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PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

.' I'
Research Report
INNATENESS, EXPERIENCE, AND MUSIC PERCEPTION
Michael P. Lynch, Rebecca E. Eilers, D. Kimbrough Oller, and Richard C. Urbano
University of Miami

Abstract-Musical acculturation from ied (Aslin & Pisoni, 1980; Eilers & Oller, view, and those with any such exposure
infancy to adulthood was studied by test- 1988), while the development of music were excluded from the study.
ing the abilities ofWestern 6-month-olds perception has received comparatively
and adults to notice mistunings in melo- little attention (Dowling, 1982; Dowling Stimuli
dies based on native Western major, na- & Harwood, 1986; Pick, 1979). Although
tive Western minor, and non-native Jav- certain perceptual abilities possessed by Seven-note melodies based on the
anese pelog scales. Results indicated infants for music have been successfully Western major and minor scales and the
that infants were similarly able to per- investigated (Trehub, 1987), no previous Javanese pelog scale (Kunst, 1973) were
ceive native and non-native scales. developmental studies of the effects of constructed (Table I). The frequency re-
Adults, however, were generally better culturally specific experience on music lationships among the notes of the West-
perceivers of native than non-native perception from infancy to adulthood ern scales were based on the semitone
scales. These findings suggest that in- have been conducted, perhaps because (1.0595 ratio, 12th root of 2). In contrast,
fants. are born with an equipotentiality of the difficulties involved in obtaining the pelog scale contained many intervals
for the perception of scales from a vari-. comparable stimuli for and using compa- which were larger than, smaller than,
ety of cultures and that subsequent cul- rable procedures with infants and older and approximations of Western inter-
turally specific experience substantially subjects. vals. Individual tones were 300 ms (mil-
influences music perception. The present study employed an oper- liseconds) in length including 20 ms each
ant head-turn procedure (Eilers, Wilson, of linear attack and linear decay. Each
& Moore, 1977), which is amenable to note contained the fundamental fre-
Speech and music are complex acous- use with both infants and adults, to study quency and the second harmonic an oc-
tic systems that have both universal and musical acculturation by testing subjects tave above. An IBM PS2 microcomputer
idiosyncratic features. In speech, the in the perception of native and non- generated digital representations' of FO
consonant/vowel distinction is a univer- and H2 (amplitude ratio of 7:3), which
native musical scales. Use of this proce-
sal feature of phonological systems (la- dure allowed for investigation of musical were summed and then processed by a
kobson, 1968). A universal feature of acculturation because better perception digital-analog converter. The amplifier
music is the scale, a set of frequency re- of native than non-native scales would (Accuphase E202) was set to output the
lationships usually formalized as a series indicate a significant influence of the mu- first tone of each melody at 75 dB SPL in
of notes with successively higher funda- sical culture on perception. Additionally, the soundfield. Based on pilot results, in-
mental frequencies (Dowling & Har- examination of infants' performance al- fants were tested in their ability to notice
wood, 1986; Hulse & Page, 1988; Nett!, lowed for exploration of the possibility a 2.8% change in the fifth note of each
1956). Although consonants/vowels and that certain scales may be inherently eas- melody, and adults were tested on 0.4%
scales are widely present in languages ier to process than others. Adults with or 1.6% changes (Table 2).
and musics of the world, different lan- different levels of musical background
guages select different consonants and were tested to investigate potentially Apparatus
vowels, and different cultures select dif- complex effects of experience.
ferent specific frequency relationships Experimental sessions were con-
(intervals) for their scales. In other ducted in a double-walled, sound-
words, universal components of speech attenuated booth containing a video
METHOD
and music have culturally-specific char- camera, a high-fidelity loudspeaker (Pio-
acteristics•. '. neer HPM 100), and a computer-
Although ~peech and music share this
Subjects monitored response panel. The experi-
broad structural similarity, the develop- menter used this panel to initiate trials
Fifty Western (American) subjects
ment of culturaHy specific knowledge for and to record subject responses. Visual
participated in this study. Twenty infants
universal components of speech and of reinforcers consisted of four animated
(mean age = 6.5 months, SD = 21
music have-not received comparable at- stuffed toys in four separate compart-
days), 10 musically inexperienced (M - )
tention in research. The development of ments concealed in a smoked plexiglass
adults, 10 amateur musicians (M), and 10
speech perception has_peen widely stud- box. The computer randomly activated
professional musicians (M +) were
one of the four toys and illuminated one
tested in perception of computer-
compartment as visual reinforcement.
Correspondence and reprint requests to generated melodies based on native
Dr. Michael P. Lynch, pepartments of Psy- Western scales and a non-native Jav-
anese scale. All of the subjects were Procedure
chology and Pediatrics, Mailman Center for
Child Development, University of Miami, screened for exposure to non-Western In the operant head-turn paradigm
P.O. Box 016820, Miami, FL 33101. music through personal or parent inter- (Eilers & Gavin, 1981; Eilers et aI.,

272 Copyright © 1990 American Psychological Society VOL. I, NO.4, JULY 1990
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PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Michael P. Lynch et al.

Table 1. Frequency values of melody notes (ratios, intervals, and onset times relate to the
first note)
Note 2 3 4 5 6 7

Delay of note
onset from 0 ms 0 500 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000
Major Frequency,
cps 293.7 329.6 370.0 392.0 440.0 370.0 293.7
Frequency ratio 1.0000 1.1225 1.2599 1.3349 1.4983 1.2599 1.0000
Note name D4 E4 F#4 04 A4 F#4 D4
Minor Frequency,
cps 293.7 329.6 349.2 392.0 440.0 349.2 293.7
Frequency ratio 1.0000 1.1225 1.1892 1.3349 1.4983 1.1892 1.0000
Note name D4 E4 F4 04 A4 F4 D4
Pelog Frequency,
cps 293.7 311.7 341.2 390.7 436.2 341.2 293.7
Frequency ratio 1.0000 1.0613 1.1617 1.3303 1.4852 1.1617 1.0000

1977), subjects were tested in discrimi- the major melody. Training criterion was session included three blocks of 10 trials
nation of a well-tuned version of a mel- re~ched when a subject correctly re- each (first 10 trials, second 10 trials, and
ody from one in which the fifth note was sponded to 9 out of 10 consecutive trials third 10 trials). The main effect of Scale
mistuned. by raising its frequency. The (randomly experimental and control tri- Type was not significant, confirming that
well-tuned melody (Sb), based on either als). The training procedure was not nec- the subjects' performance was not sys-
the major, minor, or pelog scale depend- essary for the adults. During testing ses- tematically different across the native
ing on the testing condition, was played 'sions, the experimenter was fitted with and non-native scales. Only the main ef-
repeatedly through a loudspeaker. Sb earplugs and with headphones through fect of Training Condition was signifi-
was presented continuously except when which loud masking music was played. cant (F(l,54) = 8.49, p < .005). suggest-
the fifth note was changed (Sd). Each Presentation of the major, minor, and ing that the scale used in training may
session began with a shaping phase in pelog melodies was counterbalanced have affected the infants' absolute levels
which Sd was accompanied by 12, 8, and across subjects within each age and mu- of performance on the three scales, but
4 dB intensity changes from Sb. Two tri- sical experience group. the lack of a significant Scale Type x
als at each level of intensity change were Training Condition interaction indicates
conducted. Shaping was followed by 30 that the infants' pattern of performance
equal-intensity test trials, 15 experimen- RESULTS across the scales was not affected. Infant
tal change trials and 15 control trials. The infants' performance did not dif- performance was significantly better
The experimenter initiated trials by fer as a function of the musical scale on than chance (chance = 50% correct) by
pressing a button on a concealed panel. which the melody was based (overall t-tests (two-tailed) on all scales (df = 9,
If an adult subject raised a hand during a means: major = 67.1%; minor = 65.8%, p < .01).
trial interval, the experimenter pressed a pelog = 67.3%, see Figure I). A 3 (Scale Since the infants' performance was
response button to record the hand- Type: major, minor, and pelog) x 2 not significantly different across the
raise. Only hand-raises during experi- (Training Condition: major, pelog) x 3 Western and Javanese scales, a power
mental trials were correct, as indicated (Block) Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) analysis (Kraemer & Thiemann, 1987, p.
to the subjects by activation of an elec- was conducted on the infants' data. The 47) was conducted to insure that a suffi-
tronic toy in a smoked plexiglass com- Block factor was included in order to as- cient sample size was used. The aver-
partment above the speaker from which sess potential effects of either fatigue or aged standard deviation (SD) of all adult
the stimuli were played. Infants re- learning within each test session. Each and infants groups at each level of mis-
sponded by turning their heads toward
the loudspeaker in anticipation of the vi-
sual reinforcer. Responses during both Table 2. Frequency values of top (fifth) melody note for each amount
change and contr~l.trials were recorded offrequency change (ratios and intervals relate to well-tuned note)
for analysis.
Infants were tested in perception of a Infants Adults
2.8% increase in the frequency of the
fifth note, and adults were tested on 2.8% 0.4% 1.6%
Well-Tuned Change Change Change
1.6% and 0.4% frequency increases (Ta-
ble 2). Before testing, 10 infants were Frequency, cps 440.0 (MAJ, MIN) 452.3 441.8 447.0
trained to notice a 5.0% increase in the 436.2 (PEL) 448.4 437.9 443.2
frequency of the fifth note of the pelog Frequency ratio 1.028 1.004 1.016 .
melody, and 10 infants were trained on

VOL. I, NO.4, JULY 1990 273


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PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Infants/Adults Music Perception

tuning was used as the best estimate


100 of the population standard deviation
(Adults SD = 14.23%, Infants SD =
90 13.22%, Overall SD = 13.96%). Based
upon the significant differences that
were found in the adults' data (see be-
80 low), 10 percentage points was selected
..-.. as the minimum difference for detection
CJ
"-"" 70 between any two means. The power of
0..

60
T6I
~ -----l..-
T6~
this study to detect a 10 percentage point
difference in performance between the
~--L major and pelog scales was 0.9, between
the major and minor scales was 0.8, and
50 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
between the minor and pelog scales
was 0.8.
40 In contrast to the infants, the adults'
2.8% Change 2.8% Change performance was better on the native
Trained on Trained on than non-native scales (overall means:
Pelog Major major = 74%, minor = 72%, pelog =
66%, see Figures 2 and 3), suggesting
• Javanese Pelog 0 Weslern Major that their perception was affected by mu-
@ Weslern Minor sical acculturation. A 3 (Scale Type: ma-
jor, minor, pelog) x 3 (Musical Experi-
ence: M -, M, M +) x 2 (Frequency
Fig. 1. Infants' mean percentage correct and 95% confi-
Change: 0.4%, 1.6%) x 3 (Block)
dence limits. Dashed lines indicate change. In the left-hand
column, 10 infants were trained on a 5.0% change in the fifth ANOVA was conducted. The significant
note of the pelog melody and subsequently tested on a 2.8% main effect of Scale Type (F(2,162) =
change in the fifth note of the major, minor, and pelog mel- 16.67, p < .0001) confirmed that the
odies. In the right column, 10 infants were trained on a 5.0% adults were better perceivers of native
change in the fifth note of the major melody and subse- than non-native scales. Additionally, the
quently tested on a 2.8% change in fifth note of the major, main effects of Musical Experience
minor, and pelog melodies. (F(2,81) = 41.25, p < .0001) and Fre-
quency Change (F(l,81) = 401.1, p <

.
.0001) were significant. As expected,
subjects with musical experience per-
100 formed better than musically inexperi-
----,- 0 :=IT:: enced subjects (overall means: M - =
-

II TIl
90
----'----
61%, M = 70%, M+ = 80%), and the
1.6% frequency change (M = 85%) was
80 easier to detect than the 0.4% frequency
..--.-
--
()
70 T ~
• change (M = 55%). The significant Scale
Type x Musical Experience x Fre-
P-.

60 :-L
• quency Change interaction (F(4,162) =
2.89, p < .025) suggested, however, that
patterns of performance across the na-
50 ------ ------ ------ tive and non-native scales differed for
the M -, M, and M + subjects. This in-
4 a...L.- ---'- --'- _ teraction was examined by conducting
Musically Musically Musicians (M +) separate 3 (Scale Type) x 2 (Frequency
Inexperienced Experienced Change) x 3 (Block) ANOVAs for each
Subjecls (M-) Subjecls (M) of the adult groups.
The musically inexperienced (M - )
• Javanese Pelog 0 Weslern Major subjects' performance was better on the
a Weslern Minor native than non-native scales (overall
means: major = 65%, minor = 63%,
Fig. 2. Adult subjects' mean percentage correct and 95% pelog = 56%). This pattern was con-
confidence limits for each melody when the frequency of firmed in the 3 x 2 x 3 ANOVA, in
the ruth note of the major, minor, and pelog melodies was which the main effect of Scale Type
increased by 1.6%. The dashed line indicates chance. (F(2,54) = 6.48, p < .005) was signifi-

274 VOL. I, NO.4, JULY 1990


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PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Michael P. Lynch et al.

perceivers of this scale than of the minor


100 and pelog scales.

90
DISCUSSION
80
In summary, this study indicated
70
6T that 6-month-olds' abilities to per-
ceive mistunings were not influ-
60
I~
6IT~~
~
enced by the familiarity of the under-
lying scale, suggesting that infants
50 T -~- Y -~- ---------- may be born with an equipotentiality
--L --L for the perception of scales from a
40--'==--------L----'------ variety of cultures. A similar hy-
Musically Musically Musicians (1.1 +)
Inexperienced Experienced pothesis, advanced in the study of
Subjects (1.1-) Subjects (1.1) infant speech perception, proposes
that infants are born with an equipo-
•. Javanese Pelog 0 Weslern Major tentiality for perception of the
@ Weslern Minor speech sounds of any language (Ei-
mas, 1975; Eimas, Siqueland, Jusc-
Fig. 3. Adult subjects' mean percentage correct and 95% zyk, & Vigorito, 1973). The infants'
confidence limits for each melody when the frequency of the performance across the native and
fifth note of the major, minor, and pelog melodies was in-
creased by 0.4%. The dashed line indicates chance. non-native scales in the present
study, while supporting this
cant. Additionally, the Frequency was significantly better on the major and "innateness" hypothesis in terms of
Change x Scale type interaction was sig- minor melodies than on the pelog melody music, challenges an anithetical hy-
nificant (F(2,54) = 6.97, p < .002). This (Duncan's Range Statistic, p < .05). Ma-
pothesis which has been proposed
interaction was investigated by conduct- jor and minor performance was not sig-
ing separate 3 (Scale Type) x 3 (Block) nificantly different. The M subjects' per- by music theorists and general audi-
ANOVAs for each level of the Fre- formance was significantly better than tory scientists for many years. This
quency Change factor. The main effect chance on all scales in the 1.6% test (p < second hypothesis suggests that
of Scale Type was significant for the .01), but it was not significantly different Western scales should be inherently
1.6% test (F(2,54) = 13.4, p < .00(1), from chance on any scale in the 0.4% easier to perceive because their in-
and the M - subjects' performance was test. Similarly to the M - subjects, the M tervals approximate small-integer
significantly better on the major and mi- subjects performed better on the 1.6% frequency ratios, which are pro-
nor melodies than on the pelog melody frequency change (M = 84%) than on posed to be more readily processed
(Duncan's Range Statistic, p < .01). Ma- the 0.4% frequency change (M = 56%), by the human auditory system than
jor and minor performance was not sig- as confirmed by the significant main ef- the more complex ratios of some
nificantly different. Performance was fect of Frequency Change (F(l,27) =
other cultures, such as that of Java
significantly better than chance for all 120.47, P < .00(1).
scales in the 1.6% test (p < .05), but per- In contrast to the M - and M groups, (Burns & Ward, 1982). The infants'
formance was not significantly different the musician (M +) subjects' perfor-. similar performance across Western
from chance in the 0.4% test for any mance differed only slightly as a function and Javanese scales suggests that
scale. Additionally, the M - subjects of scale type (overall means: major = Western scale processing is not in-
performed better on the 1.6% test (M = 82%, minor = 81%, pelog = 77%). In herently easier than non-Western
75%) than on the Q:4% test (M = 48%), the 3 x 2 x 3 ANOVA, only the main processing.
as indicated by the significant main ef- effect of Frequency Change was signifi- Since only one note was mistuned
fect of Frequency Change (F(l,27) = cant (F(l,27) = 242.38, p < .00(1), con- in the melodies, it is reasonable to
88.31, p < .00(1).... firming that their performance was better consider the possibility that subjects
The musically· experienced (M) sub- for the 1.6% (M = 85%) than for the did not attend to the surrounding
jects' performance was also better on the 0.4% (M = 55%) frequency change. Al-
tones in order to discriminate be-
native than non-native scales (overall though the M + group's performance
means: major = 74%, minor = 71%, across scale types was not significantly
tween the well-tuned and mistuned
pelog = 63%). This pattern was con- different in the ANOVA, their perfor- melodies (Cohen, Thorpe, &
firmed in the 3 x 2 x 3 ANOVA, in mance was significantly above chance in Trehub, 1987). A previous study
which the main effect of Scale Type the 0.4% test on the major scale only (t- (Lynch, Eilers, Oller, Urbano, &
(F(2,54) = 8.89, p < .00(1) was signifi- tests, two-tailed, df = 9, p < .01), sug- Wilson, 1989) of adults' perception
cant, and the M subjects' performance gesting that they were somewhat better of the major, minor, and pelog mel-

VOL. I, NO.4, JULY 1990 275


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PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Infants/Adults Music Perception


.' .
odies, however, indicated that musi- cause the Western scale intervals ponents of a theory of memory for melodies.
Psychological Rniew. 85. 341-354.
cally inexperienced and musician matched those of an internalized Dowling, W.J. (1982). Melodic information process-
subjects' relative performance on framework for Western intervals. In ing and its development. In D. Deutsch (Ed.),
The psychology 0/ music. New York: Aca-
these Western and Javanese melo- contrast, the infants' similar perfor- demic Press.
dies was maintained whether the mance across the Western and Jav- Dowling, W.J. & Harwood, D. (1986). Music cogni-
tion. New York: Academic Press.
mistuned tone was always the high- anese scales may have occurred be- Eilers, R.E., & Gavin, W.J. (1981). The evaluation
est note in the melody or whether cause the infants had not yet of infant speech perception skills: Statistical
techniques and theory development. In R.E.
the serial location of the mistuning acquired knowledge of native musi- Stark (Ed.), Language behal'ior in infancy and
was made unpredictable by changing cal scales in the form of perceptual early childhood. North Holland: Elsevier.
Eilers, R.E., & Oller, D.K. (1988). Precursors to
its position across trials. Thus, when schemata. Procedures similar to speech: What is innate and what is acquired?
the testing procedure required that those used in this study could be em· In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of child develop-
ment. Vol. 5. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
every melodic interval be attended ployed with both younger and older Eilers, R.E., Wilson, W.R., & Moore, J.M. (1977).
to in order to detect an unpredict- infants in future explorations of mu- Developmental changes in speech discrimina-
tion in infants. Journal ofSpeech and Hearing
ably located mistuning, adults' rela- sical acculturation to further de- Research. 20. 766-780.
tive performance across the Western scribe the course of musical sche- Eimas, P.D. (1975). Auditory and phonetic coding of
the cues for speech: Discrimination of the r·1
Javanese melodies was not different mata development. distinction by young infants. Perception and
from the present results. Although Psychophysics. 18, 341-347.
Eimas, P.D., Siqueland, E.R., Juszyk, P., & Vig-
data are not yet available, it is rea- Acknowledgments-The completion of orito, J. (1973). Speech perception in infants.
sonable to suspect that infants' pat-- this research was greatly aided by the sub- Science. 17I. 303-306.
jects and the infants' parents, who gave Hulse, S.H., & Page, S.c. (1988). Toward a com-
terns of performance across musical generously of their time in the course of parative psychology of music perception. Mu-
scales would, similarly to adults' " participating in the study. Helpful com- sic Perception. 5. 427-452.
Jakobson, R. (1968). Child language. aphasia, and
not be affected by variable locations mentary on the presentation of this work phonological unh'ersals. The Hague: Mouton.
was provided by S.8. Gordon, D. Green- (originally published 1941),
of mistunings. Further research us- field, O. Ozdamar, P. Wilson, and an Kessler, E.J., Hansen, C., & Shepard, R,N. (1984).
ing a changing location of mistuning anonymous reviewer. Generous technical Tonal schemata in the perception of music in
with infant subjects could further assistance was provided by C. Lopez and Bali and in the West. Music Perception. 2.
E. Miskiel. This study was supported in 131-165.
clarify this issue. part by a Dissertation Research Award Kraemer, H.C., & Thiemann. S. (1987). How many
The adults' better perception of from the American Psychological Associ- subjects? Statistical power analysis in re-
search. Newbury Park. CA: Sage.
native than non-native scales agrees ation. Krumhansl, C.L., & Shepard, R.N. (1979). Quanti-
broadly with previous studies (Cas- Ikation of the hierarchy of tonal functions
within a diatonic context. Journal of Experi-
tellano, Bharucha, & Krumhansl, mental Psychology: Human Perception and
1984; Kessler, Hansen, & Shepard, Performance. 5,579-594.
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Journal 0/ Psychology, 41, 33-47. (RECEIVED 9/25/89; REVISION ACCEPTED
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