Materials Science and Engineering, 52 (1982) 195 - 206 195

Review Paper
Nondestructive Evaluation and Energy Technology: a Workshop Summary
J. E. GUBERNATIS and J. A. KRUMHANSL*
Los Alamos National Laboratory, P.O. Box 1663, Los Alamos, NM 87545 (U.S.A.)
(Received August 1, 1981)

SUMMARY adequately addressed in their design. In the

present energy crisis atmosphere the develop-
The findings o f a recent Workshop on Non-
ment of new energy systems may well suffer
destructive Evaluation (NDE ) are summarized.
similar difficulties. At least one major cause
One purpose o f the Workshop was to recom-
of these problems is an unfounded faith that
mend basic research programs to develop the
materials, designs and operators perform
scientific base for improvements in NDE
according to the book, with few provisions to
capabilities. The research programs recom-
test, evaluate or inspect critical structural
mended span such disciplines as physics,
materials and system components during their
mathematics, materials science, mechanical
fabrication and use. When provisions have
engineering and electrical engineering and
been made, they are generally performed
include research with such objectives as
under the rubric of nondestructive testing
developing quantitative relationships for the
(NDT), but the activities and methods asso-
interaction o f various types o f penetrating
ciated with NDT frequently have been single
radiation (elastic and electromagnetic waves,
purposed and have been ignored, if possible,
X-rays, gamma rays, neutrons etc.) with
by designers and manufacturers. Because of
important material structures (flaws, welds,
this limited perspective, it is not surprising
cladding, grain structure etc.) and for the
influence o f these structures on material that the technological sophistication of NDT
performance (fracture, fatigue etc.). Addi- methods (e.g. elementary ultrasonic inspec-
tional research recommendations include tion techniques) has often fallen far behind
the inspection and detection methods (e.g.
examining the inverse problem in general and
acoustic emission in particular, promoting medical tomography) being developed in
other fields. Indeed, this slow-paced develop-
advanced instrumentation development for
ment is a contributing factor to the lack of
improved signal detection and discrimination,
credibility in NDT today.
for in situ and real-time operation and for
In order to raise the technological sophisti-
generation o f more easily interpretable data
cation of traditional NDT methods, a trend
forms (e.g. imaging and tomographic
toward increasing the support of underpinning
methods), and consciously promoting research
research has been occurring. Together with
on relevant promising new phenomena and
this, the phrase "nondestructive evaluation"
methods. An important facet o f the research
(NDE) has been emphasized to indicate the
recommendations is the affirmation o f the
additional need to supplement standard NDT
interdisciplinary character o f NDE and the
measurements and decisions by quantitative
importance o f interdisciplinary approaches to
measurements and scientifically based deci-
the research.
sions.
With the objective of defining research
1. INTRODUCTION
areas which pave the way for significant
Energy systems are beset with problems improvements in the breadth and sophistica-
concerning their operational integrity and tion of NDE methodology (old and new)
reliability that were neither foreseen nor needed to address the inspection, character-
ization and inspection problems associated
*Permanent address: Laboratory of Atomic and with major energy technologies, we had the
Solid State Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY privilege of organizing a Workshop in June
14853, U.S.A. 1980 on NDE for the Materials Sciences

0025-5416/82/0000-0000/$02.75 © Elsevier Sequoia/Printed in The Netherlands

196
Division, Office of Basic Energy Sciences,
U.S. Department of Energy. The Workshop
was held at the Los Alamos National Labora-
tory. In this paper we present the main
features of the Workshop' report [1], the
parts identifying the NDE problem areas in
energy systems and the research activities that
will provide a scientific base for making NDE
a reliable field procedure.
The principal difference between this paper
and the report is the elimination of the
priority research and policy recommendations
and the appendixes. The appendixes consisted
of a reprint section providing a sample of
technical and background information about
advanced NDE concepts, techniques and
problems and also contained the abstracts of
the technical presentations made at the Work-
shop, each accompanied by a bibliography. In
this paper we reduced the reprint section to a
list of references [2 - 13] ;the bibliographies
are listed under the title of the presentation
and are Collected together to give an overall
bibliography. As a result, the technical details
and technical flavor of the original report are
absent; however, they can be recovered by
judicious use of the references and bibliog-
raphy. Copies of the entire report [1] are
available from the Materials Sciences Division
Office, U.S. Department of Energy, Washing-
ton, DC 20545.
2. SITUATIONANALYSIS
This analysis has three parts. In the first
part (Section 2.1) we identify problems in
energy systems for which NDE may provide
solutions. Problems likely to be completely
resolved with applied engineering develop-
ment were excluded. In the second part
(Section 2.2) we discuss areas in physics,
mathematics, materials science, electrical
engineering etc. for which both basic and
applied research are required in order to pro-
vide the needed solutions. In the last part
(Section 2.3) we present a prospectus of
current NDE activity by discussing the NDE
reprint sampler that was appended to the
original report. This sampler is a collection of
timely papers, designed to keep the main
body of the report trim and concise and yet
to provide appropriate scientific and technical
information from which an interested reader
can more fully appreciate NDE, its problems,
its needs and its potential.
There are two different and very important
stages of NDE development. In the early stage,
many NDE and related methods are first used
as laboratory tools to aid metallurgists,
materials fabricators, designers etc. For
example, such methods have been important
in developing many of the advanced materials
and joining methods in current use. In the
later stage, as experience is gained with new
methods and their associated instrumentation
concepts, routine use becomes practical, and
it becomes necessary to engineer the transi-
tion (technology transfer) from the first stage
(laboratory tools) to the second stage (general
usage).
The need for technology transfer is imme-
diately seen as an intrinsic element of NDE
development; however, it is also a problem for
NDE development which is unsolvable by
scientific research alone. The difficulty is that
the transfer of research to technology in the
natural course of events, if it occurs, generally
does so with great difficulty. The needs for
NDE in energy technology are too pressing to
allow the transfer to occur naturally; to be
effective, any comprehensive NDE research
program should include a component designed
to facilitate this needed transfer. However,
our primary purpose is to delineate research
needs for NDE. To do this we first identified
NDE problem areas in energy systems.
2.1. Energy system problems
In our task of identifying the NDE problem
areas we limited, for practical reasons, the
number of energy technologies and NDE
methods considered. The technologies con-
sidered (fossil fuels, fusion and fission) are
high technologies that have NDE problems,
and we are confident that we identified the
major generic problems and that these
problems exist in other high technology
energy systems. Also for practical reasons we
examined entirely new methods for NDE only
briefly. Traditional methods need improve-
ment, but even with improvement they may
be insufficient to ensure comprehensive NDE
reliability.
We identified nine major problem areas.
The first four are problem areas in existing
energy systems components while the
remainder are problems in improving NDE

practices. The solution of these problems will
lead to a more reliable economical design and
operation of energy systems. From these
problem areas we have defined numerous
NDE scientific research needs and opportuni-
ties, which are the subjects of Section 2.2.
2.1.1. Problems associated with specific
energy components
2.1.1.1. Pressure vessels. These are currently
used in all fission reactors and some fossil fuel
systems. Items of similar construction (plasma
reaction chambers, vacuum vessels and cryo-
genic magnetic enclosures) will be used in
fusion reactors. Inspection of the finished
multipass thick welds needed to form large
vessels from smaller plates is the overriding
problem. The inspection is difficult because
of the attenuation of the probing signal and
the inhomogeneous anisotropic nature of the
welded region. Related to this is the develop-
ment of more reliable welding methods and
techniques for detecting weld defects as they
are introduced. The fracture mechanics and
failure prediction analysis of welds needs
development: an aim of NDE is not only
defect detection and characterization but
also, when defects are present, the assessment
of whether they are a problem or will grow
(e.g. by fatigue) into a problem. The determi-
nation of whether cladding on the inner
surfaces of thick-walled vessels is present and
whether it is properly bonded is another
important unsolved problem.
2.1.1.2. Piping. All methods for generating
electrical energy currently use a primary
energy source (fossil, fission and fusion) to
generate high pressure steam to operate
turbines. Much large-diameter piping is
employed in the high pressure, high tempera-
ture, primary cooling loop as well as in
auxiliary cooling systems. Stress corrosion
cracking, accentuated by the high tempera-
ture often present, is a major source of high
pressure water pipe failure. The fracture
mechanics of stress corrosion cracking is
poorly understood. Again there is the need
not only for defect characterization but also
for failure prediction. Through similar piping
in some commercial fossil fuel systems are
pumped slurries as the input fuel to the reac-
tion chambers (burners). Erosion in such
piping, caused by the abrasive action of the
197
slurry, drastically reduces the service lifetime
of the pipe system. Both stress corrosion
cracking and erosion must be detected and
corrective actions must be taken to avoid
catastrophic failure. This requires improved
detection and in situ monitoring methods.
Assessment of austenitic stainless steel welds
and cladding in pipes is almost as much of
a problem as for pressure vessels.
2.1.1.3. Heat exchangers. These are large
assemblies of varying design for extracting the
energy from the primary source and delivering
it to the working fluid (usually water) that
drives the electric turbines. The main problem
is the inspection of thousands of feet of
tubing of small (around 1 in) diameter for
a variety of flaws, surface corrosion and wear
at tubing supports. Useful methods must be
fast and reliable; existing systems fall short in
both areas.
2.1.1.4. Turbines. These range in size from
the large metallic rotors that drive electric
generators to the small experimental turbine
engines that may some day provide more
economical localized power sources (possibly
replacing the internal combustion engine
currently used in automobiles). Turbines are
designed to operate at high rotational speeds.
As a result, a single failure can rapidly produce
a large amount of damage. Quantification of
defects is needed in order to assess the
remaining useful component life. Especially in
the smaller turbines, the higher operating tem-
peratures possible because of the use of
ceramic components would result in improved
efficiency, but reliable use of structural
ceramics needs research and development in
processing improvement, defect quantification
and fracture modeling.
2.1.2. Problems associated with improved
engineering and inspection practice
2.1.2.1. Hostile environments. Many
systems are shut down for periodic inspection
and routine maintenance in order to ensure a
further period of safe, reliable and economical
operation. During shut-down, human opera-
tors are often required to make inspections
and measurements under hazardous condi-
tions because of high temperatures or radia-
tion levels. More thorough and cost-effective
inspections would result if a majority of these
198
measurements could be performed remotely,
possibly even during the operation of the
system and possibly even by computer. This,
in turn, probably means that sensors and
some instruments with manipulators must be
placed within rather hostile environments
(high temperatures, limited access, large
gamma and/or neutron fluxes etc.). Where
human-assisted on-site measurements are
necessary, their effectiveness could be
increased and their time for performance
decreased by developing easy-to-use auto-
mated data-recording instruments. Although
a survey has not been made, it is likely that
the development of long-lasting sensors is
needed. Work on portable measurement
systems and the development of better cali-
bration procedures and standards is certainly
needed.
2.1.2.2. Joining dissimilar materials. This is
an evolving technology area that relies heavily
on the physical and mechanical characteriza-
tion of the surfaces to be joined. Methods are
needed to measure many different materials
characteristics (e.g. metal grain size and
residual stress), sometimes on a spatial scale
of a millimeter or less. Of particular impor-
tance is the development of a nondestructive
means for measuring bond strength and
internal surface corrosion. This is also a
particularly important aspect of problems in
materials processing, which we now discuss.
2.1.2.3. Materials and process development.
An important use of NDE is in the routine
characterization of materials that go into
assemblies. This use infrequently occurs
because of inadequate methods. If it occurred
regularly, materials and energy would be con-
served and materials processing would be used
more effectively. In addition to fast reliable
convenient means for measuring materials
properties, especially surface characteristics,
methods are needed for in situ monitoring.
Specific important tasks are assessing the
degree of surface treatment (e.g. ion implanta-
tion, laser surface annealing), monitoring in
situ crack propagation, characterizing the
properties of new materials (e.g. ceramics)
and detecting the onset of material degrada-
tion (e.g. stress corrosion, radiation damage,
carburization). Besides methods directed
toward specific phenomena and materials
characteristics, improved methods for auto-
matically monitoring the production pro-
cesses themselves are needed.
2.1.2.4. Designing reliability and inspec-
tability into systems. NDE has methods that
would result in more reliable processes and
systems if it were possible to use them under
the given circumstances. It is necessary to
make inspectability one of the engineering
design requirements of critical energy systems.
Thus, knowledgeable NDE researchers would
work with others on a design team so that the
various compromises that exist in any real
system would at least involve some sensitivity
to matters of inspectability and other NDE
considerations. It appears to be particularly
worthwhile to begin or continue discussion of
the NDE requirements for the emerging
energy technologies since final designs are
years to decades in the future.
2.1.2.5. Standards. The development of
suitable standards of flaws, conductivity, per-
meability, gamma attenuation, cladding thick-
ness, interfaces etc. for comparison of results
from various laboratories, for use with differ-
ent methods of detection and for calibration
of instruments is needed. Quantification of
many NDE methods is inhibited by the lack
of suitable or reliable standards. It is important
to establish the relationship between artifact
standards and real flaws. An example of
problem standards, which are often required
in many ultrasonic NDE procedures, is those
based on the "flat-bottom hole".
2.2. Nondestructive evaluation research needs
and opportunities
As discussed above, the NDE requirements
in fossil energy systems, fission energy systems
and anticipated fusion energy systems have
generic needs for cost-effective convenient
reliable quantitative procedures for detecting
mechanical faults in materials, equipment
components, structures, thick sections,
piping, cladding etc. and for quantitative
procedures for deciding the degradation
implied by the presence of these faults. Since
nearly all these energy processes produce
hostile environments, these needs pose very
challenging problems for the NDE community.
Our review of current NDE techniques and
of the supporting scientific base for these

techniques indicates that significant progress
has been made in the ultrasonic detection and
characterization of idealized defects in simple
geometries and stress configurations. This
progress represents an example of successful
multidisciplinary cooperation in a goal-driven
research program (the Defense Advanced
Research Project Agency-Air Force Materials
Laboratory Quantitative NDE Program). In
this particular program, interactions among
researchers doing scattering theory investiga-
tions, fracture mechanics studies and ultra-
sonic experiments resulted in a confirmation
that certain ideas regarding the interaction
between flaws and sound waves, the weaken-
ing effect of the flaw and the rate of growth
of flaws were correct. Progress has also been
made on other diagnostic methods such as
eddy current systems, X-ray inspection and
acoustic emission, but they are not yet devel-
oped to the same level of quantitativeness as
the ultrasonic methods.
The multidisciplinary nature of the science
base for the NDE capability is clearly recog-
nized and, in acknowledgment of this,
research needs and opportunities that we
identified from our review of energy system
problems are discussed in the context of the
following five more narrowly defined areas.
2.2.1. Materials science for nondestructive
evaluation
NDE instruments provide new information
in materials science research. In turn, materials
science provides a knowledge base for orient-
ing the NDE procedure toward a more effec-
tive use. We identified several materials
science topics that exemplify this relation
between NDE, properties and use: (1)
surface characterization and its relation to
improving the bonding and joining of materials
as well as the coating and cladding of
materials; (2) quantitative NDE characteriza-
tion of flaws in materials (inclusions, voids,
cracks etc.), their interaction in stress environ-
ments and their importance to materials
reliability; (3) quantitative NDE characteriza-
tion of the physical state of materials (residual
stress, grain size, heat treatment etc.) and its
importance to materials reliability and use;
(4} knowledge of material failure modes and
their relation to expected environments and
conditions of the materials used to provide
improved guidance for development of NDE
199
procedures; (5) phenomena that can be under-
stood in a materials sense and utilized in a
failure predictive sense (acoustic emission,
positron annihilation, exoelectronic emission
etc.}; (6) control of materials processing (via
NDE technology} to provide improved
materials and to reduce the need for final
NDE analysis and for the rejection of faulty
material; (7} guidance to new materials
synthesis to improve reliability and ultimately
to reduce the dependence on NDE.
2.2.2. Advanced instrumentation for non-
destructive evaluation
The demand on NDE is now to quantify
materials properties as they relate to service-
ability. In this context we must explore new
phenomenologies for probing materials and
must improve the interpretation of data
obtained by classical methods. We also need
to search for new methods to obtain needed
data.
Improved instrumentation and procedures
will permit better theoretical separation
between properties of the material and prop-
erties of the instrumentation. Relevant stud-
ies under this general heading are (1) the
use of multimode systems for the acqui-
sition of complementary information, which
might take the form of simultaneously (but
independently} probing with two or more
different modes such as ultrasound and X-rays
or interactively probing as in photoacoustics
where intermittent absorption of radiation by
the material results in the generation of sound
waves, (2} the development of transducers
and probes for the interaction of electro-
magnetic waves with materials (these trans-
ducers and probes should yield reproducible
results, suitable for definitive interpretation},
(3) the development of improved ultrasonic
transducers and improved coupling techniques
capable of yielding more reliable and repro-
ducible results, (4} the adaptation of existing
technologies such as ultrasonics, acoustic
emission, holography and eddy currents to
studies relating material microproperties to
gross characteristics of an engineering -
material, (5) the processing and transform-
ing of conventionally acquired data into
forms that maximize information and are
more usefully perceived by an observer
(imaging displays, for example, might be of
great importance especially in multimode stud-
200
ies) and (6) the acquisition of data in hostile
environments for in situ study of critical
materials and components under operating
conditions, which will often imply an applica-
tion of robotics and machine intelligence.
2.2.3. Mathematical and theoretical
sciences for nondestructive evaluation
This research encompasses efforts in
applied mathematics, theoretical mechanics,
mathematical physics and statistics in addition
to the strategic utilization of computers in
simulations and diagnoses. Specific statements
regarding research needs include the following.
(1) Elastic and electromagnetic theories for
ultrasonic and eddy current NDE should
address model defects with more complex
geometries (e.g. partially open cracks, rough-
surface defects) and in more complicated
geometries (e.g. surface and near-surface
defects). The extent to which scattering from
non-idealized features may obscure the scat-
tering from the basic important geometric
feature, such as a crack edge, on which failure
and fracture modeling is based, can limit the
technical feasibility of some NDE applications
and is poorly understood.
(2) The theory of elastic and electromag-
netic fields in polycrystalline, porous, eroded
or corroded materials needs more develop-
ment. Both materials characterization and
NDE interpretation are at present limited by
an inadequate theoretical base on which to
relate engineering and macroscopic properties
to microscopic details.
(3) The inverse problem, directly inferring
from a measured signal the character of its
source, is the essential objective of most NDE
methods and needs much attention. Little is
known beyond scalar wave problems. Issues
include defining (if possible) algorithms to
solve the inverse problem, determining their
sensitivity to errors in the data and assisting in
the optimization of data acquisition proce-
dures.
(4) The theory of acoustic emission from
microsources and propagation therefrom
should be examined. Many different sources
(e.g. martensitic transitions, second-phase
hardening, crack growth, dislocation move-
ment) contribute to acoustic emission signals.
It is a major problem to distinguish by some
measurable property of the signal the exis-
tence of fracture modes (e.g. crack growth)
from less objectionable sources (e.g. disloca-
tion motion). If the sources are in a welded
region, the problem is more severe. Quantita-
tively, the emission of sound from these
sources, especially from fracture modes, is
poorly understood.
2.2.4. Systems and information sciences for
nondestructive evaluation
The NDE environment is often not only
hostile but also complex. The complexity
manifests itself in many ways.
(1) Signals can be weak and obscured by
competing noise.
(2) There are complications due to com-
plex geometry and non-ideal instrumentation
configurations.
(3) There is often the non-trivial task of
interpreting data.
The system and information sciences area is
one of explosive growth, and there is need to
make available the power and benefits of this
growth for NDE research and practice.
Accordingly, research in the following is
appropriate.
(1) Digital signal-processing techniques are
needed for the acquisition of weak acoustic
emission signals from materials and of com-
• plex acoustic emission signals from structures.
(2) Similar digital signal-processing tech-
niques are also needed for data acquisition in
all other instrumentation approaches where
weak signals are obscured by noise.
(3) System diagnostics, estimation and
identification research are required in the
context of NDE tasks. In a sense, this is also
an inverse problem but the methodology is
more general. A simple example is the assess-
ment of whether an NDE monitoring system
is secure against the occurrence of various
contingencies based on its ability to determine
required response patterns from specific trains
of stimuli.
(4) High level automation (or machine
intelligence) is required for NDE. NDE in
hostile environments will have to be imple-
mented in automated ways. The automation
would be not only in terms of "hardware",
i.e. automated operation of sensors, trans-
ducers, and data acquisition but also in terms
of data interpretation and decision making.
Automation of such reasoning and decision
functions ordinarily performed by humans
needs to be explored with the use of proce-

dures currently used in "machine intelligence"
research. Some ingredients of such method-
ology are the use of high level computer
languages to design such "intelligent" systems,
the construction of "knowledge bases" to
serve in place of the knowledge base used by
humans and the implementation of partially
automated systems to be used as computer
aids for "friendly consultants" to minimally
skilled operators.
(5} Display methodology research including
computer-based tomographic image recon-
struction and real-time imaging is needed.
2.2.5. New concepts and unexplored
opportunities
As the experimental sciences continue to
evolve, new phenomena are being observed
and new measurement techniques are being
developed. Improved scanning electron micro-
scopes, scanning Auger microprobes, scanning
ion microprobes and electron scanning for
chemical analysis and extended X-ray absorp-
tion fine structure techniques will undoubted-
ly continue to give rise to new techniques and
newly observed materials phenomena. Fresnel
lenses are becoming available for focusing
X-rays and eventually perhaps for scanning
focused X-ray beams. In terms of large-scale
instruments, synchrotron radiation and pulsed
neutron sources are new classes of probes
whose potential for materials research needs
closer attention. All these developments will
lead to new concepts of prime importance to
the practice of NDE and should not be missed.
For example, some of these new instruments
will be ideal for studying materials artifacts at
the millimeter and submillimeter scale.
When rapid technology growth is occurring
in any of the many disciplines embodied by
NDE, the opportunity of developing new
NDE concepts becomes possible. Any basic
sciences program for NDE purposes should
consciously support efforts to explore such
new concepts and opportunities, taking risks
in research funding if the potential warrants
them.
2.3. Prospectus of current nondestructive
evaluation activity
In our original report [1], to provide tech-
nical and background information about
advanced NDE concepts, techniques and
problems relevant to this report, we appended
an NDE sampler. In this paper, instead of
201
reprinting these papers we placed them in a list
of references [2 - 13]. Next we discuss this
list. The list is not all inclusive, and just
because some method, topic or researcher is
unrepresented does not imply that the topic
or method has a secondary status or that the
researcher's contributions are less significant.
However, we believe that this selection will
provide a reader with a reasonable orientation
in the field.
Without specifically using the phrase "non-
destructive evaluation", McClung [2] illus-
trates the meaning and goals of NDE versus
NDT and emphasizes the importance of
developing many different NDE methods.
Kino [3] reviews the recent progress in
quantifying ultrasonic NDE methods and in
improving ultrasonic NDE instruments. The
fairly technical papers of Gubernatis et al.
[4], Budiansky and Rice [5] and Achenbach
et al. [6] illustrate the kind of scientific
activities that led to some of the progress
reviewed by Kino. Although the progress is
itself interesting, part of our purpose in
listing these papers is to show that NDE can
be made more effective if incentive and
support are given to interested basic
researchers. We assert that similar progress can
be made for other NDE methods.
An example of an NDE method and instru-
ment for which increased support would be
useful is described by Kruger and Morris [7].
The tomographic system described is based on
the same principles as the computer-assisted
tomography scanners found in major medical
centers. (Tomographic systems are not found
at most major NDE centers.) The particular
instrument described by Kruger and Morris is
interesting because its modular design permits
the use of different radiation probes. To be
most effective, tomographic principles need
explicit relations between the penetrating
properties of the radiation used and the
material's microstructure. Research to find or
improve such relations and to include ultra-
sonic tomography is needed.
A relation between penetrating ultrasonic
waves and the material's microstructure is the
subject of Vary's paper [8]. He has a simple
thesis.
(1) The fracture toughness of a material
depends on its microstructure.
(2) The wave propagation parameters of a
material depend on its microstructure.
202
(3) Therefore, the fracture toughness and
wave propagation properties must be related.
Empirically, Vary proposes the form of
such a relation. As far as we know, there is
neither an explanation for it from first prin-
ciples nor certain universality; however, the
paper clearly shows the need for related
research and exemplifies a type of materials
research appropriate for NDE.
Our reasons for citing the next paper by
Giza and Papadakis [9] are quite similar to
those for listing Vary's paper. Giza and
Papadakis improved the speed and reliability
of the hardness testing of gray iron castings
by finding through comparative procedures a
correlation between the (Brinell) hardness and
the response of eddy current signals. (Other
methods such as ultrasonics were also studied,
but no correlation between hardness and
signal response was found.) Giza and Papadakis
describe the empirical laboratory procedures
used to develop this particular NDE test and
the implementation of the test in a foundry.
They also briefly discuss the physical princi-
ples behind eddy current testing. In the area
of eddy current methodology, many interest-
ing opportunities for research exist.
The technical presentation given by
McClung at the Workshop (and published
previously [10]) is the next paper. Al-
though prepared as a report on the NDE
needs in reactor systems, McClung compre-
hensively highlights generic problems regard-
ing the needs for improved NDE methods and
instruments.
In the last three papers [11 - 13] a glimpse
of NDE activities in other countries is given.
The first two papers in this group are from
British researchers. Sharpe [11] discusses a
British NDT center at Harwell and also briefly
describes the research problems associated
with different NDE methods; in ref. 12 the
interdisciplinary nature of NDE is emphasized
and five different views of the nature and
needs of NDE and NDE research are pre-
sented. In the third paper, Onoe [13]
describes a Japanese experience in NDT,
involving a cooperative program between
different Japanese professional societies and
energy industries. Also contained in Onoe's
paper is useful background information on
NDE methods of acoustic emission and on
the inspection problems associated with
welds.
3. C O N C L U D I N G REMARKS
W e have summarized the main content of
the report of the Los Alamos N D E Workshop
[1]. Now, we would like to add several com-
ments. First, we feel that the problems
and the research needed to overcome them
are not restricted to the energy systems of
any one nation, so we welcomed the oppor-
tunity to present our report to an interna-
tional journal audience. Second, although
most of current N D E is directed toward
material properties and problems, materials
science is only one of the research disciplines
required to develop the needed N D E capa-
bilities.Advances in other disciplinessuch as
mathematics, systems analysis, mechanical
engineering and signal processing are needed.
Third, while such advances are necessary, in
our view, they are not sufficient: N D E
requires interdisciplinarycooperation. This is
usually m u c h easier said than done but it can
be achieved and, having participated in inter-
disciplinary N D E research ourselves, we can
say from experience that it is both profes-
sionally and personally rewarding.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Important cooperation by many people
made the Workshop and report possible. We
thank the Council on Materials Sciences, its
chairman, R. J. Maurer, and the Materials
Research Division, Office of Basic Energy
Sciences, U.S. Department of Energy, for
their cooperation and interest; likewise, we
thank the Workshop participants. B. W. Max-
field, R. W. McClung and D. O. Thompson
assisted in organizing the Workshop sessions
and they, together with D. Janney and Yoh-
Han Pao, helped to summarize the Workshop
findings and discussions.
Besides ourselves, the Workshop partici-
pants were as follows: J. D. Achenbach, G. A.
Albers, G. Birnbaum, O. Buck, C. V. Dodd,
W. A. Ellingson, D. H. Janney, G. S. Kino, K.
Kliewer, T. U. Marston, R. J. Maurer, B. W.
Maxfield, R. W. McClung, Yoh-Han Pao, C. A.
Tatro, R. B. Thompson and D. O. Thompson.
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