INJERA ELECTRIC BAKING:

ENERGY USE IMPACTS IN

ADDIS ABABA
ETHIOPIA
(A World Bank-funded Study)

Submitted To:
Ethiopian Electric Power Company
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; and

The World Bank

Africa Region
Washington DC 20433

Submitted By:
Dave Sood
Consultant
Great Falls, Virginia 22066
USA
Email: davesood@aol.com

Date: May 10, 2010

Mitad in Amharic, the Ethiopian language, refers to the working piece or the plate used for baking Injera using electric, wood, charcoal, or
other fuels. Mitad is usually made of either clay or cast iron. Stove, on the other hand, is a piece of equipment for providing heat for cooking,
baking etc. Electricity based Mitads are called Electric Mitads or Electric Stoves or Injera baking Electric Stoves, as in this study. In Ethiopia,
some of these stoves are also used for baking “Dif-daabbo”, local bread.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD ......................................................................................................................................................... 4
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................................................................................................... 5
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .............................................................................................................. 6
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................... 7
1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 10
1.1 THE NATIONAL UTILITY: EEPCO ............................................................................................................. 11
1.2 OVERVIEW OF POWER SECTOR IN ADDIS ABABA ..................................................................................... 12
2 INJERA BREAD BAKING ....................................................................................................................... 14
2.1 TEFF: THE TINIEST GRAIN, A NUTRITIONAL POWERHOUSE ...................................................................... 14
2.1.1 Teff Growing in US ........................................................................................................................ 15
2.2 INJERA BAKING: THE COMMON PRACTICE ............................................................................................... 15
2.2.1 Injera Baking in US ....................................................................................................................... 17
2.3 HOUSEHOLD FUEL CHOICES IN ETHIOPIA ................................................................................................. 19
2.3.1 Injera Wood Stove .......................................................................................................................... 20
2.3.2 Solar Stoves for Injera Baking ....................................................................................................... 21
2.4 POWER CONSUMPTION AND INJERA BAKING IN ADDIS ABABA ................................................................ 22
2.5 EXISTING MITAD ...................................................................................................................................... 22
2.6 NEW MITAD DESIGN INITIATIVES IN ETHIOPIA ........................................................................................ 24
2.6.1 12E Injera Technology, PLC ......................................................................................................... 25
2.6.2 Beta Engineering PLC ................................................................................................................... 26
2.6.3 Dellplatz Engineering Pvt. Ltd. Co. ............................................................................................... 26
2.7 NEW MITAD DESIGNS IN US .................................................................................................................... 27
3 COMMERCIAL INJERA PRODUCERS IN ADDIS ABABA .............................................................. 29
3.1 MAMA FRESH INJERA ............................................................................................................................... 29
3.2 ETTE INJERA BAKERY ............................................................................................................................. 30
4 MANAGING PEAK LOAD POWER DEMAND IN ADDIS ABABA .................................................. 31
4.1 PEAK LOAD ESTIMATES FOR ADDIS ABABA ............................................................................................. 32
4.2 PEAK LOAD MITIGATING OPTIONS ........................................................................................................... 33
4.2.1 Direct Load Control ....................................................................................................................... 34
4.2.2 Use of Ripple Control System(s) .................................................................................................... 35
4.2.3 Use of Demand-side Management ................................................................................................. 36
4.2.4 Use of Energy Efficiency Measures ............................................................................................... 39
4.2.5 Use of Cost Reflective Tariffs ......................................................................................................... 41
4.2.6 Energy Labeling ............................................................................................................................. 43
4.2.7 Use of Self-Rationing ..................................................................................................................... 44
4.2.8 Improve Customer Awareness ....................................................................................................... 45
5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EEPCO AND GOE ................................................................................ 46
APPENDIXES ...................................................................................................................................................... 49
5.1 APPENDIX A: DELLPLATZ PROJECT PROPOSAL AND IMPLEMENTATION PLAN, OCTOBER 2009
(ATTACHED, AS PROVIDED BY DELLPLATZ, INC.) .......................................................................................... 49
5.2 APPENDIX B: ZELFIWU INC. DESIGN ..................................................................................................... 64

2
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1: ENERGY USE VS. GDP ........................................................................................................................... 10

FIGURE 2: THIS INJERA MEAL, CONSISTING OF INJERA AND SEVERAL KINDS OF WAT OR TSEBHI (STEW), IS TYPICAL
OF ERITREAN AND ETHIOPIAN CUISINE. ........................................................................................................ 14
FIGURE 3: UPPER LEFT: RYE KERNELS; UPPER RIGHT: TEFF; LOWER LEFT: LONG GRAIN RICE; LOWER RIGHT:
AMARANTH ................................................................................................................................................... 14
FIGURE 4: HARVESTING TEFF IN ETHIOPIA ............................................................................................................. 15
FIGURE 5: GROUND TEFF FLOUR FOR MAKING INJERA BATTER ............................................................................. 15
FIGURE 6: POURING INJERA BATTER ON A MITAD .................................................................................................. 16
FIGURE 7: “EYES” ON INJERA BREAD ...................................................................................................................... 16
FIGURE 8: SILVERSTONE® HERITAGE LEFSE GRILL ............................................................................................... 17
FIGURE 9: A 5-PIECE, $5 INJERA PACKAGE ............................................................................................................. 18
FIGURE 10: MAKING INJERA DOUGH FOR FERMENTATION AFTER MIXING WITH WATER ....................................... 18
FIGURE 11: ETHIOPIAN WOMEN CARRYING WOOD ................................................................................................ 19
FIGURE 12: COMMERCIAL MIRTE STOVE ................................................................................................................ 20
FIGURE 13: UGANDA ROCKET STOVE ..................................................................................................................... 20
FIGURE 14: PROTOTYPE OF SOLAR INJERA BAKING STOVE .................................................................................... 21
FIGURE 15: TWO MITADS, SECURED WITH A CIRCULAR FRAME ............................................................................. 22
FIGURE 16: MITAD’ CLAY PAN FOR COILING ......................................................................................................... 23
FIGURE 17: INJERA BAKING PAN ............................................................................................................................ 23
FIGURE 18: COMMON HEATING COIL FOR DOUBLE INJERA BAKING ...................................................................... 24
FIGURE 19: PELLETS AS A BASE FOR INSULATION ................................................................................................... 25
FIGURE 20: DRAWING OF DOUBLE-SIDED INJERA BAKING MITAD ......................................................................... 25
FIGURE 21: FREE-STANDING DOUBLE-SIDED MITAD MADE BY 12E TECHNOLOGIES ............................................. 26
FIGURE 22: ZELFIWU AUTOMATED INJERA BAKING MACHINE ............................................................................ 27
FIGURE 23: PACKAGE OF FIVE ZELFIWU INJERA ...................................................................................................... 28
FIGURE 24: DELIVERY VAN, MAMA FRESH INJERA ................................................................................................ 29
FIGURE 25: DAILY LOAD CURVES – SEPTEMBER WEEKDAYS (MW). ..................................................................... 37
FIGURE 26: SUBSIDIES AS FUNCTION OF MONTHLY POWER CONSUMPTION ........................................................... 41

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1: DETERMINATION OF YEARLY WOOD FUEL AND COST SAVING BY VIRTUE OF USING A 3.5KW ELECTRIC
CONVENTIONAL OR A 1.2KW INDUCTION STOVES ........................................................................................ 18
TABLE 2: TRADITIONAL MITADS AND DELLPLATZ INDUCTION MITAD, A COMPARATIVE OVERVIEW ................ 27
TABLE 3. DAILY LOAD DURATION ......................................................................................................................... 34

3
FOREWORD

The report is part of comprehensive on-going Government of Ethiopia’s (GOE’s) efforts to promote
energy conservation and demand-side management (DSM) for efficient energy use and economic
gains. Current energy use efficiency in Ethiopia is among the lowest in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA), and
GOE is committed to significantly improving this situation. In addition to benefiting the country, any
potential energy surplus, through exports, can bring much-needed hard currency.

The World Bank commends these efforts. The bank recently partnered in the deployment of about 5,
million compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs), helping reduce about 80 MW of peak demand. The
reduction was well noticed during the country’s 2009 power rationing. Energy-efficiency driven
EEPCo is currently proposing to install an additional 10 million CFLs through sale at competitive
prices. Successful deployment will give impetus to CFL’s market penetration. Also, Ethiopia is first
SSA country to consider banning widely used, highly energy inefficient, incandescent lamps. GOE’s
other current IDA-funded efficient energy use interventions aim to: (i) develop studies and pilots
offering energy saving potential; (ii) replace inefficient street lighting; and (iii) reduce electric
systems’ power factor.

Injera, Ethiopia’s staple bread, baked 1-2 times daily, offers considerable energy savings potential.
Injera baking is considered the most energy intensive activity in Ethiopia. The Injera electric baking
stoves (IEBS), estimated to be around 400,000 in current use, require 3.5-kW of power per stove, and
are highly energy inefficient, given poor design and use practices. Also, the daily baking’s power load
becomes coincident with peak load requirements, thereby overloading the distribution system. For
EEPCo, preserving the reserve margin during peak periods becomes costly. Use of energy efficiency
measures, DSM, and load control, will help lower operating costs, add to system’s operational
reliability, and potentially lower power transmission and distribution investment needs. Newer
designs, such as those based on Magnetic Induction Technology, claimed by the designer to use only
1.2 kW for the same qualitative and quantitative Injera baking.

GOE, given lower short-run hydropower generation costs, is steadfast in supporting wider use of
Injera electric baking. Hydropower generation, Ethiopia’s predominant power source, is abundant
especially during periods of regular rainfall. GoE’s intervention will also reduce consumption of
scarce, environmentally polluting wood fuel for Injera baking. Notwithstanding the above, the
manufacturing of competitively-priced low cost energy efficient Injera electric baking stoves is of
paramount importance to cost-effectively manage peak load demand and reduce daily blackouts.
Ethiopian entrepreneurs have identified the potential large markets for these stoves and are seeking
GOE’s financial and regulatory support to help reduce market barriers and lower manufacturing costs
such as through pilots and targeted rental subsidies.

The major objective of this report is to highlight issues and options for efficient IEBS use. It is not
intended to be a comprehensive or detailed report. Instead, its main objective is to raise awareness
among top government officials, public at large, and the private sector about IEBS’s energy use and
potential savings. We hope the report stimulates further discussions and helps GoE capture, most cost-
effectively, IEBS’s potential savings through use of improved designs and implementation of
appropriate policy measures.

Luiz Maurer
Task Team Leader, EAREP I
Africa Region
World Bank, Washington DC

4
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The study’s aim is to develop an overview of the electric baking of Injera bread, Ethiopia’s staple
food, in Addis Ababa. Data collection and information for the two-week study during June 2009 was
generated through meetings and discussions with the Ethiopian Electric Power Company (EEPCo), the
national utility, the Ministry of Mines and Energy, Ethiopian Electric Agency, the private sector and
several other stakeholders. In addition, review of relevant, available documents and Internet research
was conducted. All efforts have been made to acknowledge all sources of data and information.
However, omissions are regretted.

My thanks go to everyone providing data and information for the study. In particular, I am grateful to
Mr. Abdul-Mohsin Sherief, an electrical engineer, formerly of EEPCo, for his diligent efforts during
fieldwork, and providing other valuable input to the study. However, I am particularly thankful to the
World Bank for funding the project and providing the author with an opportunity to work on it.

CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS
Currency Unit: Ethiopian Birr
Exchange Rate Effective: Birr 1 = US $0.9
US $1 = BIRR 10.85
Fiscal Year: July 8 – July 7

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

1 kV (kilovolt)
1 kVA (kilovolt-ampere)
1 MW (megawatt)
1 MVA (megavolt-ampere)
1 kWh (kilowatt-hour)
1 MWh (megawatt-hour)
1 GW
1 GWh (Gigawatt-hour)
1 km
1,000 volts
1,000 volt-amperes
1,000,000 watts = 106 watts
1,000 kilovolt-ampere
1,000 watt-hours
1,000 kilowatt-hours
109 watts
1,000 megawatt-hours
1,000 meter

5
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

C Centigrade
EAREP I Electricity Access Rural Expansion Project I
EEA Ethiopian Electric Agency
EEDMS Energy Efficiency and Demand Side Management
EEPCo Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation (The National Power Utility)
EELPA Ethiopian Electric Power and Light Company
ETB Ethiopian Birr (National Currency)
GoE Government of Ethiopia
GTZ Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (German Aid Agency)
Ha Hectare
HV High Voltage
ICS Inter-connected Systems (related to EEPCo power supply)
IEBS Injera Electric Baking Stoves (or Mitad)
IPP Independent Power Producer
IRP Integrated Resource Planning
Kg Kilograms
kWh Kilo-watt Hours
kV Kilo-volt
MHz Megahertz: One million cycles per second
MW Megawatt
MWh Megawatt Hour
O&M Operations and Maintenance
QSA Quality and Standards Authority (of Ethiopia)
SCS Self-contained Systems (related to EEPCo power supply)
TOU Time of Use
UL Underwriters Laboratory (An independent electric appliance testing agency)
V Volt
W Watt

6
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Ethiopia, the third most populous country in Africa, is seriously electricity constrained. The
percentage of the total population with direct access to electricity is very low, currently about 6-8
percent. Most of the grid-connected are supplied power by the Government-owned Ethiopian Electric
Power Corporation (EEPCo), which has about 1,700,000 customers; the country’s total installed
capacity, as of March 2010 is close to doubling to 0.9 GW. There are however, very few rural
consumers, less than two percent of the total population, that are connected to the grid.

While EEPCo has made some in-roads, increasing power connections and access, recent trends, in
particular, frequent power blackouts; load shedding1, and overall low power quality are alarming.
Anecdotal evidence indicates that power shortfall in 2009 will exceed 120 MWh, an estimated 6-7
percent increase over the previous year. Sustainable energy supply is essential for Ethiopia’s economic
and political stability and for future prosperity.

Obviously, sustained and concerted efforts such as: increase in supply, upgrading including
rehabilitation of power infrastructure, implementation of demand-side management and energy
efficiency programs, use of cost reflective tariffs and others such as decentralization of EEPCo’s
operations, are necessary to improve quality and reliability of services. Lack of reliable power supply
is exacerbating the impacts of high inflation rate, while adversely affecting the country’s industrial and
commercial growth, the economic lifeline of the country.

An effective implementation of prioritized programs would require careful planning and monitoring
and evaluation, using agreed upon indicators. Multi-faceted efforts are needed to meet the ambitious
electrification goals set by the Government of Ethiopia (GoE)—achieving universal access in 10 years.

With the expected completion, by the end of 2009, of Gilgel Gibe II hydropower and commissioning
of Tekeze, it is expected that that power shedding will be mitigated. On the demand side, the
deployment of about 4.5 million Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs) 2 have reduced peak load by 80
MW. This World Bank funded intervention was the decisive in the GOE’s decision to suspend the
load shedding program. Other measures under study or implementation include the replacement of
inefficient street lighting. The utility is also using capacitors to increase load factors. To the extent
applicable, the experience gained can be emulated for Mitad.

Notwithstanding the above, the situation is far from comfortable. There is a huge pent-up demand, for
example, factories (such as cement manufacturers) will have to work additional shifts to catch up with
the lost production during load shedding, and there is backlog of about 100 towns and villages that
have been electrified but not connected due a moratorium on new connections imposed by the GoE.

Furthermore, EEPCo has a commitment to export 100 MW of electricity to Sudan, starting in June
2010 (which coincides with the end of the dry season), and about 50 MW to Djibouti. The
commissioning of Beles hydro plant in the second quarter of 2010 should help (partially) meet the
export needs and resume electrification in rural areas. While Ethiopia has vast hydropower resources,
effective mobilization is beset by rainfall shortages and technical, funding, and management
constraints. In sum, the supply demand balance would need to be constantly and carefully managed.

1
For example, rolling blackouts, a staple of daily life in Ethiopia, are very ineffective in reducing loads in energy
constrained, as opposed to peak constrained systems; intra-day load is shifted by customers. Meaningful power load
reduction will have to be constrained by many additional hours.
2
Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) are smaller versions of standard fluorescent lamps. They consume about 86% less
energy, and last up to 10 times longer than comparable incandescent lights. Also, they can generally directly replace standard
incandescent bulbs.

7
Based on the successful experience of massive deployment of CFLs to help mitigate the existing
power crisis, the GoE is planning to acquire and distribute an additional batch of 10 million units. The
business model, currently being discussed, will likely entail the sale of those efficient lamps at
competitive prices. In addition the GoE is studying ways to reduce the energy intensity of the existing
Injera baking stoves, which represent about 100 MW of additional peak load. Ethiopia is conscious
that supply and demand sources should be explored to increase power supply reliability as well as
reduce costs.

Demand reduction and energy conservation programs are considered an excellent tool to economically
add to power supply at low cost by saving energy. DSM’s implementation makes social,
environmental and economic sense; EEPCo, it is recommended, should make DSM planning a
dynamic part of its planning process and train its key staff in understanding its benefits, costs and
impacts. Mitad3, the Injera electric baking stoves (IEBS), offers significant opportunities in this area.
Across the country, Injera, the staple food, is baked—culturally desired—at home, usually twice a
week. Injera baking is considered the most energy intensive activity4 in Ethiopia. In large cities,
electricity is basically the only alternative to wood-fuel, since there is no natural gas and the use of
LPG, due to its high cost, is very limited.

Daily use of Mitad in Addis Ababa, with the most grid-connected households, in view of serious daily
power supply shortfalls, adversely impacts the daily peak load demand. The impact is especially
severe on week days, given the timing of Mitad use—mid morning and mid noon—and the high
power needs, about 3.0 – 3.5 kW of each Mitad. Compounding the situation is Mitad’s design has not
evolved in terms of energy efficiency. EEPCo’s prevailing low power tariffs and wide spread
subsidies further exacerbates the situation.5 Residential customers, including those with high
consumption, up to 499 kWh per month, are getting subsidized tariffs.6 Cost reflective pricing is
needed to lower power demand, eliminate wasteful energy use, and encourage use of energy efficiency
measures. An effective implementation will strengthen EEPCo’s financial footings.

To manage peak load demand in Addis Ababa, there is an urgent need on part of EEPCo to formulate
and successfully implement appropriate demand-side management (DSM) and energy efficiency
programs. Increasing power supply is expensive and time-consuming.

In developed countries, electric utilities and energy planners often use integrated resource planning
(IRP)7; combining planning for electricity-capacity increases to meet growing demand with cost-
effective reductions in the use of electricity. This combination reduces the total amount of electricity
needed yet maintains the same level of electricity services. Many utilities use DSM primarily to solve
very specific problems and not as a tool to obtain demand-side resources that could be an alternative to
supply-side resources in the scope of an IRP process. IRP uses both supply-side and demand-side
planning approaches to achieve the lowest cost plan that meets both utility objectives and customer
needs. The central objective is to minimize the cost of electricity to all customer groups. In the context
of its needs, EEPCo should review all such strategies for potential implementation.

However, near-term options to effectively mitigate Mitad-generated peak load demand in Addis Ababa
are limited. Effective near-term measures may include: use of thermostats to reduce consumption for
existing stoves, review of the tariff structure for residential users, implementation of time-of-use

3
Mitad refers to the cooking surface of the Injera baking stove. However, in this study, the term is used only for an electric
(Injera baking) stove in its entirety.
4
Use of wood, as fuel, is widespread, particularly in rural areas. Many urban areas including Addis Ababa, also use wood as
fuel for baking,
5
In the late 90’s the Government of Ethiopia’s (GoE’s) multiple-part inverted block tariff structure, provided subsidies to
households to switch from wood fuel to electricity. Average tariffs fell from 6.1 US cents/kWh in 2007 to 4.7 in 2009,
magnifying EEPCo’s financial deterioration. To date, the GoE has only partially rectified this situation.
6
A 2008/09 study conducted by the consultant Scott Wilson Pisold recommended three categories (possibly two) of tariffs:
below 50 kWh and elimination for middle-income users to foster energy conservation.
7
In the USA, the Energy Policy Act of 1992 required employment of IRP by electric utilities and actual implementation of
the plans developed.

8
(ToU) tariffs, and campaigns to ask customers to bake Injera during off-peak hours. Selected
interventions would need to be backed by: proper planning; prioritized implementation to gain
experience and for effectiveness, an intervention, however may have to be backed by legislative
mandates. It would be useful to design and implement pilot programs to test Mitad’s DSM techniques
and also to help motivate customers to change their attitude and behavior towards energy use.

Given the urgent need to develop energy efficient, cost effective Mitad—the existing design waste
over 35% heat—GoE should provide incentives to the few, currently fledgling, start up entrepreneurs
in this area. To prevent their crash and burn, such incentives need to be provided in a well-planned,
well-monitored, fashion. Few suggested ones are: direct financial support, preferably cost-shared; tax
credits; and enabling policy support such as marketing campaigns and development of pilots. At
present, two small private firms have taken initiatives to develop new Mitad designs. The constraints
to continue design and/or field implementation cited during interviews included: lack of: capital,
bureaucratic red tape, and severe lack of credible baseline data and information required for planning.

Within a reasonable time frame, following the above, EEPCo should also consider a number of other
measures such as: comprehensive surveys and studies covering data on customer needs and
characteristics. Such (currently missing) information is considered crucial to planning, both by the
public and the private sectors. Energy data should cover residential, commercial and key
manufacturing industries. Over time, the survey coverage could be expanded. It is important that the
surveys are carefully formulated and data collected should mirror the complexity of the population
surveyed.

For medium- and long-term sustenance of DSM and energy efficiency measures implemented, it is
also recommended that, based on prioritization, EEPCo: (i) with legislative backing, implement cost
reflective tariffs, socially adjusted to accommodate the very poor; (ii) devise energy labeling
programs; (iii) develop load forecasting (especially energy and peak, load shapes, and consumption);
(iv) Identify additional DSM options, including their achievable potential and design appropriate DMS
programs; and performing cost/benefit analysis; (v) improve communication systems to state-of-the-
art, for potential implementation such as of clipper devices for Mitad’s, air-conditioners and other
equipment; and (vi) balance power supply and demand such as through (a) timely planning self-
rationing; (b) conducting applied research related to energy conservation; and (c) improved power
infrastructure. These and other appropriate strategies will have greater effectiveness, if backed by
reliable qualitative and quantitative data, currently, in many cases, at best, weak or unreliable.

Unbundling of EEPCo will improve its operational efficiency and competition—competition often has
significant impact on DSM activities. Since DSM’s implementation makes social, environmental and
economic sense, EEPCo should make DSM a dynamic part of its planning process and train its key
staff in understanding its benefits, costs and impacts. Use of DSM and energy conservation can also be
an effective hedge against the country’s hydrological vulnerabilities. For energy efficiency and
demand side management initiatives, EEPCo has available US$ 10 million as part of EAREP I, which
was restructured to accommodate those activities and help GoE manage the power crisis. Some funds
are available for studies and pilots in the area of electric baking stoves.

On the supply side, while hydropower is an excellent option to provide additional capacity, when
rainfall is adequate, EEPCo’s long term goal should be to find a mix of supply (and also assess
demand) resources that lowers the present and future electricity costs, while assuring, sustainable,
acceptable, quality of power supply.

However, for the very short term, it appears that EEPCo does not have many levers that it can pull.
There are no quick fixes to mitigating the Mitad-related peak load demand in Addis Ababa. A well
implemented, carefully monitored, integrated approach is likely to have long-term effectiveness and
sustainability.

9
1 INTRODUCTION
Ethiopia is endowed with significant amounts of energy resources: for example, vast hydropower—the
country is nicknamed, water tower of northeast Africa— substantial biomass,8 and potentially large,
natural gas fields, located in remote areas. Despite abundance of primary energy resources, the country
is seriously energy constrained since the potential resources have largely remained undeveloped.

A major outcome of the above situation is serious power shortage faced in 2009. Next to food
problems energy crisis is country’s second most serious problem, since lack of energy trickles down to
the entire economy. The country’s current energy capita consumption, at 13,000 MJ per annum is
among the lowest in the World.

Ethiopia is also one of the most energy inefficient countries in terms of per capita gross domestic
production (GDP) per ton of oil equivalent,9 even when compared to most of the other Sub-Saharan
countries. The value per thousand metric tons of oil equivalent per GDP is 477 for Ethiopia, 425 for
Sub-Saharan Africa and 244 for the World. Figure 1: Energy Use vs. GDP graphically depicts this
aspect.

Improving efficiency is a key to optimize the

use of capital and to reduce intense pace of
deforestation—fuelwood is the “fuel of
choice” in rural areas, in spite of its adverse
environmental and health impacts.

Within the energy mix, modern fuels, in

particular electricity, are in limited supply.
Only about 7 percent of the country’s total
population, estimated at 82.5 million,10 is
grid-connected.11 About 25% of the towns
and villages have access to electricity. This
situation encourages great reliance on
biomass—agricultural residues, cow dung
etc.—and fuelwood, intensifying
Figure 1: Energy Use vs. GDP deforestation and soil degradation. Widely
used kerosene for lighting and off-grid diesel
generators is expensive and environmentally polluting. Over 75% of rural population lives in scattered
villages posing formidable technical and financial challenges to grid-connection.

Traditional fuels, for example, cow dung, biomass or BLT-Branches, Leaves and Trees12--as the locals
often say-supply about 99.9% of the rural energy needs.13 The single largest demand for energy is for
subsistence, primarily domestic cooking needs. It comprises of about 88% of the total national energy
balance, and accounts for over 90% of the total energy consumed. 14 Given subsistence, rather than
productive energy use, there is no escape from vicious poverty cycle prevalent mostly in rural areas

8
Hydropower potential is estimated at 15,000- 30,000 MW. Natural gas reserves, particularly in the remote Ogaden Basin
Region and reserves at Calub are estimated at 2.3 trillion ft3.
9
One metric ton of oil equivalent (toe) is the amount of energy contained in 1 metric ton of crude oil, and equals 41.868
gigajoules.
10
CIA Fact-book, 2008; Central Intelligence Agency, Langley, Virginia, USA
11
See World Bank Project Appraisal Summary for “Tana Beles Integrated Water Resources Development Project: May 2,
2008, World Bank Report No. 43400-ET.
12
Comprises over 82% of the total energy consumed in the country according to published information.
13
Of these, fuelwood is by far the most important source (81.8%), followed by dung (9.4%), crop residues (8.4%) and small
amount of charcoal (EPA, 1997a: 107).
14
EASSER, Vol. XXI, no. 1 (January 2005).

10
where majority of the country lives. The large extent of reliance on biomass entails significant
environmental, economic and other costs.

Ethiopia is facing a potentially continuous, serious power crisis. The immediate causes of the 2009
power crisis included low rainfalls, delays in the construction of Gilgel Gibe II hydropower plant, and
lower than expected rainfall for the past 2-3 seasons. The crisis results in regular blackouts and load
shedding for several hours on a national level. The lack of adequate power has been a major constraint
to economic development and to improving populations’ living standards.

1.1 The National Utility: EEPCo

The Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation (EEPCo),15 the national, 100 percent government-owned,
autonomous utility, provides electricity in Ethiopia—the utility has about 1,700,000 grid-connected
customers; most are in Addis Ababa.

EEPCo’s total generating capacity, as of 2008, is estimated at 857 MW. An additional 460 MW of
hydropower from Gilgel Gibe II is projected to be available in late 2009 and an additional, about 50
MW from Tekeze (lake not full yet). Over 92% - 94% of electricity production is hydropower based
and represents just 2.3 percent of the country’s economically feasible hydropower potential.

In addition, the country’s grid-based diesel capacity of 30 MW (owned by EEPCo), and 60 MW

leased, is running at very high generation factor, producing power at a very high cost, about 30 US
cents/kWh. Also, several medium-size localities receive part-time service from diesel-generators, as
part of the self-contained system (SCS).

Ethiopia’s inadequate power network suffers from technical, management and funding constraints.
Power transmission losses are estimated to be 4-6 percent while distribution losses as per EEPCo are
in the range of 12-14 percent. Also, EEPCo’s current staff is over-stretched given the number and
complexity of the power projects under development. Private sector however is not interested, given
perception of high investment and political risks, and lack of adequate regulatory support, such as for
potential Independent Power Producers. Ethiopia, currently is trying to create a favorable business
climate for private investments in off-grid, mini hydro. A recent bill of law governing feed-in-tariffs
should encourage the emergence of the private sector in generation.

EEPCo’s key challenges, whose scale and complexity is enormous, include:

(i) Lack of financial investments including concessionary funds by external donors for
strengthening power infrastructure—EEPCo’s financial footing to cope with the
magnitude of the required investments is best at weak;
(ii) Urgent need to rebalance tariffs – both in term of revenue requirements, tariff structure,
and stronger charges for reactive power. A requested average tariff increase of 43% is
being examined by the Council of Ministers.
(iii) Need to reconcile environmental concerns with the government's objective to build
additional hydropower plants; and
(iv) Need to improve power access in rural areas? Until this is done, wood would continue to
be the dominant fuel used since very few, less than 1% of the total rural consumers are
connected to the grid.

In the domestic sector, Injera baking, the national bread is the most energy intensive activity in
Ethiopia. The staple food is usually home-baked with electric or fuelwood stoves at high

15
Previously known as Ethiopia Electric Light and Power Authority, EEPLA

11
temperature.16 In the urban areas, the shift primarily from biomass fuels to electricity for Injera baking
occurred in mid 80’s when the Government of Ethiopia (GOE), in view of excess power availability,
encouraged the population to use more electricity and to help, implemented de-gressive tariffs—more
electricity consumption, less tariffs.

To achieve its objectives, the government also embarked upon a large scale manufacturing and
marketing at subsidized rates, Injera electric baking stoves (IEBS) or Mitads,17 as they are referred to
in this study. As a result, the ownership of Mitad increased from 13% in 1984 to over 70% in 1997.
EEPCo provided financing that made the Mitad affordable to even the poorest consumers. However, in
late 90’s, power supply significantly deteriorated and EEPCo abandoned most of these practices.
Currently, based on a design which has not improved energy efficiency over time18, Mitads in Ethiopia
are being manufactured by limited small-scale industry.

Given the widespread lack of electricity across the country, the most commonly utilized fuel for Injera
baking continues to be biomass, both in urban and rural areas. Wood burning stoves 19 in use in large
numbers however, are highly energy inefficient, and entail significant health and safety hazards, in
addition to unsustainable wood supply and environmental degradation. There is an urgent need to
replace these stoves with the energy efficient ones.

1.2 Overview of Power Sector in Addis Ababa

EEPCo’s great majority of power load comes from Addis Ababa. The capital city is the national leader
in terms of average monthly energy expenditure and its share in the overall monthly household budget.
The City, Ethiopia’s economic hub, however is not free from daily power crises, unscheduled
blackouts, and low quality power supply. Daily use of Mitads is a major contributing factor. It is
estimated that in Addis Ababa, over 75% households, about 457,500 households, own an electric
Mitad for baking Injera bread.20 Mitad’s use contributes with about 100 MW during peak load.
Outside the capital city, most people use wood or other available fuels such as agricultural residues.

In the City, and in rest of the country, Injera is usually baked twice a week. Often, the daily baking
time coincides with the EEPCo’s week-day peak power loads. The result is low voltage levels, voltage
fluctuations beyond acceptable ranges, frequent breakdowns, and delays in restoring supply after a
breakdown has occurred. This is an ongoing problem. The peak load stresses the distribution and sub-
transmission system, increasing losses. The negative economic ripples, as stated earlier, cause
economic losses on a daily basis.

Contributing to the power shortages is EEPCo’s low power tariffs as well as wide spread subsidies—
these are even provided to high intensive users—up to 499 kWh per month. Subsidies mask the real
price of a resource while encouraging its wasteful use. In addition, power metering (for domestic and
small general consumers) in Addis Ababa is based on established technology, economically
questionable. EEPCo recovers the capital and O&M costs of metering from customers in the form of
service charge which for customers with low consumption add significantly to the per unit cost of

16
For centuries it has been cooked on simple clay stoves, built over an open fire. These stoves, known as mogogos, are
smoky and dangerous and often difficult to start, requiring a lot of blowing, and large amounts of kerosene, to get them
going. They are very inefficient and require a lot of wood fuel to complete the cooking process.
17
Mitad actually refers to the cooking surface of the Injera baking, electric, wood, kerosene etc., stoves. It is made of ceramic
or clay, in few cases, iron is used. In this study, it is exclusively used for electric baking Injera stoves.
18 The design is basically the one from the 1960’s and has not evolved. The 65% achieved energy efficiency using diatomite
insulation is already on the higher end. Most IEBS perform in the range between 55 and 60%. Further research on design and
manufacturing is long overdue.
19
Some research in Ethiopia has produced improved wood stoves, somewhat more expensive than traditional stoves.
However, fuel consumption is reduced by 25 to 60% and use of chimney minimizes any health risks.
20
A World Bank ESMAP study, Ethiopia: Energy Assessment, Report No. 179/96, February 1996 put estimates at 91 percent
and 62% for kerosene and electric Mitad respectively. Also, from no-use kerosene, as of 2008, over 90% AA households own
one or more kerosene Injera baking stoves. The more recent estimates cited are from EEPCo Engineer Abdul Rahman.

12
electricity. The system encourages illegal power connections—power gets sold at higher rates—and
power thefts.

To mitigate power shortages and outages, EEPCo has been diligently reviewing its options. These
include: increasing tariffs; reducing and/or eliminating most subsidies; implementing energy
efficiency measures such as encouraging development of improved Mitad design(s), and implementing
Demand-side Management (DSM) programs. However, for the Mitad, there is a dearth of information
and research.21

As part of the above efforts, the World Bank funded this study with the objective of identifying issues
and options, focusing on the use of IEBS (Mitads) in Addis Ababa. It includes developing an overview
of the stove manufacturers, suppliers, household practices and recommendations on appropriate energy
efficiency and other appropriate options for potential use by EEPCo. With the support of this study, it
is hoped that GOE will be in a better position to define and develop additional studies as well as
implementation plan(s), possibly leading to deployment of cost-effective, energy efficient stoves.

21
Along with refrigerators, electric baking (and/or cooking) stoves are the first appliance purchased when incomes rise; Air
conditioners and/or washing machines come next.

13
2 INJERA BREAD BAKING
Figure 2: This Injera meal, consisting of Injera
and several kinds of Wat or Tsebhi (stew), is
typical of Eritrean and Ethiopian cuisine.
Injera, somewhat of a cross between crepe and crumpet,
is pancake-like bread. It has bubbly texture on top, a
smooth, crepe-papery texture underside, with the color of
elephant skin. Injera is as vital to Ethiopians as pasta is
to Italians; most dishes are served on top of Injera, and
while eating, pieces of Injera are used to pick up morsels
of food. The bread’s tang is said to infuse every taste and
its softness envelops every bite. The best Injera is said to
be made of 100 percent Teff grain, which gives it a soft,
velvety quality and lets the batter ferment longer to make
it tangier. Such an Injera is said to be filling while not
high in calories. In Ethiopia, Injera baking accounts for
over 50% of all primary energy consumption.

2.1 Teff: the Tiniest Grain, a Nutritional Powerhouse

Teff grain is the smallest grain in the World.22 Teff in Amharic (Ethiopian) language is called "Teffa",
meaning "lost", so named because of the grain’s small size—less than 1 mm in diameter—tinier than a
poppy seed, almost one-tenth of the size of wheat; approximately 150 Teff grains equal the size of a
kernel of wheat.

Teff grain can be eaten as cereal or polenta.23 A variety, brown

Maskal Teff, is rich in flavor with a subtle nutty after-taste.
Ivory teff, milder in taste, is said to be equally nutritious. In
spite of being the tiniest, Teff is a nutritional powerhouse—low
in fat, high in fiber and nutrients; Teff contains 11% protein,
80% complex carbohydrate, and 3% fat. It is an excellent source
of essential amino acids, especially lysine, the amino acid that is
most often deficient in most grain foods.

It is also an alternative grain for people allergic to the gluten in

wheat. Teff has an appealing, sweet, molasses-like flavor, and
Figure 3: Upper left: Rye kernels;
boils up into a gelatinous porridge. The low gluten helps Injera upper right: Teff; lower left: Long
bread to remain quite flat. Grain Rice; lower right: Amaranth
Source: http://marcsala.blogspot.com/
2009/02/teff-worlds-smallest-grain.html
Teff, an intermediate between a tropical and temperate grass,
belongs to Love Grass (Eragrostis tef).24 It is native to
northeastern Africa and southwestern Arabia; Teff is also grown in some parts of India. However, the
grain, discovered around 3,359 BC, is believed to have originated in Ethiopia, where, currently it
provides over two-thirds of human nutrition.25 It is cultivated in the northern Ethiopian Highlands of

22
Teff is one of the smallest grains in the world, measuring only about 1/32 of an inch in diameter. Three thousand grains of
Teff weigh one gram. Teff is considered to have an excellent amino acid composition and lysine levels. One cup of cooked
Teff contains 387 milligrams of calcium (40 percent of the USRDA, which is more than milk), 15 milligrams of iron (100
percent of the USRDA and twice as much iron as wheat and barley). Teff is high in protein as well as fiber and is a rich
source of boron, copper, phosphorus, zinc. Teff being nearly gluten-free, and is gaining popularity in the whole food and
Health food industry in the U.S. as an alternative grain for persons with gluten sensitivity. It is considered good for diabetics.
(See: http://www.zelaleminjera.com/products.html).
23
A thick mush made of cornmeal boiled in water or stock.
24
Eragrostis is a member of the tribe Eragrosteae, sub-family Eragrostoidae, of the family, Poaceae (Gramineae). Eragrostis
tef (or Maskal Teff) borrows its name from Greek, to mean "the grass of love" from eros - love, and agrostis – grass.
25
Stallknecht, G.F., K.M. Gilbertson, and J.L. Eckhoff: 1993. Teff: Food crop for humans and animals. p. 231-234. In: J.
Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.); New Crops. Wiley, New York

14
northeastern Africa—requires 1,700-2,200 meters altitudes and adequate rainfall. In Ethiopia, its
growing covers the greatest land space, about 31 percent.

Agro-climatically, Teff can be cultivated under a wide range of

environmental conditions such as on marginal soils including
waterlogged soils to drought conditions. One pound of Teff
grains can produce up to one ton of grain in about 12 weeks, and
under optimum conditions, Teff produces very high yields, over
1,100 Kg/ha. The round grain is white, khaki, or very deep
reddish brown in color. The stalks are useful as animal fodder.

Teff harvesting is very time consuming and labor intensive to

separate grains from stalks. Given the tiny size—three thousands
grains weigh one gram—Teff often is lost during the harvesting
and threshing process. The process is a major contributor to its Figure 4: Harvesting Teff in Ethiopia
Source: http://www.foodista.com
high cost. It is the most expensive grain to purchase in Ethiopia.

2.1.1 Teff Growing in US

Given the increasing demand, primarily by the Ethiopian Diasporas, some farmers particularly in
Idaho (e.g., Snake River region), South Dakota, and Montana are growing Teff. The cultivated areas—
acreages fluctuate yearly—often have geological and climatic similarities with the Ethiopia’s Teff
growing region. The grain is sold (in smaller quantities) for Injera-making in the US. In addition, as a
super rich nutrient grain, Teff is also finding a market in the US health food stores. Among the US
growers is a private firm, the Teff Company,26 which grows Maskal Teff and has been supplying the
grain across the US for over twenty years.

2.2 Injera Baking: the Common Practice

Injera bread baking is an art. Multiple things must be met in order to make distinctive tasting and
textured Injera. Some or all of these multiple requirements have hindered successful automation of the
Injera production process on a larger, commercial scale. An
average family (of 4 - 5 members) bakes about 30 pieces of
Injera, 58-60 cm in diameter, during a week, taking 2-3 hours.

Injera bread is made27 from the fermented batter of Teff flour

(from milled Teff grains), and cooked (baked) on a large, flat,
black clay cooking plate below a hat-like metal cover. In
Western Ethiopia, to make Injera, some people use corn or
sorghum and limited quantity of Teff. Since the batter needs to
ferment for about three days before cooking, large amounts are
made in one go. Most Ethiopians daily eat 1-2 Injera breads,
Figure 5: Ground Teff Flour for Making usually round shaped and often same-day baked.28 In
Injera Batter traditional cooking, Injera is cooked on a very hot clay or stone
oven, and normally is patterned into a round and flat shape or configuration, much like a tortilla or a
pancake. A cover may be placed over the batter for cooking Injera to assist in its shaping and cooking.

26
Telephone no. 1-888-822-2221; Maskal Teff is rich in flavor with a subtle nutty aftertaste.
27
In the U.S. an Injera brand, popular with the Ethiopian Diasporas is called Zelalem Injera. It is made of processed wheat
flour, organic whole wheat, organic barley, Rye, Buckwheat and Teff flour.
(See: http://www.zelaleminjera.com/aboutus.html)
28
Many houses in Ethiopia do not use utensils. Instead, various stews are spooned in mounds on top of 1-2 Injera—items are
usually placed symmetrically around a central item—and pieces are torn off extra Injera and used to scoop up the food. The
tastiest portion is the one that has scooped up the juice and flavor of each stew.

15
 To make Injera, the Teff grains are milled and powdered and
mixed with water. In some situations, other flours such as
barley, buckwheat, corn and/or wheat are added in order to
vary the taste and as a cost-saving measure. Adding food-
grade yeast to the batter facilitates the fermentation process
and may improve the taste and according to some people,
increases vitamins availability. The batter, like the sour
dough batter, can be stored or preserved in lots; for longer
storage—3 or more days, refrigeration is recommended.

At the household level, mixing of powdered Teff flour,

water, yeast, and other ingredients, to form dough, is often
Figure 6: Pouring Injera Batter on a Mitad
done by hand either in a trough or on a tabletop. Proper
mixing is important to the overall quality of baked Injera bread. Mixing is followed by kneading
which involves stretching and folding of dough until its consistency becomes smooth. Some
households and small bakers use rollers to repeatedly press the dough. Often, Injera is cooked in large
batches, three or sometimes more times a week.

Mixing with water also helps to achieve required

consistency, little thinner than pancake batter-and enables
the mixture to flow freely when poured on a cooking
surface. A thin enough batter ensures a finished Injera of
one centimeter or less in thickness. The mixed batter is
then allowed to ferment, typically for a few days before it
is ready for baking. The fermentation involved is a
delicate process and is temperature and humidity sensitive.
A good temperature is 250C. Published information
indicates that Candida guilliermondii is the
microorganism primarily responsible for the fermentation
process.29 Batter viscosity, depending upon mixture
Figure 7: “Eyes” on Injera bread
composition and other factors, of approximately two
30
hundred to fifteen hundred (200 to 1500 centipoises (Cp) is preferred since it helps retain leavening
gases.31

While pouring the batter, on hot flat pan—called Mitad which is made of ceramic, (hardened) clay—a
circular motion is used to achieve thin consistency and desired round shape. During this process,
thousands of tiny air bubbles escape, creating numerous tiny craters or “eyes”, giving Injera the
familiar looks on the topside. The side touching the hot Mitad pan gets a flat look. Injera is preferred
when it is radially uniform, is soft and flexible, has a unique brownish color, a spongy texture with
voids (i.e. “eyes”) and generally should increase in diameter from the bottom to the top. The diameter
of typical bread is about 55 to 58 cm. However, smaller breads used by small families are also baked.
Injera is served with such popular Ethiopian dishes as Wots, Tibs and Fitfit.32

The percentage of Teff grains to make Injera is important culturally and aesthetically. In some ways, it
reflects the wealth of the family. Color of the Teff also matters; the lighter the color, the more

29
Research studies have shown that if the fermentation process is prolonged to produce the sour type of Injera, essential
nutrients particularly amino acids such as lysine are lost in the liquid which is removed from the dough. The nutrient loss can
be reduced if the fermentation process is shortened but then the result is a sweet type of Injera, which does not store as well
as the sour type.
30
A unit of measure of absolute viscosity: the viscosity of water is one centipoise; the lower the number, the less viscous the
material. See also: http://www.zelaleminjera.com/products.html.
31
Leavening is that which gives Injera bread (and cakes, muffins, pancakes and so forth) the ability to rise. Leavening agents
may include: air and carbon dioxide (each expands when heated) and steam.
32
To eat the dishes pieces of Injera are torn off and used to scoop up mouthful. Injera bread costs 2-3 birr (about US 29 cents.
Typical Injera bread has 92 calories (about 5.5 calories from fat), 21 grams (7%) total carbohydrates, 3.0 grams of Protein
(6%), and less than 0.61 grams (less than 1 percent) fat.

16
expensive the grain is; families eating all-Teff grains Injera are considered to be on a higher social and
economic status.

In Addis Ababa, urban households often use electricity and fire wood to bake Injera; some low-income
people use animal dung, crop residue and twigs and branches (See Section 2.3). In rural areas, or
where electricity is not available, wood is the fuel of choice. Of the 65 million Ethiopians living in
rural areas, less than one percent has access to electricity according to GTZ. A thorough understanding
of Injera baking process is considered crucial to improving and/or developing energy-efficient, cost
effective new Mitad designs.

2.2.1 Injera Baking in US

The Ethiopian Diaspora in the U.S. bakes Injera at home or buys from an ethnic store. Occasionally,
limited supplies are also available at some supermarkets such as Whole Foods.

At the individual household level, a common cooking appliance

used is a grill; a common one is shown in Figure 8: Silverstone®
Heritage Lefse Grill . As in Ethiopia, in the US as well, Injera is
baked one-at-a-time. The UL-listed probe control, 1,450 watts
power, electric griddle is 16” in diameter and is made of
aluminum or non-stick surface. It has a full range of dial
temperatures from warming to 5000C. The cost of a Lefse Grill33
averages $92 in the US. Exporting Lefse or similar grills to
Ethiopia may be costly due to voltage differences, 220 volts in
Ethiopia and 110 volts in US, as well as transportation and
others costs.
Figure 8: Silverstone® Heritage Lefse
Grill
The one-at-a-time baking process followed is highly energy
inefficient and time consuming and produces variable size and quality of Injera. Since Teff has been
expensive to import, and U.S.-grown supplies are limited, the Ethiopian Diaspora over the years tried
several alternatives to substitute Teff. Included were substitution with Aunt Jemima Self-Rising Flour,
whole wheat, barley, and/or rice flour and used baking powder as a leavening agent. Beer, instead of
food-grade yeast, was added to replicate the fermentation that Teff undergoes. However, given the
inability to produce Injera of acceptable quality, most of these efforts were quickly abandoned.

To meet increasing US demand, one manufacturer, ZELFIWU Inc. 34 has developed and installed two
large scale Injera baking machines in the US. One of these machines is located in Dallas, Texas. The
other one is in Washington DC.35 At each of these locations, Teff dough is fermented for 7 days rather
than 3-4 days, norm in Ethiopia; the longer period produces better tasting Injera, as per the Manager of
the DC plant. The DC-based unit operates only at night, which helps in delivering Injera early in the
morning.

A tour of the DC plant, accompanied with the Plant Manager,36 was taken on July 11, 2009. The entire
operation seemed to be well organized and overall uses good housekeeping practices. To keep costs
low, the feedstock used for Injera batter is made with a mixture of Teff, buckwheat, rye, and whole
wheat.

33
Standard grill is large, 16" diameter, all-purpose grill and has non- stick finish. A new generation features unique overflow
spout on deep edge rim to control spills and splatter, heat resistant legs, hardwood handles. The U.L. listed probe control has
a short cord for countertop convenience, with a full range of dial temperatures from warming to 500 degrees. The grill is also
ideal for making Injera as well as grilling steaks, making pizzas, smoking fish, making eggs, pancakes, Injera and many other
favorites.
34
Designer/Owner is Dr. Wudneh Admassu, Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of Idaho:
Email: wadmassur@uidaho.edu, Telephone No. 208-885-8918
35
Physical location is: 2260 25th Street, NE, Washington DC 20018; Telephone no. 202-832-0281 (See Figure 22)
36
Mr. Kassahum Maru; Telephone No. 703-628-5716; Email: Zinjera@yahoo.com

17
The plant supplies Injera to Ethiopian grocery stores, restaurants, and some supermarkets such as
Whole Foods. A packet of five Injera bread is retailed for $5. According to the plant manager, there
are approximately 180,000 Ethiopians living in the Washington DC
metro area and the DC unit is only able to meet a small fraction of
the area’s total Injera demand. In addition to the household
production and the limited factory production, according to the Plant
Manger, close to 40,000 Injera breads are currently being imported
every month from Ethiopia for sale in the Washington, DC area..
The shelf-life of the plant-made Injera bread is said to be 5-6 days, as
compared with 2-3 days for homemade Injera in Ethiopia. The
Manager indicated that, after a couple of years of teething troubles,
Figure 9: A 5-piece, $5 Injera the operation is now breaking even, and in the very near future is
Package likely to be profitable.

When inquired, the management indicated that, the Plant’s (Ethiopian Native) owners are not
interested in transferring the technology and/or installing a similar operation in Ethiopia. It cited
several reasons including: lack of (enforceable) patent protection; extensive red tape in setting up a
business; difficulties in getting feedstock; high cost of rental building; and others.

At this time, it could not be ascertained whether Injera made with pure Teff flour is available in the
US. The Ethiopian Diasporas purchase Teff flour from local ethnic stores which may be Ethiopian or
US grown. The flour sold and/or used for Injera baking in is US, most likely, is a mixture consisting
of: Teff, corn, millet, rice, Buckwheat, and barley; the packages are poorly labeled plastic bags. Based
on anecdotal evidence, Teff imports from Ethiopia are said to have significantly contributed to the
prevailing high prices, recently, as much as 1,300 Birr, about
US $ 130 per (metric) quintal (100 kilograms) in Ethiopia.
Teff prices considerably vary across the country.

Injera baking is the major component of household energy use

in Ethiopia. It is estimated that over 50 percent of the overall
households’ energy consumption is for ‘Injera’ baking. For
the urban poor households, and many rural Ethiopians,
fuelwood is the major source of energy consumed. Many
middle-income urban households in Addis Ababa also use
biomass, given lack of reliability of power supply. However,
there is no credible quantification of the extent of biomass Figure 10: Making Injera Dough for
used as fuel. Nevertheless, continued fuelwood supplies are Fermentation after Mixing with Water
unsustainable and wood fuel use has adverse health impacts, in
addition to being environmentally degrading. The choice of alternative fuels is generally available in
urban rather than rural areas. Table 1: Determination of Yearly Wood Fuel and Cost Savings By Virtue
of Using 3.5 kW Electric Conventional or 1.2 kW Induction Stove shows comparative view.

Table 1: Determination of Yearly Wood Fuel and Cost Saving By Virtue of Using a 3.5kW Electric
Conventional or a 1.2kW Induction Stoves
Yearly
Types of Energy Unit Price and/ Fuel No of Injera Consumption Energy Cost
Energy
Stoves In Sources or Electric Consumption/ Produced of Fuel/Per Per Injera
Bill (In
Use In Use Tariff (in Birrs) Injera Per Year Year (In Birr)
Birr)
1 2 3 4 5 6 (4x5) 7 (3x4) 8 (3 x6)
Mirt Wood 0.569 /KG 0.154KGj 3,120 480.5KG 0.0876 273.40
Gonzie Wood 0.569/KG 0.145KGj 3,120 452.4KG 0.0825 257.42
Open Fire Wood 0.569 /KG 0.35KGj 3,120 1,092.0KG 0.1992 621.35

18
 Table 1: (continued)
Wood Saving/ Cost Saving/
Types of Year (KG) Year (Birr)
Stoves In
Use Using 3.5kW Using 1.2kW Using 3.5kW Using 1.2kW
Conv. Mitad Induction. Mitad Conv. Mitad Induction Mitad
1 9 (6) 10 (6) 11 12
Mirt 480.5 480.5 45.56 200.37
Gonzie 452.4 452.4 29.58 184.39
Open Fire 1092.0 1092.0 393.51 548.32

2.3 Household Fuel Choices in Ethiopia

The Addis Ababa urban poor, unable to afford electricity, face greater problems as compared with
economically well off. Anecdotal evidence indicates that, within this category, the lowest income
group spends over two-thirds of its income on fuel. This group continues to rely on wood fuels, which,
increasingly, are becoming very scarce. Some studies on bread-baking in Nigeria37 have shown that
use of wood as energy source required the highest energy (6.15 kJ/min), compared with 3.37 kJ/min
and 1.52 kJ/min obtained with gas and electricity as sources of energy, respectively.

The second group in Addis Ababa is the lower-income electricity users. This group tends not to use
electricity for much cooking, and their use, for example, for Injera baking (and/or water heating) tends
to be spread out over non-peak periods. For the poor or the lower-middle class, wood38and charcoal,
given (relatively) lower costs, as compared to electricity, for example, seems to be the fuel of choice.
These are important factors to consider when planning energy use and conservation measures such as
for Mitads.

A 2008 research study39 shows that in urban Ethiopia, as

households’ total expenditures rise, the number of fuels
used is increased—more money is spent on fuels
consumed, including charcoal, but not wood. Also, with
rising income, fuels’ stacking—use of multiple fuels—is
preferred rather than total shifting to cleaner fuels such as
electricity. The results also show that fuel types, such as
wood, contrary to the common perception, are not
considered inferior goods.

Another study shows that, given limited household’s Figure 11: Ethiopian Women Carrying Wood
Source: Ethiopian Electric Agency
options as well as stove design to bake Injera, fuel
stacking in (urban) Ethiopia is more common than is widely believed Households choose either solid
fuels only electricity. LPG is not widely used since supplies in Addis Ababa are very limited.

The above situation is in contrast to widely held belief that as households’ incomes rise, people move
up the Energy Ladder. Instead published research, supported by discussions with EEPCo, shows that
households chose fuels from a menu. While income is an important variable, other variables such
baking, cooking, and consumption habits, dependability of supply, cost and households’ preferences
and tastes, also have a bearing on the selection of a particular fuel.

In terms of types of fuels for Mitads, electric, wood, charcoal etc., for Addis Ababa, there is no
credible information available on the distribution of each. Anecdotal evidence, supported by EEPCo,
suggests that the ratio between different types is equally divided. Notwithstanding the above, and

37
Ergonomic Evaluation and Energy Requirements of Bread-baking Operations in South Western Nigeria Jekayinfa, S.O.
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, P.M.B. 4000, Ogbomoso, Oyo State,
Nigeria E-mail: jekaysol@yahoo.com.
38
Current wood cost in Addis Ababa is about 1 Birr/Kg.
39
http://www.rff.org/RFF/Documents/EfD-DP-08-18.pdf

19
based on anecdotal evidence, households in Addis Ababa with larger expenditure and/or educated
members are less likely to choose only solid fuels as their main fuel.

Given serious lack of data and data gaps, it is suggested that

EEPCo conducts a well designed household survey to assess
consumer needs and preference. Availability of such data and
information is crucial to overall energy planning including
developing viable options to manage peak load power demand and
power supply in Addis Ababa. The role as well as the importance
of opportunity cost and the harmful environmental and health
aspects of use of coal and biomass fuels also need to be properly
weighed.40 Use of electric or solar41 baking stoves, in this context
saves trees and eliminates health pollutant emissions.

The type of fuel used has a direct bearing on ways to meet current
demand or alternatively to increase electricity supply supported by
Figure 12: Commercial Mirte Stove
adequate policies and funds. It will determine the type of DSM, (Source: http://www.appropedia.org/
energy efficiency, and other power management and conservation Stoves_for_Institutional_Kitchens)
programs and technologies that can be effective and sustainable.

For the electric baking with Mitads, attempt to influence the current consumption patterns requires
identification of those factors that significantly contribute to the exiting situation. It will help devise
possible options through which EEPCo can influence them. To achieve these objectives, it is
recommended that EEPCo explores various options including: (i) encouraging development of new
designs through fiscal and other incentives; (ii) increase public education and awareness on the need to
conserve energy and develop and disseminate information on the unsafe health and safety aspects of
the current Mitad design; and (iii) adapt and emulate international experience, as appropriate. These
and other measures are synopsized later in the report.

Also, since biomass use for Injera baking is likely to continue for a
long time, GOE policies should ensure supply of good quality
biomass that is cost-effectively available on sustainable basis, and
burnt more completely in better quality, energy efficient Injera baking
stoves.

2.3.1 Injera Wood Stove

While not much research has been done on electric baking stoves
(except for bread making in the developed world), considerable
research to develop energy-efficient wood burning stoves has been
done. Newer models burn wood much more efficiently than an open
Figure 13: Uganda Rocket Stove fire, typically reduces fuel consumption by 25 to 60%. Improved
wood stove designs have helped significantly reduce smoke
produced,42 and where a chimney is used, all of the flue gases are directed out of the building. Figure
13: Uganda Rocket Stove, a popular stove used for cooking, is being modified to bake Injera using
wood.

40
Burning of one ton of wood emits 3 tons of CO2, 10-15 tons of CO2e and other harmful Greenhouse gases.
41
One manufacturer of solar stoves in Addis Ababa: Beta Electric Control Plc, P.O. Box 18134, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
Telephone No. 251-1-525490; Email: route@telecom.net: Attn: Mr. Kassa Woldesenbet, General Manager has supplied some
solar stoves, each about $116. The popularity of such stoves did not catch up due to technical and other difficulties (See
Section 2.3.2).
42
Smoke is wasted energy. It is important to insulate the stove with low mass—mass is opposite of insulation—heat resistant
materials that can keep fire as hot as possible. Effective stove insulators are: pumice, vermiculite and wood ash. Dense things
such as earth, sand, cement, cast iron are poor insulators.

20
Another improved design for Injera baking is called Mirte Stove.43 It has been developed by the
EREDPC of the Ministry of Energy in Ethiopia. The new Mogogo stove stays hot for longer periods
than the traditional stove and does not require constant relighting. This makes the whole process much
quicker and more efficient.44

Given the extensive use of wood and other biomass such as twigs, leaves and animal dung as fuel, it is
important that energy efficient, environmentally sound, well-insulated, cost-effective, safe Injera wood
stoves that also optimize heat transfer are also being developed. Such improved stove designs have an
enclosed fire-holder with enhanced ventilation to help efficient wood (or other biomass) combustion.45
Being raised above the floor, and with an enclosed fire-holder, the Mirte stove, unlike the older
designs is not a danger to children.

The new (Mirte) stove, first developed in Ethiopia, is a modular, prefabricated stove made from
cement and local construction materials. It can be produced relatively easily, in large quantities, by a
range of different scale producers, at inexpensive prices. The commercial Injera and other bread
bakers tend to be housewives who earn almost all their income from baking and selling Injera to
hotels, small restaurants and other households. Thousands of Injera bakers have already purchased the
Mirte.

2.3.2 Solar Stoves for Injera Baking

Use of solar cookers for Injera baking will save electricity, while
using an environmentally friendly technology. However, efforts to
develop such stoves including in Ethiopia have been very limited.
A project with German assistance (technical cooperation with
Achen University) in Ethiopia helped develop a prototype Solar
Cooker, as synopsized below.46

The solar stove’s design used two parabolic aluminum plates. One
faced the east while the other faced West to reflect back Sun’s rays
to the center to a metallic iron plate called Mitad; metallic iron is
Figure 14: Prototype of Solar Injera
preferred over clay due to its higher heat absorption, as compared Baking Stove
to clay. However, during baking, the cooking pan’s temperature
went down when batter was poured and failed to (timely) rise unless an external source of heat was
applied to bring it to the required baking temperature. Additional research and development (R&D)
efforts to develop solar stove for Injera baking were abandoned primarily due to lack of funds. An
EEPCo-assisted potential restart is not advisable at this time due to other priorities.

43
Stoves are produced using a simple metal mould to fabricate four main pieces produced from various cement mixes.
Virtually any material from sand to volcanic pumice can be mixed with cement to form the stove body, and the stoves can be
produced by any artisan with very little investment and training. The traditional Mitad (the cooking surface, see footnote no.
3, page 7) is bought separately and rests on top of the Mirte. A small chimney piece removes smoke from cooking areas. The
Mirte stove is said to reduce woody biomass consumption by 50 per cent in households, and more under commercial Injera
baking conditions. (See: http://www.peopleandplanet.net/doc.php?id=462)
44
See: http://www.ashdenawards.org/files/reports/ERTC%202003%20Technical%20report.pdf
45
Wood does not burn. It gets hot and releases volatile gases that then combust when sufficient time and turbulence are there.
If wood is heated to 650 Celsius (and sufficient oxygen is mixed with the volatile gases), the result is complete combustion,
releasing Co2, water vapor, and heat. Roughly speaking, dry wood has half the energy/kg of gasoline.
46
The prototype cost about US $3,800 to build. Given various constraints and lack of effective resolution, the effort was
abandoned after six years.

21
2.4 Power Consumption and Injera Baking in Addis Ababa
As stated earlier, Injera baking is the most energy-intensive activity in Ethiopia. According to EEPCo,
grossly estimated, it accounts for over 75% of the total energy consumed in households and over 50%
of all primary energy consumption in the country according to EEPCo.47

Currently used Injera Electric Baking Stove (IEBS)—or a Mitad as it is referred to in this study—
consumes large quantity of electricity estimated by EEPCo to be about 780 kWh/year of electricity at
an average production rate of 3,120 Injera breads per household/Mitad, IEBS. Each existing Mitad (or
IEBS), based on traditional design, consumes about 3.0-3.5 kW for each baking. A new Mitad design
based on Induction principle is claimed by its designer, DELLPLATZ, to use only 1.2 kW, potentially
saving two third of energy requirements to produce the same amount and comparable quality of Injera
breads. Appendix A: DELLPLATZ Project Proposal and Implementation Plan, October2009 provides
details of the new design. Some experts consider DELLPLATZ 1.2 kW claimed power consumption
as low; to date, there has been no field testing of the new design.

As indicated earlier, Injera baking in Addis Ababa usually occurs twice a week. The baking and its
timing, around 10:00-11:00 AM, and in the evening, 2:00 – 3:00 PM, coincides with EEPCo’s daily
peak load demand peaks, thereby, severely impacts the daily load profile. The existing Mitad (IEBS)
usually takes 4-5 minutes (up to 7 minutes) to warm up. The energy consumption by various stoves is
shown under Table 1: Determination of Yearly Wood Fuel and Cost Saving By Virtue of Using
a 3.5kW Electric Conventional or a 1.2kW Induction Stoves.

EEPCo estimates that over 10 percent of total daily power load

comes from Injera baking, contributing to 100 MW to the evening
peak. The domestic power demand is estimated at 30-40 percent
of the peak demand.48 According to EEPCo, in Addis Ababa, as of
2007, 87 percent of its total customers, approximately 610,000
households, are domestic. The commercial and industrial
customers are estimated to be 133,196 and 12,396 respectively.

There is a lot of uncertainty regarding the total number of various

types of Injera-baking stoves (electric, wood, charcoal etc.) that
are currently in use in Addis Ababa. EEA49 estimates the total Figure 15: Two Mitads, Secured
with a Circular Frame
number at 500,000, while EEPCo places the number at 120,000.
On a monthly basis, and factoring in the common baking habits and practices, an IEBS (or a Mitad)
consume over 13,056 MW of power per month.50 GTZ estimates that, as of 2008, 77% of households
in Addis Ababa use at least one IEBS (Mitad), while about 17 percent use open fire. The baking
practices of the rest are not known.

2.5 Existing Mitad

The Mitad design, in current use, dates back to 1960’s when electric baking of Injera started with
high-income groups in cities. However, since then, almost no design improvements have taken place.

Any efforts to improve were hampered by communism—manufacturers left Ethiopia in mid 70’s—
followed by nationalization of industries, coupled with intermittent economic downturns, political
unrests and lack of capital, resulting absence of entrepreneurs.

47
Personal communication: November 14, 09; Yusuf Ali, World Bank/Addis Ababa, Energy Consultant; formerly of EEPCo.
48
Personal meeting, June 15, 2009 with Mr. Getahun Moges Rifle, Director General, Ethiopian Electric Agency
49
Personal communication, June 18, 09 with Mr. Getahun Moges Rifle, Director General, Ethiopian Electric Agency
50
Indicated monthly Power Consumption is (roughly) calculated as follows: 3.5 kW x 4 hours, baking time x 8 days/month
(enough Injera baked to last a family for a month) x 120,000 Mitads (IEBS) = 13,056 MW.

22
Mitad in Ethiopia are being manufactured by small, private, Mom- and- Pop type of facilities. A Mitad
retails for $85-$95 in Addis Ababa. These facilities lack the funds, wherewithal to design and
manufacture, and equally important any legislative mandates to manufacture energy efficient, Mitad
stoves. For example, the heating element in these stoves is circular rather than straight (side-to-side),
creating an extremely hot and uneven cooking surface, as heat
spreads in a radial fashion over the surface. This requires
frequent on and off,51 adding to wasteful use of power, while
extending baking time.

Given the absence of energy and manufacturing standards, the

existing Mitad do not provide any product, energy efficiency or
other labeling. Absence of such standards has been a major
hindrance to require Mitad manufacturers to improve their
performance, in particular, energy efficiency. A ray of hope:
according to the Ethiopian Electric Agency (EEA),52 Energy
Figure 16: Mitad’ Clay Pan for Coiling
Sector Efficiency Standards currently are being drafted for
legislative review for potential implementation.

To summarize, the existing Mitad (IEBS) design suffers from many shortfalls. Key ones are:

(i) The high resistance, inadequately sized electric wiring, and incorrectly adjusted
combustion element;
(ii) Use of poor construction materials;
(iii) Poor insulation: dissipation of energy during the baking session is said to roughly range
from 40 to 50 percent;
(iv) Lack of temperature control device such as a thermostat, encouraging loss of heat; and
(v) Overall, sub-optimal/poor and inefficient design and workmanship.

Other flaws include: poor maintenance and operations such as incorrectly adjusted combustion
element and inappropriate behavior on part of consumers—a number of households in Addis Ababa
use Mitad as source of (room) heat during cold weather.

Circular shaped Mitad, size ranging from 58 to 65 cm in diameter,

and 2 to 2.5 cm in thickness, is made of clay, smoothed and glazed
at the top for Injera baking. The bottom is grooved to place a
resistance coil of about 1.5 meter length. Subsequently, the groove
is sealed with cement and gypsum. A Mitad, along its periphery, is
covered with 10 to 15 cm in width of aluminum sheet and is fitted
into the head of a tri-pod metal stand of about a meter in height.

Injera batter is poured on the top surface which is covered with an

Figure 17: Injera Baking Pan
aluminum lid. As lid is lifted every 3-4 minutes to remove the baked
Injera and pour batter for a new one, significant dissipation of
energy occurs; much of the heat loss is said to occur from a Mitads surface.53 Furthermore, being a
batch process, it requires a long set up time.

51
As per some local experts, the practice is said to be common with Mitads of higher amperage (i.e., greater than
3.5 kW, 16 Amperes) or with unequal groove depth for resistors. This causes Mitad surface with uneven heat
distribution.
52
As per Mr. Getahun Moges Rifle of EEA during personal meeting on June 15, 09
53
The heat loss from the stoves body (stove bottom and sides) is said to be low—with the seasoning between each Injera
baking enhancing conductive and convective heat losses. Standardization of the existing IEBS’s in terms of input power,
groove depth, body works and better insulation may provide options to increase IEBS’s energy efficiency.

23
The result is loss of (valuable) energy every time a batch is prepared. Compared to a continuous
baking process, one-at-a-time baking process is intrinsically less efficient. The baking time for an
Injera, on the average, is 3-4 minutes. Each Mitad (IEBS) has an element with a capacity of 3 to 3.5
kW. A family, on the average bakes 30-40 Injera breads, twice a week—the baking time, including
warm-up, may last over two hours.

In spite of serious shortfalls, no productive efforts to date, either on the part of the Government of
Ethiopia (GoE) and/or the private sector, to improve the Mitad design, its energy efficiency and/or
reduce per Injera baking time, while increasing production economies, have been made. The situation
has existed in spite of wide Mitad usage as well as its adverse impact on the daily power peak load
demand.

An automation of Injera baking process to produce reasonably priced Injera bread would also help
relieve the drudgery of daily cooking, while minimizing harmful air pollutants from use of biomass,
wood or other similar fuels, frequently used as alternative fuels since power is erratic, undependable in
Addis Ababa. As indicated under Sub-section 2.2.1: Injera Wood Stoves, some international
organizations have worked effectively to improve cooking wood stove designs. GOE should review
these designs for potential use and wider deployment, where needed.

Notwithstanding the above, private sector during the last 2-3 years, has also made limited in-roads
towards developing new electric Mitad (IEBS) designs. Based on a review, any potential
commercialization, however, is few or more years away. A synoptic view of various initiatives is
provided below.

2.6 New Mitad Design Initiatives in Ethiopia

Limited research to improve Mitad (IEBS) design and Injera production is under consideration by
GoE. For example, the Ethiopian Alternate Energy Research and Technical Development and
Promotion Center,54 a government entity, under its recently added responsibility—coverage of urban
energy—indicated that using its research experience with wood stoves, it will soon initiate research
work on improving (electric) Mitad designs. However, any improved design(s), given the bureaucracy
and other hurdles, is likely to be 2-3 or more years away.

Given the high Injera demand and the adverse energy impacts of inefficient, one-at-time baking, a
redesign of Mitad is an urgent necessity. Such a design should be clean and energy efficient and has
the potential for commercialization as well as produce cheaper Injera that also meets consumer tastes.
The major focus of the (very) limited on-going private sector efforts is on automating the system, as
was done for US bread-making in the late 30’and 40’s.

Automating Injera as a continuously baking process, however

poses several difficult challenges. Injera is one of the more
delicate food items to automate due to its characteristics that
include: its unique appearance, texture with desired properties
such as “bubbly eye” (See Figure 7: “Eyes” on Injera Bread),
circular flat geometry, very elastic, smooth back surface, and a
fluffy texture.

Injera’s unique properties require a thorough understanding of

the entire Injera baking process. It Includes: (i) the need to
ferment Teff flour under controlled environment; (ii) proper
Figure 18: Common Heating Coil for
viscosity of the batter: (iii) the amount of batter and its required Double Injera Baking
consistency; (iv) the need to spread the batter to obtain the right

54
Previously, the entity was called Ethiopian Rural Energy Development and Promotion Center.

24
geometry (circular, as compared with rectangular shape has wider acceptability and marketability),
and proper thickness; (v) requirement to maintain precise baking temperature(s); and (vi) timely
removal from the cooking (baking) surface using a (delicate) removing mechanism. For relevant
details, see Appendix A: Zelfiwu Inc.

In spite of the bread’s simple look, its automation to a large scale, simultaneous baking (such as on a
commercial scale), may require use of sophisticated design and perhaps a computer-controlled
process. Such requirements have hindered progress in developing new designs automation and its
commercialization. The lack of in-country technical know-how and funding for potential developers
has compounded the situation. The private sector, including venture capitalists, perceives high risks
under byzantine regulatory support and changing political climate to initiate and fund new Mitad
design efforts.

Notwithstanding the above, some limited attempts are underway in

Ethiopia to automate the process to save time and incorporate
efficient energy use. However, based on discussions with key
designers, EEPCo, and the Ministry of Mines and Energy (MoME)
as well as a review of these designs indicates that none is close to
commercialization.

Several difficulties were cited by the 1-3 current start ups. Key
ones, in the order listed below, include: (i) lack of funds (or
venture capital) that inhibits needed additional research and
development; (ii) inadequate regulatory support such as for patent
protection; (iii) significant red tape in getting licenses; and (iv) Figure 19: Pellets as a base for
Insulation
high upfront costs such as for land and/or a building. Most Mitad
manufacturers, therefore, continue using existing designs, perpetuating the shortfalls (See Section 2.5).
An improved design can help reduce losses up to 10-15% or more while cutting Injera baking time by
40% or more. A synoptic view of two key designers is provided below.

2.6.1 12E Injera Technology, PLC

12 E, headquartered in Addis Ababa,55 has designed and developed a prototype of a mass Injera-
making machine. It has some degree
of computerization. Early this year,
the firm demonstrated the prototype
to EEPCo as well as the Ministry of
Mines and Energy (MoME) officials.
According to the firm, it received
good endorsement. Another 12 E
design incorporates a 2-sided Mitad
which bakes two Injera with little
extra heat. Figure 20: Drawing of
Double-sided Injera Baking Mitad,
shows key features of the stove.

In this design, after pouring the batter

on one of the two hot (Mitad) plates
and allowing 15-20 seconds (for the
batter to stick to the hot plate), the Figure 20: Drawing of Double-sided Injera Baking Mitad
unit is rotated 180 degrees.

55
The firm is the brainchild of Ato Mulugetea, President and owner. He is currently based in Vienna, Austria and is full time
senior staff of International Atomic Energy Agency.

25
The heating surface is common to both Mitads. Before rotation, the first Injera stays for about 20-22
seconds, and when the unit is rotated, this Injera does not fall down.

The batter is poured on the other Mitad (lower hot plate) and the process is repeated. In the meantime,
the upper Injera is baking. Both Injera breads are removed within the next two to three minutes. The
process saves energy; the firm, reports 30-35 percent by maximizing heat utilization, while the baking
time is stated by the firm to almost cut in half. The unit, given limitations as cited under Section 2.6,
has not gone into field-testing and commercial production.

The firm’s other design uses an electronically controlled baking system. Overall, the process
resembles textile production in a (textile) mill. The rolling (baked) Injera (sheets) are cut into
rectangular Injera bread. The production rate during testing is
indicated 75 Injera/hour. To date, the machine’s operation,
production rates and other data have not been field or
independently tested. Also, the design’s rectangular shape is not
preferred in the market that favors round shaped Injera bread.
According to the firm, the rectangular shape, given cost and the
baking time savings provided by the machine, eventually will
find a market. The firm, however, is open to changing the design,
if funding is available.

Based on a review and discussions with key stakeholders,

Figure 21: Free-standing Double-sided
including with EEPCo, considerable work is needed before 12E Mitad Made by 12E Technologies
designs can be commercialized. Given financial and technical
constraints, further progress is stalled. Also, as per firm’s General Manager (GM), GOE can help by
providing, initially at no cost, its closed down Injera oven production factory and supporting facilities
in Addis Ababa. It will provide immediate help, the firm stated. For the needed funding, the firm,
according to its GM, is open financial support from international donor organization and/or venture
capitalists and will also participate in limited cost-sharing, if required.

2.6.2 Beta Engineering PLC

Beta, essentially a one-man56 firm, is attempting to develop a design with the aim of lowering Mitad
power consumption to less than 3.0 kW. A prototype of the unit is said to be under design and
manufacturing. However, it was not available during the period of this study. Nevertheless, based on
discussions with the owner/engineer, it appears that considerable work is still needed to develop a
prototype. Beta also cooperated with Achen University of Germany to develop a Solar Injera Cooker
(See Section 2.3.2).

2.6.3 Dellplatz Engineering Pvt. Ltd. Co.

An Addis Ababa-based firm57 DELLPLATZ has developed an energy efficient, one-at-a-time, Mitad
Injera baking prototype. The stove is based on electromagnetic induction principle to heat. The firm
claims that the Induction Mitad: (i) uses only 1.2 kW as compared to conventional Mitads which uses
3 -3.5 kW; (ii) has a power factor greater than 0.93 at all operational levels; (iii) instead of resisters,
has only coils for electrical flux formation; (iv) and except for the work area, no component of the
stove is heated.

Electromagnetic induction, or simply induction, is a heating technique for electrical conductive

materials (metals). Induction cookers are faster and more energy-efficient than traditional cooktops.

56
Abdurahman Mohamed, President/Owner, MD Electrical Engineering Systems; Cell Phone (in Ethiopia): 251-0 911
203823, Email: abdurahman.mahamed@ethionet.et
57
http://www.dellplatzengineering.com: Dr.-Ing. Getahun Mekuria, General Manager, Dellplatz Engineering, P.O. Box
54512, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Tel: +251-118-500473; Mobile: +251-913-871578; Fax: +251-118-500474.

26
Unlike traditional cooktops, the pot itself is heated to the desired temperature rather than heating the
stovetop, reducing the possibility of injury. Skin can be burned if it comes into contact with the pot, or
by the stovetop after a pot is removed. Unlike a traditional cooktop, the maximum temperature in the
system is that of the pot, which is much less capable of causing serious injury as compared with the
high temperatures of (open) flames or red-hot electric heating elements. Moreover, the induction
cooker does not warm the air around it, resulting in added energy efficiency. Induction heating has the
important characteristic that the heat is generated in the material to be heated. Because of this,
induction has a number of intrinsic trumps, such as a very quick response and a good efficiency.
Induction heating also allows heating very locally. The heating speeds are extremely high because of
the high power density.

The use of cast iron (pan) in the DELLPLATZ design is claimed by the firm to require about 2
minutes heating the cooking surface as compared to 3-4 minutes by clay material in the existing design
that also has high power requirements, 3.0 – 3.5 kW. This is due to the thermal conductivity of
saturated clay being lower, 0.6-2.5 k at 250 C as compared to 55 under same conditions.58 DELLPLAZ
has registered its design with the Intellectual Property Ownership Office of the Ethiopian Ministry of
Science and Technology, Addis Ababa. No field-testing of the Induction Mitads’ performance and
consumer acceptance has been done to date. The firm provides the following comparison between the
current Mitad and the Induction Mitad.

Table 2: Traditional Mitads and DELLPLATZ Induction Mitad, a Comparative Overview

No Key Feature Traditional Mitads DELLPLATZ Mitads
1. Resistive Load 3.0 -3.5 kW 1.16 kW
2. Work Area Clay Cast Iron
3. Diameter 55-58 cms 55 cm
4. Operation & Maintenance High Very Low
5. Temperature Control None 5 Constant Temperature Levels
6. Weight 20 Kg 8 Kg
7. Price 850 Ethiopian Birr 840 Ethiopian Birr

DELLPLATZ stated that few months back, it made a presentation to the Ministry of Mines and
Energy on its induction Mitads.59 Testing is said to be underway by an unidentified, independent
public and private organization. Based on the pending testing outcomes, tentative plans to mass-
produce the new design are underway, as stated by DELLPLATZ. Successful deployment of
potentially 500,000 Mitads in the first few months, as per firm, can save 55-60% of a household’s total
energy cost. In addition, the DELLPLATZA stove is stated to weigh about a fourth of the existing
Mitad (IEBS), is aesthetically appealing, and has comparable price. Commercial production however
is constrained due to lack of funds. Additional details related to DELLPLATZ Induction Injera Baking
Stove are provided under Appendix A: Project Proposal and Implementation Plan, October 2009; the
proposal has been included, as provided by DELLPLATZ, Inc.

2.7 New Mitad Designs in US

Currently, in the United States, almost all
Injera is made at home using an electric stove
that has a circular pan made of clay or metal.
This process is “time-consuming”, and being a
“one-at-a-time” production, is inefficient.
Given the nature of the baking process, Injera Figure 22: ZELFIWU Automated Injera Baking Machine
Source: (http://www.zelaleminjera.com/services.html)
produced is also of variable quality.

58
Thermal Conductivity of other materials, is cited by DELLPLATZ in its proposal (See Appendix A: Project Proposal and
Implementation Plan, October 2009), DELLPLATZ Engineering Private Company Limited, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Contact:
Dr. Eng Professor Getahun Mekuria, General Manager.
59
Minister H.E. Ato Alemayehu Tegenu, Minister of Mines and Energy was said to be present.

27
To produce Injera on a commercial scale, a US firm, Zelfiwu Inc., based in Washington DC, has
developed a new design, for which a patent is pending in the US. To-date, two units, one in Dallas and
one in Washington DC have been installed. The Dallas unit has been operational for over five years
and produces 500 Injera/hour. Based on experience gained, an improved version of the machine was
installed in 2004 in Washington DC.60 The machine produces 1,000 Injera per hour and is capable of
operating 24-hour/everday. Given large unmet Injera demand, the firm is planning to install another
unit; the location, due to company confidentiality reasons, was not disclosed. Zelfiwu’s machine-made
Injera, as per D.C. Plant Manager, have a longer shelf-life, 5-7 days, as compared to homemade, stated
(by the firm) to have a shelf-life of 2-3 days.

The key components of the Zelfiwu machine include:61 a

polishing assembly, a batter application assembly, and a
reciprocating collection/deposition assembly. The polishing
assembly includes a polishing pad which can be positioned
over the cooking surface when the cooking surface is not in
use. When baking, the polishing assembly applies the rotating
polishing pad to the cooking surface to clean it prior to
applying (Injera) batter to the cooking surface.

The batter application assembly is positioned over the

cooking surface. The assembly includes a drive that rotates a
batter supply line reciprocating nozzle carrier so that the
batter is poured onto the cooking surface along an inwardly Figure 23: Package of five Zelfiwu Injera
spiral path so as to generate a uniform circular pour of batter.
Finally, the reciprocating collection/deposition assembly utilizes a reciprocating conveyor equipped
with a spatula and coordinated conveyor rollers which together remove the cooked bread wafer from
the cooking surface (at cook-completion time) for cooling, while simultaneously discharging a
previously cooled wafer generated by this fully automated, cyclic process. Greater details are provided
under Appendix A: Zelfiwu Inc.

60
The location of the Zelfiwu Inc., machine is at 2260 25th Place, NE, Washington DC 20018; Telephone No. 202-832-0281;
Contact Person/Plant Manager is: Mr. Kassahun Maru; Cell Phone: 703-628-5716; Email: Zinjera@yahoo.com
61
Greater details are provided under Appendix A: Zelfiwu Inc., Mitad Design;
See also http://www.freepatentsonline.com/7421943.html

28
3 COMMERCIAL INJERA PRODUCERS IN ADDIS ABABA
In spite of high daily demand, currently, there are very few wholesale bakers and sellers of Injera
bread in Addis Ababa. The few bakers supply primarily to restaurants, leading hotels, some
supermarkets, universities, and other institutions. However, collectively, they are said to meet less than
15-20 percent of the total daily Injera demand, roughly estimated at 2.85 million for Addis Ababa;
Mom-and-Pop suppliers meet the rest of the demand; households usually bake for their own use. One
of commercial bakers also operates some retail stores in the city.

The manufacturers bake Injera on freestanding (electric) Mitads, using one-at-a-time, manual, highly
inefficient, labor-intensive baking process. When power is not available, wood is used as heat source.
The feedstock commonly used for Injera is a mixture of Teff, barley, sorghum, wheat and other grains,
milled and fermented for 3 or more days. An overview of these bakers is provided below.

3.1 Mama Fresh Injera

Mama Fresh Injera has two (baking) locations in metro Addis Ababa. The larger one, in Kirkos, is
about a 2,000-ft2 facility. The facility’s monthly commercial rent is estimated to be 20,000 ETB.
However, the bakery gets a GOE rental subsidy and pays only about 325 ETB/month, according to the
owner. GOE’s rental subsidy is provided in the interest of job creation—mostly at unskilled levels.

The bakery was visited during the fieldwork for this study. The
commercial baking operation employs 10-14 freestanding
(electric) Mitads (IEBSs) and the all-electric facility is operational
when grid-power is available. Mama’s other location uses fuel
stacking; electricity and fuel wood, usually fuelwood, since power
is frequently not available. At each of the bakery’s two locations,
1-2 diesel generators are installed and deployed, as needed.

Mama’s bakery produces between 4,500-5,000 Injera breads a day

considered enough to meets the daily Injera needs of an about
3,000 people in Addis Ababa, against an estimated daily Injera Figure 24: Delivery Van, Mama
Fresh Injera
demand of 2.85 million Injera. Given wholesale manufacturing,
the bakery is able to price Injera at a lower rate of 2.50 ETB, about 22 US cents, as compared to the
market rate of 3.00 ETB.

To mitigate large unmet demand, by early 2010, Mama is proposing to build a third plant in metro
Addis Ababa. The indicated cost estimate provided by the firm’s owner is about of 15 million Birr,
about US $142,000. The bakery intends to produce 60,000 Injera bread of 54 cm diameter per` month.
Mama supplies Injera to major Addis Ababa hotels including the largest Sheraton, and to few local
supermarkets. However, over 75% of the total baked Injera is retailed through various shops including
one owned and run by the bakery.

Mama’s management is not open to automating the system and prefers to use manual labor to generate
greater employment at unskilled levels. Data on total or per Injera electricity consumed was not
provided due to company confidentiality concerns. Mama is also proposing to export Injera bread to a
US supermarket chain, Whole Foods, Inc., given the increasing demand from the Ethiopian Diaspora
and others. Small quantities are already being exported to US. The owner is planning a trip in the near
future to explore US Injera market.

29
3.2 ETTE Injera Bakery
In addition to Mama, there is a government-owned, under the Ethiopian Tourist and Trading
Enterprise (ETTE) agency, and government-operated wholesale Injera making facility in Addis Ababa.
It has about 10 free standing Mitads (IEBSs) and produces about 2,000 Injera/day in two shifts.
Information on Injera quantities produced, power consumed etc. was not provided due to company
confidentiality.

The bakery employs only woman. Each worker is said to be able to make up to 300 Injera/day; the
total number baked at the facility varies from week to week. The bakery cited that there is shortage of
Teff besides being expensive, about 11 Birr/kg. Across the country, Teff cost varies from 850-1,300
per 100 kg. The Bakery’ clients include: hospitals, institutions and hotels. It also makes Diffo Dabo,
Ethiopian bread. At the bakery, back up power system includes a 400 watts generator.

No other information such as on power consumed/Injera or the total operation expenses, power
consumption etc. was available. In fact, given red tape and bureaucratic procedures involved, it took a
number of attempts to get access and information regarding the bakery’s operation.

30
4 MANAGING PEAK LOAD POWER DEMAND IN ADDIS ABABA
Load management methods seek to control or influence the use of electricity, cutting usage during
periods of high demand, by shifting/deferring it to periods of low demand. The concept is to flatten the
load curve. It is useful to spread electricity demand over a longer period of time. Also, increasing off-
peak valley-hours load demand can help improve the utilization of facilities and relieve the stress on
the distribution system, and thereby reduce the overall cost of electricity. Each of these options, when
properly implemented, can effectively reduce load demand and improve load factor.

Currently, the peak load demand in Addis Ababa is growing more than the base demand growth. Two
major contributing factors are: industrial expansion and lifestyle changes such as more appliances (and
computers) in the home. The increased power demand overloads EEPCo’s existing power
infrastructure, causing increased blackouts, low voltage, rotating load shedding, for example, by
switching whole feeders off or entire zone substations. The lack of reliable power leads to increased
utilization of (unsustainable) alternatives, such as diesel power generation. Reduction of peak load
demand will also reduce the high fuel costs of serving these peak demands.

For the energy- and capacity-constrained EEPCo, one of the major challenges is (better) management
of Addis Ababa’s peak load power demand. Peak demand management does not necessarily decrease
total energy consumption, however, it does reduce the need for investments in networks and/or power
plants. Power conservation, load management, and energy efficiency measures, optimized individually
or collectively, are much needed. In developed countries, DSM is a regular, business-as-usual activity
carried out by utilities.

In many similar situations like EEPCo’s, load management, with adequate consumer participation and
cooperation, has proven to be a viable economic option. This is due to: (i) the high cost of adding new
generating (including, for Addis Ababa, transmission and distribution) capacity; (ii) uncertain load
growth, increasing—sometimes exponentially, as was the case in 2008—fuel prices, and (iii)
environmental and siting constraints. Given these and other factors, worldwide, utilities have shown
increasing interest in use of load management programs. Successful implementation has resulted in
reducing the electric power consumption and shifting some loads from the peak hours to the off-peak
ones. 62

Effective load management is essential to reduce power consumption as well as the power network’s
electrical load during periods of high or 'peak' electrical demand. An effective implementation will
benefit EEPCo as well as the consumers through: (i) through load control, a better use of existing
generation, transmission and distribution equipment; (ii) immediate selective load shedding in an
emergency; (iii) deferment of capital investments for new equipment; (iv) reduced spinning-reserve63
requirements; (v) overall lowered operating costs by not using expensive, peaking generators; and (vi)
increased off-peak energy utilization and hence increase system load factors.64

62
For example more than 25% of the air conditioning load is “cycled” in Florida – that is, switched on and off on a rotating
basis, centrally dispatched by the utility (via radio signals). For the utility this feature is equivalent of having 25% of air
condition loads as spinning reserves.
63
Spinning reserve is the on-line unused capacity that is synchronized to the grid system and ready to meet electric demand
within 10 minutes of a dispatch instruction. Spinning Reserve is needed to maintain system frequency stability during
emergency operating conditions and unforeseen load swings.
64
The ratio of the average load supplied during a designated period to the peak load occurring in that period, in kilowatts.
Simply, the load factor is the actual amount of kilowatt-hours delivered on a system in a designated period of time as opposed
to the total possible kilowatt-hours that could be delivered on a system in a designated period of time. Utilities are generally
interested in increasing load factors on their systems. A high load factor indicates high usage of the system’s equipment and
is a measure of efficiency. High load factor customers, normally, are very desirable from a utility’s point of view. Using a
year as the designated period, the load factor is Calculated by dividing the kilowatt-hours delivered during the year by the
peak load for the year times the total number or hours during the year.

31
Building infrastructure—e.g. building new plants, a peaking generator/s or increasing the capacity of
an existing inter-connector—in Addis Ababa, none currently, has excess capacity—or other
commonly used traditional approaches, in Ethiopia, as indicated earlier is constrained due to: high
costs, lack of public and/or private funds, weak know-how, and other constraints. Building new power
plant is also time-consuming, 3-5 years or more. The potentially long lag time involved will strengthen
the negative economic ripples. Traditional alternatives, such as use of firewood for cooking, have
supply problems and serious health, environmental consequences including deforestation and soil
erosion.

4.1 Peak Load Estimates for Addis Ababa

No correct or credible estimates of daily Injera baking contribution to the Peak Power Load for Addis
Ababa are available. Some estimates put the demand at 10 percent,65 while others go as high as 30
percent.66 Lack of reliable data is a serious constraint to the development of strategies to manage such
peaks. The following calculations for Addis Ababa peak load demand and contributions during peak
load periods in Addis Ababa’s Mitad use are provided: Using data from EEPCo’s 2008 Brochure—
the indicated data is based on actual records for the period 2007/2008 for the entire ICS system—the
following is indicated:

 Energy generation (MWh): 3,502

 Energy sales (MWh): 3,172
 Peak load (MW): 675.2
 No of Customers: 1,346,066

Based on the data provided by the start-up Addis-Ababa design firm, Expert Design PLC as well as
EEPCo’s (see footnote 64) Distribution Plan and Design Team Leader (DPDTL), the following
estimates for 2006/2007, for the capital City of Addis Ababa and surrounding areas, are provided:

● Average load (MW): 144

● Peak load (MW): 280
● No of Customers: 400,000

In addition, EEPCo67 indicated that: (i) to estimate 2007/08 peak load demand, an annual growth rate
of 15% should be assumed; (ii) the City’s peak load requirements are estimated to range from 45 –
50% of the overall ICS peak load; and (iii) Mitads/IEBS contributes either 10% of the overall ICS
peak load or 20% of that of Addis Ababa.

However, instead of the above numbers, two other leading institutions, EEA, and ABB68, quote 30%
and 70% respectively for the total number of national customers in the ICS that own Mitad (IEBS).
While the above discrepancy exists between the two organizations, each agreed that Mitads (IEBSs)
contribute roughly 3 – 5% of the aggregate load to the ICS peak load.

Based on the above data, and using a figure of 50% for the total number of customers in the ICS who
own a Mitad (IEBS), nationally, the total of customers is estimated at 673,000. Of these, as per
EREDPC69—supported by EEPCo and ABB, about 75% of households, about 500,000 using a Mitad
(EIBS) reside in Addis Ababa and the surrounding areas. This total number of households is close to
400,000 households as of 2007/2008, data provided by EEPCo and escalated by 15% projected annual
growth rate (See footnote 65).

65
Per Ato Gashaw Hasse of EEPCo during June 21, 09 during personal meeting
66
Ato Getahun, Moges, Director General of EEA; Personal meeting dated June 22, 09
67
Data provided by Ato Gashaw of EEPCo Distribution Plan and Design Team Leader, June 2009
68
http://www.abb.com/ (ABB is a global leader in power and automation technologies (Contacted Addis Ababa Office).
69
Ethiopian Rural Energy Development and Promotion Center (EREDPC) Of the Ministry of Energy and Mines

32
Likewise, using either the same incremental growth rate of 15% to bring the peak load of Addis Ababa
to year 2007/2008 or using 47.5% (the average of 45 and 50% indicated above) of the actual recorded
peak load of ICS in year 2007/2008, either way, the magnitude of both figures, being about 320MW,
tally. This re-confirms the assumption made by Ato Gashaw of EEPCo (see footnote 65). Of the 320
MW, and using the above data, IEBSs (Mitads) contribution to the Peak Load of Addis Ababa is
(roughly) calculated as follows

Generation (MWh)
Average load = ------------------------ = 400 MW for the entire ICS.
8,760 (total no. of hours/year)

Average Load (MW) Generation (MWh)

Peak Load = -------------------------- Or ------------------------ = 675.2 MW
Load Factor 8760 x Load factor

A common practice followed at EEPCo, for planning purposes is to assume the load factor of the ICS
between 0.55 and 0.65. But from the actual energy generated and peak load of the ICS recorded in
year 2007/2008, as indicated above, the actual load factor of the year, using one of the formulae above,
is calculated at 0.592.70

At present, there is no system of keeping separate records showing the magnitude of peak load
contribution of the Mitads/EIBS. However, according to EEPCo’s DPDTL estimate, whether one
takes 10 percent of ICS peak load or 20% of that of Addis Ababa and surrounding, in the year
2007/2008, the contribution of Mitads/IEBS to the peak load demand of Addis Ababa during the peak
period, is estimated at 66 MW. This load comes as a result of those Mitads/IEBSs owners
coincidentally baking Injera (about) the same time during the peak period. Using an average power
consumption of 3.25 kW (average of 3.0 – 3.5 kW) for a Mitad/IEBS and 500,000 Mitads/IEBS in
Addis Ababa, number as calculated above, simultaneously operating, a coincident factor of 0.04 or 4%
operating during peak hours is calculated. The percentage is in concurrence with the range provided by
EEA and ABB.

This means, averaging the per unit capacity of EIBS to 3.25kWkW, of the 500,000 units the number of
stoves coincidentally operating during the peak hours is 20,310,71 generating a coincident factor72 of
0.04, i.e., 4%. This percentage is in conformity with the range estimate proposed by EEA and ABB.

Going forward, and assuming a no action scenario—for example, no Mitad/IEBS design

improvements, no increased tariffs, 15% annual growth rate, and continuation of current baking
trends, the contribution of Mitads/IEBSs is (grossly) estimated to be 75MW for the year 2008/2009,
and 87 MW for year 2009/2010, and year after year, the impact of Mitads/IEBS in Addis Ababa will
adversely increase.

4.2 Peak Load Mitigating Options

Currently, there are no Injera-baking related load73 management systems in place in Addis Ababa for
managing load during peak periods. To meet power demands, EEPCo uses various measures, as listed

70
Load factor of 0.592 is calculated by: Average Load in MW or Generation (MWh), where 8,760 is the total # o f hours/yr.
Peak Load 8,760 X Peak Load
71
66 MW divided by 3.25, average of 3.0 – 3.5 kW used by conventional design. The figure 20,310 indicates the number of
total Mitads coincidentally operating in Addis Ababa.
72
Coincident Factor is the ratio of the coincident maximum demand of two or more loads to the sum of their non-coincident
maximum demands for a given period. The coincidence factor is the reciprocal of the diversity factor and is always less than
or equal to one. The coincidence factor of a grid level measure to what extent the annual peak load of the secondary grid level
occurs simultaneously with the annual peak load of the primary grid level; the coincidence factor is determined empirically
by every grid operator for each grid level.
73
The amount of power used at a particular time during the day.

33
below. While it is possible to directly control power supply to individual appliances or equipment at
the customer’s premises, use of such systems in Addis Ababa (and rest of the country, as well) is
constrained by technical and financial resources.

The above approach is referred to as Direct Control Load Management (See Section 4.2.1). Its
implementation, however, requires an extensive, reliable and economical communication system and
additional equipment installed on the consumer site. Such facilities, at present are totally lacking at
EEPCo. Use of clipper devices on Mitads (IEBS) is therefore is ruled out for the foreseeable future.

Various options to reduce peak load demand—EEPCo is selectively using the first four—include:

 Load shedding, commonly used by EEPCo;

 Rolling blackouts, sometimes used by EEPCo;
 Prioritization of new load—currently used by EEPCo;
 Compact Fluorescent Lamps, as initiated recently under World Bank funding;
 Use of intensified Demand-side Management;
 Power (or Self) rationing (See Section 4.2.7); and
 Dramatically increasing Notified Maximum Demand Penalties.

A potential peak load mitigation strategy should aim at maximizing the amount of shiftable load 74
during the peak periods, whilst ensuring that the households seldom or never experience problems
such as with their Injera baking. To the extent possible, individuals should be given a choice since
consumer attitude can make or break the system. In any peak load management strategy, customer
participation in energy crisis solution and a better understanding of energy usage and conservation
methods is crucial to successful implementation. Effective peak load management can help EEPCo
smooth power supply, reduce blackouts, avoid cost of building expensive power plants and reduce its
overall costs. Power saved can be used for emergency needs and priority uses and areas.

In term of adding capacity, while near-term hydro generation (and for longer term gas-generated
electricity) alternatives—which are also Greenhouse Gas (GHG) friendly—do exist, near term use of
either or both options involve dizzying arrays of difficulties. However, practical options such as
curtailing demand—Demand side Management, DSM—can provide better means for EEPCo.

4.2.1 Direct Load Control

A long-term potential option to reduce Injera
baking or other peak power loads in Addis Table 3. Daily Load Duration
Ababa is to use Direct Load Control (DLC).
Duration
The approach involves directly disconnecting, Part of the
day Time of
reconnecting or modifying the operation of day
Hour Share
the end-use electric devices such as Mitad. Morning 7 - 11 5 26%
Day time 12 - 18 7 29%
Where successfully implemented for Evening 19 - 22 4 21%
appliances such as in the developed world for Night 23 - 6 8 24%
air conditioners, and hot water heaters, loads Total 24 100%
are interrupted either by the utility, through a
Source: ACRES Int., of Canada/EEPCo - Ethiopian Power System
remotely activated signals, or locally at the Expansion Master Plan project, 2002 (Gregorian calendar)
consumer premises. Utility remote control
produces more predictable results and involves the use of a communication system. Compared to this,
local control involves the voluntary use of time clocks by consumers to alter their equipment usage in
response to price signals or incentives. Their use is necessitated due to sustained, unprecedented, and

74
Shiftable load is defined as the amount of power that can be saved during peak times and redistributed, or shifted to off-
peak periods. Load shifting programs either clip peak loads or shift energy used in the peak period to off-peak periods.
Energy efficiency programs reduce the total amount of energy used.

34
continuing demand for electricity. While many residential consumers in Addis Ababa pay a flat rate
for electricity year-round, EEPCo’s costs are anything but flat. In a free market, the wholesale price of
energy varies widely throughout the day, every day. Under such situations, many utilities in the
developed world, in an attempt to incentivize the consumer to limit usage based upon cost concerns
use Demand Response programs such as those enabled by smart grids.75

Under the above system, as cost rises during the day in the supply of electricity as the system reaches
peak capacity and more expensive "peaking" power generation76 is used, electricity prices are raised
by the utility. This approach is mentioned for potential future use by EEPCo, as its finances,
infrastructure and power supply (considerably) improves from the current situation.

The most commonly used communication links to achieve the above objectives are: (i) Power Line
Carrier (PLC) system that uses the power line conductors as a media to carry information. The utility
has total control over the communication channels. The Power Line Control (PLC) systems with low
frequency (150-500 Hz) are called Ripple Systems77; (ii) the public telephone systems, including
microwave and fiber optics; and (iii) Radio systems, which use the free space propagation. Such
systems operate mostly on a narrow band FM-VHF system of nearly 154 MHz and UHF (928-952
MHz) for two-way communication.

4.2.2 Use of Ripple Control System(s)

In developed economies, such as those in the West, a successful strategy to manage peak loads is the
use of Ripple Control Systems. Ripple control, a technically proven technology, is a communication
system that uses the electrical network for demand side management purposes, such as tariff switching
and direct (See Section 3.2.1) and dynamic load control.

In a distribution network outfitted with load control, these devices are outfitted with communicating
controllers that can run a program that limits the duty cycle of the equipment under control. The utility
only exercises the equipment when necessary. The consumer can be rewarded for participating in the
optional load control program by paying a reduced rate for power or via direct payment, such as a
credit. The scheme is usually implemented on an opt-in basis – that is, only the customers who want to
participate should apply for the benefit. In times of scarcity, the scheme may be implemented on an
opt-out basis, to increase its effectiveness.

As indicated earlier, the system enables a utility to control appliances, air conditioners,78 hot water
heaters and other high electricity uses in a customer’s home. The system operates on the principle of
sending control signals as a pulse, which is superimposed on the frequency of the grid supply (and
normal voltage). A relay on the appliance (at consumer premises) is programmed to operate the
appliance in response to signals transmitted through the electricity distribution network. It is also
considered an important operational power management tool. For example, in the developed world,
the technique is used to switch multi-tariff meters, to carry out load management tasks for the

75
Smart grids—also called Intelligrid, Intelligent grids—deliver electricity to consumers using digital technology to save
energy, reduce cost, and increase reliability and transparency. President Obama recently authorized significantly increased
funding for Smart Grid, helping implement DSM, Energy Efficiency and other measures.
76
Peaking power plants, also known as ‘peaker’ plants, are power plants that generally run only when there is a high demand,
known as peak demand, for electricity.
77
AL-Shakarchi, M.R.G and N.SH, ABU-Zeid, 2002: A Study of Load Management by Direct Control for Jordan's
Electrical Power System; Journal of Science & Technology, Volume 7 Number 2 2002; and Sharif, S.Y., and Zahir, S.S.,
'Communication Systems for Load Management', IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-104, No.12, PP. 3330-3337, Dec.1985.
78
In Florida state of US, 25% of the air conditioning systems are “cycled” through use of clipper devices for load control,
while electric water heaters, about 1.5 kW, are subject to load control in Virginia, as per World Bank (See: page 32, Aide-
Memoire, Ethiopia Energy Sector Mission, June 1-12, 2009

35
optimization of generation and acquisition costs, and to control street lighting. However, consumer
response is not entirely favorable.79

In addition, local power distribution system also benefits from spreading energy demand throughout
the evening as well as the daytime. This improves the utilization of the electricity network and can be
used to defer investment in electricity transmission and distribution lines as well as new capacity.
Load shifting from the morning and evening peaks to off-peak periods—such as after 10:00 PM in
Addis Ababa—would improve the load factor and reduce the magnitude of the demand peaks. The end
result is a more efficient utilisation of the existing electricity reticulation infrastructure. Figure 2:
Daily Load Curve shows high variations in power demand in Addis Ababa; data used is few years old.
The high morning demand coincides with the city’s peak usage time—office hours, commercial
activities etc.

Use of load control can ensure the electrical load is less than what can be generated. Under this
approach use of Injera baking stove can be identified as “deferrable”—to run during another part,
sometimes before or after the peak load. It is recommended that EEPCo conduct a pilot study in
selected areas on the use of load switches to help generate information to determine the amount of load
that could be shifted from peak to off-peak periods and the amount of demand reduction potentially
achievable. Generation of such data can provide guidelines for potential use to manage Mitads
(IEBSs) peak load contribution.

Hot Water Heaters: Use of Ripple Control Devices

A common use of Ripple Control systems in many developed countries is for hot water heaters for
demand side management by switching off the electrical heaters at a large number of consumers for a
short time during maximum demand periods. Its use also allows energy tariffs to be switched from
daytime to evening—time of use tariffs (TOU)—or hot water power supply is turned off during daytime.
From a consumer point of view, given that water heaters have an inherent storage capacity, an
interruption of electric service does not necessarily translate into interruption of available hot water.

The amount of demand reduction available from a water heater at any time is a function of the electrical
demand of the water heater at the time of interruption. In the West, utilities practicing water heater
control, as a DSM strategy, report that customers have accepted about four hours of daily interruption
without consumer discomfort or complaint. For EEPCo, such experiences can be used to conceptualize
and implement similar strategies for Injera, as new designs are perfected and widely deployed, and
needed supportive planning, communication systems etc., are established and gain a firm footing. The
techniques are also suitable for use for air conditioners and other appliances.

4.2.3 Use of Demand-side Management

As Figure 25: Daily Load Curves, indicates, in Addis Ababa, the electrical load on the power network
daily exceeds the power supply available. The power-constrained EEPCo, unable to increase power to
meet demand, curtails the demand, using blackouts etc. The later is often the case since EEPCo lacks
capacity as well as (sophisticated) load analysis models80 to use as alternative tools.

79
Although ripple control appears to be a simple and effective means of demand side management, its acceptance is often
conditioned by the negative perceptions of “Big Brother” control of the customer’s life on the part of the utility.
Consequently, unless there are financial incentives, customers are found to have by-passed the ripple control devices.
80
These models are built to describe the physical properties of the distribution network (i.e. topology, capacity, and other
characteristics of the lines), as well as the load behavior. The analysis may include scenarios that account for weather
forecasts, the predicted impact of proposed load-shed commands, estimated time-to-repair for off-line equipment, and other
factors.

36
To mitigate the situation, utilities worldwide
are increasingly implementing demand-side
management (DSM) programs. Use of DSM
offers significant benefits to EEPCo, its
customers as well as the Ethiopian economy.
Included are: reduced power supply costs,
deferral of capital expenditure on generation,
transmission and distribution facilities,
improved system load factor, better
customer relations and better data for load
forecasting and system planning.

Demand-side interventions81 address the Source:Figure 25: Daily Load Curves – September Weekdays (MW).
ACRES/EEPCo - Ethiopian Power System Expansion Master
aspects of energy efficiency on the Plan project, 2002
consumer’s side of the meter. The
techniques include: (a) substituting more efficient appliances for less efficient ones; (b)
influencing/encouraging customers to change their usage patterns; and (c) adopting good energy
management practices. DSM use helps balance electricity supply and demand, reduce price volatility,
increase system reliability and security, and helps rationalize investment to increase capacity and
potentially reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, effective implementation can help increase
end use energy efficiency, bring improvement in quality and reduce cost of power. DSM includes
measures that promote the following:82

 Reduced customer peak and overall energy demand;

 Improves the electric grid's reliability;
 Balances the electric grid through increased efficiency;
 Energy efficiency, which helps reduce the total amount of energy used;
 Better electricity costs management such as through Time of Use (TOU) and real time pricing;
 Conservation through both behavioral and operational changes;
 Load management;
 Fuel switching;
 Distributed energy; and
 Provide systems that encourage load shifting or load shedding during times when the electric
grid is near its capacity or electric power prices are high

EEPCo, in its charter, has committed itself to promoting the efficient use of energy in all demand
sectors. However, the biggest lever that EEPCo can pull—with customer collaboration and input to
reduce power demand—is to implement DSM using well conceived programs that also have customer
input. With DSM use, power load can be shifted to a less expensive time.

DSM can take on a number of meanings, based upon specific purpose, funding method, and context.
EEPCo can implement DSM through use of appropriate technologies,83 products, and programs that
involve reducing consumer’s electricity demand through on-site power conservation. For example,

81
On the other hand, supply-side interventions are typically those that are implemented by generators, grid operators and/or
energy distributors, i.e. on the supply-side of the meter (or fuel pump). These measures include also load shifting, aimed to
reduce daily peak-power demand while improving the power supply.
82
See also: www.DemandSideManagement.com
83
Technologies include: Load Leveling, used to smooth out the peaks and dips in energy demand - by reducing consumption
at peak times ("peak shaving"), increasing it during off-peak times ("valley filling"), or shifting the load from peak to off-
peak periods - to maximize use of efficient base load generation and reduce the need for spinning reserves and Load control
which basically are energy management control systems (EMCSs) can be used to switch electrical equipment on or off for
load leveling purposes. Some EMCSs enable direct off-site control (by the utility) of user equipment. Typically applied to
heating, cooling, ventilation, and lighting loads, EMCSs can also be used to invoke on-site generators, thereby reducing peak
demand for grid electricity. Energy storage devices located on the customer's side of the meter can be used to shift the timing
of energy consumption.

37
under DSM, energy and load shape activities are modified and administered by a utility. 84 As part of
DSM programs, EEPCo should consider using Demand load Management (DLM) reduce kWh of
power demand or displacement of peak demand to off peak time(s). EEPCo can also use DSM as an
energy efficiency measure. The strategy has the potential to offer immediate power shortage
alleviation, and if successfully implemented, create useful virtual generation capacity. Implemented on
the customer-side of the meter, DSM can influence the time pattern and/or amount of electricity
demand in ways that would increase customer satisfaction, and simultaneously produce desired
changes in the utility's load-shape.

As part of this effort, and prodded by donors, primarily the World Bank, EEPCo is considering
establishment of appropriate institutional infrastructure and capacity for the implementation of DSM
as well as energy efficiency programs. However, sound conceptualization and effective use of DSM
would require EEPCo to implement routine data collection, regular analysis of energy performance,
improved maintenance, and good energy management, using skilled and experienced staff etc.

In the context of Injera baking, DSM strategies such as design and deployment of energy efficient
Mitads(IEBSs) can provide near- and long-term benefits. However, potential deployment of improved
designs will depend upon many factors including the cost of new and improved stoves, the cost of
energy, and the value of energy saved. Changes, for example, in the use pattern of stoves may offer
another opportunity to increase the overall efficiency. Included is to spread the usage of stoves to off-
peak hours or if possible/practical, and lowering the baking temperatures.

Demand-side Response (DSR): A DSM Option

One popular DSM option involves the use of Demand-side Response (DSR). Under DSR, an electricity
consumer:

 Curtails load when asked to, and/or

 Shifts load to another time, and/or
 Switches their demand over to an on-site generator and/or where that generator can export
electricity into the grid.

As the practice goes in the developed world, in many, if not all cases the (electricity) consumer
supplying the DSR is paid for its effort where the DSR is an organized response to market signals. When
DSR is aggregated, community-wide, benefits may be significant. The DSR approach can also pro-
actively limit long term increases in electricity prices and can relieve stress on EEPCo’s networks at
times of extreme stress, assuring better supply. Where diesel power is used, peak lopping can also reduce
GHG’s emissions.

It is of relevance to note that the environment benefits from the efficient use of energy are significant and
are in line with EEPCo’s energy strategy. For example, every kilowatt-hour of electricity saved translates
into one less kilogram of carbon dioxide generated by the power station and released into the atmosphere
and the preservation of significant volumes of scarce water resources for other uses.

In addition, measures to encourage behavior changes, including temperature modifications, as well as

implementing improved metering (See Section 4.2.5) of electricity are considered economically viable
and practical options for Mitads (IEBSs) in Addis Ababa. Use of alternate materials for making Mitad
that improves energy efficiency and results in more evenly cooked Injera should be explored. In this
regards, copper-bottom pans heat up faster than regular pans. Potential Mitad design improvements
should look into use of such substitutes. Material used in current design has poor insulation qualities.

84
However, it does not refer to energy and load-shaped changes arising from the normal operation of the marketplace or from
government-mandated energy-efficiency standards. Demand-Side Management covers the complete range of load-shape
objectives, including strategic conservation and load management, as well as strategic load growth.

38
As part of DSM implementation, as stated earlier, EEPCo needs to assess the customer base, current
tariffs, load profile (such as on an hourly basis), and identify the extent to which Injera baking (and
other sectors) contributes to load shape. Such research will also help identify the tariff classes and the
impact of subsidies, as applicable. Based on the results of the load research, load shape objectives can
be defined.85 The results can be used to increase the effectiveness of DSM programs.

Following this, it is recommended that EEPCo define its implementation strategies that maintain
current and future changes in Ethiopia’s power supply. It is important that small-scale end-users derive
similar benefits as large consumers. This is because small-scale users may not have the necessary
skills to implement and monitor DSM initiatives. Furthermore, identification of suitable and practical
DSM options requires study of users and end-uses of electricity. Such data and information is
seriously lacking in Ethiopia.

4.2.4 Use of Energy Efficiency Measures

Energy efficiency represents a ratio of output to energy input or the inverse energy input per defined
output. Use of energy efficiency measures can help utilize energy in the most cost-effective way. Such
programs can help EEPCo reduce the energy used by specific end-use devices (and systems) such as
Mitads (IEBSs), typically without affecting the services provided. Inefficient Mitad’s use increases
operational costs and in case of commercial bakers, lowers profits. Deployment of high efficiency
Mitad designs and technologically advanced supporting equipment, for example, use of thermostats
for existing Mitad, can help bake the same or perhaps higher number of Injera with less electricity.
Nevertheless, it is important to note that distortion of electricity prices, such as through subsidies, goes
effective use of energy efficiency measures, in addition to encouraging wasteful energy use.

EEPCo should take a lead in providing supportive research and in promoting energy efficient Mitad
use such through increasing public’s awareness through information dissemination. Emphasis should
be placed on a household’s potential cost savings.86 Consumers often exhibit behavioral barriers and
conditions that characterize end users. Relevant key items include:

 Efficiency attitudes and awareness;

 Perceived riskiness of efficiency measures;
 Obtaining and processing information;
 Limited access to capital;
 Misplaced incentives; and
 Perceived inconvenience, loss of amenities.

Since there in no established Mitad manufacturing industry, outside the poorly capitalized and Mom-
and-Pop operations—that show disregard for Mitad technical and operation efficiency—EEPCo may
also have to take a lead in activities that belong to the industry. Included are: routine data collection on
end users baking timing, needs etc. analysis of (selected) Mitad performance and others.

Many utilities in the developed world help their customers pay for the extra cost of energy-efficiency
measures through rebates or low-interest loans. For example, in the US, Colorado Springs Utilities,
pay small and medium sized businesses, $400 per (verified) kW incentive, which install DSM

85
Various load-shape objectives include: Peak Clipping (the reduction of utility load primarily during periods of peak
demand), Valley Filling (the improvement of system load factor by building load in off-peak periods); Load Shifting (the
(Continuation of previous foot): reduction of utility loads during periods of peak demand, while at the same time building
load in off-peak periods. Load shifting typically does not substantially alter total electricity sales), and Load Building (the
increase of utility loads, more or less equally, during all or most hours of the day) are possible. Conservation, on the other
hand refers to the reduction of utility loads, more or less equally, during all or most hours of the day.
86
Individuals also have a responsibility for ensuring that they operate and maintain Mitad properly, and that they are aware
of energy waste by behavioral “deficiencies”, e.g. Mitad misuse, wasting heat by improper ways of cooking Injera and not
following manufacturer’s guidelines, where provided. Many of such losses are avoidable. Usually, they are much more than
the technical losses.

39
measures—energy efficiency and/or load shifting. Eligible projects, however, must combine to a
minimum, 10 kW demand reduction during the summer peak periods.

Depending upon the availability of resources—technical and budgetary included—a pilot project to
upgrade (representative and selected) Mitads (IEBSs) can be set up. When properly planned and
executed, it can provide useful operational data and information on improved energy efficiency and
performance. Also, consumers should be empowered with information to participate in the market.
Consumers, as briefly stated earlier, can help implement energy efficiency through behavioral
changes, temperature modifications, use of thermostat and good maintenance; these are of paramount
importance given the power and cost savings and seemingly ever-existing power supply shortages.
Specific recommendations are beyond the scope of this study.

Effectively implemented energy efficiency measures can benefit the Ethiopian society as a whole,
principally through reduced adverse environmental impacts caused by wasteful energy usage. In
countries, where energy efficient measures have succeeded,87 the governments have taken a lead role
in establishing the right “environment. Also, many utilities now help their customers pay for the extra
cost of energy-efficiency measures through rebates or low-interest loans. EEPCo and GOE should
review such experience for relevance and potential emulation.

It is important to note a distinction that exists between energy efficiency and DSM, in particular, as it
relates to the grid. Conventionally, DSM is applied to energy management—for example, peak
lopping or load shifting—rather than more general range of options that are used under energy
efficiency. This is particularly the case for (the limited) DSM programs currently being conceptualized
by EEPCo in which the program’s primary aim is the management of load profile as well as peak-
power demand rather than conceptualization and implementation of energy-efficiency programs. In
case of Mitads (IEBSs), use of thermostats and better coiling could provide immediate, cost-effective
benefits. EEPCo should consider working with the few manufacturers to implement these
interventions. .

Notwithstanding the above, there are some commonalities between DSM and Energy Efficiency.88 For
example, electricity loads’ shifting, while a demand-side intervention also has implications for
improving energy efficiency of the grid network. Reducing peak loads by shifting or spreading to
other times saves utility the cost of building additional power and/or using less efficient generators to
meet demand. In addition, more efficient equipment over a longer period can be used. Some countries
have made DSM and energy efficiency delivery an obligation of the distribution utility.

At present, EEPCo does not have reliable information on its load profile, accurate number of its
customers—metered customers in many cases also provide power to unknown number of others—and
other useful data to help gauge the impact of Mitads (IEBSs) as well as relevant energy efficiency
measures that may be planned, programmed and legislatively mandated. Lack of such data and
information also constraints private sector participation since it is unable to project a clear picture.
GOE can help in the process by adopting: “Best Practices” in public sector energy management—for
example, installing occupancy sensors that turn lights off/on when restroom and buildings are not
occupied; expand education and training efforts and energy savings goals and standards, country-wide.

To mitigate power shortages, EEPCo, with World Bank assistance, has embarked upon some power
conservation measures. As a start, it has installed power savings light bulls—350,000 during the first
stage (2008/09), followed by five million in the second stage, Another batch of 10 million units is
being considered for scaling up beyond the residential sector. Anecdotal evidence suggests power
shortage—fueled by ever increasing industrial demand, shortfalls in hydropower, increasing

87
Common examples of successful energy efficiency programs, worldwide include: efficient lighting programs, high-
efficiency heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems or control modifications, efficient building design,
advanced electric motor drives, heat recovery systems and self-rationing programs.
88
Ironically, in the West, some utilities are less enthusiastic towards load shifting and DSM in general fearing reduction in
electricity demand, and consequently a reduction in sales and revenues.

40
households’ demands, and on-going structural changes—albeit slowly—is detrimental to the country’s
economic stability and energy security.

4.2.5 Use of Cost Reflective Tariffs

Demand for power in Addis Ababa, as in many places, being elastic, consumer will reduce
consumption in response to increased price such as during Time-of-Use (TOU) tariffs—higher rates at
peak load periods, and low tariff rates at off-peak load periods.89 When such an approach is
implemented, the rates can be split into segments, e.g. late morning, late afternoon. This will help
EEPCo plan its transmission infrastructure appropriately, in addition to strengthening its financial
footing. Use of deferred consumption is considered as one of the possible methods of decreasing price
inelasticity. Modifying pricing schedules, considered a form of DSM, has helped control power
demand in many similar and better economic settings. In this context, DSM is used to change the
timing or quantity of electricity used. Changing quantity of electricity usage is considered a form of
energy efficiency program.

The current tariff system for residential customers seems to foster the use of electric stoves, as it grants
subsidies to wide range of power consumers: small and medium consumption brackets as well as large
users, e.g. residential customers up to 499 kWh per month, due to the “telescopic”90 nature of the
inverted block tariff. The tariffs scheme is designed to provide a cheaper kWh for low-income
families, as shown in the graph on the left. However, subsidies, difference between full tariff and tariff
charged at each block, are also captured by high-intensive users.

Figure 26: Subsidies as Function of Monthly Power Consumption

Source: Aide-Memoires, op cit.

Figure 26: Subsidies as Function of Monthly Power Consumption shows the adverse relationship and
impact of subsidies on power consumption. The graph on the right shows the total amount of subsidies
provided as a function of monthly consumption. High-income families, with consumption above 500
kWh per month, are granted an equivalent subsidy of about 90 Birr per month.91 This kind of subsidy
weakens incentives to the use of more efficient appliances or alternatively the purchase of Injera in
super-markets.

The economic cost 92 to generate electricity in Ethiopia varies significantly by season. In spite of being
hydro (and, therefore, more likely to be energy constrained before it becomes capacity constrained) the

89
Recently, manufacturers in Kenya demanded up to 50% lower power tariffs for shifting production to late night hours. Day
time operators, compared to those on a 24-hour manufacturing schedule, demanded the highest reduction, citing difficulties
to shifting to night time production only.
90
That is, customer groups’ benefit from the discounts granted to customers at lower tariff consumption brackets.
91
It assumes that the price charged to the highest consumption bracket is cost-reflective.
92
The economic cost is defined as the opportunity cost of water and not simply the variable O&M costs to produce the
additional MWh. The opportunity cost of water takes into account, inter alia, the prevailing reservoir levels, demand and
rainfall forecasts, cost of the least efficient plant and risk of rationing. Models to calculate the opportunity cost of water use

41
cost to deliver electricity to the end user also varies by hour of the day, since it incorporates losses and
congestion costs. Therefore demand reduction is essential, particularly at critical times, when it is
expensive to generate electricity. To encourage customers to cut demand, or shift loads to other times
of the day, longer term, EEPCo should consider interruptible rates (lower rates in exchange for giving
the utility the right to interrupt electrical service), along with time-of-use pricing, or direct-load control
and other programs. The methods of changing the timing essentially means introducing Time of
Use/Time of Day (TOU/TOD) tariffs,93 involves differential tariffs for a system’s peak and off-peak
periods to encourage load shifting from peak to off-peak. Smart Power is an innovative tariff,
providing seasonal and Time-of-Use (TOU) rates for residential customers.

Currently, there is no system for controlling electric power use during peak hours except the
progressive /block tariffs. These are in use across Ethiopia for Interconnected Systems (ICS) as well as
Self-contained Systems (SCS). While information regarding the adverse impacts on Addis Ababa peak
load has been occasionally disseminated by the media, given low power tariffs, it has been ignored by
the general public.

Implementing TOU can provide a number benefits to EEPCo such as: curtailment of electricity
consumption due to high prices; drop in power demand; lesser need to build power plants; lower stress
on transmission and distribution networks resulting in lesser congestion and outages; higher
availability of power translating into higher productivity at end consumer level; and reduction in
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The timing of electricity use can be influenced by direct-load
control programs in which the utility controls equipment at the customer site, and by electricity-
pricing options that vary the price of electricity with time of use.

However, for an effective implementation of TOU tariffs, EEPCo will need to upgrade its residential
(as well as industrial, if included) metering technology. Advanced metering technology, ranging from
highly integrated microcontrollers to wireless devices and sensors is readily available today. As
EEPCo’s short- and/or long-term plans and budgets permit, it should consider installing new and
advanced meter reading technologies to enhance meter reading process. For new developments, such
systems can read all metered installations within the complex, as compared to whole of site metering.

Use of smart meters, for example, provides an economical way to measure energy consumption, base
real-time pricing on demand and minimize energy consumption during peak loads, reducing the need
to build additional generation capacity.94 Smart meters with embedded controllers and connectivity are
enabling a smarter and a more efficient grid that encourages energy conservation. In many countries,
Governments are rapidly implementing policies and programs to speed the deployment of smart
metering systems in homes and offices worldwide. For example, South Africa is developing an
aggressive program to implement smart meters – in addition to the 7 million pre-paid meters already in
operation.

Implementing Time-of-use tariffs will allow EEPCo to charge power rates based on when the
electricity was used (i.e., day/night and seasonal rates). It is well known that, typically the production
cost of electricity is highest during the daytime peak usage period and low during the night, when
usage is low. In this system the user's energy use meters are programmed remotely to calculate the

stochastic dynamic programming, simulating the conditions of the power system under a large number of scenarios (synthetic
hydrological series)
93
Where TOU has been successfully used, power consumption is measured: (i) through real time measurement using AMR
(Automatic Meter Reading) technology* and meter is directly connected to the Data Center. The consumers meter is read in
every 15, 30, 60 minutes or (ii) meter which can record consumption for different time intervals each day but is not directly
connected to the Data Center of the utility and is read by a meter reader after X number of days. Note: *AMR technology can
use power lines, telephony, RF, cable communication technology. AMR can help increase operational efficiency, improve
customer service, reduce data collection costs and quickly gather critical information that can help provide critical
information to EEPCo’s decision-makers.
94
U.S. President Barack Obama's $43 billion (USD) energy sector stimulus package(under American Recovery and
Reinvestment Act (ARRA), 2009, includes $4.5 billion for intelligent grid projects such as advanced metering infrastructure
(AMI). The plan calls for the installation of smart meters in every U.S. home, up to 40 million meters.

42
value and are read remotely. EEPCo indicated that it is planning to introduce ‘Smart Grid Systems’ in
the near future.

Households in Addis Ababa can use this approach—shifting Mitads (IEBSs) time-of-use—on a
voluntary basis or the GOE can legislatively mandate the Time-of-Use Tariffs, as necessitated by the
large gap between demand and supply. Such TOU/TOD tariff would also incentivize (well-informed)
consumers for better demand side management while freeing up electricity to mitigate peak load
demand. TOU/TOD meters recording maximum demand, average Power Factor, and Load Factor for
normal, peak and off-peak periods have been used for TOD billing. Consumers could be given an
option of availing power at TOU/TOD tariff under which they have to pay 25% less of normal price
during off-peak hours and 25% more of normal price during peak hours. Consumers with load of 35
kW and above may be brought into the fold of TOD tariff.

Since EEPCo, beset by technical and budgetary constraints, has not been able to replace the current
meters with ‘smart meters’, one suggested approach for the near term would be to divide the daily or
weekly power consumption into proportional amounts of Peak, Off-peak, etc. by simple arithmetic for
each consumer and charge accordingly. EEPCo-proposed “Smart Meters” as the utility indicated
probably incorporate some form of pre-payment or remote reading rather than ability to remotely
disconnect customer’s power supply.

Another approach is the use of a "deemed load profile" which is a load-shape of each interval period
for a year or more in advance. This load profile is used to apportion a customer’s consumption as if it
was metered with a "smart" meter in intervals of (say) 30 minute. The apportioned intervals of
consumption can be "mapped into Time of Use (TOU) periods in the same way that utilities with
AMR would operate. The "deemed load profile" is normally created, based upon a single "smart"
meter, which is installed at a single premise, the kind of typical premise required. This could be
domestic, small commercial, industrial, hotel, hospital, etc., since these would all have different "load
shapes."

4.2.6 Energy Labeling

Mitads (IEBSs) in current use in Ethiopia have no energy labels and users have no objective way of
knowing the operating costs. There are no GOE standards or labeling requirements and the few current
manufacturers do not feel the need or have resources to develop such information on voluntary basis.
Since energy operating costs, over an appliance's life, are typically greater than the appliance purchase
cost, availability of such information for purchasers is of paramount importance.

Energy labeling provides energy data that has been determined and tested to the relevant standards. As
one of the lightest form of regulation, it imposes minimum costs on the manufacturers, while
providing useful purchase and use information to consumers. Energy efficiency standards can help
create market pull for (energy) efficient products.

The GOE should develop and require various Mitad’ manufacturers to supply and declare energy data
that has been determined when tested to the relevant Standards. Use of energy labeling and standards
will provide clear and objective information on energy efficiency and can help develop energy
efficient Mitad, help conserve energy, increase innovation while stimulating technological change. It
will help users become aware of secondary costs, after initial purchase, of operating Mitad.

The GOE can also require the manufacturers to increase products' efficiency in order to conform to
legislation. Over the longer term, manufacturers can differentiate from competitors on energy
efficiency attribute. Information on energy efficiency may not be the most important consideration for
all consumers buying a new Mitad (IEBS), but it is certainly a key factor for many consumers who
value availability of such information.

43
EEPCo’s DSM programs, with assistance from GOE, it is recommended, should include developing
and implementing—including enforcement via legislation—energy labeling and standards programs.
For the short term, it may encourage and/or subsidize programs that are well conceived and are backed
by sound public education and awareness for covering the benefits. Successful implementation will
also help conserve fossil fuels and limit environmental effects from their use. Often, consumers are too
shortsighted to spend more upfront on energy efficient appliances in order to achieve greater savings.

4.2.7 Use of Self-Rationing

In 2008, according to EEPCo, Ethiopia experienced a serious power shortage95 of 80-100 MWh;
estimated 2009 gross projections range from 110-115 MW. Use of power rationing, given seemingly
omnipresent power crisis in Ethiopia, appears appropriate for Addis Ababa as well as for other EEPCo
electrified areas. Several countries, including Japan and Brazil—the later appointed a “Minister of
Rationing” in early 2000 to centralize coordination of complex decisions—have in the past
successfully implemented power rationing. It can be long term or short term, as the power shortages
determine and dictate. Self-rationing, an energy conservation technique, is an alternative to pricing. It
is effective where power supply has not been able to meet demand.

While Ethiopia has significant hydropower—current and future—potential, reliance on it is

jeopardized by vagaries of nature that historically has brought droughts and water shortfalls, the later
translating into reduced hydroelectricity. Experience has shown that for such situations, rgy-rationing
measures are often necessary due to the systems’ inadequacy in providing the necessary generation to
meet power needs. Given the absence of adequate planning and consequential lack of power, EEPCo
has frequently and continues to unpredictably implements haphazard blackouts.96 These have been
more intense in poor neighborhoods of Addis Ababa. A power-rationing tool that has been
successfully used in similar power crisis situations is the use of energy quota.97 Energy quotas can be
used as a preventive energy-rationing program through sound quota assignment criteria, efficient
management and effective customer relations; the last is of paramount importance.

Under the quota systems, maximum kWh that can be used by individual customers during the
rationing period is assigned and used as power rationing tool. The quota is assigned by the utility and
is calculated on the basis of average energy consumption during the previous year. However,
implementing quota system requires credible consumption and other data, balanced quota assignment
criteria, efficient management and effective communication with customers to be viable.

Two types of penalties for excessive energy consumption—beyond allowed quota—higher rates, and
in case of non-payment or excessive violations, (temporary) disconnections are used. Notwithstanding,
the option may require EEPCo to provide safety nets for the poor and those on lifeline rates. In
addition, with quota system, EEPCo can also use price signals since a market-based rationing scheme
heavily relies on incentives and penalties. A quota system incorporates two-way price signals and
consumers decide how much they are willing to pay when price is high. The approach, when
effectively implemented, will help reduce power demand, helping EEPCo to better manage Addis
Ababa’s peak load power demands. To gain experience and useful data, the utility may have to set up
pilot projects.

EEPCo should tailor power system to its needs. Needed rainfall, for adequate hydropower generation,
is hardly controllable. However, power shortfalls can and need to be anticipated by EEPCo with a
minimum of foresight. Recurring droughts, if historically prevalent, may necessitate need to develop

95
Required import of $9.5 million supplemental fuel for emergency power and significantly contributed to the current
unofficial annual inflation rate of 33 percent.
96
Rolling blackouts represent the most inefficient way of power rationing (or a scarce resource) since energy is rationed in a
haphazard way, driven by capacity constraints rather than needs (The World Bank).
97
The energy quota can be based on average monthly consumption over a period of time or, a reference period; lifeline
customers can be considered differently and increase in number of family members and other factors may necessitate quota
revision. Successful implementation of quota systems requires effective and transparent monitoring.

44
alternate resources such as, longer-term, gas-based power generation. Since continued lack of rainfall
may translate into reduced hydropower electricity, it would be wise for EEPCo to plan now and
develop a power rationing systems as the needs arise. On a priority basis, there is a need to define and
develop (credible) baseline data and information.

Ethiopia is experiencing a tight supply-demand balance, and the situation is likely to remain a
structural change for EEPCo and for GoE in the foreseeable future. In spite of the commissioning of
new hydro plants, demand is growing at a fast pace and there are increasing opportunities to export
energy. In some cases, firm commitments for delivery in July 2010 have already been made by GOE.
Thus, concrete, multi-pronged measures that assure sustainable power supply are needed.

4.2.8 Improve Customer Awareness

There is an urgent need to improve customer awareness on efficient energy use of Mitads (IEBSs). It
is recommended that EEPCo immediately launch (starting with pilot scale) consumer education
campaigns that focus on: staggered Injera baking hours, installation and use of thermostats to control
to control baking temperatures and other measures, as appropriate. To do this the utility should
develop appropriate information and use tools such as TV, radio and other means for information
dissemination. As part of the above, EEPCo, as indicated earlier, should also consider installing
subsidized thermostat on a pilot scale to gain useful data for wider use and policy formulation.

45
5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EEPCo AND GOE
To effectively manage Injera baking related energy and peak load demand in Addis Ababa (and more
broadly in Ethiopia), various interventions have been proposed and synopsized in the study.
Successful implementation of these interventions would require (i) policy formulation based on
credible data and information; (ii) availability of adequate budgets sustained through (full, over time)
cost recovery; (iii) adequate technical and management capacity; and (iv) other measures, as
appropriate. Consumers’ input and buy-in is important to assure (long-term) sustainability of
interventions.

Power demand in Addis Ababa is projected to double in the next 20 years. At present, regular power
shortages, in particular with the country’s industrial sector and Addis Ababa, the country’s economic
hub, suffers significant economic losses on a daily basis. It is therefore crucial that sound planning,
supported by effective implementation and monitoring, are put in place on a priority basis. Use of well
planned, proven measures such as demand-side management, power conservation and implementing
energy efficiency programs, it is recommended, must be included in power mitigation strategies.
Effective and timely implementation of well-planned strategies is of paramount importance.

Selecting among demand-side resources is often difficult because they are by nature diverse, diffuse,
and decentralized. Moreover, each DSM option is much smaller than a typical supply option.
However, such measures, when effectively implemented, offer a strong potential to significantly
narrow supply/demand gap. Their use to mitigate impact caused by Injera (electric) baking on Addis
Ababa’s peak load demand should be of compelling interest to EEPCo. Options to add power
generation is beset with high costs, hydrological vulnerabilities for hydropower, Ethiopia’s dominant
power supply source, technical and budgetary and long lag time, up to 9 years to add power supply. s.

The following lists key interventions to mitigate adverse impacts as a result of daily Injera baking in
Addis Ababa, the most energy intensive activity at household level.

1. Procure and Install Thermostat on a Pilot Scale:

Each current Mitad, it is estimated by EEPCo, wastes over 35% of energy during Injera baking.
Recommended thermostat use—purchase and installation may require GOE provided subsidies—are
projected to cut this waste to less than 10%. EEPCo, therefore, should consider starting the program
on a pilot scale and carefully monitor and evaluate data for wider use. Effective implementation of the
recommended measure can provide immediate benefits in terms of increased power availability and
significantly reduced energy waste

2. Implement Dynamic, Cost-reflective Tariffs:

Cost-reflective prices show true value of electricity. EEPCo, as a high priority intervention, should
implement tariff increases across all sectors. Percentage increase can be determined based on the
utility’s short run incremental cost to run diesel plants, possibly with some compensation for the
utility’s loss of revenues. EEPCo should conduct market research on how much people will be willing
to pay for electricity, while considering lifeline rates for the poor.

Use of rebates is not considered a cost-effective and sustainable way for implementing DSM program.
Any use should be considered carefully. The study also recommends Time-of-Use (TOU) tariffs,
which as a start, should be implemented on a pilot scale. Experience has shown that customers are
likely to respond to higher peak prices by reducing peak usage. Use of DSM and implementing energy
efficiency measures for Mitads (IEBSs) is considered cost effective and appropriate.

46
3. Provide Direct Financial Help to Faltering Private Design Firms:

Provision of financial support—grants, low-interest rates, tax incentives etc.—after a careful review, is
recommended. It is crucial to prevent the faltering, poorly capitalized, few startups, currently
endeavoring to develop energy efficient Mitads (IEBSs). GOE should provide direct financial
assistance, conditioned on developing mutually agreed upon outputs—such as workable, commercially
viable new designs—within targeted period(s), will likely expedite developing of better Mitads
(IEBSs). Other supporting help, as appropriate, should also be considered.

Successful deployment of new design(s) must ensure cost savings without lowering the Injera quality.
In this context, Ethiopia successfully deployed charcoal saving "Laketch" stoves98 in the 1990s, and to
the extent applicable, such an experience can be emulated.

4. Initiate surveys and other Measures to gather Baseline Data and Information:

As the study has found, baseline data and information in Ethiopia is seriously lacking. It is
recommended that, simultaneously with the above three measures, EEPCo should design surveys and
conduct studies to: (a) generate data on consumers’ power needs and preferences; and (b) evaluate
barriers to market penetration of new designs, as these come in the market place; and implement pilot
programs on use of DSM and energy efficiency options; and other measures, as listed in the study
and/or as identified by EEPCo based on sound data and information.

The purpose of a pilot project is to test, often in a production environment, whether the system is
working as it was designed while limiting business exposure. New product designs often have
unexpected problems. Carefully designed pilot projects can help: (i) test whether a new design will
actually accomplish what is desired; (ii) assess performance (in the field) and; (iii) generate useful data
and information for any corrective action.

Pilot projects analyzing the costs and benefits in terms of Peak Load reduction and associated savings
need to be carried out frequently to reinforce the benefits of demand-side management & demand
response. Likewise, to test the new Mitads’ designs such of DELLPLATZ, GOE can buy limited
number of Mitads, for example 500, and develop a quality and consumer satisfaction pilot project.
Notwithstanding the above, induction-based Mitad designer, DELLPLATZ, however is not supportive
of a pilot project due to: fear of its design being copied (illegally), high costs including potential
custom duties and the cost of molds99, among others.

5. Improve Customer Awareness:

There is an urgent need to educate to improve customer awareness on efficient energy use of Mitad. It
is recommended that EEPCo immediately launch (starting with pilot scale) consumer education
campaign focused on efficiency energy use and energy savings. The utility, as indicated under Section
4.2.8, should develop appropriate tools and use TV, radio and other means for information
dissemination.

6. Define and Implement DSM and Energy Efficiency Measures:

Since power shortfalls are very likely to stay in Ethiopia for the foreseeable future, and adding power
generation is not feasible for the near term, 8-9 years, or perhaps longer, alternate options such as use

98
The Lakech charcoal stove, an adaptation of Kenyan Ceramic Jiko stove is the most widely used stove for non-Injera
cooking activities among the urbanites of Ethiopia. While varying levels of thermal efficiencies exist, given poor knowledge
and awareness about the differences, low-efficiency stoves are most commonly used due to their lower cost. For most
appliances, over their lifetime, cost of fuel used far exceeds the cost of the appliance.
99
DELLPLATZ estimates mold fee for 500 of its Mitads, based on single automated production line, as US
$85,000; the company expects World Bank or another international donor to cover these costs as well as help
the firm get exemption from all government taxes, duties and port clearance costs, estimated at US $18/Mitads.

47
of DSM, energy efficiency, increased tariffs etc., must be explored. Use of these options can add to
power supply while increasing EEPCo’s revenues. In this context, EEPCo recently launched some
energy conservation measures such as the deployment of 4.8 million CFLs100. However, similar
additional multi-pronged (intensive) efforts are needed in a number of areas to improve power supply.
In this context, the World Bank recently recommended establishment of a self-rationing scheme,
whereby customers are assigned consumption quotas and use of a two-tiered pricing system. This
methodology has been used in a few countries with great success. It is particularly applicable to hydro-
based systems, such as Ethiopia, given regular rainfall shortfalls, lowering hydroelectricity generation.
EEPCo should carefully review these recommendations for potential implementation

EEPCo should also consider establishing institutional arrangements to deal with Energy Efficiency and
Demand Side Management (EEDMS). Developing (dedicated) institution(s) capable of helping achieve
the desired EEDMS goals or targets at national or provincial levels—institution(s) well suited to
market and economic conditions, and acceptable to stakeholders—are considered an important input to
a successful implementation outcome. The suggested institutional arrangement could be either new or
existing, with sound management and solid financial footings to be effective.

7. Encourage Private Sector Participation in DSM and EE Programs:

Market forces, working by way of private sector, can bring demand side efficiency improvements.
However, their effectiveness can be initiated, expedited, and/or enhanced with strategic
interventions—such as regulatory, technological and financial—on part of GOE. Such strategies must
address and encompass social dimensions. GOE should give DSM and EE high national priority which
will also encourage private sector participation.

8. For the Longer Term, 4 years and beyond:

As power supply is strengthened and the supply/demand gap is minimized, EEPCo and/or GOE should
consider:

(i) Development and implementation of energy labeling (See Section 4.2.6);

(ii) Formulation of plans to implement self-rationing. The World Bank recently recommended
establishment of a self-rationing scheme, whereby customers are assigned consumption quotas
and use of a two-tiered pricing system. This methodology has been used in a few countries
with great success. It is particularly applicable to hydro-based systems, such as Ethiopia (See
section 4.2.7). EEPCo should carefully review these recommendations for potential
implementation. Rationing has often proved compatible with energy reform measures;
(iii) Use of Smart Meters. These meters, when combined with more flexible pricing, provide an
economic incentive for consumers to reduce energy consumption during the peak hours.
EEPCo, at this time, is in the process of implementing a form of smart meters;
(iv) Installing state-of-the-art communication systems; and
(v) Other measures, as appropriate in the context of budgets and policies; coverage of these is
beyond the scope of this study.

The suggested recommendations need prioritization, and upon implementation, a careful monitoring
and evaluation and based on agree upon indicators which also include input from the consumers.

100
Compact fluorescent bulbs, however, last four times longer than incandescent bulbs, and use about 25% of the electricity,
when compared to a traditional incandescent lamp.

48
APPENDIXES
5.1 Appendix A: DELLPLATZ Project Proposal and Implementation Plan,
October 2009 (Attached, as provided by DELLPLATZ, Inc.)

Project Proposal and Implementation Plan

ENERGY EFFICIENT
ELECTROMAGNETIC MITAD

Submitted to:
H.E. Ato Alemayehu Tegenu, Minister
Ministry of Mines and Energy
By
Dr.-Ing. Getahun Mekuria, General Manager
Dellplatz Engineering Pvt. Ltd. Co.

Addis Ababa, October 2009

49
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION OF THE PROJECT

1.1. Need for Improved Efficiency

1.2. Reference Work: a Student Project at Addis Ababa University
1.3. Intellectual Property Ownership and Authorization for Product Development

2. BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE CONVENTIONAL ELECTRIC MITAD

3. THE NEW DESIGN: THE NEXT GENERATION ELECTRIC MITAD

4. THE PHYSICS OF HEAT TRANSFER

5. SKETCHES AND PICTURES OF THE NEW INDUCTION MITAD

6. THE INDUCTION MITAD ON ENERGY CONSUMPTION

6.1. Scenario-1: Incandescent Lamp and conventional electric Mitad

6.2. Scenario-2: Compact Florescent Lamp and conventional electric Mitad
6.3. Scenario-3: Incandescent Lamp and Induction Mitad
6.4. Scenario-4: Compact Florescent Lamp and Induction Mitad

7. ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS

8. IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

8.1. Prototyping and Testing

8.2. Mass Production
8.3. Customs Duty Exemption
8.4. Way of Importing
8.5. Sustainability Issue

50
1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION OF THE PROJECT

1.1 Need for Improved Efficiency

Mitad is a utensil available only in Ethiopia, and also being used by the Ethiopian Diaspora, and is
used to bake the pan-cake like Ethiopian national bread called Injera. The conventional electric
Mitad is made of a resistance in engraved clay and has a power consumption of around 3.5 kW and
efficiency of around 50%.

In a standard Ethiopian household, baking of Injera takes place twice a week (minimum) and
requires around 3 hours for a single baking on the average. Due to this reason, Mitad is thought as
being the single electrical appliance accounting for most of the electric energy consumption of a
standard Ethiopian household.

Due to the dire electrical power shortage in the country, the government of Ethiopia has been
engaged in a commendable and massive strategic plan for construction of Electrical Power
Generation plants. At this point in time, some of these projects (Tekeze, Gilgel Gibe II) are in the
process of full integration into the national grid after being successfully completed. Additionally,
constructions of multiple hydropower projects are taking place in parallel to aggressively address
the country's current and future energy, and beyond.

However, it is believed that not only should the government of Ethiopia, through Ethiopian Electric
Power Corporation (EEPCo), consider increasing the total generated electric energy of the country,
but also should give due attention to improve the efficiency of the country's electric power system,
at the different stages of power transmission and consumption stages. From technical and
strategically point of view, efficiency of a country's electric power system, can be improved either
on the Transmission lines or at the consumption end points. The transmission line related efficiency
improvements are to be handled by power utility service provider, whereas efficiency at the
consumer end points can be improved both by the power utility service provider and the end user.

How power utility Service provider improves electric efficiency at the consumer end:

• By setting and enacting laws and policies of power efficiency

• By encouraging consumers to use efficient appliances
• By singling out the most inefficient appliances and create awareness
• By availing highly efficient appliances by subsidy or the like

Therefore, in the Ethiopian context, improving the efficiency of electric power system, at
consumers' household is nothing other than improving and using an energy efficient electric Mitad.

1.2 Reference Work: a Student Project at Addis Ababa University

One of the senior student projects done in the department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Department, Faculty of Technology, Addis Ababa University, in the 2001 Ethiopian Academic year
(2008/2009) was a project entitled "High Frequency Stove" done by three undergraduate students
and advised by three staffs of the department, including and headed by the writer of this document.

The idea of this project was not actually new, but what makes it special was the idea of applying an
already existing technology to improve the efficiency of Mitad. Despite the need for redesigning of
the students' work and the much development works to realize the idea of the project, the
department of Electrical and Computer Engineering considered this project as potentially beneficial
if due attention is given and be developed to a product.

51
1.3 Intellectual Property Ownership and Authorization for Product Development

Therefore, the department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Addis
Ababa University, has filed for the Intellectual Property ownership rights of the Idea of Energy
Efficient Induction Mitad at the Intellectual Property Ownership Office in the Ministry of Science
and Technology, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The Right of Ownership is being processed by the Office.

For the product development, however, it is beyond the scopes of the department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering and the Faculty of Technology, AAU., and hence a Contract was signed
between the Faculty of Technology, on behalf of the Department, and Dellplatz Engineering Pvt.
Ltd. Co. in which the later has been granted the full right by the former for redesigning, product
development and commercialization of an energy efficient electric Mitad, among other things,
based on the idea addressed in the students' project.

Therefore, it is based on the terms and conditions stated in the Contract Document between the
Faculty and the Company that the Company has landed on designing a new generation of Induction
Mitad that could be evolved in to a Product. Accordingly, the new design was done by Dellplatz
Engineering by professionals that have long years of experience on induction cooking outside
Ethiopia. The Product based on the new design has been realized and Prototypes have been
produced.

52
2 BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE CONVENTIONAL ELECTRIC MITAD

• Has resistive load of 3 to 3.5kW

• Works on the principle of heating by power loss
• Work Piece is clay, making it the most inefficient appliance in a household
• Frequent replacement of resistor is required, high maintenance cost
• No provision for control of temperature
• Efficiency is around SO%
• Price for new Mitad is between ETB TOO and ETB 1-ZOO
• Weighs around 20 kg
• Diameter between 55 cm to 58 cm

53
3 THE NEW DESIGN: THE NEXT GENERATION ELECTRIC MITAD

• Input power 1.16kW, power factor >0.93 at all operation levels

• It does not have resistors, only coils for electric flux formation
• It is based on the principles of electromagnetic induction
• ° Electric flux is created in the work piece and is converted to thermal energy
• The Work Piece is not Clay, it is cast iron
• No component is heated except the Work Piece, relatively maintenance free
• Five constant temperature Levels
• Efficiency is expected to be > 10%
• Price for new Mitad is between ETB 850 and ETB 900
• Weighs around 8 kg
• Diameter 55 cm

54
4 THE PHYSICS OF HEAT TRANSFER

In this section we briefly discuss the physics of why the conventional electric Mitad is inefficient
and why the new Mitad is efficient for baking Injera.

Definition: Thermal conductivity, k, of a material is defined as the quantity of heat, AQ, transmitted
during time At through a thickness x, per unit area of A, due to a temperature difference AT, under
steady state conditions and when the heat transfer is dependent only on the temperature gradient.

Table 1: Thermal conductivity of some common materials:

# Material K at 25°C
1 Air 0.04
2 Aluminum 250
4 Brass 109
5 Cement Portland 0.29
6 Clay, saturated 0.6-2.5
7 Concrete stone 1.7
8 Copper 401
9 Earth, dry 1.5
10 Gold 310
11 Iron 80
12 Cast Iron 55

That means, the time required to transfer a given amount of heat between points 1 and 2 to bring
about a 1 degree Celsius temperature rise is 22 times longer in a clay material than in a cast iron
material under same condition.

Therefore, if the input power to the clay material is 3.5kW and if it requires up to 7 minutes of
heating time, then a cast iron material requires about 2 minutes (theoretical) of heating time at an
input power of around 1.16kW to attain the same temperature.

55
5 SKETCHES AND PICTURES OF THE NEW INDUCTION MITAD

[1] Glass Cover [6] Power Cord

[2] Cast Iron Plate [7] Bottom Cover
[3] Top Cover [8] Key PCB
[4] Coil [9] Fan
[5] Main PCB [10] Sensor
[11] Operative Panel

56
57
6 THE INDUCTION MITAD ON ENERGY CONSUMPTION

The Ministry of Mines and Energy (MoME), through EEPCo, has recently started a campaign of
replacing most of the Incandescent Lamps in the country by energy efficient Compact Florescent
Lamps (CFL). This is one strategy of improving the efficiency of the country's power system at the
consumer end point. Additionally, extending this same strategy to replacing conventional electric
Mitads by the new Induction Mitad would bring about a much better result of improving the efficiency
of the country's power utilization.

With this in mind, analysis has been made in this Section about the energy consumption of a standard
Ethiopian household under the following possible scenarios:

• Incandescent Lamp and conventional electric Mitad

• Compact Florescent Lamp (CFL) and conventional electric Mitad
• Incandescent Lamp and Induction Mitad
• Compact Florescent Lamp and Induction Mitad

Therefore the technical analysis in this section has been intended to show the impact of both the CFL
and the Induction Mitad in improving the country's Power system efficiency. Additionally, in all these
scenarios, an average Ethiopian household is considered to have five light points and uses an electric
Mitad with operation period and frequency as follows:

• Lamps: 3 hrs per day, 30 days per month

• Mitad: 2 hrs at a time, twice a week, 5 times a month on average

6.1 Scenario-1: Incandescent Lamp and conventional electric Mitad

1. Installed Load:

• Lamp: 5 X 40W Incandescent

• Mitad: 1 X 3.5kW

2. Monthly average electric energy consumption per person:

• Lamp: 5 X 40W x 3H/day x 30 days/month = 18 kWh

• Mitad: 3.5kw x 2H x 2/wk x 5 wk/month = 70 kWh

3. Annual average electric energy consumption per person:

• Lamp: 2.3-6kWh
• Mitad: 840 kWh

4. Currently EEPCo has an estimated Z Million customers. Assuming that a quarter of them
(500 thousand) use electric Mitad for baking Injera, the total annual electric energy
consumption is:

• Lamp: 108 GWh

• Mitad: 4ZO GWh

58
 5. The Country's estimated total energy Production Ethiopia's total energy production in
2005/2006 is 2,844 GWh (source: www.eepco.gov.et). The average percentage of
consumption by load type of the total generated energy in the country is then:

• Lamp: 3.80%
• Mitad: 14.77%

6.2 Scenario -2: Compact Florescent Lamp and conventional electric Mitad

1. Installed Load:

• Lamp: 5 x 11W Incandescent

• Mitad: 1 x 3.5W

2. Monthly average electric energy consumption per person:

• Lamp: 5x 11W x 3H/day x 30 days/month = 4.95 kWh

• Mitad: 3.5kw x 2H x 2/wk x 5 wk /month = 70 kWh
•
3. Annual average electric energy consumption per person:

• Lamp: 59.4 kWh

• Mitad: 840 kWh

4. Currently EEPCo has an estimated 2 Million customers. Assuming that a quarter of them
(500 thousand) use electric Mitad for baking Injera, the total annual electric energy
consumption is:

• Lamp: 29.7 GWh

• Mitad: 420 GWh

5. The Country's estimated total energy Production Ethiopia's total energy production in
2005/2006 is 2,844 GWh (source: www.eepco.gov.et). The average percentage of
consumption by load type of the total generated energy in the country is then:

• Lamp: 1.04%
• Mitad: 14.77%

6.3 Scenario-3: Incandescent Lamp and Induction Mitad

1. Installed Load

• Lamp: 5 x 40W Incandescent

• Mitad: 1 x 1.2kW

2. Monthly average electric energy consumption per person:

• Lamp: 5 x 40W x 3H/day x 30 days/month = 18 kWh

• Mitad: 1.2kW x 3H x 2/wk x 4.285 wk /month = 24 kWh

3. Annual average electric energy consumption per person:

• Lamp: 216 kWh

• Mitad: 288 kWh

59
 4. Currently EEPCo has an estimated 2 Million customers. Assuming that a quarter of them
(500 thousand) use electric Mitad for baking Injera, the total annual electric energy
consumption is:

• Lamp: 108 GWh

• Mitad: 144 GWh

5. The Country's estimated total energy Production Ethiopia's total energy production in
2005/2006 is 2,844 GWh (source: www.eepco.aov.et). The average percentage of
consumption by load type of the total generated energy in the country is then:

• Lamp: 3.80%
• Mitad: 5.06%

6.4 Scenario-4: Compact Florescent Lamp and Induction Mitad

1. Installed Load

• Lamp: 5 x 11W Incandescent

• Mitad: 1 x 1.2kW

2. Monthly average electric energy consumption per person:

• Lamp: 5 x 11W x 3H/day x 30 days/month = 4.95 kWh

• Mitad: 1.2 kW x 2H x 2/wk X 4.285 wk /month = 24 kWh

3. Annual average electric energy consumption per person:

• Lamp: 59.4 kWh

• Mitad: 288 kWh

4. Currently EEPCo has an estimated 2 Million customers. Assuming that a quarter of them
(500 thousand) use electric Mitad for baking Injera, the total annual electric energy
consumption is:

• Lamp: 29.7 GWh

• Mitad: 144 GWh

5. The Country's estimated total energy Production Ethiopia's total energy production in
2005/2006 is 2,844 GWh (source: www.eepco.gov.et). The average percentage of
consumption by load type of the total generated energy in the country is then:

• Lamp: 1.04%
• Mitad: 5.06%

Now, the analysis shown in the above four sections independently displayed the different scenarios a
standard Ethiopian household can be categorized based on whether the household is using an energy
efficient tamps or not, and also whether the household uses an energy efficient Mitad or not.

60
The summary of these analyses and other additional information has been tabulated in the following
Table.

Table-2: Summary of the energy analysis for the four different Scenarios
Scenario l Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4

1 Installed Load
Lamps 200 55 200
Mitad 3500 3500 1200 1200
TOTAL [W] 3700 3555 1400 1255

2 Monthly average electric energy consumption per person

Lamps 18.00 4.95 18.00 4.95
Mitad 70.00 70.00 24.00 24.00
TOTAL [kWh] 88 74.95 42 28.95

3 Annual average energy consumption per Person

Lamps 216.00 59.40 216.00 59.40
Mitad 840.00 840.00 288.00 288.00
TOTAL [kWh] 1056 899.4 504 347.4

4 Annual average energy consumption for 500K consumers

Lamps 108.00 29.70 108.00 29.70
Mitad 420.00 420.00 144.00 144.00
TOTAL [GWh] 528.00 449.70 252.00 173.70

5 Consumption type percentage of the national generated energy

Lamps 3.80 1.04 3.80 1.04
Mitad 14.77 14.77 5.06 5.06
TOTAL [%] 18.57 15.81 8.86 6.11

6 Estimated Savings with respect to (w.r.t.): Scenario-1

Saved energy with respect to 0.00 78.30 276.00 354.30
(w.r.t.) Scenario-1 [GWh]
In Percent of total generation [%] 0.00 2.75 9.70 12.46

In addition to what has been discussed in detail in the previous Sections, the following can easily be
drawn from the Table above:

• Replacing of Incandescent Lamp by CFL for an estimated 500 thousand EEPCo

customers saves approximately 78.30 GWh or 2.75% of the total annual energy
production of the country.

• Whereas, replacing of the conventional electric Mitad by the new Induction Mitad for
the same number of EEPCo customers saves approximately 276 GWh or 9.7% of the
country's total annual energy production.

• When both energy efficient CFL and Mitad are used in a standard household, around
354.30 GWh or 12.46% of the country's total annual energy production would be
saved.

61
7 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS

Use of the new Induction Mitad would:

• Minimizes the energy bill, thereby it would:

• Minimize individual energy bill per month, improves individual economy

• Minimize operation costs of Hotels and Restaurants
• Have many multiplicative economic effects.

• Many residents in big cities including Addis Ababa and other regional towns still use wood
Fuels to bake Injera due to the high cost of electric bill in using Mitad. Therefore, using the
new Mitad would:

• Minimize deforestation, and all its environmental effects

• Minimize the life burden on women in availing (selling or buying) the wood fuels

• In many of rural areas where EEPCo has so far managed to extend the national grid though the
rural electrification projects, the infrastructure is being used only for lighting. The low cost of
electric bill in using the new Mitad would also change this trend for good.

62
8 IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

Dellplatz Engineering has envisioned the following Implementation Plan for the full deployment of
the new product in a way that really brings change in saving electric power in Ethiopia.

8.1 Prototyping and Testing

Dellplatz Engineering has already entered into contract with a foreign manufacturer capable of
producing the Induction Mitad. The Prototype of the Induction Mitad has been in Ethiopia since
September 2009 and series of tests are being conducted on it so far. The test results show that the all
parameters are within design ranges. Here are the measured parameters of on the Prototype:

• Input Power = 1.16 kW

• Power Factor = 0.93 and above (at different temperature levels)
• Heating Time = 3 - 4 minutes, average (may be as high as 7 minutes)

Additionally, Injera was baked on the prototype and was successful.

8.2 Mass Production

The Contractual Agreement entered between Dellplatz Engineering Pvt. Ltd. Co. and the manufacturer
is for a mass production of 500 thousand units of the Induction Mitad as the minimum number of
delivery within a time period of maximum six months delivery time to Ethiopia. Here is the currently
agreed delivery time:

• First 200k units, Order by 20 Oct. 2009 , Delivery by 25 Jan 2010

• Next 300k units , Order by 20 Feb. 2010, Delivery by 20 May 2010

8.3 Customs Duty Exemption

The company expects that these new Mitads be exempted from, any sort of government levied taxes to
keep the price at an affordable lowest rate.

8.4 Way of Importing

The company, Dellplatz Engineering Pvt. Ltd. Co., expects that the Ethiopian Electric Power
Corporation (EEPCo) orders the new Mitad from the company. The company has finalized all
preparation for mass production and awaits only placement of orders.

8.5 Sustainability Issue

After the completion of the first phase of deployment, which is at least 500 thousand units, Dellplatz
Engineering establishes a production factory line here in Ethiopia. This will generate employment
opportunity for hundreds of people.

Additionally, Dellplatz Engineering Pvt. Ltd. Co. will train individuals for the servicing and
maintenance of the new Mitad to individuals currently involved in the production of the conventional
electric Mitad. This would facilitate the smooth transition from, the conventional system to the new
system.

63
5.2 Appendix B: ZELFIWU Inc. Design101
Injera Manufacturing System102

A manufacturing system for the production of the Ethiopian staple food referred to as Injera and
sometimes Enjera, including an apparatus and a method or process. The system includes a depositing
stage, a spreading stage, a flash heating stage, and one or more finishing stages. The one or more
finishing stages may include baking, cooling or otherwise applying heat for a desired finishing result.
The following provides key details about the system.

Teff Flour Mixing and Fermenting

To make Injera, the first step (101) is the mixing, combining and/or blending of the ingredients used in
the particular recipe. In this step, the Teff flour is mixed with water to a consistency that enables it to
flow freely when poured on a cooking surface. The batter is then allowed to ferment typically for 3-5
days—some places add food grade yeast to improve fermentation, before cooking. Sometimes Teff
flour is mixed with barley, corn, and buckwheat and/or wheat flour to improve taste and in many
cases, to save money; Teff grain for an average Ethiopian is (very) expensive.

Fermentation is best accomplished at 250C and a better viscosity of approximately two hundred to
fifteen hundred (200 to 1500 Cp) for the system disclosed herein, although the invention is not limited
to any particular batter viscosity. Fermented batter can be stored, outside for couple of days and under
refrigeration, longer. The fermented batter is later transferred to a feed tank (or container) and for
larger (i.e. commercial) operations, mixed mechanically. The batter tends to separate or stay in
suspension and the mixer provides a more uniform batter for deposit on the conveyor, as described
below.

The second step (102) involves pouring from the batter container, and depositing the batter on the
cooking surface, a conveyor belt that preferably has a non-stick or coated surface to minimize sticking
of the batter. A positive displacement pump is utilized to deposit predetermined batter amount of
batter on the conveyor surface. A piston based depositor is used to place or deposit the specific desired
amount of batter on the conveyor or machine belt.

Under the patents (larger) commercial design, multiple deposits can be made on a section of a
conveyor, and the entire section of the conveyor—which has a group or plurality of Injera—can be
indexed or articulated from one step or stage to the next.

While the patent (invention) is not limited to the above process, it is preferred from making a quality
Injera rather than gradually or continually moving the conveyor and Injera through various steps or
stages. Furthermore, the indexing allows the various stages to be accomplished while the conveyor is
stationary, and not moving. The indexing can be easily accomplished by controllers that have been
programmed, as desired. The controllers can also be used to activate various tasks or functions
performed at each stage, as indicated below.

Subsequently, the group of Injera batters deposited on a section of the conveyor is moved, articulated
or indexed over to the next step or stage. Under this step, the Injera batter is spread to the desired
thickness and width or diameter. Preferred shape of Injera by Ethiopian masses is circular. However,
the design can accommodate other shapes, as desired. Preferred Injera thickness is usually no more
than one centimeter and the thickness should be relatively uniform.

The third step involves spreading the batter to the approximate desired thickness and size. Use of an
air-based spreader is preferred since it utilizes a plurality of air streams which causes the batter to

101
See also: http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/7063008/fulltext.html
102
United States Patent 7063008; See also: http://www.freepatentsonline.com/7063008.html

64
spread to the desired diameter and achieves the approximate desired thickness needed at this stage of
cooking. Air utilization prevents need of contacting the batter to avoid potential inconsistencies. The
patented design also provides other methods to achieve the above.

The fourth step, (104) an optional, involves preheating or additional warming of the batter above the
mixing and/or pouring temperature; the optional step, where feasible and/or economical, helps achieve
a better quality Injera. The batter, with103 or without pre-heating, pre-heated is indexed to the next
stage. Once the batter, along with any other batters in that section of conveyor, has been pre-heated, or
prepared (if that option is chosen), it is indexed to the next stage.

Under the fifth step (105), higher temperature heat is imposed on the batter while it is on the cooking
surface. Quick application, about 15 seconds, of heat, temperature range of 300- 3500 F104, causes in a
portion of the moisture in the batter to flash or evaporate and causes (very small) holes or “eyes” in the
Injera. This stage is also referred to as the “eye formation” stage due to the creation of the holes or
eyes from the flashing or evaporation of some of the moisture in the batter. Subsequently, the batter is
moved and indexed to the next stage.

This stage may be accomplished in any one of a number of different ways. For instance, a heater may
be located below the conveyor belt and the conveyor belt may be drawn down to or near the heater, to
apply the heat to the batter in that section of the conveyor. Under this process, the conveyor may be
drawn down by a vacuum system applied to the conveyor belt. The conveyor belt, which includes the
cooking surface, must have sufficient flexibility (or play) to enable a vacuum to draw or pull it
downward to the heater. Suitable vacuum systems are well known and commonly used and
commercially available.

As the particular section of the conveyor belt is moved to the cooking or “eye” formation stage, the
vacuum pumps may be energized or activated—by a signal from a programmable controller—to draw
the conveyor belt or cooking surface to the heater. Based on a predetermined time, the controller
signal is used to shut off the vacuum pump and the indexed movement of the conveyor belt is re-
commenced. The Injera group is moved to the next step or stage.

During this step, heaters are moved up to or near the bottom of the conveyor belt on which the batter is
being cooked. This can be accomplished in a number of mechanical ways, as design or facilities
permit. Under one option, mechanical arms are used on the conveyer belt to push batter downwards
towards or near the heater. These mechanical arms may be rotated downward or simply moved
downward by commonly used and available mechanical systems and are not described here.

In a preferred embodiment, the heater above the conveyor belt is moved to a closer or adjacent
location over the Injera, to cause the flashing. While the movement of the heater relative to the
conveyor belt may be preferred, in this (patented) design, it may not be necessary. Instead, indexing of
the conveyor belt timing with the batter group, combined with the amount of the heat introduced,
alone can be utilized to cause the “eye” formation or flashing.

Injera Baking/Finishing

The next stage, the sixth step (106), is referred to as the finishing or baking stage. During this step (or
stage), Injera’s (final) moisture content, color and texture are achieved. This stage may be
accomplished in one or more steps, potentially at the same or at different temperatures.

The finishing step, which bakes, finishes and/or cools the Injera, is preferably accomplished by
introducing a desired amount of heat to the Injera. Preferably, this stage is approximately sixteen (16)
seconds, with heat at 2950 F is applied to the Injera in the first baking stage, and approximately

103
Pre-heating can be accomplished by keeping the batter at room temperature or by applying (some) outside heat.
104
While different amounts of heat and temperatures can be used, the patents suggest using this temperature.

65
fourteen (14) to sixteen (16) seconds and heat at temperature range of 245-2550 F is applied to the
Injera in the second baking or finishing stage.

It is also preferable in the baking or finishing stage(s) to control the humidity of the air to which the
Injera is exposed.

This can be accomplished in any one of a number of different ways. The preferred levels are: 90-100
percent during the first stage and 65-75% during the second baking (or finishing) stage. Standard
industry methods for humidity control can be applied.

Removing Injera from the Conveyer Belt

Final step, the seventh step (107), under the design is the removal of the Injera from the conveyor belt
for stacking or packaging for (short-term, 2-3 days) storage and/or sale.

Diagrammatic Representation of the Design

FIG. 2 is a top schematic view of a conveyor system embodiment 120 of the invention, showing the
various stages and/or components of an embodiment of the invention. The figure illustrates conveyor
belt 122, conveyor axis 121 at a first end of the conveyor, a batter pouring or depositing stage 124, a
spreading stage 125, a possible pre-heat or preparation stage 126, a flash heating stage 127, a first
finishing or bake stage 128, a second finishing or bake stage 129 and stage 130, which may be a third
finishing or bake stage or a removal/packaging stage. Injera 119 is being removed and/or is removed
at stage 130.

FIG. 2 illustrates deposited Injera batter 132 on the conveyor, 122 in stage 124, defining a deposited
diameter. As stated above, it is preferable in some embodiments of the patent to accomplish each stage
while the conveyor 122 is stationary, and then to quickly move, index or articulate the conveyor to the
next stage so that all Injera are simultaneously poured, heated, flashed, etc., before all are moved at
once to the next stage.

In Figure 2, there are six Injera batter deposits 132 shown in stage 124 , which have just been
deposited by Injera depositors 131 (three of which are not shown). The Injera batter deposits shown in
stage 124 are of a certain diameter, which in this embodiment is a lesser diameter than the diameter of
the Injera in stage 125 after it has been spread.

Figure 2 further illustrates Injera deposit apparatus 160, shown representatively in FIG. 2, which may
include one or more containers, pumps and delivery apertures. There are many widely known
techniques to deliver or deposit the Injera batter on the conveyor 122, with no one in particular being
required under the design; no additional information therefore is provided. .

In the evaporative or flash heater stage 127, one or more heaters are utilized to apply a short term,
higher heat to the Injera batter to cause moisture in the batter to evaporate or flash. As indicated
earlier, it helps to create holes or “eyes” on a first side of the Injera (as more fully shown and
described below). The heaters 137 may be either separate heaters positioned to separately provide heat
to Injera pieces on the conveyor at predetermined locations, or there may be fewer heaters applying
heat to a greater number of Injera (such as one large heater), to accomplish the heating.

It should further be noted that while FIG. 2 show a conveyor line with no hoods or housings over the
various stages, some or all of the stages may include hoods or housings for one or more reasons.
Reasons may vary depending on the specific embodiment of the invention, but may include humidity
control, protection of the Injera and other elements from the general environment, temperature control,
and others. Information on various types of hoods is widely available and is not provided here.

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While use of conveyers is recommended, they are not essential. The process can be accomplished with
use of such equipment as the depositors, the spreaders, the flash heater(s) etc., being alternately
positioned to deal with or affect the Injera while the Injera sits stationary. However, for simplicity and
other reasons, it is preferred to utilize separate physical locations for some or all of the stages
described herein.

FIG. 3 is a side schematic view of the embodiment of the invention shown in FIG. 2, showing
conveyor belt 122, conveyor axis 121, the return conveyor 143, conveyor framework 123, Injera
depositor 131, Injera spreader 133 rotating in direction 138, imposing air 139 on Injera batter 140 to
cause the relatively uniform spreading of the Injera batter to a desired thickness and diameter or outer
perimeter size. FIG. 3 also shows optional hoods 161, 162 and 163, which may be utilized in some or
all of the stages, depending on the specific design of the system and the environment.

FIG. 4 provides details from FIG. 3. It illustrates an aspect of the Injera batter spreader 133 of the
patent. While these figures illustrate an embodiment which includes an Injera spreader utilizing air or
air pressure to accomplish the spreading, other ways may be utilized within embodiments of this
invention. For instance there may be mechanical rollers and spatula styles which actually come in
contact with the Injera batter, although ways which do not contact the Injera batter are preferred.

It is preferable for the spreader to have a flow rate of approximately eight to twelve cubic feet per
minute per spreader. The velocity is five to seven feet per second and the rotation rate is around fifty-
five to sixty-five revolutions per minute. The arm is positioned about one-eighth to one-half of an inch
above the batter surface. The depositor piston preferably has a variable stoke allowing the volume to
be set between twelve and twenty ounces to make different sizes of Injera. The depositor is positioned
about four inches above the belt.

FIG. 4 illustrates an embodiment utilizing air as the spreading force, showing spreader apparatus 149
which rotates as shown by arrow 138, thereby causing the rotation of air conduit 150. Air conduit 150
includes one or more air apertures 151, which may be a plurality of distinct holes through which the
air may flow, or it may include one continuous slit type of aperture, all within the contemplation of
this invention.

The force of the air 152 reduces the thickness of the Injera batter and increases its diameter. The
desired flow volume and velocity of air flow and the distribution thereof will depend on several
factors, such as the time the Injera batter spends at this stage, the viscosity of the Injera batter 153, the
ingredients of the Injera batter, and others, which are or may be design choices.

Figure 4 further illustrates Injera batter 153 on conveyor 154, and a portion of conveyor framework
123 from FIG. 3. Spreader apparatus 165 may be any one of a number of devices, motors, or other
ways or means, to rotate the air conduit 150 to achieve the desired spread diameter (or outer perimeter)
and thickness of the Injera batter, with no one in particular being required to practice this invention.
Furthermore, apparatuses to perform the rotation of the spreader are generally known to those of
ordinary skill in the art, and will not therefore be described in any further detail.

Figure 5 is a bottom view of a depiction of an Injera piece 170, which would typically be the
downward side 171 during the manufacture or cooking thereof.

Figure 6 is a top view of a depiction of the Injera piece shown in FIG. 5, with an outer boundary or
edge 171, and showing what would typically be the upward or top side 172 during the evaporation or
flash stage. The numerous “eyes” 173 are visible on this side of the Injera piece.

Figure 7 is section 7 — 7 from Figure 6, and illustrates Injera piece 170, bottom side 171, top side
172, and craters, holes or eyes 173.

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Figure 8 through Figure 11 show a schematic view of examples of different embodiments for applying
the evaporative or flash heat to the Injera batter, also referred to as the eye stage. It is preferred to
impose a relatively high heat to the Injera to cause moisture or water in the batter to flash evaporates,
thereby creating the holes referred to as “eyes”.

FIG. 8 is an elevation schematic view of an embodiment of a flash heat system 200 which may be
utilized in this invention, showing conveyor 201 with a top side 201 a and a bottom side 201 b . Injera
pieces 203 are positioned or indexed in the flash evaporation stage on the top side 201 a of the
conveyor belt 201. In this embodiment of the invention, heaters 202 are located below the conveyor
belt 201.

Figure 9 shows an elevation schematic view of an embodiment of a flash heat system 200 which may
be utilized in this invention, showing conveyor 201 with a top side 201 a and a bottom side 201 b.
Injera pieces 203 are positioned or indexed in the flash evaporation stage on the top side 201 a of the
conveyor belt 201. In this embodiment of the invention, heaters 202 are located below the conveyor
belt 201 and are raised upward to a position adjacent to or in contact with the bottom side 201 b of the
conveyor belt 201 to apply the desired heat. It is preferred that the heat be relatively uniformly applied
across the Injera.

Figure 10 is an elevation schematic view of an embodiment of a flash heat system 200 which may be
utilized in this invention, showing conveyor 201. Injera pieces 203 are positioned or indexed in the
flash evaporation stage on the top side of the conveyor belt 201. In this embodiment of the invention,
heaters 202 are located below the conveyor belt 201 and the conveyor belt 201 is lowered into contact
with the heaters 202 by a vacuum system 210. The vacuum system 210 may be activated by a
programmable controller used to control and index the movement of the conveyor, or by one of any
number of other ways, all within the contemplation of this invention.

In this case, there are numerous known vacuum systems which may be utilized in this invention, and
since vacuum systems are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art, they will not be described in
further detail herein.

Figure 11 is an elevation schematic view of an embodiment of a flash heat system 200 which may be
utilized in this invention, showing conveyor 201. Injera pieces 203 are positioned or indexed in the
flash evaporation stage on the top side of the conveyor belt 201. In this embodiment of the invention,
heaters 202 are located below the conveyor belt 201 and mechanical arms 212 are utilized to move the
conveyor 201 downward to a position adjacent to or in contact with the heaters 202.

It will also be noted that the heaters or source of heat for the flash evaporation stage may be located in
locations other than below the conveyor belt 201, such as above the conveyor belt 201 . In such cases,
the heaters may be lowered to a position just above the Injera on the conveyor belt 201, or the belt
may be raised to a position just below the heaters, in a manner similar to that described above for the
other embodiments.

It should also be noted that while it may be preferred to utilize a conveyor belt in which the top side of
the conveyor belt is utilized as the cooking surface (and preferably includes a non-stick type of surface
finish), this is not required by all embodiments of this invention. An intermediate cooking surface or
layer may be interposed between the Injera and the conveyor belt, all within the design of this system.
Also, indication that Injera is on the conveyer belt or on the top surface of the belt, it is meant to
indicate that Injera is on these directly or indirectly.

As will be appreciated by those of reasonable skill in the art, there are numerous embodiments to this
invention, and variations of elements and components which may be used, all within the scope of this
invention.

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Another embodiment of the patent for example, is an Injera cooking system comprising: a conveyor
system with a conveyor surface; an Injera batter deposit stage which includes a source of Injera batter
and an Injera batter delivery aperture for depositing Injera batter on the conveyor surface; an Injera
batter spreader stage disposed to receive deposited Injera batter on the conveyor surface; included is a
spreader for spreading the Injera batter to a desired thickness and outer perimeter; a flash heat stage
disposed to receive spread Injera batter on the conveyor surface from the spreader stage.

The flash heat stage includes a flash heater to apply sufficient heat to the Injera batter to cause
moisture in the Injera batter to (flash) evaporate; and a finishing stage disposed to receive Injera on the
conveyor surface from the flash heat stage, the finishing stage including a heater disposed to apply
heat to the Injera batter.

There may be further or more specific systems from the foregoing embodiments, such as further
wherein the sufficient heat applied to the Injera batter is approximately three hundred fifty degrees for
fifteen seconds; wherein the applying sufficient heat to the Injera batter further comprises providing a
heater near the conveyor surface; and moving the conveyor surface and the heater closer to one
another to apply the sufficient heat to flash evaporate the Injera.

In a further embodiment, an Injera cooking system may be further provided wherein the flash heater is
initially disposed is a first position near the conveyor surface, and further wherein the flash heater and
the conveyor surface are configured to be moved closer together to increase the application of
sufficient heat. Although movement is not required to practice this invention, this may be
accomplished by moving one, the other or both together.

In another embodiment of the forenamed system the spreader may be provided comprising: an air
conduit with at least one air aperture disposed to impart air on the Injera batter on the conveyor
surface. In this further embodiment, the air conduit may be rotated while imparting air on the Injera
batter.

Zelfiwu system continuously bakes Injera. The system’s capacity includes: providing Injera batter to a
conveyor surface, the Injera batter (with proper moisture content); moving the conveyor to position the
Injera batter at a spreading stage; spreading the Injera batter on the conveyor to a desired thickness (for
one Injera); moving the conveyor to position the Injera piece at a flash evaporation stage; applying
sufficient heat to the Injera piece to flash evaporate a portion of the batter moisture, thereby creating
Injera eyes in the Injera piece; moving the conveyor to position the Injera piece at a finishing stage;
and applying sufficient heat to the Injera piece to finish cooking the Injera piece.

Potential improvements of the design (by the Zelfiwu team) may include: apply heat up to 3500C for
15 seconds; better placement, nearer to the conveyer surface/belt, of the heater and associated
techniques aimed to provide sufficient heat to flash evaporate the Injera. In addition, providing an air
conduit with at least one air aperture disposed to impart air on the Injera batter on the conveyor
surface. The imparted air spreads the Injera batter to desired thickness; a proposed modification
includes: rotating the air conduit during application of air to the Injera. These strategies are aimed to
improve production of Injera, qualitatively and quantitatively.

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