International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 78 (2001) 847±857

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijpvp

Fatigue and creep±fatigue crack growth in 316 stainless steel cracked

plates at 6508C
S. Marie a,*, C. Delaval b
a
CEA DRN/DMT/SEMT, CE-Saclay, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
b
CEA IPSN/DES/SEGREN, B.P. 6-92265 Fontenay-aux-Roses Cedex, France

Abstract
This paper presents experimental results on fatigue and creep±fatigue experiments consisting of a wide cracked plate subjected to cyclic
bending loads at 6508C. Six tests have been realised with different loading histories. The specimen is a large 316SS plate containing a wide
semielliptical surface notch precracked by fatigue.
Fatigue and creep crack growth laws are determined, using an adapted stress intensity factors compendium calculated by F.E. elastic
analysis, and compared to tests results conducted on CT specimen. A good correlation of the experimental results for fatigue tests is obtained.
For creep crack growth law, the CT specimen gives an intermediate result between plate results at the deepest point and at the surface point.
A16 guideline assessment procedures are used; results are found to be in good agreement with experimental crack growth. q 2002
Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Crack growth; Fatigue; Creep; Creep±fatigue; Defect assessment; 316 Stainless steel; Plates

1. Introduction
This article presents the results of the FIPAC and HIDA
experiments carried out on plates of 316L(N) austenitic steel
subjected to bending at 6508C, focusing on:
² the effect of loading conditions on propagation rate,
² the effect of closure,
² the creep propagation law.
The results are used to validate the methodology
proposed in document A16 [1] for analysing the propagation
of defects at high temperatures.
machined defect was 2.5 mm deep and had a total length
of 80 or 85 mm depending on the case.
Two bending arms were secured to the plate, and a
tension/compression force was applied to them as shown
in Fig. 1. The force was applied by an electromechanical
actuator with a capacity of 200 kN.
For heating, a furnace was suspended on the set-up by
means of a series of struts enabling it to follow the move-
ments of the bending arms and the plate. Seventeen thermo-
couples allow the measurement of the temperature all over
the plate and then to insure the homogeneity of the tempera-
ture distribution.

2.2. Instrumentation
2. Description of the HIDA and FIPAC experiments
During all the experiments, the force, the inclination of
2.1. Principle
the levers and the de¯ection were recorded, and propagation
was monitored using the potential drop method.
The experiments [2] were carried out on plates of
For the last two experiments (FIPAC4 and HIDA2), a
316L(N) steel containing a semielliptic crack subjected to
system for measuring crack mouth opening displacement
cyclic bending loads with and without holding at a tempera-
by means of 2 laser interferometers was used.
ture of 6508C [3].
Fig. 1 shows the plates used. These were 24.5 mm thick
and 350 mm wide at the cracked section. The initial
2.3. Tests matrix
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 133-1-6908-9257; fax: 133-1-6908-8784.
E-mail address: smarie@cea.fr (S. Marie). Table 1 gives all the tests performed.
0308-0161/02/$ - see front matter q 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0308-016 1(01)00099-0
848 S. Marie, C. Delaval / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 78 (2001) 847±857

Fig. 1. Principle of the tests.

3. Review of results the crack. More speci®cally:

3.1. Propagation rate dr ˆ 2:25; c 2 ld ˆ constant ˆ 38 mm

3.1.1. Description of crack shape

To assess the in¯uence of loading conditions on crack 3.1.2. Crack growth rate variation
propagation, depth and surface crack propagation rate Fig. 2 shows the results obtained in the HIDA and FIPAC
change was represented as a function of the stress intensity experiments.
factor. As concerns the pure fatigue experiments (FIPAC1 and
To do so, a stress intensity formula adapted to the actual FIPAC2), carried out at R ˆ 0:1; the propagation rates are in
shape of the defects [3] was used. This was the following close agreement with the law obtained with compact
type: specimens [3].
 dr   The fatigue±creep behaviour is found in experiments to
y x 2 ld dr be more complex: propagation ®rst slows, then increases if
if x . ld : 1 ˆ1 if x , ld : y ˆ a
a c 2 ld the experiment is continued long enough. This phenomenon
can be easily explained in view of the fact that total propa-
where a is the depth of the defect, c is its half-length, ld gation throughout a cycle is equal to the sum of the crack
represents the half-length of the linear part of the defect in growth associated with the fatigue component of the cycle
depth and dr is the coef®cient of the generalised ellipse, with and crack growth associated with the creep hold time. As
the origin of the axes located on the surface at the middle of shown by Polvora [4], the rate of the creep component of
crack growth is proportional to the rate of opening of the
Table 1
defects. However, initially, this is observed to decrease
Tests matrix (associated with the primary behaviour of the material),
then stabilises (transition to secondary creep). Finally, the
Campaign N8 Type Fmax R Tm (h) rate increases, apparently due to the increase in KI as a result
FIPAC 1 Fatigue 19 0.1 ± of propagation of the defect by creep.
2 Fatigue 19 0.1 ± In the case of experiments with a hold time Tm of one hour
3 Creep±fatigue 14 21 1 (HIDA1 and FIPAC 3), it is found that the propagation rates
4 Creep±fatigue 14 21 3 are generally slightly higher than those predicted by the
HIDA 1 Creep±fatigue 14 21 1
compact specimen fatigue propagation law. Nevertheless,
2 Creep 17.5/19.5 ± ±
the point corresponding to the minimum propagation rate
S. Marie, C. Delaval / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 78 (2001) 847±857 849

Fig. 2. Crack growth rates at depth and surface versus imposed DK.

Fig. 3. Closure effect on fatigue cycles (FIPAC4 test).

850 S. Marie, C. Delaval / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 78 (2001) 847±857

Fig. 4. Closure coef®cient for plates tests.

(the instant when the creep component is the smallest) is
relatively close to this Paris law.
Conversely, the effect of hold time is far more apparent in
the case of the FIPAC4 experiment (in which Tm ˆ 3 h),
where the propagation rates are greater than with the law
obtained on compact specimens.
3.2. Analysis of closure effect
3.2.1. The case of fatigue loading
An analysis of the closure effect during fatigue pre-
cracking was carried out on the results of the FIPAC4 and
HIDA2 experiments (with a negative load ratio R). The
coef®cient of closure U, corresponding to the ratio
DKeff =DK; was determined for different instants of
precracking.
Fig. 3 shows the force versus crack opening displacement
for three cycles of the fatigue pre-cracking period in
experiment FIPAC4.
It can be seen that, at the beginning of the cycle (with a
positive force), the compliance is identical to that at the ®rst
instants of loading. Then, when loading of the crack
becomes suf®ciently great, the defect opens. The effective
stress intensity factor DKeff corresponds to this instant.
Fig. 4 shows the variation of experimental closure coef®-
cient U as a function of applied load ratio R deduced from

Fig. 5. Closure effect on creep±fatigue cycles (FIPAC4 test).

 S. Marie, C. Delaval / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 78 (2001) 847±857 851

Table 2
Material properties

Tensile properties

² Young modulus E ˆ 140600 MPa

² Poisson coef®cient v ˆ 0:3

² Yield stress RP0:2 ˆ 125 MPa

Cyclic curve
2…1 1 n† Ds
1=m
De ˆ 100 Ds 1 ; K ˆ 647; m ˆ 0:296; De …%†; Ds …MPa†
3E K

Paris law
da n
ˆ C f DKeff ; Cf ˆ 4:662 £ 1027 ; n ˆ 2:339; da=dN …mm=cycle†; DKeff …MPa m1=2 †
dN

Virgin material creep laws

² Primary creep …t , tffp † : ec ˆ C1 tc2 s n 1

² Secondary creep …t $ tffp † : ec ˆ C1 tc2 s n 1 1 100C s n …t 2 tffp †

² Primary±secondary transient time: tffp ˆ ……100C=C1 C2 †s n2n 1 †1=…C2 21† ; C1 ˆ 5:863 £ 10211 ; C2 ˆ 0:565; n1 ˆ 4:233; C ˆ 1:018 £ 10225 ; n ˆ 9:407;
ec …%†; s …MPa†; t ffp …h†

Creep crack growth law

da=dt ˆ A…Cp †q ; A ˆ 1:117 £ 1022 ; q ˆ 0:673; da=dt …mm=h†; C p …N=mm=h†

Work-hardened material creep laws

² Primary creep …t , tffp † : ec ˆ C1 tC2 s n 1

² Secondary creep …t $ tffp † : ec ˆ C1 tC2 s n 1 1 100C s n …t 2 tffp †; C1 ˆ 1:37 £ 10210 ; C2 ˆ 0:2953; n1 ˆ 4:233; C ˆ 1:018 £ 10225 ; n ˆ 9:407; ec …%†;
s …MPa†

pre-cracking in the HIDA2 and FIPAC4 experiments. This disappeared after the tenth cycle, despite a load ratio
®gure also shows the laws proposed: of R ˆ 21:
in document A16 [1]: In fact, this phenomenon is the result of competition
1 2 0:5R 1 between the effect of closing and opening of the defect
Uˆ pour R , 0 U ˆ pour R . 0 during the hold time. The reduction in closure effect is there-
12R 1 2 0:5R
fore dependent on hold time Tm and load ratio R: the drop
by Polvora [4]: being more rapid when Tm is long and R is large.
U ˆ 0:2R2 1 0:5R 1 0:7 pour 2 1 , R , 0:5 3.3. Analysis of the creep part of the FIPAC4 and HIDA2
experiments
U ˆ 0:0143R 1 0:4261 pour R , 21
Measurement of crack opening displacement and the
All the experimental results lie between the two curves. crack opening angle during the HIDA2 and FIPAC4
As regards simpli®ed methods, the relationship given in experiments made it possible to use the experimental
document A16 would appear to be the best suited, at least method of calculation of C p proposed in Ref. [3], and
for negative load ratios, as it constitutes an upper-bound for establish the da=dt 2 Cp law for plate tests.
the experimental results [5].
3.3.1. Experimental method of calculating C p
The method is based on the crack opening angle rate [6],
3.2.2. Case of creep fatigue loading and coef®cients determined by ®nite element calculations
For a creep fatigue cycle, the closure effect situation is (b and kb):
different. Fig. 5 shows three cycles obtained during the
FIPAC4 experiment (carried out with a hold time of 3 h). p ‰kb_a …V0 ; V1 ; V2 †Š2 s b pa dCMOA
Cs_a ˆ b…n1 †
It can be seen that the effect of closure has totally kb …V0 ; V1 ; V2 † dt
852 S. Marie, C. Delaval / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 78 (2001) 847±857
Fig. 6. FIPAC4 plate mesh.
In order to validate the calculated values of C p, two ®nite
element calculations were carried out for experiments
FIPAC4 and HIDA2. This consisted of ®rst modelling the
load build-up by an elastoplastic calculation using a cyclic
law for the material. The strain and stress ®elds obtained
were then used as initial conditions for the creep calculation.
This modelled the behaviour of the material using the
primary and secondary laws for the material (see Table 2).
The calculations were carried out with the CEA code
CASTEM2000 [7].
The laws in question were not those obtained during
characterisation tests. Indeed, Curtit has demonstrated a
non-negligible effect of work hardening of the material
during fatigue pre-cracking with the creep laws [3]. For
creep and creep±fatigue tests, the reference stress Ds ref is
140 MPa (calculated from a limit load relationship) and then
is higher than the yield stress (125 MPa, see Table 2). For
plates, Curtit has numerically reset, by ®nite element calcu-
lation, a primary law making it possible to replicate the
experimental behaviour. It is this law that was used (see
Table 2): the loading history between FIPAC and HIDA
experiments and the experiments of Curtit were basically
similar, both it concerns procedure and loading level,
enabling us to apply the same law.
Fig. 6 shows the mesh used for the FIPAC4 test. In view
of the symmetry, only a quarter of the plate was modelled.
The crack modelled was the ®nal defect observed at the
fracture surface. For the FIPAC4 experiment, the cyclic
part of the test was disregarded, being equated to a pure
creep test in the simulation.
3.3.2. Calculation of crack growth associated with creep in
the FIPAC4 experiment
In the FIPAC4 experiment case, it is not possible to
distinguish crack growth associated with creep from that
associated with fatigue without making assumptions on
the manner in which the two types of damage combine.
To evaluate the da=dt 2 C p law of the FIPAC4 experiment,
total growth during a cycle was assumed to be the sum of the
fatigue increment associated with the stress intensity factor
and the crack increment associated with creep. This hypoth-
esis corresponds to the simpli®ed method in document A16.
There is therefore a crack increment associated with the
creep part of loading by the following relationship:
daflu ˆ datot 2 dafat :
where datot is the total increment, effectively experimentally
measured, and dafat the crack increment associated with the
fatigue part of loading by integrating the Paris law.
3.3.3. Determination of the da=dt 2 C p law
Fig. 7 show variation of the crack opening angle of the
simulated crack (theoretically involved in calculation of C p)
with the experimental curves for the FIPAC4 and HIDA2
experiments.
As concerns the FIPAC4 experiment, it was found that
the initial values of the angle of opening are correctly
predicted, but thereafter the variation is greatly underesti-
mated by the calculation: this is due to the fact that the
simulation considers a stationary crack, which is not the
case during the tests where substantial propagation is
 S. Marie, C. Delaval / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 78 (2001) 847±857 853

Fig. 7. Crack opening angle F.E. simulation for HIDA2 e and FIPAC4 tests.

observed. The consequences for the estimate of C p are
shown in Fig. 9. Although the order of magnitude of the
two changes is identical, the calculation indicates a decreas-
ing curve whereas the experimental results show an
increase, associated with propagation.
For the HIDA2 experiment, it was found that the agree-
ment between variation of the crack opening angle as indi-
cated by the experiment and determined by calculation is
relatively good, which con®rms the validity of the results
given by simulation. Furthermore, the values of the C p
obtained experimentally (Fig. 9) can be considered to be
satisfactory in the light of ®nite element calculation in
view of the accuracy of the experimental data.
Fig. 8 shows the points obtained with the FIPAC4 and
HIDA2 experiments in the da=dt 2 Cp diagram.
For the HIDA2 experiment, only the depth law is deter-
mined, as the propagation obtained at the surface is
extremely slight. Similarly, propagation measured at a
depth is very small: the rates of propagation calculated are
to be considered to represent a scale of magnitude rather
than reliable values.
As concerns the depth points, it was found that the agree-
ment was relatively good with the law obtained with
compact specimens (which however indicates rates that
are slightly greater than was found with the plates).
Finally, the propagation rates, at equal loading (in term of
C p), are faster at the surface than at a depth. The experi-
mental results on plates thus bracket the creep propagation
law obtained from compact specimens (which represents an
`average' law).
Two possibilities allow the explanation of the difference
of crack growth rate between surface and depth:
Residual stresses built up after each unloading could
justify this phenomenon: but Curtit [3] evaluated these
residual stresses in the case of very similar test (same
geometry, comparable load level) and show that they
are not suf®cient to explain the crack growth rate
difference, because the stress intensity factor variation
due to these stresses is not higher than 1, 2 MPa m 1/2.
The work hardening±creep interaction, already
mentioned, could explain this result: It is show that this

Fig. 8. Creep crack growth rate versus C p for HIDA2 and FIPAC4 tests.
854 S. Marie, C. Delaval / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 78 (2001) 847±857

Fig. 9. Calculated C p for HIDA2 and FIPAC4 tests.

interaction reduce the kinematics of creep, and hence
stress relaxation. But, as the plate is submitted to a bend-
ing, this phenomenon is non homogeneous through the
thickness: It is more important where the stress is maxi-
mum, that is at the surface. Then, the reducing of creep
kinematics is highest at the surface: the stress relaxation
is also minimum at this area. The crack tip loading is then
more severe at the surface point, which explain that for a
given value of C p, crack growth rate is higher at the
surface point than at the deepest point.
4. Comparison of A16 methods with experimental results
4.1. The methodologies proposed in document A16
Document A16 [1] proposes different methodologies for
estimating the propagation of a crack and its effect on the
behaviour of a structure, particularly for fatigue, creep and
fatigue±creep loading.
4.1.1. Calculation of reference stress
For determining fracture parameters, document A16 [1]
uses the reference stress s ref concept. To estimate this stress,
it is necessary to calculate two equivalent stresses: an
equivalent elastic stress and an equivalent plastic stress
s eq_el and s eq_pl.
To do so, the linearised elastic stresses for the defect
section are ®rst determined. These are then combined in
Illiouchine's [8] two equivalent stress formulas to obtain
s eq_el and s eq_pl.
The reference strain e ref is then determined:
s eq_el
e ref ˆ 1 epl …s eq_pl †
E
where e pl(s ) is the plastic strain corresponding to stress s
with the stress±strain curve used.
The reference stress is then deduced from this reference
strain by means of the behaviour law.
4.1.2. Fatigue problem analysis
For a fatigue loading, the method proposed in document

Fig. 10. A16 method for fatigue crack growth: case of FIPAC2 test.
 S. Marie, C. Delaval / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 78 (2001) 847±857 855

A16 involves estimating the crack increment for a certain defect is supposed to be semi-elliptical. This could explain
number of cycles by integrating the Paris law: To do so, it is differences with previous results, obtained considering the
necessary to calculate stress intensity factor DK, obtained real shape of the defects.
from DJ:
p 1 2 0:5R 4.2.1. The case of pure fatigue: FIPAC1 and FIPAC2
DK ˆ U E p DJs Uˆ for R , 0 experiments
12R
The FIPAC1 and FIPAC2 experiments were carried out
1 for fatigue, under the same loading conditions: R ˆ 0:1 and
Uˆ for R . 0
1 2 0:5R Fmax ˆ 19 kN: As the FIPAC2 experiment is better docu-
where U is the closure coef®cient, E p is equal to E in plan mented and covers the greater propagation, we compared
stress and E=…1 2 n2 † in plan strain. For a loading with an the results supplied by the A16 method to those obtained
imposed force: with this test.
To be able to apply the method in document A16, the
Eeref defect is assumed to be semi-elliptical in shape. Further-
DJs ˆ DJel
s ref more, the loading considered is pure bending loading
where DJel is the elastic value of J with a semi-elliptical (membrane stress is disregarded). Finally, the Paris law
defect. used is that proposed by Curtit [3], adapted to our material.
The crack implement is obtained by integrating the Paris Fig. 10 shows the results obtained. The agreement is
law: excellent with the experimental points, if allowance is
made for the uncertainty as to the number of cycles at
da ˆ C DK m experimental initiation (which implies horizontal offset of
where m and C are coef®cients of the Paris law. the experimental points), particularly for the surface point.
The result was however predictable as, in the previous
4.1.3. The case of creep propagation section, there was found to be good agreement between the
The crack increment obtained during a time dt is obtained Paris law obtained with compact specimens and the points
by integrating the da=dt 2 Cp law. To do so, it is necessary derived from tests on plates.
to ®rst estimate the parameter Csp : For loading with an
imposed force, this is expressed as follows: 4.2.2. The case of fatigue±creep propagation: FIPAC3,
FIPAC4 and HIDA1 experiments
Ee_ ref As before, only bending loading was considered. Fig. 11
Csp ˆ Jel
s ref shows the results obtained, using the primary creep law for
where e_ ref is the strain rate associated with the reference work-hardened material [3].
stress by means of the creep laws. In this case: For the FIPAC4 and HIDA1 experiments, the results are
excellent. For the FIPAC3 experiment, the A16 method is in
Z dt
q
da ˆ A Csp dt: close agreement with the test results up to approximately
0 750 cycles. Thereafter, the experimental propagation
accelerates, which is associated with substantial crack
4.1.4. The case of fatigue±creep propagation propagation on the side opposite to that of the initial defect,
For fatigue±creep propagation, document A16 proposes which the simpli®ed method cannot take into account.
summing the fatigue and creep propagation without any
interaction between the two phenomena: 4.2.3. The case of creep propagation: HIDA2 experiment
For the HIDA2 experiment, carried out for pure
datot ˆ dafat 1 daflu creep, the creep law used for the simulations is that
To estimate the crack growth associated with creep, for for work-hardened material. As shown in Fig. 12, the
cycle N, document A16 proposes integration of the da=dt 2 A16 method substantially overestimates the propagation
C p law for the holding time, as per the Polvora [4] obtained. However, the result is broadly satisfactory, as
methodology: the creep time is not reset each time the the propagation considered are very small (less than
holding period Tm begins: 0.3 mm). Furthermore, the values of C p calculated for
the end of the test are in close agreement with the
Z…N 1 1†Tm
q
da ˆ A Csp dt experimental values (Fig. 12)
NTm In fact, the high values of C p calculated for the beginning
of the crack growth (t , 400 h) result, by integration of the
4.2. Analysis of the results obtained da=dt 2 Cp law, in initial crack increments that are too
large.
The material data used in the experiment are given in It is therefore dif®cult to draw conclusions as to the
Table 2. For all applications considered in this part, the quality of prediction of the method in document A16 for a
856 S. Marie, C. Delaval / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 78 (2001) 847±857

Fig. 11. A16 method for creep±fatigue crack growth: (a) case of FIPAC3 test; (b) case of FIPAC4 test; (c) case of HIDA1 test.

creep experiment on the basis of the present experiment, for studied using a stress intensity factor formula adapted to the
which the propagation was too small. shape of the defects observed:

5. Conclusions ² fatigue tests on plates as per the Paris law obtained on

compact specimens,
This article describes the HIDA and FIPAC experiments ² fatigue±creep, with the propagation rates ®rst decreasing
on plates subjected to bending at 6508C. then increasing. These variations are associated with the
The effect of loading conditions on propagation rate was creep component of the loading.
 S. Marie, C. Delaval / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 78 (2001) 847±857
Fig. 12. A16 method for creep crack growth: case of HIDA2 test.
Concerning the closure effect:
² the results obtained with the FIPAC4 and HIDA2 experi-
ments show that, for fatigue, the closure coef®cients are
bracketed by the relationships proposed in document A16
and by Polvora. In the case of a design analysis, the A16
relationships is better suited as it represents an upper-
bound for this coef®cient,
² as concerns fatigue±creep loading, blunting of the crack
tip during the hold time tends to eliminate this closure
effect.
As concerns creep propagation, a cyclic work hardening
effect is also found. This reduces the kinematics of creep,
and hence stress relaxation: crack propagation is faster at the
surface (where there is less loading) than at a depth.
The last point studied in the report relates to the
simpli®ed methods of document A16:
² For fatigue, the results of the document A16 method are
in close agreement with the experimental results.
² For creep±fatigue, using a law associated with the work-
hardened behaviour of the material, the results are very
close to the experimental ones.
² For the HIDA2 experiment in pure creep, it is dif®cult to
draw any conclusions as to the accuracy of the method as
the experimental propagations are far too small.
It will be noticed that work hardening of the material has
a strong effect on the results, as judiciously demonstrated by
Curtit using a creep law associated with work-hardened
material. This phenomenon appears to be all the more satis-
factory for justifying the differences between the results of
the experiments and the methods in document A16 as the
857
use of this work hardening law makes it possible to replicate
the behaviour of a plate in bending by ®nite element calcu-
lation, as shown by Curtit.
However, this creep law for work-hardened material
certainly depends on the conditions of loading and the
geometry in question, as would appear to indicate the
difference in the rate of creep propagation between that at
the surface and at a depth. Understanding this interaction
would appear to be the key to determining the appropriate
law for the con®guration in the context of a simpli®ed
method.
References
[1] Poussard C, Celard N, Drubay B, Moulin D. Creep±fatigue Crack
Growth in austenitic stainless steel centre cracked plates at 6508C Ð
Part II: defect assessment according to the A16 document. Proceedings
of the International HIDA/SISSI 3 Conference, S7-48, Saclay, France,
April, 1998.
[2] Poussard C, Moulin D. Creep±fatigue crack growth in austenitic stain-
less steel centre cracked plates at 6508C Ð Part I: experimental study
and interpretation. Proceedings of the International HIDA/SISSI 3
Conference, S3-22, Saclay, France, April, 1998.
[3] Curtit F. Propagation de ®ssures semi-elliptiques en fatigue-¯uage aÁ
6508C dans des plaques d'acier 316L(N) avec ou sans joints soudeÂs.
MeÂmoire de theÂse, ENSMP, 1999.
[4] Polvora JP. Propagation de ®ssure aÁ haute tempeÂrature dans un acier
inoxydable austeÂnitique. Rapport CEA R 5802, 1998.
[5] Skelton G. CEGB Report, 1988.
[6] Chapuliot S, Curtit F. Experimental determination of the C p parameter
for a plate with a surface crack and submitted to bending. Proceedings
of the Second International HIDA Conference, Stuttgart, Germany,
October, 2000.
[7] CASTEM. Guide de l'utilisateur, 2000.
[8] Iliouchine AA. PlasticiteÂs, Editions Eyrolles, Paris, France, 1956.