control data at all stages
of processing. Graphical model theory (GMT) provides the means
The following example illustrates how global opti- by which global optimization can be decentralized as
mization is necessary to minimize total processing far as possible, to reduce the time lag in the optimiza-
costs. The costs of comminution, in both dollar and tion control loop. When decentralized optimization
energy terms, increase exponentially as ore passes is still too slow, GMT also provides faster methods
through the blasting, crushing, and grinding phases. for approximate inference and optimization, which
Typical comminution costs are shown in Table 1. are likely to find the optimal control settings with
Total comminution costs are therefore reduced if some small margin of error. GMT also provides a
comminution effort can be shifted from grinding to natural interface that represents network processing
crushing, and especially to blasting. Improving blast in an easily intelligible manner. Consider Figure 8,
yield is an important target for energy and cost sav- which describes upstream processing in more detail.
ings. This conclusion can only be drawn from the A graphical model looks very similar (loops cause
holistic perspective that globally optimizes the entire complications and are often disallowed in directed
upstream processing stream. When many control vari- graphical models). The graphical representation is eas-
ables are involved, however, global optimization may ily elicited from and intelligible to domain experts
be impossible to perform in real time. (miners in this case).

544

Copyright © 2005 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK

 GMT is expressive and powerful. Among the many
tasks for which it provides algorithms are sensor fusion
and pattern classification, an example of which is
represented at the top of Figure 9. Using GMT, mea-
surements from a seismic network could be fused with
drill-stem acceleration data, GPR and resistivity data,
core samples, and local mineralogy, to infer the spa-
tial distribution of characteristics of the rock mass,
including rock type, ore concentration, and fractures.
In general, sensor fusion improves classification per-
formance by reducing error rates. For example, one
type of sensor may be better at discriminating some
pairs of rock types, while another may be better at
discriminating between other pairs; fusing the mea-
surements in effect allows each method to be applied
where it performs best.
GMT is scaleable and extensible. It’s scaleability
makes GMT well suited for large problems, such as
complex optimization programs necessary for min-
ing process control. Its extensibility allows the easy
introduction of new sensors and processes, without
significant modification to the existing infrastructure.
Process control and optimization based on GMT is
very malleable in this regard. For example, laser-
based measurement of exposed faces could easily be
added to an existing GM to improve in-situ rock-mass
characterization, without significant modification of
preexisting infrastructure and algorithms. In addi-
tion to providing algorithms that are as decentralized
as possible for exact inference, GMT also provides
message-passing protocols that concisely describe the
sequence and timing of information exchange between
processes necessary for global optimization. Both
these properties make GMs amenable to network
implementations. All of these properties make GMT
well suited as an overarching top-level framework for
process control optimization.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Wired and wireless-sensor networks promise to enable
a multitude of new applications if the scientific and
engineering community can meet requirements for
power management, communications, software, and
data management. At the same time, new mining
technologies hold promise for providing data and
information that can be used for process control and
to provide feedback that can be used to optimize
over the entire mine-to-mill operation. Successful
implementation of these new technologies requires
demonstration of cost effectiveness, portability, ease
of use, reliability, robustness in harsh environments,
accuracy, and the ability to satisfy any other con-
straints imposed by the application. Systems will be
more affordable if they are designed to perform mul-
tiple functions, such as process monitoring, energy
545
Copyright © 2005 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK
management, environmental monitoring, and secu-
rity. Although installing new sensor and measurement
devices requires investment, there is increasing evi-
dence that greater efficiency, increased throughput,
reductions in energy consumption, and improved pro-
cess monitoring can result in overall cost savings. To
evaluate costs and benefits, there is tremendous value
in projects that integrate emerging technologies into
information networks, and that test and demonstrate
these networks in large-scale applications.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the U.S. Department
of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC03-76SF00098.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribu-
tions of their colleagues at the University of Arizona,
Phelps-Dodge Mining, Split Engineering, and Aquila
Mining Systems.
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