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Drafting Legal Documents, Principles of Clear Writing
Drafting Legal Documents, Principles of Clear Writing
1. Write in the active voice. The active voice eliminates confusion by forcing you to name the actor in a
sentence. This construction makes clear to the reader who is to perform the duty.
The passive voice makes sentences longer and roundabout. Who is responsible is much less obvious.
Passive verbs have a form of the verb to be plus the past participle of a main verb.
plus
was received,
is being considered,
has been selected.
The passive voice reverses the natural, active order of English sentences. In the following passive
example the receiver of the action comes before the actor.
Passive: The regulation [receiver] was written [verb] by the drafter [actor].
Passive constructions are confusing when used in regulations. Active sentences must have actors, but
passive ones are complete without them.
Putting the actor before the verb forces you to be clear about responsibility.
The passive voice is appropriate when the actor is unknown, unimportant, or obvious. This
does not usually apply in regulatory text.
is applicable to applies to
They are called "nominals" -- nouns with verbs inside. They are hard to read and make sentences longer.
Action verbs are shorter and more direct.
must
indicates a prohibition
not
4. Be direct. Talk directly to your readers. Use the imperative mood. Regulations lend themselves to this
style, especially procedures, how-to instructions, and lists of duties.
This style results in procedures that are shorter, crisper, and easier to understand.
5. Use the present tense. A regulation of continuing effect speaks as of the time you apply it, not as of
the time you draft it or when it becomes effective. For this reason, you should draft regulations in the
present tense. By drafting in the present tense, you avoid complicated and awkward verb forms.
DON'T SAY: The fine for driving without a license shall be $10.00.
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6. Write positively. If you can accurately express an idea either positively or negatively, express it
positively.
DON'T SAY: The Governor may not appoint persons other than those qualified by the Personnel
Management Agency.
SAY: The Governor must appoint a person qualified by the Personnel Management Agency.
DON'T WALK
DON'T SMOKE
But avoid several negatives in one sentence.
DON'T SAY: A demonstration project will not be approved unless all application requirements are met.
SAY: A demonstration project will be approved only if the applicant meets all requirements.
7. Avoid use of exceptions. If possible, state a rule or category directly rather than describing that rule
or category by stating its exceptions.
However, you may use an exception if it avoids a long and cumbersome list or elaborate description.
When you use an exception, state the rule or category first then state its exception.
DON'T SAY: Alabama, Alaska,... and Wyoming (a list of 47 states) must ration...
SAY: Each state except Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona must ration... (Note that the category "each
State" is established first and then the exceptions are stated.)
8. Avoid split infinitives. The split infinitive offends many readers, so avoid it if you can.
SAY: Be sure to reply promptly to the invitation. or SAY: Be sure to reply to the invitation promptly.
9. Use the singular noun rather than the plural noun. To the extent your meaning allows, use a
singular noun instead of a plural noun. You will avoid the problem of whether the rule applies separately to
each member of a class or jointly to the class as a whole.
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DON'T SAY: The guard will issue security badges to the employees who work in Building D and Building
E.
SAY: The guard will issue a security badge to each employee who works in Building D and each
employee who works in Building E.
10. Be consistent. Don't use different words to denote the same things. Variation for the sake of
variation has no place in regulation writing. Using a synonym rather than repeating the precise term you
intend just confuses the reader.
DON'T SAY: Each motor vehicle owner must register his or her car with the Automobile Division of the
Metropolitan Police Department.
SAY: Each automobile owner must register his or her automobile with the Automobile Division of the
Metropolitan Police Department.
11. Use parallel structure. Arrange sentences so that parallel ideas look parallel. This is important when
you use a list.
Nonparallel construction:
Parallel construction:
12. Prefer simple words. Government writing should be dignified, but doesn't have to be pompous.
Writing can be dignified when the language is simple, direct, and strong. To make your writing clearer and
easier to read -- and thus more effective -- prefer the simple word.
terminate end
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utilize use
13. Omit needless words. Don't use compound prepositions and other wordy expressions when the
same meaning can be conveyed with one or two words.
14. Avoid redundancies. Don't use word pairs, if the words have the same effect or where the meaning
of one included the other.
15. Use concrete words. Government writing often concerns abstract subjects. But abstract words can
be vague and open to different interpretations. Put instructions in simple, concrete words.
vehicles automobiles
firearms rifles
aircraft helicopters
16. Don't use words that antagonize. Words can attract or repel readers. It is possible to choose
words in our writing that do not make the wrong impression or antagonize our readers. Use words to
which people react favorably rather than words that they resent.
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please reasonable reliable service
useful you
waste wrong
17. Avoid noun sandwiches. Administrative writing uses too many noun clusters -- groups of nouns
"sandwiched" together. Avoid these confusing constructions by using more prepositions.
SAY: Development of underground procedures for the protection of the safety of mine workers.
OR MORE LIKELY: Development of procedures for the protection of the safety of workers in
underground mines.
Which meaning is intended becomes clearer when this four-word sandwich is broken up.
18. Don't use gender-specific terminology. Avoid the gender-specific job title:
Draftsman Drafter
Fireman Firefighter
Foreman Supervisor
Avoid the gender-specific pronoun when the antecedent could be male or female.
DON'T SAY: The administrator or his designee must complete the evaluation form.
SAY: The administrator or the administrator's designee must complete the evaluation form.
Be careful when you rewrite to avoid the problem. The following examples don't necessarily have the
same meaning --
Each Regional Director will announce his or her recommendations at the conference.
The Regional Directors will announce their recommendation at the conference.
19. Write short sentences. Readable sentences are simple, active, affirmative, and declarative.
The more a sentence deviates from this structure, the harder the sentence is to understand.
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Legal documents often contain conditions which result in complex sentences with many clauses.
The more complex the sentence, the greater the possibility for difficulty in determining the intended
meaning of the sentence.
Solutions
Remove all unnecessary words. Strive for a simple sentence with a subject and verb. Eliminate
unnecessary modifiers.
If only one or two simple conditions must be met before a rule applies, state the conditions first and
then state the rule.
If two or more complex conditions must be met before a rule applies, state the rule first and then
state the conditions.
If several conditions or subordinate provisions must be met before a rule applies, use a list.
20. Make lists clear and logical in structure. Listing provides white space that separates the various
conditions. Listing can help you avoid the problems of ambiguity caused by the words "and" and "or".
When you list, use the following rules:
List each item so that it makes a complete thought when read with the introductory text.
21. Use short paragraphs. A writer may improve the clarity of a regulation by using short, compact
paragraphs. Each paragraph should deal with a single, unified topic. Lengthy, complex, or technical
discussions should be presented in a series of related paragraphs.
22. Use a checklist and review your draft for each of these principles separately.
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