Mekelle University

Ethiopian Institute of Technology-Mekelle

MSc. in Irrigation & Drainage Engineering

Course Name: Dam Engineering

Course Code:CENG 6032

Chapter One:Introduction and Overview of

Dam Engineering

Dr. Bizuneh Asfaw Abebe.

Gilgel Gibe-I 2019/2020 A.Y.
 What is a dam?
◼ A dam is a barrier built across a stream, river or estuary to hold and control the flow
of water for such uses as drinking water supplies, irrigation, flood control and
hydropower generation etc.
Cont’d…
1. An Overview of Dam Engineering Including Historical Perspectives
 But dams also altered by diverted river flows, affecting existing rights
and access to water, and resulting in significant impacts on livelihoods
and the environment such as
➢ Imbalance of the ecosystem

➢ Decreased amount of downstream water

➢ Spreading of some water-born diseases

➢ Reduction in the fertility of farmlands

❑ Decisions to build dams are being contested increasingly as human

knowledge and experience expand, as well develop new technologies, and

as decision-making becomes more open, inclusive and transparent.
 Cont’d…
 The World Commission on Dams (WCD) considers that the end of any dam project must be the
sustainable improvement of human welfare.
 Significant advance of human development on a basis that is economically viable, socially equitable, and
environmentally sustainable.
 The issues surrounding dams are the issues surrounding water, and how water-related decisions are
made.
 The issues all relate to what the dam will do to river flow,

 To rights of access to water and river resources,

 To whether it will uproot existing human settlements,

 Disrupt the culture and sources of livelihood of local communities and deplete and degrade
environmental resources.
 Conflicts over dams are more than conflicts over water. They are conflicts over human development
 1.2. Development and Dams
 River basins are renowned as the cradles of civilization and cultural
heritage.
 Ancient and modern communities alike have depend on rivers for
livelihood, commerce, habitat and the sustaining ecological
functions they provide.
 The earliest evidence of river engineering is the ruins of irrigation
canals over eight thousand years old in Mesopotamia.
 Remains of water storage dams found in Jordan, Egypt and other parts of
the Middle East date back to at least 3000 BC.
Cont’d…
 Historical records suggest that the use of dams for irrigation and water
supply became more widespread about a thousand years later. At that time,
dams were built in the Mediterranean region, China and Meso America.
 Remains of earth embankment dams built for diverting water to large
community reservoirs can still be found in Sri Lanka and Israel.
 The Dujiang irrigation project, which supplied 800000 hectares in China, is
2200 years old.
 Dams and aqueducts built by the Romans to supply drinking water and sewer
systems for towns still exist today.
 1.3. Dams in the 20th century
 The last century saw a rapid increase in large dam building. By 1949 about

5000 large dams had been constructed worldwide, three-quarters of

them in industrialized countries.

 By the end of the 20th century, there were over 45000 large dams

constructed in over 140 countries.

 The period of economic growth following the Second World War saw a

phenomenal rise in the global dam construction rate, lasting well into the
1970s and 1980s.
 Cont’d…
 At its peak, nearly 5000 large dams were built worldwide in the period

from 1970 to 1975.

 The decline in the pace of dam building over the past two decades has

been equally dramatic, especially in North America and Europe where

most technically attractive sites are already developed.

 The average large dam today is about 35 years old.

Cont’d…
Cont’d…
Cont’d…
 Cont’d…
 The top five dam-building countries account for nearly 80% of all large dams

worldwide.

 China alone has built around 22000 large dams, or close to half the world’s

total number. Before 1949 it had only 22 large dams.

 Other countries among the top five dam building nations include the United

States with over 6390 large dams; India with over 4000; and Spain and Japan

with between 1000 and 1200 large dams each.

1.3.1. Current regional focus for large dam construction
 Construction of large dams peaked in the 1970s in Europe and North America.
Today most activity in these regions is focused on the management of existing
dams, including rehabilitation, renovation and optimizing the operation of
dams for multiple functions.
 An estimated 1700 large dams have been under construction in other parts of
the world in the last few years. Of this total, 40% are reportedly being built in
India.
 Since average construction periods generally range from 5 to 10 years, this
indicates a worldwide annual average of some 160 to 320 new large dams per
year (see Table)
Cont’d…
 1.3.2 Dams as Instruments of Development
 Dams have been promoted as an important means of meeting perceived

needs for water and energy services and as long-term, strategic

investments with the ability to deliver multiple benefits.

 Some of these additional benefits are typical of all large public

infrastructure projects, while others are unique to dams and specific

to particular projects.

 Regional development, job creation and fostering an industry base

with export capability are most often cited as additional

considerations for building large dams.
Cont’d…
 Other goals include creating income from export earnings, either through
direct sales of electricity, or by selling cash crops or processed products
from electricity intensive industry such as aluminium refining.
 Water-rich countries such as Canada, Norway, Brazil and parts of Russia have
developed large dams for hydropower generation where suitable sites were
available.
 Governments in semi-arid countries such as South Africa, Australia and Spain
have tended to build dams with large storage capacity to match water demand
with stored supply, and for security against the risk of drought.
 For example, in Spain – one of the top five dam-building countries – rainfall is
highly variable between seasons and from year to year.
1.4. Types of Dams
1.4.1. Classification of Dams

 There are numerous types of dams and they are classified in various ways.

 Dams can be classified according to different criteria as

 Classification based on function served.

 Classification based on hydraulic design

 Classification based on material used.

 Classification based on rigidity.

 Classification based on structural behavior

 1.4.1.1. Classification Based on Purpose
A) Storage Dams B) Stage Control Dams
 Flood control  Diversion
 Water supply: domestic,  Navigation
municipal, industrial, irrigation,  Check dams
etc
C) Barrier Dams
 Hydroelectric power
 Levees and Dykes
 Recreation
 Coffer dams
 Pollution control
D) Purpose Dams
 Single purpose

 Multi purpose
 1.4.1.2. Classification Based on Hydraulic Design
 Overflow Dams
 Non-overflow Dams
 Composite Dams

1.4.1.3. Classification Based on Materials of Construction

➢ A broad classification is made into two generic types according to the
principal materials of construction employed.
 Cont’d…
A) Embankment Dams They are constructed of earth/rock materials.
Upstream and downstream faces are similar and of moderate slope
angles; giving wide sections and large construction volumes relative to
height.

B) Concrete Dams They are constructed of mass concrete. Face slopes are
dissimilar, general steep downstream and near vertical upstream slopes.
These dams have relatively slender profile depending on the specific types.

C) Timber, steel, masonry, etc, dams could also be constructed in some

cases.
1.4.1.4. Classification Based on rigidity

1.4.1.5. Classification Based on structural behavior

Based on the structural action the dam are classified
 1.5. Types of Embankment Dams and Their General Characteristics

 Embankment dams are constructed of natural materials excavated or obtained

near the dam site.

 They are of relatively (compared with concrete dams) soft and elastic

structures.

 The foundation requirements are lower compared to concrete dams.

➢Embankment dams possess the following advantages:

 Suitability to wide valley and relatively steep-sided gorges alike;

 Adaptability to a broad range of foundation conditions;

 Cont’d…
 The use of natural materials, minimizing the need to transport large quantities of
processed materials to the site;
 The embankment design is extremely flexible in its ability to accommodate different
fill materials, e.g. Earthfill and /or Rockfill, if suitably zoned internally;
 If properly designed, the embankment can safely accommodate an appreciable
degree of settlement – deformation without risk of serious cracking and possible
failure;
 The construction process is highly mechanized and effectively continuous;

 The unit costs of earth fill and rock fill have risen much more slowly in real terms
than those for mass concrete.
 Cont’d…
The relative disadvantages of the Embankment dam are few.

➢ The most important include:

▪ Greater susceptibility to damage or destruction by overtopping, with a

consequent need to ensure adequate flood relief and a separate spillway;

▪ Vulnerability to concealed leakage and internal erosion in dam or foundation;

▪ Erosion danger on the downstream slopes unless properly protected;

▪ Construction materials and construction processes are affected by weather.

 1.5.1. Earthfill Embankments Dams
 If the compacted soil account for over 50% of the placed volume of material, then an embankment may
be categorized as an Earthfill dam.
 An Earthfill dam is constructed primarily of selected engineering soils compacted uniformly and
intensively in relatively thin layers and at a controlled moisture content.

 Figure 1.4 illustrates common variants of Earthfill embankment.

1.5.2. Rockfill Embankment Dams

 The designation Rockfill embankment is appropriate where over 50% of the fill material may be
classified as a Rockfill, i.e. coarse-grained frictional material.
 In the Rockfill embankment the section includes a discrete impervious element of compacted
Earthfill or a slender concrete or bituminous membrane.
 The term ‘zoned Rockfill dam’ or ‘Earthfill Rockfill dam’ are used to describe Rockfill
embankments incorporating relatively wide impervious zones of compacted Earthfill.
 1.6. Concrete Dam Types and Their Characteristics
 Concrete dams are hard, non-yielding and rigid structures.

 Loads are transmitted through the dam body and to the foundation.

 They require strong and more or less uniform rock foundations.

 Many early dams were constructed of rubble masonry or random masonry.

From about 1900, mass concrete, initially without formed transverse
contraction joints, began to displace masonry for the construction of large non-
embankment dams.
 From about 1950, mass concrete increasingly incorporated bulk mineral
additives such as slags or pulverized fuel ash (PFA), in order to reduce thermal
problems and to contain escalating costs..
 Cont’d…

➢ The characteristics of concrete dams are outlined below with respect to major types. All

or most types of concrete dams share certain characteristics; many are, however,
specific to particular variants

➢ Merits shared by most concrete dams include:

 With the exception of arch and cupola, concrete dams are suitable to wide or narrow valleys;

 Not sensitive to overtopping under extreme flood conditions;

 All concrete dams can accommodate a crest spillway, i.e. can be constructed as an overflow
section – reduction in cost for separate spillway;
 Outlet pipe works, valves and other ancillary works can be safely provided within the body of
the dam;
 Construction can take place irrespective of the weather condition.
 Cont’d…
➢Disadvantages:
 Relatively demanding with respect to foundation conditions, requiring sound rock;

 Require processed natural materials of suitable quality and quantity for aggregate,

and the importation to the site and storage of bulk cement and other materials;

 Traditional mass concrete construction is relatively slow, labour intensive and

discontinuous, and requires certain skills, e.g. for formwork, concreting, etc;

 Completed unit cost for mass concrete are very much higher than for embankment

fills. This is seldom counterbalanced by the much lower volumes of concrete required
in a dam of given height.
 1.6.1. Gravity Dams
 Concrete gravity dam is designed so that its stability is entirely maintained by its own mass.

 Its profile is essentially triangular, to ensure stability and to avoid overstressing of the dam
or its foundation.
 Concrete gravity dams could be straight or curved in plan.

1.6.2. Buttress Dams

 Buttress dam consists of a continuous upstream face supported at regular intervals by

downstream buttresses.

 Concrete saving relative to the corresponding gravity dam is 30 – 60%, but it needs more

formwork and reinforcement.

.
 1.6.3. Arch Dams
 Arch dam has a considerable upstream curvature. This type is suitable for narrow
gorges when the length of the crest is not more 5 times the height of the dam.
 Loads are resisted mainly by arch action and transmitted to the abutments.

 It is structurally more efficient than the gravity or buttress dam, greatly reducing
the volume of concrete required. A particular derivative of the simple arch dam is
the cupola or double-curvature arch dam, which is the most sophisticated of
concrete dams, and is extremely economical in concrete.
1.6.4. Other Concrete Dams
 The less common variants of the major types of concrete dams include hollow
gravity, decked buttress, flat slab (ambursen) buttress, multiple arches, and
multiple cupola dams
 1.7. Site Investigation and Selection of Dam Types
 A dam and reservoir site must satisfy certain functional and technical requirements.
Whether these requirements are satisfied can be found out through site investigations and
technical evaluations.
 Functional: the balance between its natural physical characteristics and the purpose of the
dam/reservoir governs the functional suitability of a site.
 The catchment hydrology, available head and storage volume, etc, must be matched by the
operational parameters needed of the project.
 Technical: Technical suitability is associated with the presence or absence of suitable site
for a dam, material of construction, and integrity of reservoir basin with respect to leakage.
 Hydrological, geological/geotechnical characteristics of the catchment and the site are
the principal determinants establishing the technical suitability of a reservoir site.
 River

Terminal structure

Spillway

Intake
Dam

Reservoir

Reservoir
Reservoir
 Cont’d…
The following are major considerations:
1. Major design inputs: geotechnical, structural, hydraulic, hydrologic, and environmental

impacts/effects;

2. Optimum design solutions: solutions of appropriate type of dam (no clear-cut-rule) is

derived from the above inputs with economic factors including construction constraints;

3. As 2 (above) implies, there are frequently several alternative solutions, which are of equal

technical, but of different economic validity. Note that, both relative economic validity and to a
lesser extent technical validity are subject to change as technology develops;

4. Each and every dam is quite unique solution to the problems of the site in question, in terms

of the balance of technical and economic factors at the time of consideration.

 Cont’d…
➢ Some of the principal aspects of the analysis and design process that require coordination are (US
Army Corps of Engineers):
 Preliminary assessment of geological data, sub-surface conditions and rock structure;

 Selection of material properties, design parameters, loading conditions, loading effects,

potential mechanisms, and other related features of the analytical models;
 Evaluation of the technical and economic feasibility of alternative type structures;

 Constructability reviews to see whether design assumptions and construction procedures are
compatible;
 Refinement of the preliminary structure configuration to reflect the results of detailed site
explorations, material availability studies, laboratory testing, and numerical analysis;
 Cofferdam and diversion layout, design and sequencing requirements; Size and type of outlet
works and spillways; Modification to the structure configuration during construction due to
unexpected variations in the foundation conditions.
1.8. Collection of data
1.8.1. Physical and Topographic Data
 Selection of dam and reservoir sites requires presence of suitable topography.

 The topographic information can be obtained through site visit and from large-

scale topographic maps or aerial photographs.

➢ The criteria for the choice of the site include investigation of:

▪ Valley form Canyon and V-shape: due to erosion,

▪ U-shape: due to glacier cut,

▪ Wide valley: due to strong bank erosion,

▪ Box valley: due to fluvial deposit on the other shapes.

 Cont’d…
 The valley width at the dam site is required to be narrow and wide in the storage part.

 Slope: upstream of the dam site, the possible small slope and downstream of the dam site the
possible large slope (by hydropower scheme).
➢ In the collection of relevant topographic information, the following may be followed:

 General Plan:

 Obtain a general plan of the catchment and project area from relevant sources (e.g. EMA),

 Carry out limited survey to include additional information in this plan (aerial reconnaissance,
physical surveys, walkovers),
 It must include: the dam site, irrigable area/power house site, catchment area of the stream,
locality to be supplied with potable water, if any. Scale may vary from 1:1000 to 1:10,000.
 Cont’d…
➢ The following features should also be included:

 Contours at 0.5 to 1.5 m interval,

 Location of existing works, if any, affected by the proposed

development,
 Proposed relocation of roads, railways, transmission lines, etc.

 Additional transportation facilities such as access roads, cable ways,

etc., required for the execution of the project,
 Locations of the stream gauging stations, water sampling and
meteorological stations, if any in the area.
 Cont’d…
 Larger Plans of the Dam and Spillway Sites: These should be in the scale of 1:500 to

1:1000 with contours as close as possible. These plans should show: Over banks,
Location and elevation of all features such as buildings, roads, etc., Location and
numbering of test pits and borings.

1.8.2. Geotechnical and Geological Data

 A geological map of the entire catchment and project area is essential.

 Investigation of geological and geotechnical information on the origin, deposition, formation

and physical characteristics of the dam foundation and reservoir area are needed.
 As a basis for the investigation, if there is no accurately describing geological map, such

maps are produced on large scale for the dam site and on small scale for reservoir site.
 Cont’d…
Dam and Spillway Site:
➢ Subsurface investigation should be carried out by experienced geologist to obtain

the following information based Geological section of the selected dam site:

 Quality of the overburden if an earth dam is to be built, Shearing strength of the

material of overburden and of the dam material, Quantity and quality of the
overburden material for construction purposes,

 Presence of joint planes, caverns, solution channels, Quality of the rock if concrete

dam is to be built, Depth to which rock is weathered, Presence and extent of seams
and joint planes (and orientations) Strength of the rock (hardness and durability),
Availability of aggregate.
 Cont’d…
❖Reservoir Site
 Check the existence of cracks which are potential leakage sources,

 Banks should be checked for possible zones of landslide.

 Earthquake Information on seismic activity of the area should be obtained. Here it is assumed that
adequate knowledge of the relevant engineering geology, soil mechanics and geotechnical
parameters are acquired.

1.8.3. Water Resources Data

➢ Data regarding the following are required for water resources planning and reservoir design:

• Catchment area; see next slide

• Discharge; daily/monthly volume of flow in the stream and peaks of stream flow at or near dam site;
Sediment
deposit
 Cont’d…
 Sediment carried by the stream;

 Maximum observed flood, report on

damage caused by flood (extent of
flood);
 Data establishing water demand
 Number of people to be served,

 Approximate maximum and minimum daily

requirement,
 Irrigation water requirement,

 Other requirements for industries,

livestock, etc.);
➢ Meteorological data such as average temperature, average monthly rainfall,
maximum recorded storm intensities, rate of evaporation;
Ground water level;
Data on minimum downstream water requirements
 1.8.4. Project Development Data
 Data such as agricultural, hydropower and other relevant data to the
project purpose.
 For irrigation purpose, for instance, the following data are essential
for the determination of water requirements:
 Size of the area to be irrigated,

 Soil structure;

 Possible types of crops;

 Types of soils along the conveyance canals.

Tendaho Dam Vs Irrigation area
 1.8.5. Miscellaneous Data
 Materials data: soil, gravel and stone (for aggregate and riprap) are needed in good
quantity and quality for dam construction (possible borrow sites for these materials
should be identified), the borrow area should be within a reasonable distance from the
site.
 Selection of suitable borrow area is identified by: Thickness of the top organic soil
which has to be discarded; Content of organic matter in the rest of the soil; Quantity
of oversized cobbles, which would have to be removed from the soil.
 Rock for aggregate and riprap has to pass the standard tests of specific gravity,
absorption, abrasion, soundness, etc.; Erosion in the catchment area – identify
sources of erosion;
 Transport – existing facilities and rates; Local labour availability and rate.
 1.9. Investigations
 The purpose of site or material investigation in the context of dam engineering is to determine the
suitability of the selected site for dam construction and reservoir storage as well as to describe the
geotechnical parameters necessary for the design and construction of the structures.
 For such purposes, thus, general site exploration and investigation, in addition to the above data
collection, involve the following: Field investigation In situ tests/field tests Laboratory tests

1.10. Location of Dam

➢ Influencing factors:
• Plan for the use of water,
• Width and shape of the valley,
• Load carrying capacity and impermeability of the foundation,
• Seepage loss in the reservoir area,
• Quantity, quality and transport distance of the construction materials,
Cont’d…
 Suitability for appurtenant structures (bottom outlets, intakes, spillways,

powerhouses),

 Danger due to slide, avalanche, etc.,

 Influence on environment and landscape,

 Recreational value,

 Available storage area,

 Dam heightening and capacity augmentation possibilities,

 Cost,

 Social and political implications.

 1.11. Height of Dam
❖ The selection of the height of a dam is influenced by:
 Local topographic conditions,
 Dam type,
 Required storage,
 Finance.

1.12. Selection of Dam Type

❖ Influencing factors:
◼ Topography (valley form),
◼ Foundation (suitability, impermeability),
◼ Geology (layers, fishers),
◼ Required height
Cont’d…
 Purpose of the dam,

 Climate,

 Flood spillway,

 Availability, quality (nature, state) of construction materials,

 Construction (supply, transport, equipment, qualification of personnel),

 Landscape,

 Cost (economy).
 Cont’d…
 It is necessary to make open the possible alternative solutions until an optimum
solution is found with respect to cost, construction program and available resource.
Novak, et al.
 consider four cardinally important points in selection of dam type as:

I. Hydraulic Gradient: the nominal value of hydraulic gradient i for seepage under,
around or through the dam vary by at least one order of magnitude according to type.
 The ability of softer and weaker or more erodible foundations to resist high hydraulic
gradients safely is very limited. Notional values of gradient range from about 0.5 for a
homogeneous embankment to 10 or more for a buttress or cupola dam,
 Cont’d…
I. Foundation Stress: nominal stresses transmitted to the foundation vary
greatly with dam type. The notional foundation stress values for 100m
high dam, for instance, varies from 1.8 MN/m² for embankment to 10
MN/m² for arch dams (see Table 1.4),
II. Foundation Deformability: certain types of dams are better able to
accommodate significant foundation deformation and/or settlement
without serious damage,
III.Foundation Excavation: economic considerations dictate that the
excavation volume and foundation preparation should be minimized.
 Figure : Buttress Dam