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yof2Dand3DSh
apeD
esc
rip
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pas
ti ncl u
ding MPEG -7s hap ed a
t aba s
e[8 ],P rinceton
Abstrac
t-3Dob ject
sp layav ita
lr o
l einc ompu tergam es
, Shap eB en chm a
rk[44 ]
,Kon s
t an zeUn iv ers
ity(CCCC )
movies, TV and m i
li
tar yr es
ea rch. R esearchersh av e 3Db en chm ark
,M cG i
llSh ap eB enchm ark(MSB )[57 ]
,
studied3Dob jectr et
rievalt echniqu esu s
in g2Dand3D
andN ation alT a
iw an Un iv ersityd atabase(NTU )[28 ]
.
shap ed escr
iptorsinth elasts everald ecad es.Inth ispap er
,
som eo fth em o
stp opularsh ap ed escriptorsa r
er eview ed
. Sever a
l ex cel
lents urvey s on 2D an d 3D s hape
Wef irs
td iscussth eimpo rtantc riteriafo rago odshap e descriptors(SD s)ex is
tin clud i ngbu ta ren otlimitedt o
descriptor
. Th en,w eclass
ify2Dand3Dsh aped es c
riptors [2]
,[ 3
],[30 ],and[5 4
].Inth iss urv eyp aper
,w ep resen
t
intos e v
eralc ategor
ies. Forea chc atego ry,w er e v
iewth e andsumm a
rizes everalim po rt ant 2D an d 3Dsh ape
state-o
f-the-ar
tt echniquesa long withth eirad vantagesand descriptorsw h
ichh aveun d e
rg on eex t ensiveresearchi n
d
i sadvanta ge
s. W ea ls
oe xam ineth er ecentc ontributions CBIR ,an dd is
cussth eiradv ant ag esan dd isadvantages.
andimp rovem entsin th e
s et echniqu es and p ro v
id ea Wep rov idet axonom ieso fth e 2D an d 3D sh ape
compa rison w ith other su ccess
fult echn iquesb ased on descriptors. W eal sop resentaf ewhy bridt echniques
previousl ite
rature andsu rveys
.F in a
lly w ed iscussth e
possibl
efu turedirect
ion s
.
which h aveg a
inedim portan c einth er ecenty ears
becau se o f th eir p rom i sing e ffect
iv eness an d
per
f orm anc e
.
I
. I
NTRODUCT
ION
Ther emindero fth ep aperi so rgani z
eda sf o
llow s
.
Thed efini
tionan dc haracteristic so fsh ap ed escr
iptors
Th ree d im en sion al ob je c
ts po ssess su peri o
r arep r
e sentedin S e c
tion 2 , 2Ds hap ed escr
iptorsa re
im portan c
ei n th ef i e
ldso fg am ing , m ovi es
, TV , di
scu ssed i nS ect
i on 3 , 3D sh ap ed escripto
r sa re
en gineerin gd e sig n,b iology,an dm ilit aryr e s
e arch.Th e review e dinS ec
tion4 ,a nd3DS hap eR e
trievalC ontes
tis
dem andh asb e eng row ingtoe ffi cien tlyt ran sm i
tt hem int
rodu cedin S ection 5 fo llow ed by a s ection of
ov ert h eIn tern etw i
tht her iseo fc lou d com puting Conclusi on&fu turer esea
r chd ir ection s.
tech n o
log ies. Cu rren t
lyth ecomm on w aytos earchf or
im agesan d 3D m odels ov ert h ein tern eti sv iat ext
qu eriesan don lin ec ata
log ues
.R etriev a
lo fim agesu sing I
I. DEFINITIONANDCHARACTER
IST
ICSOFSHAPE
an otherim agea saqu eryiss t
illn ots oph isticateden ough DESCR
IPTORS
top rovid eu sw ithth ed es
iredr e sult s
.Th es am ei st rue
Gen e
r a
llyspeak
ing,ash aped e
s c
riptorisasim pl
ifi
ed
for on l
in e 3D m odel r e
tri ev al. Mo reov er in
repre
s entat
iono fa2Do r3Dsh apeinth eformo fa
ent er
t a
inm ent
,g am esan ds p
e c
iale ff ectsin dustry,th e
r e
vec
torcon tain
ingas e
to fnum e
ricalv aluesorag raph -
isahu ged em an do fm ode
llingh ig hlyr e al
isticch ar acters
likes
tru ctureusedtodescr
ib ethes h
ap eg eomet
rical
lyo r
qui cklyan de asily .Un for
tun a
t e
ly,m od ellin gre a
listic3D
topological
ly[1 ]
,[31].S haped escr
ipto r
sa reevaluated
ch aractersi ss tillat im econ sum in gan dl abo riou st as k
ont h
eb asisofs eve
ralcharacte
ris
ticsw hichdef
in eth e
whi chr equiresh igh lysk il
ledan dex pe rien ced m od ellers.
overa
llqu a
lityande f
fect
iven es
so fash ap edesc
riptor.
Sk etchb ased m od ellingt echniqu esex ist,h ow ev e
rt hese
Thef ollowingcomm onch aracte
rist
icso fane f
fe c
tive
tech niqu esa rep ron eto ro ughn e ss,in accu racy, an d
shaped escript
orhaveb e
enp roposedi n[1],[2]
,[3]
,[4 ]
.
difficul
ty . Th u sth er eex ista g ap b e
tw eent radition al
mod elling t echn i qu es an d s ket ch -b ased m odelling
a
) D
isc
rimina
tiveaccur
acy:Toac
cur
ate
ly
tech niqu es. Th isr equires pow er ful con tent b ased
d
is
tingu
ishon eshap
efromano
the
rb a
sedon
retrievalt echn i qu es an d s ketch b ased m od ell
in g
s
ubt
l ed
iff
erences
int er
f a
c estob eim plem ented.
Con tentb as edin form a
tionr etri ev al(CB IR )h asb ee n
b
) Tr
ansf
orm at
ion(t
rans
la
tion
,sca
ling
,an
d
stu diedbyr ese ar ch ersfroms everald e cad es.CB IRi sth e
ro
tat
ion)invar
iance
:Alsoknownaspo
se
pro cesso fu s
i ngsh ap ed escriptorst oex tra c
tim portan t
no
rm a
liza
tion
visu a
lf eaturesf romth eboun daryan dt hein t e
ri oro fa
sh apef romsh ap ed at
ab ases
. Som eim portantf eatu res
c
) Robu
stn
essag
ain
stm
ode
ldeg
ene
rac
ies/
in cludecon tour scu rves,sh apesi gn atu re,s hape
roug
hness
histog r
am ,s h ap e con text
, an ds pe ctralf eature s[3 ].
Sev eraln otabled atab as
e shav ebe end ev elopedi nt h e
 TABLEI
.CLASS
IF IONOF2
ICAT DSHAPEDESCR
IPTORS shapes ignatures
, an dg en era
ting F our
ierd escrip
t o
rs.
Here
,ash ap esignatur em ean sany1 -Dfun ctionu s
edto
Four
ierD escr
ipto
rs(FD ) represent 2-D sh apes or bou ndarie
s.
Con
tourBased Wave
letD escr
ipto
rs(WD ) Bou ndarycoo rdin a
tesa r eextr
a ctedf romth ep lanar
Des
crip
tor
s Curvatur
eS caleSpace(CSS) clos
edcu rvess ucha ss ke
tch esorsilh oue
tteim ag es
.On e
ShapeC ontex
t(SCD )
ofth ef ourf requentlyu seds hapes ignatur
ef un c
tions:
Zern
ik e MomentD e
scrip
tor
s(ZMD)
cent
roid d istance
, com pl ex coo rd inate
s, cu rvature
R
egionB a
sed Scal
eI nvar
iantFea
tureTrans
form
function,an dcum u
lativeangu l
arfu nction,canb eusedt o
Descr
ipto
rs (SIFT)
AngularR a
dia
lT ran
sform(ART) com putes hapes ignatures. Am on g th em , Fou r
ier
FD+ART desc
ript o
rm ethodu s
ingc entroiddi stancep erform st h
e
Hy
bridD
esc
rip
tor
s bes
t [10].
FD+ZMD
When u sing c entro
id d i s
tance
,th ec entroid ofN
d
) Un
iqu
eness
:Eachs
haped
esc
rip
tormus
tbe boun darypo intsisf i
r s
tf ound .Th en,as h
ap es ignature
un
iqu
elycoup
ledwi
thaun
iquesh
ape s(t
)( t=0 ,1 , … ,N -1)i sobt a
in edt or ep r
e sen
tth e
dis
tanc eso fth e Nboun da rypo in
t st ot heirc entroid
.
) P
e erf
orm
anc
ean
dmem
orye
ff
ici
ent Fina
lly,th ediscret
eFou r
iert rans
f o
rmo fs(t)

f
) P
art
ialma
tch
ing
:robu
stag
ain
stin
com
ple
te 1N−1 −j2πn
t
un = ∑s (
t)exp
( ),
n=0
,1
,.
..
,N−1 (1
)
s
hapes N t=0 N

) In
g s
en s
it
ivetono
ise
:Sm a
llch
ang
e sintheshap
e isusedtod e
termineFou r
i e
rco e
fficientsun(n=0 ,1 ,… ,
toleadtosmal
lchang
esinth
eshaped e
scr
ipto
r N- 1
),w hicha r eusua
llyc al
ledF ourierd esc
riptors(FD s
)
oftheshap e,d enot
eda sFDn ( n=0 ,1 ,… ,N- 1)[5 ]
.
Shapesign aturecom put at
ioni sap r e
lim ina
rys tepo fFD
I
II. 2DSHAPEDESCRIPTORS inw h
icha1 -Df unc
ti oni sob ta
i nedf romth ebou nd a
ry
coordina
t e
so ft heshap e
.
Ov e
rth epast2d e c
ad es,2DSD sh aveb eena ct
ively Advant agesofFD s[3]a re:1)s im pletocom put e,2 )
u
tiliz edin3Ds ea
r cheng in e
san dsk et
chb ased modell
in g simpleton o
rm al
izef ors im p
lifyingth esh apem a
t ching
tech niques.S om eo ft he mo s
t popu lar 2D SD sa re proces
s,3 )c aptu
resbo thg lobalan dlo ca
lf eatu res,4 )
Curv atureS c
aleSp ace(CSS ),Fou rierD escr
iptor
,S IFT , insens
itivet on oi
se.
ART ,ZMD ,an dSh ape Con texts.Inex ist
ingl it
era
tur e
, Recently,Zh ange ta l
.[10 ]pr opo s
eda m odif
i edFD
2DSD sa reclass
ifiedin totwob ro adc ategori
e s
:contou r (MFD ).Th ei
rt echniquer estsonth eid eathatg eom e
try
basedan dregionb ased.C ontourb asedSD sextractshap e informationa long withn on
-g eom etryi nfo
rm at
i oni nthe
featu resfromth econ touro fash apeon ly.Incon trast
, contour o f an ob j ecti s im portantf o
r a ccurate
regi onb asedSD sob tains hap efe a
tur esfromth ew hole disc
rimination w hi
cha ccordingtoth eau tho
rsi sig n ored
regi ono fash ape.Inadd i
tion,hy br
idt echn
i quesh ave inthep reviou sw o
rks.
a
ls ob eenpropo s
edi nt hep as
t,w hicha reacom b
inat
i on
ofcon tou
ran dregi onb asedt echniqu es[9].Th erefo
rew e
c
l assify 2D SD sin toth reec ateg o
ries an dth eth ird 2) Wa veletD es
c r
ipto r(WD )
: W av e
letd es c
riptor
categ oryinou rtax on om yi sc alled Hy br
id2D Sh ap e (WD )w asin itiallyp ropos edbyCh uangan d Ku o[6]in
Descri p
t o
rs
.T ab l
eIs how sth ec lassi
ficationo fthe2D whicht h
e au th ors em p
l oyed w avelett ransform st o
SD s
. descr
ib eth es h ap eofp lan arc losedcu rv es.Iti sm u
lti-
resolu
tionapp ro ach w hichd ecom po s
e sth es hapei nto
severa
lcom pon entsin m ultiples ca
l es
.Th ecom ponents
A
. C
ont
ourB
asedD
esc
rip
tor
s inth eh igherr esolut
ion scon ta
inth eg l obalinf ormation
andth ecom pon entsinth ef inerr e
soluti onscon tainth e
Cont ourbasedd escr
iptors(CBD )onlyconside
rt he more det ai
led local inform at
ion.
bou n
d ary ofth e shape an dn eg
lecttheinf o
rm a
tion Wav e
letd es cr
i p
torsh aves ever
alu s efuladv ant
ag es
containedinthesh apeint
erior[58]
.Thesedes
crip
torsare overo therd es cripto
r s
,i n c
l udingin sen sit
ivet on oise,
verye ffici
entatfilt
eringou tther e
sul
tsbasedonth e invari
an ce,u niqu eness,an ds tabil
ityag ainst boun dary
bou n
d ary poin
tsb ecauseo fthei
rlow com puta
tion varia
tions
. Chu ng an d Kuo [6 ] con cluded t hata s
com plexity
. How ever,theya ren otgooda th and
ling com paredtoFD s, WD sare mo reeff
i c
ientinr epresent
ing
im agen oisean
dthu sn o
ta ccura
te
. and d etecting lo ca
l f ea
tures o f a cu rv e
.
Recently, Kh ojean dBodh e[11]u sedacom bination
ofFDan d WDtoev aluateth eirregula
rityo fthem ang o
1)F our
ierD es
criptor(FD): AF ou
r i
erd e
scr
ipto
r(FD )
frui
tsh ape,an dn amedth ecom b
ina
tion W av el
etFou ri e
r
is ar epre
sent
ation ofthes h ape obta
ined afte
rth e
Descr
iptor(WFD )
. WFDou tperform sreg ionb as edan d
appl
ica
tiono fFou r
iertr
ansfo
rmonth eco e
ff
ic
i en
tso f
contourb ased FD w i
th c lassif
icat
ion e ffic
ien cy o f
thes h
ap esigna
tureo fthes hape.Itc an be obta
ined
89.83% m akingi tap rom ising2Dd es
cri ptortob eus ed
throug
h ex t
rac
ting bou nd
ary coo rdin
ate
s, com pu
ting
inv i
ewb ased3Dob jectretriev a
l.How ev er WFDh a
sn o
t
be
ent es
ted f
or shap
e recogn
it
ion w he
rethe shap e corre
s pon denceb etw eenth etw osh ap esw ef indf ore ach
re
semble
sah umanchara
cte
r.Toevalua
tethi
stechn
iqu e sam p
l epo intonon es hap eas am pl epo intonth eo th e
r
in human cha
rac
ter sh
aper e
tr
ieval and 3D search shapef orw hichth esh apecon texti sm ostsim ilar
.A f
t e
r
eng
inescou
ldb eapo ss
iblefu
tureresea
rchdi
r ec
tion. theco rr espondenc eo fpo intsh asb eenc alcu la
t ed,the
shapesa rem app ed on toe ach oth eru s
in ga lig nment
trans
f orm at
ione st
im at
ion s.B e
lon giee tal[14 ]h av eused
3) Cu r vatu reS ca leSpa ce(CSS ): CSSi son eo f ther egu larizedTh inP lat
eSp l
in e(TPS )forr epre sent
ing
them ostw i delyu seda lg ori
thm sincon tentb as edim age fl
exibl ec oordinatet ransform a
tions.Th istrans form a
tion
retr
i eval(CB IR )an dh a sun d ergoneasu b s
t antialam ount idead e r
iv ed from th ec la
ssical w o
rk by D ’Arcy
ofr efin em en ts in cei tw asi n
troduced by B r adyan d Thom p son (On G row t h an dF orm )
,i n w hich h e
Asad a[12 ]
. Th eau th orsin[7 ]an d[8 ]h av ec l
early expla
i n edt ha
tth es im ilari
tyo ftw os imilarb iol og
ic a
l
describ edt heCSSa l go ri
thm .CSSd ivid esth esh apein to formsc an b e m e a
su r
ed by s im ple m athem a
tica
l
con vexan dcon cav es egm entsbyid entifyin gas eto f trans
f orm at
ion b etw een co rrespon din gf eatures. Th e
inflection po int s – po ints wh ereth ecu rv atu reo fth e di
s s
im ilarity b etw een th e tw os hap esi sf oun d by
shap ei sz ero. Th e CSSa lgo ri
thmin v o
lv esc a lculating summ in gu pthem atchinge rror
sb etw eenco rrespon ding
the cu rvatur eo f th e con tou r w hilep rog re s
siv e
ly point
s. A f
t ert hed issimilar
ity m easu r
em ent s
, ob ject
sm oo thingdow nth ecu rv ean dth enf in a
llyg en e
rat
in g recog nition i s p erformed u sing n ea
rest n e
igh bour
the CSSim age.Sm oo thin gi sdon etillth epo i ntw hen techni qu es
. Sh ape con texti sav ery robu st sh ape
ther ea r en oz erocu rv aturepo intsl eftan dth ew h ol
e descr
i pto rw h
ichish ighlyd iscr
im inativ e
.B e
si desb eing
cont ourb e
com e sconv ex.Th eCSSim ag ei sacu rv eona high
ly d iscrimin a
tive,sh apecon texti st ransform a
tion
2d im en sion alp lanew h
i chp lotsallt hez e
roc ross
i ng invar
i an t,robu s
tag ainsts hapev ar
i a
ti ons
,an dt heyh ave
points.Th eh o
ri zontalax iscon tainsth epo sitiono fth e fewou tliers[1].
pointsonth econ t ourw h
ileth ev e
rtica
lax iscon t ainsth e
levelo fiter at
i on/sm oot hingp er
form edonth econ t our
.
Atw od im ension a
lv ectori sa ssociated w ith e ach B
. R
egi
onB
asedD
esc
rip
tor
s
inflection( zeroc rossi ng)po i ntex p
r e
ss eda s( s,l)w he
r es
corre spon dst ot heam oun to fsm oothingapp li ed w h
il el Regi
onb a
sedd escr
ipto
rs(RBD )takeintoa ccou n
t
isth epo s
iti ono ft hepo in tont h econ t ourcu rv e
. To th
eboun da
ryasw ellasth einte
rnalinformat
i onofth e
com putel ,w et ak eth ed istan cefromana rb it
r arych os en imageandaremorerobu s
tagainstnoi
sean do the
rs hape
pointtoth ein fle c
tionpo intonth econ tour,w hil em oving va
ria
tion
s. Mos
t popular RBD sa r
eZ ern
ikem om ent
s
clockw i seonth econ tou r
.Th epo si
tionso fth ein flect
ion de
scr
ipto
r(ZMD ),A ngula
rR ad
ialT ransfo
rm(ART )
,
pointsm app edon tot he CSSim agea ret h ei ndi ce
so f and S c
ale Inva
riance F eatur
e T ran s
form (S IFT )
thes epo s
ition s
,w h
icha rep eakv a
lues. Mokh tari ane tal de
scr
ipto
r.
[13]w ereth ee ar
liesttoimp roveth e CSSa lg o
ri
thm .
They p ropo seda n ew w ayf o
rex tractingt hef ea
tu re
vectorbyt akingin toa ccou ntth em ax im ao fth ez ero 1) Z ern ike Mom entsD e scri p
t or: Th eapplic a
tion s
crossingpo intsont h econ t our. Theyp ropo s edaf as
t ofZ ernik em om ent sa sa2Ds hap ed escrip
torinim age
ind exing m ethodu s
i ngt h ea sp ec
tr a
tioo fth eCSSim age analysisb eg an w ithth ep ion eerin gw orkbyT eag uei n
alon gw ithe cc entricityan dc ircular
ityo fth econ tou r
. [15].Z ernik em om entd escript o
ri s on eo fthem os
t
comm only u sed r egi on b ased d e scriptor
s an dh a
s
un de
rg one con stantim p
rov em ents in cei t w asf irs
t
4) Sh ap e C ontext D e
scr
i ptor (SCD ): S h ape introdu c
ed .Z ernik em om entsa r econ t inuousorth og onal
cont ext w asu sed asa n ovel sh aped e sc
ripto
rf or mom entsd eriv edf rom Z ernik epo ly nom ial
s,ag rou n d
me a
su ringsh apes imil
arityby B elongiee ta l[14].Th e breaking w orkbyth e Nob e
ll aur eateF rit
zZ ern
ik e[17 ]
.
mainid eaofs hapecont extistofin dtheco r
r es
pon denc e Liaoan dP aw lak[16 ]p rovi dedav eryc l e
ard ef
i nit
i on
betw e enthetw osh apesan dfindou tthed issimi
l a
rity an d ex p
l an at
i on o fZ ernike m om en t
s. In ord ert o
me a
su re b etw een th e two s h apes. To f ind th e un de
rstan d Z ernik e m om ents,i ti s im po
rtan tt o
corre sponden c
eb etweenth etw osh apes
, Npo intsa re un de
rstan dth econ ceptb eh
ind Z ernik efu nct
ions.L iao
sam pledfromth econ touro fthes h
ap ean dar eference an dP awlak[16 ]d ef
i nedZ ernik efu n c
t ionsas:"As e
to f
pointi sfixed. Th epo intsares am pledu singanedg e com plexo rth og ona lfu n c
tionsw ithas im plerotation a
l
detecto ralgori
thm .Th enas etofv ecto
rsa recom pu ted propertyw hi chf o
rm sacom pleteo rth ogonalbasisov e
r
origin at
ingf romth er eference pointtoa llth eo ther thec lasso fs qu arein teg rab
l efu nct
i on sd ef
inedov erth e
sam pledpoin t
s. Th es hapecontex tf o
re achpo intp iis unitdis k
."[16 ].C elebian dA sl andog an[18 ]p o
intedou t
defin edasah istogramh io fthere
l at
iv epolarcoordinates thef ollow in ga dv antag esa ndd isa dv antagesofZ ern ike
ofth er emainings am p
ledpo int
s. mom ents.Th eadv an tage sare

h a
) Rot
ationInvari
ance
i(k)
=#{Q≠ P
i:(Q
−Pi)
∈bin
(k)
} (2
)
b
) Robustnes
sag a
ins
tsma
llch
ang
esinsh
ape
c
) Insensi
tivetonoi
se
Re
lat
ivetoth
ere
fer
enc
epo
intthed
is
tr
ibu
tionofth
e
r
ema
ini
ng po in
ts is comput
ed. To f ind the
 d
) Expr
ess
ivene
ss:The
reismin
imuminfo
rma
tion
redund
ancyasth
ebasi
sar
eorth
ogon
al wheeFnmi
r sanARTco e
ff
icien
tofordernandm ,f(
ρ,θ
)
isanimagefunc
tioninpola
rcoordi
nat
es,andVnm(
ρ,θ)is
Th
edi
sadv
ant
age
sar
e: an ART b a
sisfunct
ionthata resepa
rabl
ea longthe
angu
laran
dr ad
ialdi
rec
tion
s,i
. e
,
a
) Coord
ina
tes p
acen ormal
iza
tion
: Th eim age
coord
inat
es pacem us
tb etrans
f o
rm edtothe V
nm(
r,q
)= A
m(q
)Rn(
r) (4
)
dom a
in w h
eret heort
hogonal polynomi
alis
def
ined(uni
tcirc
lefo
rtheZ e
rnik
epo lynomi
al)
.
In orde
r to ach
iev
e rot
ation inva
rianc
e, an
b
) Di
scret
eapp rox
imat
i onofcon
tinuousint
egra
ls
: exponen
tia
lf un
ct
ionisu s
ed f
orth e angula
rb a
sis
Thecontinuousformo ftheZ e
rnikem oments func
tion
,
mus
tb eapp roxima
t edtodis
cretef o
rm. Thi
s
approx
im a
tion l eads to e rror
s in th e 1
A
m(q)= exp
(jmq
) (5
)
com pu
tat
ionsasinvest
iga
tedby[16]
. 2p
A
stheo rd
ero
ftheZ e
rnik
em om
ent
sin
cre
ase
s,th
e
com
puta
tioncomp
lex
ityin
crea
ses
. C
. H
ybr
id2DSh
apeD
esc
rip
tor
s
2) S cale In variantF eatu reT r ansfo rm(S IFT ) We
ie ta l
. [49 ]p ropo s ed t he two-com ponent
De s
c ript o
r: Th er esearchin toth eS IFTa lgorithmb eg an solut
ion(TCS )
,in w hich c entroid dis
tances, contour
witht hep i one erw orkbyL ow e[19 ].L oweob serv edth at curva
turean dZ e
rnikem om en tsw ereselect
eda sth e
im ag er ecog n
ition sh ould in volve ex tr act
ing lo cal shapef eatu
res,w hile atwo - com ponentstrategy w as
fe a
tu resw hichsh ould b einv a r
ianttot r an s
fo rm ati on, appli
edinf ea
turem atching.Th eyu sedthei
rapp roachin
oc c
lu sion,i l
lum inationan da f finet ran s
form a
tion san d trademarkim ager e
trieval(T IR )
.S ingh[9]p roposeda
highlyd istinctiv einn a
t ure
.Low eb asedh isapp ro achon hybridapproachw hichcom b
in esF our
ierdescr
i p
torw i
th
th eob serv a
ti onsan dcon t
ributi onf romS chm idan d Moh r ART.Fou rie
rd esc
ripto
ri su sedtoex t
rac
tloc a
lf ea
tures
[20 ]t h a
te fficien tob jectr ecog niti
onc anb ea chi evedby whil
eARTi su s
edtoex tractgl obalf ea
ture
s.Th eauth o
rs
usinglo ca
lim ag ed e
scriptorsth atc anb es am pl eda ta perfo
rm edexp e
rimentsw ithFD+ ARTan dFD+ZMD
larg e n um b er o fr ep eatable lo cations. Th e S IFT com b
ination
s. Th ey sh owed th at the
irt echn
i que
s
algorithmconv ertsth eim agein toah ugeco l
le ctiono f perfo
rm b ette
r th an th e TCS t echnique
.
lo cationf eaturev ec
tor sth ata r
es c al
e,ro tation an d
tran slationinv ariant.Th efirs
ts tepo fth ea lg o
rithmi sto
extra ctth es caleinv ar
iantf eatur esinth eim ag eu singth e .3DSHAPEDESCRIPTORS
IV
stag ed f eatur e app roach .L ow eu sed a s ca
l es pa ce
an a
ly sisapp ro achan dG aus s
iank e
rn e
lsb ec au s
ei ta llow s 3Dshapedescr
ipto
rshavebeenexten
siv
elyusedby
high e fficien cy an dro tationinv arian c
e. Th ef eatur e resea
rche
rssincethe1990’sin3Ds earchengine
san d
ve c
to rsex t ractedf romth eim ag ea rec al
ledS IFTk ey s
. sket
chb a
sed model
lingsy
stems
.T ang
eldere
tal.[2]and
SIFT k eysa reth enu s edf o
rin dexingf orid en tifying Zhangetal
.[30]havepubl
ishe
sdcom p
rehens
ivesurvey
s
can di dateob jectm odelsbyu s
ingan eare s
tn ei gh bou r of3DSD s
.T abl
eIIs howsaclass
if
ica
tionof3DSD s.
algorithm . Th eadv antag eso fS IFTa lgorithma re:1 )
in varian ttos c al
e,ro t a
tion an dt ranslate
,2 )p artially
in varian ttoi llum in a
tion ch an ge s
,3 ) robu s
ta g ainst TABLEI
I:CLASS
IF IONOF3DSHAPEDESCR
ICAT IPTORS

oc c
lu d edob je c
ts,4 )robu s
tag ainstob jectd egen era cies,
AdaptiveV iewsC luster
ing
5)in sen sit
iv eton ois e
.
V
iewB
ase
d Com pact Multi
-V iewD es
cripto
r
LightFie
ldD es
criptor(LFD )
3) An gularR adialT ran s
form(ART )D escr
i p
tor:
Shap eSpectrum
Angula
rR adialT rans
f o
rm(ART )
,p r
opos edbyK iman d
H
is
tog
ramB
ase
d Generali
zeds haped is
t r
ibut
io ns
Kim[21],i sapopu larregionb a
sedd e
scripto
rw h
ichis Bag-of-Fea
tu re
s(BoF )
usedinth e MPEG -7standard[8 ]
.I tw ascon cludedby SphericalH armoni c
sD e
scripto
r
CoreExpe rim entstha
tam ongt hed esc
rip
t ors
,theov e
rall T
ran
sfo
rmB
ase
d PCASp hericalH arm oni
csT rns
.
perfo
rman ceo f ARTd escr
ipt o
ri sth eb estforregion- SphericalTraceT ransform
basedsimila r
ity[8 ]
. ARTi sd ef
in edby Bob ereta l
.a s Skeleta
lG raphB ased
“theort
h og onalu ni
tarytransformd ef
inedonau nitdisk G
raphB
ase
d
ReebG raphB a
se d
thatcons
i stso fthecom p
l e
teo rthogonals i
nusoida
lb asi
s CMVD+STT
funct
ionsinpo larcoordinates”[8 ].M athem a
tic
allythe Depth-Buffer+S ilhou e
tte+
ARTco ef
fi c
i entsared e
termin edby: REXT
Hy
brid3DD
esc
rip
tor
s
SIFT+B agofF eatures
2π 1 Depth-Buffer+Sph er
i ca
l
Fnm =∫∫ ρ,
Vnm( θ)
, ρ,
f( θ)
ρdρdθ (3
)
0 0 Harm onics
A
. V
iewB
asedD
esc
rip
tor
s(VBD
) thedissimila
ri
ty,th eyfoundt hem in
im a
ld i
ssimil
ari
ty
obta
inedf romro t
atingth eviewing sphere
so f one
Vi
ew b ased d es cr
iptors (VBD )u ses i
lh ouette, ligh
tf
ield d e
scrip
torr e
lat
ive to theo the
rl ight
fie
ld
greys caleord epth-bufferim ag esextra c
tedf rom m ul
tipl e desc
rip
t o
r. Ex p
e r
imentsin di
catethat LFD p erfo
rm s
view so f 3D ob j ec
t s
. A c
co rdingt oL iu [22 ]
,t h e bet
tert han S pher
ic a
l H armonic
s D escr
ipto
rs [29].
adv antageso fa VBDa r
etw ofold:1 )Itd oesn otr equir e Advan
tageso fLFDin c
ludeinva
rian
ttotrans
lat
ion,scal
e
theex plic
itv irtualm odelin form at
ion ,w hich m ak esth e androta
tion,androbu s
tagains
tn o
iseanddegenerac
ies.
meth odrobu sttor e a
lp ractica
lapp lications
.2 )Th ev iew -
based3D m od e
lan aly s
ism e
th odsc anb eb en ef
itedf rom
existingim ag ep roces s
ingt ech nologiesw h
i chh asb een
studi edfroms everald ecades.Th e seview sa reth enu sed B
. H
is
tog
ramB
asedD
esc
rip
tor
s(HBD
)
inth es econ ds teptor e
trieve 3D m od elsf romth e
datab asew h
i chb estm atchth eph o
t o
san di sreferredt o His
tog
ramb a
seddesc
rip
tor
sco
lle
ctt
hef e
atu
resof
asth ec lus
t e
rin gp robl embyK -m eans.Th esm a
ll e
rs eti s a3Ds h
apeinnumer
ica
lvalue
sinb
insdef
inedoverth
e
foun du s
in gB ayesianIn f o
rm ation C r
iter
ia(B IC)w hich fe
atu
redomain
.
givess corestoth es e
tsan dtheon ew i
thth eh ighe s
ts cor e
isth em os
top t
im alch ar a
cterist
icv i ewss et. Th eth ird
step em p
loy s B ayesian P rob abil
ity d i
stribution sf or 1) 3DSh ap eS pe c
trum D esc r
i p
to r(3DSSD )
:A
in dexingan dr e
trieving3D m odelsb asedont hein put 3Ds hapes pec
trum d escripto r( 3D SSD )i s as hape
ph o
t os.Th eau t ho
rsf oun dthatt heL ightFiel dD es c
ripto r descr
iptorw hichcon tainsash apei nd exd i
str
i but
edov er
(LFD )a lg orithmi s 2n db estint ermso fr etr
iev al theen t
irem e
sh[32 ]. As h ap ein d
exi sd ef
ineda salo ca
l
accu racyan dp er
f orm ance. geom et
ricfe a
tureo fth esh ap eex p
r esseda sth ean gular
coordinat
eo fth epol arr ep resenta
t iono fth ep ri nc
i pa
l
1) Comp act Mu l
ti
-V iew D es
cripto r(CMVD )
:In curva
tu rev ector
.R eg ardin gth eo rigin a
lf ea
tur eth e
[25]an d[27 ],D arasan d Ax enopoul osh av ep r e
senteda shape in dex i s inv ariant to s cale an d Eu clidean
new m ethodf or 3Dsh ap er etr
ievalc alled Com pact trans
f orm,an ditrepresen tsbys al
i entel ementarys hap e
s
Mult
i-Vi ew D escr
ipto r(CMVD )
.Th e
i rm eth oda ccepts (convex,con cave,rut
,r idg e,s addle,an ds oon ).3DSSD
mult
i-m od al qu eries (2Dim ages, sk et
ch es
, an d 3D local
ly ch aracter
izesf r eefo rm d i
s crete polyg on 3D
mod e
ls)
.Th ef i
rststepo ft hem ethodi spo see stim a
tion meshes
. 3D SSD po sses sesth ech a
r ac
t er
is
ticso f:(1 )
inw h
i ch P rincipalC om ponent An alysis(PCA ) an d general
ity
,s ince3D m eshe sm ayin clud eop ens urfaces
Visua
lC on
t actA rea(VCA )m ethodsa reu s edtoe s
timate thath aven o
tana ss ociatedv o
lum e;(2 )inv a
rian c
eto
thepo s ean dapp lyro ta
tionin v
a r
ianc etoth e3Dob ject
. scale and Eu c
lideant ran sform s
; (3 ) ro bustnessth a
t
Then exts tepi stog en e
rate24s etsof2Dim ag eview sof di
fferenttr
iangul a
tionso ft hes am eob j
e c
ta rep erm i
tted
the 3Dob jectfrom18 d iff
erentv i ew point so fa 32 - andi ts ucc e
ssful
lyr etriev esa rt
i culated obj ec
tsw ith
hedronsu rrou nd
in gt he3Dob j e
ct,byro tatingth eob ject di
fferentpostures.Sinc et hisd es
criptori sasim p
lel ocal
24t im esin90d egre esalongth eth reep rin c
ipalax es. featu
r erepresenta
tion,its hou ldb ecom bined w i
ths om e
Tw o ty peso fv iew sa re ex tracted,b inary v iews globa
lr epre
s ent
ationsch em es.
(si
lh ouettev iew s)an dd epthv iews.A fterex t
r ac
tiono f
the2Dv iew s,them ethodg en er
ates2Ds hap ed e
scrip
t o
rs
of th e ex tra c
ted v iew s by app lying th re e rotat
ion 2) G en era
lizedSh apeD is
tribution s(GSD ):L iuet
inv a
rian t 2D fun c
tion a
l sn am e
ly 2D Po lar Fou r
ier al[33]prop osedan oveltechniqu efor3Dsh aper e
triev a
l
Transform s, 2D Z ernike Mom ents, an d K raw tchouk call
edth eG eneral
i zedSh apeD istr
ibution s(GSD ),w hich
Mom ents[26 ]. Th efin a
ls t ep
,3Dt o3D m atchingi s isa3Dh istogram . GSDi sb a sedonl ocalan dg l oba
l
achieved bycom putingth eto ta
ld issim ilari
ty o fth e shapes ignatures/d e
s c
ripto
rso fa3D m odel
.B ef o
re
extracted2Dv iew so fth etw o3Dob jects.2Dt o3D generat
ingaGSDh istogram,th erea r
es om epr e
limin ary
matchingi sa chi
ev edbycom putingth ed i ss
im ilar
ityo f steps
,w hi
chin vo
lv esth eg ene
r ati
ono fad ictionaryo f
the2Dim agequ eryan dth eextracted2Dv iewo fth e3D locals haped escriptors/s ignaturesu s
in gSp inIm ag e
s
objectth a
ti sth em ostsim ilartoth equ ery2Dim age. approach.5 0,000po int
sa res am pledonth esu rfaceo f
Accordingtoth e au thors,th e CMVD m eth od w hen the 3D sh ap e an d th eses am p
led po intsa re th en
com bin ed w ithth e Sph e r
i ca
lT raceT ran sform(STT ) accum ul
atedtoc r e
at es p
inim ag es. Th eses pinim ages
algor
ithmou tperform soth e
rw el
l-kn ow na lg o
rithm s. aret hen cluster
edin to 1500 c lus
ter su sing k -m eans
algor
ithm. Th ene a
chs pinim ag eisa s
sign edanin dex
2
) L ight-F
ieldD escrip
t o
r(LFD ): Th eLight-
fie
ld basedonth ein d exo fitsn earestc luster
.A fterth ese
Descrip
tor(LFD )w a
sin troducedby Ch ene tal
.[28 ], steps
, GSD r epr e
s enta
tion isg en era
t ed. Th e GSD
whichi sb ased ont hei deat ha
ttw o 3D ob je
ctsa re his
togram h a sthr eed im ens
ion s
. Th ef irs
td imen sion
similariftheylooks imilarfroma llviewingan g
l e
s.In store
sth eEu c
lideand istanceofth e2po intp ai
rs,w hi
le
theirapproach,tensilhou e
tteim age
saret akenfrom10 theot he
rtw od im ensionsstoret heind exv alueofth etw o
viewingan gl
e sdi
st
ributedev enlyonadod ecahed
ron.To point
s. Thist echniqu eh asprov edtob em or
ea ccur a
te
extrac
tth efe a
ture
so fth esilhouet
teim ages
,theyu sed an de f
fici
entth ani t
sp redecessort echniqu e ‘Sh ape
Zernikem om entsandF our
ierd esc
rip
tors. Tocalcul
ate
d
is
tr
ibu
tion
s’ [59
] an
d B
ag-
of-F
eatu
rest
echn
iqu
e. fea
tureex t
rac
tion,Fou
riertran
sformisapp li
eda f
terthe
spheri
c a
lh arm on
icsf unc
tion
sa re com put
ed w hich
fin
ally gener
ates afeaturev ec
tor.A ccord
ingtoth e
3
) B ag
-of-Features Hist
ogram: Th e B ag-o
f- aut
h or
s [41],t he
ir PCA app roachiss l
ight
ly m ore
Fea
tures(BoF )techniqueisa m e
thodofa ccumula
ting expensivebutm oreac
cu r
atethantheorigina
lapproach.
thevisualfea
tu r
eso fa3D m odelinahistogram wher
e
thousandsofv isualf e
atu
resareextrac
tedf romr ange
imagesthu sim p
rovingretr
ieva
le f
fic
iency. Moreover 3) S ph e
rical T race T ransform D esc r
iptor
bag-o
f-f
e a
tures h as proved to b e robust agains
t (STTD ):Th eSTTDp roposedby D a
r asetal.[43 ]i san
ar
ticu
latedorn on-
rigid3D model
s. extensiono fth e'Tr a
ceT r
an s
form'w ithisa ctu a
llya
generaliza
tion o f'R adon T rans
f o
rm '
. STTD do esn ot
em ployPCAa sitsp r
eliminaryste pbutitu s e
sr ota
tion
inv a
riantsph er
icalfun ct
ionsto p rodu ceacom p
lete
ly
C
. T
ran
sfo
rmB
asedD
esc
rip
tor
s(TBD
) rotat
ioninv ar
iantsh aped esc
riptor
.Th efirs
ts tep w h
ich
isth ep re
- process
ings tageistoa chievetranslationan d
TheP rince
t on Grou pan d Konst
an zG rouphav e scaling no rmaliza
tion.Inth i sstaget he 3D m odelis
under
t aken consid e
rab
ler esearch ontransform based placedi ns
i deabou ndingcu bea ndthecu b
eisp artitioned
des
criptors(TBD ).Theth eor
etica
lf oun
d a
tionsofTBD ine qu a
lcu bes hapedv oxels
.V oxel
i za
tionallow su sto
ar
einc lass
ica
lp roces
singsu chass phe
ricalharmon
ic s
, achievet ransla
tionan ds cal
en o
rm aliza
tion.Th en ,as e
t
andF our
iertransf o
rm.U sual
ly,f o
rpo sen ormal
iza
tion ofinitia
l2Dfun c
tionsa reapp l
iedtoth em odelw hich
Pr
incip a
lC om pon en
tAn aly s
is(PCA )[41]isappl
iedasa createsas eto fcon cen
tricsph e
res.A fterapplyin ginitia
l
pr
elimin a
rystepinTBD s
. fun c
tions as eto fs pherica
lf un c
tionsa rea ppliedt o
produ cet hef inald e
scrip
torv ector.F o
rs im ilar
ity
matching,w eightsar ea s
signedt oe ach des c
ript o
rt o
1) S pherical Ha rmon ics D escrip
t or (SHD ):
achievee f
f ect
ivenessinsh aper e
tr
iev a
l.
Fun kh ouse
re ta l.[29 ]a ret hef i
rstr e
s ea
rch erstou se
sph ericalh arm oni c
s to d e scr
ibe a 3D s h ape, and
con siderab
le w ork h asb een don e in th i
s dom ain
follow ingthat
.W ithth isd escripto
r,the3D m od e
lisfirs
t D
. G
raphB
asedD
esc
rip
tor
s(GBD
)
vox elized wi
the achv ox elh avinge i
t he
ra1o r0v a
l ue
.
Theb inaryv oxelg r
ido fth e3D m ode
li sth enp laced GBDst endtorepr
esentthetopologyo fa3Ds hape
und ercon cen
trics pheresan dd ecom posedin tos pheri
c a
l inth ef orm o fa g raph or at rees truc
tur
e. Th e
se
fun ctions
. N ext
,as eto fh arm oni
cf un ctionsa r
e des
criptor
sa reeasytocom pu
te. How evertheyar en ot
com putedfrome achcon cent
ri cspherew h
icha r erota
tion compu ta
tional
lyeff
ici
ent.A c
cordingto[4],anadv an
t age
inv ariant
.E achh arm oni cfun c
tioni sr epresen t
eda sa of GBD si sthattheya l
lowr epre
s e
ntationatm ul
tiple
hi
st og r
amc a
lledth es ph er
icals ignature. Th es pheri
c a
l leve
lso fd e
tai
landfaci
lita
tem at
chingo floca
lg eometry.
sign aturesareth en com b
in edto g enerate aro tat
ion
inv ariant3Ds haped e scriptor.Toc om paretw os phe
rical
harm onicsd e s
c r
ipt o
rst he au thors u sed Eu cl
idean 1) S keleta
lG raph D esc
ript ors: Sk elet
alg raph
-
di
st an ce
.Th ed isadv ant ageo fSHDi sth a
ta3D m od e
l basedte chniquesu t
ilizeas ke
letalg ra pho fas hap easits
can n o
tb erecon st
ru ctedf romth efeatur
ev ector.In[29 ]
, shaped e
scripto
r by com put
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ton’f ora
Fun kh ouse
re ta l.av oid edth ePCAs t
epb ecauseth ey model
.B lump ropo sedt hecon cepto fas kele
tonin[34 ]
.
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i ev eth a
t PCAi s an u nstable approa chf or pose Ask e
let onin2Di st hem ed ia
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l ein3Di ti sthe
norm al
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lm ethodsh av eb eenp ropo sedto
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rmSk e
l e
tonizationsu cha sd istan cetransform[35 ],
thinn
ing [36 ]
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ly,cu rvesk e
l e
ton iz
ation[38 ]m e
thod sh ave
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l h a
rm oni
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s edtoc on ver
ta3D m od elint oa m ed
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tie
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rs pheric a
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ed byt heP rinceton G rou p
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t or[41 ]isdifferentfromt hat 2) R eeb Graph Descr
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.Th efunct
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riev a
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rk.In2012
thee ar
lies
t hy b
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rk
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tabaseu sedi nV i
ct o
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Engine[45 ], andth e En g
ine e
rin g Sh apeB en chm ark V
I. RESULTS& COMPARISONS
(ESB )[4 6]
.Th eauthorscom paredth eirhy b
rida lgorithm
(CMVD+STT )w i
ththreeo thersu ccess
fula lg o
rithm s Yange ta l.[54]h avecom p a
redth ecom putat
ion a
l
1)Th eLig htF
ieldD escr
ipto
r,2 )S IFT+b agoff ea
tu res, com plexi
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fer+S ilhouette+ REXT(DSR ).Th e descr
ipt o
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rforms b etter th an a ll o t her wherebi sth enum bero fs pheri
calf un c
tion sused,an dN
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thm s. isth enum bero fv oxelsine achax is
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r edto
these,h i
stogramb ased m ethodsa ref as
terw ithO (t.N.
logN )com plexity,w h
er eti st henum bero fh istogram
2
) S IFT+ B ago fF eatures(BF -S IFT): Oh buch
i binsan d Ni sth en um be rofm eshv er
ticesine a chax is
.
eta l[47]h av ep ropo sedahy bridd escripto
rb asedon How ever,t r
an sform b ased m eth ods h ave h i gher
extract
ingloc alv isu alf ea
turesofa3D m od e
lu s
in gS IFT disc
rim ina
tive pow erth an h i
stogram b a sed m e
th ods
.
algori
thman de ffici entlyintegra
tingth eminah is
tog ram Graphb a
sed m ethodsc aptu r
es h apef eaturesv ery w e
ll
usingth eB ag -of-F eatu re
sapp ro a
ch.Inth ei
ra lgorithm, how everth eya r ecom pu tat
ional
lyex pensivew ith O (N.
seve r
al2Dr ang eim agesa reob ta
inedf romo fth e3D logN ) com plexity. Hi stogram b ased d esc
riptorsa re
mod el
. Then
,S IFTa lgor
ithm i su sedtoex t
ractlo ca
l com pacta recom pact,f ast,an dv eryrobu s
t,an da re
features
.E achf e atur eisav ec
torqu ant
iz edu s
in gav isua
l therefores ui
t ablef or hy bridd e
sc r
iptors,anex am pl
e
cod ebook
.K -m e ansl earningisu sedtoc lus
terth elo ca
l beingth eB ag-of-F e
atures(BoF )app roach.
featuresin
toab ago fv isualw ords
.Th enah is
togr amis
gene r
atedusingth ef requencieso fvisualw ords,w h
ich
actsa sth ef eatur ev ec
torfo rth e 3D m odel. Som e V
II. CONCLUSION& FUTURERESEARCH
adv ant
ageso f BF -S IFTa re1 )s u
itablef o
ra rti
cu la
ted DIRECTIONS
mod el
s,2)hi ghd i scrim inat
i v
epow er
,3 )s u
it
ablef or2D
Ove
rth ep as
tf ewy e
ars
,th eresearchincon tent
im agean ds ketchb ased qu e
ries
,an d4 )effect
iv ef o
r
based3D m ode
lr e
trieva
lh asm ovedtow ardsinventing
part
i a
lm at
ching .
andu t
il
izinghy b
ridde sc
rip
tors
,andd eal
i ngwithob j
e c
ts
3
) D ep
th-Buff
er + S ph
erical Ha rmon ic
s: tha
ta r
en on-r
igido rarti
cula
ted.3D m odelret
rievalis
P
apadak
isetal
.[48]propos
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iptorw hi
ch st
il
lini tsinfancyan dm uchw orkn e
e dst obedon et o
i
scom po
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thbuffe
ra lgor
ithmf orextra
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s. Mo reover
,
f
eatu
res ands phe
rica
lh arm oni
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tr
ie v
alh asalsob e
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tt opic
f
eatu
res
.Forpos enorma
liz
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tr es
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rchersinr ec
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Res earch ersh av ef oun dthatr egionb as ed2Dsh ape ACKNOWLEDGMENT
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