Modern Steels Their Properties

INDEX (conto) anenin testes, siface 66 Haren conversion abies 181 Hsia ‘llay grades, chemical anaes 16 Alley boron grades, chee sealyses 38 ‘Carbon and carbon bora sate, Hardens it tales $1 Indecton harceingtresiment for wrace 6 Ingots, sepegation in steel 12 DMurtempering 65 Kile ects 13 Ladle coma range and ints ‘Alloy sels #0 Carson see 32 MT sted, grade anaes 10 Machinabily of steel 168 Mechinbiley teing 168 Magnede measurement testing 175 Magnet parte testing 175 Martempeing 65 Necania poperes obtainable in Hes Ot ganna 8, Watee avers $9. Mecania properties tables ‘Atoy earborang sades 121 ‘Aloy o-hardesing wades 16 ‘Nioywettuedenng rade 137 Corton carbursing eadan “47 Gatton wae and ethnic pda 99 etic eqavsents for weit ad reanree ot Niiaing vestment fr sate hargening 67 Nondestetve examination of eel 173 (Open heanth furnace, bese 7 ‘Onjoen furnace, saie 200 MODERN STEELS and their properties CARBON and ALLOY STEEL BARS and RODS HANDBOOK 3310 BETHLEHEM STEEL CORPORATION BETHLEHEM, PA 18016‘ — Contents MODERN STEELMAKING Raw Mattias Blast Furnace Steelmaking Methods The Steel Ingot Types of Stee! Sand Casting Vacuum Treatment CARBON AND ALLOY STEELS Etiects of Chemica Elments AISISAE Standard Grades and Ranges HARDENABILITY OF STEEL End-Quench Hardanabiliy Testing Calelation of Harsenability Hardenebiliy Limits Tables THERMAL TREATMENT OF STEEL enventional Quenching an . ‘Tempering aa Isothermal Treatments Suifaoe Haening Testes Normaliing end Anaesing SAE Typical Terma Tretments GRAIN size MECHANICAL PROPERTIES ‘OF CARBON AND ALLOY STEELS MACHINABILITY OF STEEL. NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION USEFUL DATA GLOSSARY OF STEEL TESTING ‘AND THERMAL TREATING TERMS INDEX 6 63 66 n ” 31 188 73 a 191 200(Customers and friends are cautioned to conduct their own individual tests, etc., in order to verify the accuracy of the data contained in this publication, avid to seek qualified professional judgment prior to any application. While reasonable steps have been taken to provide accurate data, whether developed by Bethlehem Steel Corporation, or others, Bethlehem Steel Corporation does not assume responsibility for any ‘errors in fact or opinion, or for any oversight, that may be found, and no warranties of any kind or nature are intended or given. MODERN STEELMAKING Steel is essentially 2 combination of iron and carbon, the carbon ‘content of common grades ranging from a few hundredths to about one per cent. All steels also contain varying amounts of other ele- ‘ments, principally manganese, phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon, which are always present if only in trace amounts, The presence aud amounts of these and some 20 other alloying elements, which are added in various combinations as desired, determine to a great extent the ultimate properties and characteristics of the particular steel, Raw Materials ‘The principal raw materials of the steel industry are iron ore, iron and steel scrap, coal, and limestone. Iron ore is a natural combination of iron oxides and other material, such as silicon and phosphorus. Until recently, the industry’s main sources of iron were the high-grade ores, containing from 55 to 65 per cent iron, which were ‘mined and sent directly to the steet plants. Today, the most available domestic iron ore is taconite, which contains a lesser amount of iron, making its use uneconomical without some kind of beneficiation, a process in which the material is upgraded and formed into high-iron- bearing pellets. Nearly one-half of the iron ore produced on this con- tinent is now used in this pellet form. ‘A second source of iron is serap. Most of this comes from the steel plant itself; only about two-thirds of the steel produced by steel plants is shipped as product, the remainder being discarded during Processing and returned to the furnaces as scrap. Other scrap, if needed, comes from outside the plant from such sources as old auto- mobiles, worn out railway cars and rails, obsolete machinery, and cuttings from metalworking shopsCoal is converted into coke, gas, and chemicals in the coke ovens. The coke is used in the blast furnace as a fuel and reducing agent, the gas is burned in heating units, and the chemicals are pro- cessed into various organic materials. Limestone is employed as a flux in both the blast furnace and steelmaking fumace where it serves to remove impurities from the ‘melt. It is used cither as crushed stone direct from the quarry or, after calcining, as burnt lime. Blast Furnace The principal charging material used in making steel is molten pig iron, the product of the blast furnace. To produce it, iron ore, coke, and limestone are charged into the top of the furnace. A continuous blast of preheated air, introduced near the bottom of the furnace, reacts with the coke to form carbon monoxide gas which then ‘combines with the oxygen in the iron oxides, thereby reducing them to metallic iron, The molten iron is tapped into a ladle for transporta- tion to the steel producing unit. Pig iron contains considerable amounts of carbon, manganese, phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon, In the solid form, itis hard and brittle and therefore unsuitable for applications where ductility is important. Steelmaking Methods Steelmaking may be described as the process of reining pig icon or ferrous scrap by removing the undesirable elements from the melt and then adding the desired elements in predetermined amounts. ‘These additions are often the same elements which were originally removed, the difference being that the elements present in the final steel product are in the proper proportion to produce the desired properties ‘The open-hearth, the basic oxygen, and the electric-are processes account for nearly el the steel tonaage produced in this coun- try today. The oper-hearth furnace was the nation’s major source of steel uniil 1969, when this role was assumed by the relatively new basic oxygen process. Together, these two methods account for over 75 per cent of the steel made in America, The remainder is made up of electric furnace stecls. sure eas on coxveen nce | au ru ‘Simplified cutaway chogram of # typical open-heeth furntee, equipped with oxygen lance, Oxygen may be injected tvough ane of more larees. OPEN-HEARTH FURNACE. The oper-hearth furnace has tho ability to produce steels in a wide range of compositions. The process can be closely controlled, yielding stels of high quality from ‘charges which need be only nominally restrictive in their analyses. Most modern open-hearth furnaces are lined with a chemically basic material, such as magnesite, and use a basic reining slag. Furnace ‘capacitics range from 100 to 500 tons per melt, or teat, each heat equiring from 4 to 10 hours of furnace time. To begin the process, the basic open-hearth furnace is charged with scrap, limestone, and iron ore. This initial charge lies on an “open” hearth, where it is melted by exposure to flames sweeping over its surface, The pig iron, which may constitute as much as 75 per cent of the charge, is added in the molten state after the scrap is par- tially melted, During the subsequent refining of the heat—a process which is frequently accelerated by the introduction of oxygen through roof lances—nearly all of the manganese, phosphorus, and silicon are oxidized and retained by the slag, which floats on the heavier molten metal. Appreciable percentages of sulfur can also be taken into the slag.The heat is allowed to react until its carbon content has been reduced by oxidation to approximately that desired in the finished steel. The furnace is then tapped, allowing the molten metal to flow into 2 ladle. To obtain the desired analysis, appropriate quantities of needed elements, usually in the form of ferroalloys, are added (0 the heat as it pours into the ladle, o, in the case of some elements, added to the furnace just prior to tapping. A deoxidizer, such as aluminum ‘oF ferrosilicon, is also normally added to control the amount of gas evolved during solidification (see p. 12). The heat is then usually Poured into ingot molds where it solidifies into steel ingots BASIC OXYGEN FURNACE. The “BOF” involves the same chemical reactions as the open-hearth, but uses gaseous oxyg as the oxidizing agent to increase the speed of these reactions and thereby reduce the time of the refining process. Although the advan- tages of the use of oxygen were obvious to steslmakers @ hundred ‘years ago, only in recent years has the pure gas become commercially available in the vast quantities required to make the BOF feasible. Heats of steel as large as 300 tons can be made in less than an hour, several times faster than the average openchearth can operate. The steel is of excellent quality, equivalent to open-hearth steel in every respect aim com my Dring he charging anc taping of tne” ur BOF, the oxygen lance saced andthe VOLE ons tte, A 260-4on basle oxygen furnace at our Lackewanna, NY. lant receives a charge of hot metal‘The basic oxygen furnace, a closed-bottom, refractory-lined vessel is charged with molten pig iron and scrap, During the oxygen biow, burnt time and fluorspar, which form the slag, are charged into the furnace. A high-velocity stream of oxygen is directed dowa onto the charge through a water-cooled lance, causing the rapid oxidation of carbon, manganese, and silicon in the melt, These reactions pro- Vide the heat required for scrap melting, slag formation, and refining, Additions of deoxidizers and any required alloying elements are made as the steel is tapped from the vessel into the ladle, It is then usually poured into ingot molds, as with other steelmaking processes. Tn keeping with the industry’ trend (0 use the most advanced technologies, the entire process is usually controlled by a computer. From data on the analysis and weights of the charge materials and of melt samplings, the computer quickly determines the precise amounts of the additive elements needed, as well s the cycle time required for the refining operation. ELECTRIC-ARC FURNACE. Special steels, such as the high-alloy, stainless, and tool steels, are normally made in electric- are furnaces. The primary advantage of this type furnace is that it Permits the extremely close control of temperature, heat analysis, and refiaing conditions required in the production of these complex steels. As another advantage, these furnaces can be operated effi- cieatly on a cold metal charge, thereby eliminating the need for blast furnaces and associated facilities. For this reason, electric furnaces are today being used with increasing frequency for the production of standard carbon and alloy stecs, ‘The furnace proper is round or elliptical, with carbon ot graphite electrodes extending through the roof. In operation, th electrodes are lowered to a point near the charge, which is melted by the heat of the electricity arcing between the electrodes and the charge, When the charge of carefully elected steel scrap is about 70 per cent molten, iron ore and burnt lime are added. Alloying elements are added during a later stage of the refining process. Some 3 to 7 hours are required for each heat, depending mostly on the type of steel being produced, Furnace capacity can vary from a few hundred pounds to 200 tons oF more. ‘Tepping @80-ton ting elete-are funacs. Slag practice is geared 10 the economies of refining steels for different levels of quality. The standard carbon and alloy steels may be refined under a single slag to meet product requirements. Where cleanliness or a specific chemical analysis is the prime consideration, 1 double-slag practice may be used. The first of these is an oxidizing slag, used to remove some unwanted elements, principally phosphorus and some of the sulfur. This is discarded during the refining process and replaced by a reducing slag which serves to prevent excessive oxidation of the melt, thus enhancing cleanliness and the recovery of alloying additions of oxidizable elements. A further re- ‘duction in sulfur is also accomplished during this stage.The Steel Ingot The cross section of most ingots is square or rectangular with rounded corners and corrugated sides. Some round -corrugated ingots are produced, but have a limited usage. All ingot molds are tapered to facilitate removal of the ingot, which may be poured big-end-up or big-end-down depending on the type of steel and ultimate product All stel is subject to variation in internal characteristics as a result of natural phenomena which occur as the metal solidifies in the ‘mold. The shrinkage which occurs in cooling may cause a central cavity known as “pipe” in the upper part ofthe ingot. The exient of {he piping is dependent upon the type of steel involved, as wells the size and design of the ingot mold itself Pipe is eliminated by suf- « cropping during rolling, Another condition present in all ingots to some degree is non Lniformity of chemical composition, or segregation. Certain elements tend to concentrate slighily in the remaining molten metal as ingot solidification progresses. As a result, the top center portion of the ingot which solidifies last will contain appreciably greater pereent agen of these elements than indicated by the average composition of ‘the ingot, OF the normal elements found in steels, carbon, phosphorus, and sulfur are most prone to segregate, The degree of segregation is influenced by the type of steel, pouring temperature, and ingot size, It will also vary within the ingot, and according to the tendency of the individual element to segregate Types of Steel In most steelmaking processes the primary reaction involved is the combinstion of carbon and oxygen to form a gas. If the oxygen available for this reaction is not removed prior to or during pouring (by the addition of ferrositicon or some other deaxidizer), the gas- ‘cous products continue to evolve during solidification. Proper con trol ofthe amount of gas evolved during solidification determines the type of steel. If no gas is evolved, the steel is termed “killed” because ities quietly in the molds, Inereasing degrees of gas evolution char- acterize semi-killed, capped, or rimmed steel RIMMED STEELS are only slightly deoxidized, thereby allowing a brisk effervescence, or evolution of gas to occur as the metal begins to solidify, The gas is produced by a zeaction between the car- 2 bon and oxygen in the moiten steel which occurs at the boundary between the solidified metal and the remaining molten metal. As a result, the outer skin, or “sim” of the ingot is practically free of earbon. The rimming action may be stopped mechanically or chemically after a desired period, or it may be allowed to continue until the action subsides and the ingot top freezes over, thereby ending all ‘gas evolution. The center portion of the ingot, which solidifies after ‘the rimming ceases, has a fairly pronounced tendency to segregate, as discussed above. The low-carbon surface layer of rimmed steel is very ductile. Proper control of the rimming action will result in a very sound surface in subsequent rolling. Consequently, rimmed grades are particularly adaptable to applications involving cold forming, and where surface is of prime importance. The presence of appreciable percentages of carbon or man- sanese will serve to decrease the oxygen available for the rimming action. Ifthe carbon is above .25% and the manganese over .60%, the action is very sluggish or non-existent, Ifa rim is formed, it will be quite thin and porous. As a result, the cold-forming properties and surface quality are seriously impaired. Itis therefore standard practice to specify rimmed steel only for grades with lower percentages of these elements, KILLED STEELS are strongly deoxidized and are characterized by @ relatively high degree of uniformity in composition and properties. The metal shrinks during solidification, thereby forming a cavity, or “pipe”, in the uppermost portion of the ingot. Generally, these grades are poured in big-end-up molds. A refractory hot-top is placed on the mold before pouring and filled with metal after the ingot is poured. The pipe formed will be confined to the hot-top section of the ingot, which is removed by cropping during subsequent rolling. The most severely segregated areas of the ingot will also be climinated by this cropping. ‘While killed steels are more uniform in composition and properties than any other type, they are nevertheless susceptible to some degree of segregation, As in the other grades, the top center portion of the ingot will exhibit greater segregation than the balance of the ingot.‘The uniformity of killed steel renders it most suitable for appl cations involving such operations as hot-forging, cold extrusion, carburizing, and thermal treatment. ‘SEMI-KILLED STEELS are intermediate in deoxidation be- ‘ween rimmed and killed grades. Sufficient oxygen is retained so that its evolution counteracts the shrinkage on solidification, but there is, 1 rimming action. Consequently, the composition is more uniform ‘than in rimmed steel, but there is a greater possibility of segregation than in killed steel. Semi-killed steels are used where neither the surface and cold-forming characteristics of rimmed steel nor the greater uniformity of killed steels are essential requirements. CAPPED STEELS are much the same as rimmed steels except that the duration of the rimming action is curtailed. A deoxidizer is usually added during the pouring of the ingot, with the result chat a sufficient amount of gas is entrapped in the solidifying steel to cause the metal to rise in the mold. With the bottle-top mold generally used, action is stopped when the rising metal contacts a heavy metal cap placed on the mold after pouring, A similar effect can be obtained chemically by adding ferrosilicon or aluminum (o the ingot top after the ingot has rimmed for the desired time. Action will be stopped and rapid freezing of the ingot top follows. Capped steels have @ thin low-carbon rim which imparts the surface and cold-forming characteristics of rimmed steel. The remainder of the cross section approaches the degree of uniformity typical of semi-killed steels. This combination of properties has re- sulted in a great increase in the use of capped steels in recent years, primarily for cold forming. Strand Casting Jn traditional stelmaking, molten steel is poured into molds to form ingots. Tae ingots are removed from the mold, reheated, aid rolled into semi-finished products—biooms, billets, of slabs. Strand casting bypasses the operations between molten steel and the semi-finished product. Molten steel i poured ata regulated rate via a tundish into the top of an oscillating water-cooled mold with a cross-sectional size corresponding to that of the desired bloom, billet or slab. As the molten metal begins to freeze along the mold walls, it forms a shell that permits the gradual withdrawal of the strand product from the bottom of the mold into a water-spray chamber where solidification is completed. With the steaight-type moid, the descending solidified product may be cut into suitable lengths while still vertical, or bent into the horizontal position by a series of rolls and then cut to length. With the curved-type mold, the solidified strand is roller-straightened after emerging from the cooling chamber, and then cut to length. In both eases, the cut lengths are then Feheated and rolled into finished product as in the conventional manner. Vacuum Treatment Liquid steel contains measurable amounts of dissolved gases, Principally oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. For the great majority of ‘applications, the effect ofthese gases on the properties ofthe solidified steel is insignificant and may be safely ignored, Some of the more critical applications, however, require steels with an exceptionally hhigh degree of structural uniformity, internal soundness, or some other quality which may be impaired by the effects of uncontrolied amounts of dissolved gases. In such cases, certain steelmaking and eoxidation practices are specified to reduce and control the amounts of various gases in the steel, Supplementary vacuum tceatment may also be used. This additional procedure of exposing the molten steel to @ vacuum during the melting or refining process may be justified inorder to achieve one or more of several results: +» Reduced hydrogen, thereby reducing tendency to flaking and em- brittement, and minimizing time for slow cooling of primary mill products, + Reduced oxygen, thereby improving microcleantiness. + Improved recovery and distribution of alloying and other additive elements, + Closer control of composition. + Higher and more uniform transverse ductility, improved fatigue resistance and clevated-temperature characteristics + Exceptionally low carbon content, normally unattainable with conventional refining practices. Hydrogen removal by vacuum degassing is regularly specified for a variety ofstecls. Reducing the amount of this gas to levels where it can no longer cause flaking is of particular importance where the steel is to be used in large sections, such as for heavy forgings.‘The control of dissolved oxygen, however, is a more complex undertaking because of this elements great chemical activity. Itcan exist in solution as free oxygen or as & soluble non-metallic oxide: it can comibine with carbon to form gaseous oxides; it can be present as complex oxides in steelmaking slags and refractories. As a consequence, deoxidation and other metallurgical procedures performed during reining must be carefully coordinated to assure a final steel, product which will meet the specification requirements. Conventional deoxidation at atmospheric pressure is normally accomplished by adding suitable metallic deoxidizers, such as silicon ‘or aluminum, to the molten steel. The deoxidizers combine with dissolved oxygen to form silicates and oxides, which are largely retained in the solidified steel in the form of non-metallic inclusions. To 1 mize such inclusions, vacuum treatment is often specified. This is conducted in conjunction with the use of a metallic deoxidizer, and Js most effective when the deoxidizer is added late in the vacuum treatment cycle, Such practice is known as “vacuum carton deoxidation’ because the vacuum environment causes the dissolved oxygen to react with the bath cerbon to form carbon monoxide gas, which is removed from the chamber by the purmping system. With most of the otygen thus removed, the amounts of metallic deoxidizers required for final deoxidation is minimized, and a cleaner steel results ‘Where theultimate in cleanliness is required, steel can be melted as well as refined under vacuum. The vacuum induction melting, the consumable arc remelting, and the electoslag processes are all used in the production of certain specialty steels, These processes, hov- ever-—particularly when used in combination—are expensive and are generally specified only for steels needed for the most critical applications. ‘There are three principal commercial processes used for vacuum treatment of steels produced by standard steelmaking methods: (1) STREAM DEGASSING. In this process, molten steet from the furnace is tapped into a ladle from which it is poured into a vacuum chember containing cither 1) an ingot mold for subsequent direct processing of the ste] into heavy forgings, or 2) a second ladle from which the steel is cast into smaller ingots for processing into semi-finished and bar products. As the liquid stream enters the chamber, the low pressure causes the steel to break up into droplets, facil tating the release of its gases into the chamber from which they are exhausted, (2) CONTINUOUS CIRCULATION DEGASSING. Here, a ladle containing molten steel is moved beneath a suspended ‘vacuum vessel, which is essentially a chamber wherein the degassing or deoxidizing process occurs. When the vessel is lowered, its two refractory tubes are immersed in the steel. The chamber is then ‘opened to a vacuum and inert gas is bubbled into one tube. This gas creates a density differential between the two tubes, thus allowing atmospheric pressure to move the molten metal up through one tube info the chamber and down through the other back into the ladle. Circulation is continued until the steel is degassed to the degree desired. (3) LADLE DEGASSING. In this process, a ladle of molten steel is placed in a large tank which is then covered and sealed, Pumps exhaust the air from the tank and maintain the vacuum throughout the degassing operation. To expose the maximum amount of steel directly to the vacuum, the melt is usually stirred by electrical induction or agitated by argon gas introduced through orifices near the bottom of the ladle:Nore center for Basle oxygen stesimaking is the computer room on the charging er 18 CARBON AND ALLOY STEELS In commercial practice, carbon and alloy steels have some common characteristics, and differentiation between them is arbitrary to a degree. Both contain carbon, manganese, and usually silicon in vary- iE percentages. Both can have copper and boron as specified additions. A steel qualifies as a carbon steel when its manganese content is limited to 1.65% max, silicon to ,60% max, and copper to .60% ‘max; with the exception of deoxidizers and boron when specified, no ‘other alloying element is intentionally added. Alloy steels comprise rot only those grades which exceed the above limits, but also any {grade to which any clement other than those mentioned above is added for the purpose of achieving a specific alloying effect. ‘The alloy steels discussed in this edition of Modern Steels are limited to the “constructional alloy steels,” or those which depend on ‘thermal treatment for the development of properties required for specific applications. Other important categories of alloy steels, such as high-strength, low-alloy steels (which are alloyed for the purpose of increasing strength in the as-rolled or normalized condition), cor rosion- and heat-esistng steels, and tool steels, are discussed in other Bethlehem Steel Corporation publications, obtainable on request, Effects of Chemical Elements ‘The effects of the commonly specified chemical elements on the properties of hot-rolled carbon and alloy bars are discussed hese by ‘considering the various elements individually. In practice, however, the effect of any particular element will often depend on the quantities of other elements also present in the steel. For example, the total ‘effect of é combination of alloying elements on the hardenability of a steel is usually greater than the sum of their individual contributions. This type of interrelation should be taken into account whenever a ‘change in a specified analysis is evaluated.CARBON is the principal hardening element in steel, with cach additional increment of carbon increasing the hardness and tensile strength of the sicel in the as-rolled or normalized condition. As the carbon content increases above approximately .85%, the resulting increase in strength and hardness is proportionately less than itis for the lower carbon ranges, Upon quenching, the maximum attainable hardness also increases with increasing carbon, but above ‘ content of .60%, the rate of increase is very small. Conversely, a stecl’s ductility and weldability decreases as its ‘carbon content is increased. The effect of carton on machinabibity is discussed on page 171, Carbon has a moderate tendency to segregate within the ingot, and because of its significant effect on properties, such segregation is frequently of greater importance than the segregation of other ele- rents in the steel. MANGANESE is present in all commercial steols, and con- tributes significantly to a steel’s strength and hardness in much the same manner, but to # lesser extent, than does carbon. Is effective- ness depends largely upon, and is directly proportional to, the carbon. content of the steel. Anotiver important characteristic of this element is its ability to decrease the critical cooling rate during hardening, thereby increasing the steel’s hardenability. Its effect in this respect is greater than that of any of the other commonly used alloying elements, Manganese is an active deoxidizer, and shows less tendency to segregate within the ingot than do most other elements. Its presence in a steel is also highly beneficial to surface quality in that it tends to ‘combine with sulfur, thereby minimizing the formation of iron sulfide, ‘the causative factor of hot shortness, or susceptibility to cracking and tearing at rolling temperatures. PHOSPHORUS is generally considered an impurity exegpt where its beneficial effect on machinability and resistance to atmospheric corrosion is desired, While phosphorus increases strength and hhardness to about the samme degree as carbon, it also tends to decrease ductility and toughness, or impact strength, particularly for stel in the quenched and tempered condition, The phosphorus content of most steels is therefore kept below specified maxima, which range up 10.04 percent. Inthe free-machining stels, however, specified phosphorus content may run as high as 129. This is attained by adding phosphorus to the ladle, commonly termed rephosphorizing. For a discussion of the effect of phosphorus on machinability, see page 169, SULFUR is gencrally considered an undesirable element except where machinability is an important consideration (see page 169). Whereas sulfidesin steel acts effective chip-breakerstoimprove machinability, they also serve to decrease transverse ductility and impact strength, Moreover, increasing sulfur impairs weldability and hhas an adverse effect on surface quality. Steels with the higher sulfur contents—and particularly those with .15 to .259% carbon—require appreciable surface preparation during processing. Exira discard of these steels at the mill may also be necessary to minimize the amount of segregated steel in the finished product, inasmuch as sulfur, like phosphorus, shows a strong tendency to segregate within the ingot. SILICONiis one of the principal deoxidizers used in the man facture of both carbon and alloy steels, and depending on the type of steel, can be present in varying amounts up to .35% as a result of deoxidation. It is used in greater amounts in some steels, such as the silico-manganese steels, where its effects tend to complement those of manganese to produce unusvally high strength combined with good ductility and shock-resistance in the quenched and tempered condition. In these larger quantities, however, silicon has an adverse effect ‘on machinability, and increases the steels susceptibility to decarbu- ‘ization and graphitization. NICKEL is one of the fundamental stecl-alloying elements. When present in appreciable amounts, it provides improved toughness, particularly at low temperatures; simplified ané more economical thermal treatment; increased hardenability; less distortion in quenching; and improved corrosion resistance. Nickel lowers the critical temperatures of steel, widens the temperature range for effective quenching and tempering, and retards the decomposition of austenite. In addition, nickel does not form carbides or other compounds which might be difficult to dissolve dur- {ng heating for austenitizing. All these factors contribute to easier and more success{ul thermal treatment, This relative insensitivity to varie ations in quenching conditions provides insurance against costly failures to attain the desired properties, particularly where the furnace is not equipped for precision controlCHROMIUM is used in constructional alloy steels primarily to increase hardenability, provide improved abrasion-resistance, and to promote carburization, Of the common alloying elements, chro- ium is surpassed only by manganese and molybdenum in its effect ‘onhardenability. Chromium forms the most stable carbide of any of the more common alloying elements, giving to high-carbon chromium steels exceptional wear-resistance. And because its carbide is relatively stable at elevated temperatures, chromium is frequently added to steels used for high temperature applications ‘A chiromium content of 3.99% has been established as the maxi- ‘mum limit applicable to constructional alloy steels. Contents above this level place steels in the category of heat-resisting or stainless steels. MOLYBDENUM exhibits a greater effect on hardenability per unit added than any other commonly specified alloying element ‘except manganese. It is a non-oxidizing element, making it highly Useful in the melting of steels where close hardenability control is desired. Molybdenum is unique in the degree to which it increases the high-temperature tensile and creep strengths of stcel. Its use also reduces a stee’s susceptibility to temper brittleness VANADIUM improves the strength and toughness of ther- mally treated steels, primarily because of its ability (o inhibit geain- ‘growth over a fairly broad quenching range, It is @ strong carbide- former and its carbides are quite stable. Hardenability of medium: carbon stcels is increased with a minimum effect upon grain size with vanadium additions of about .04 to .05%; above this content, the hardenability effect per unit added decreases with normal quenching. temperatures due to the formation of insoluble carbides. However, the hardenability can be increased with the higher vanadium contents by increasing the austenitizing temperatures. COPPER is added to steel primarily to improve the steels resistance to corrosion. In the usual amounts of from .20 to .50%, the copper addition does not significantly affect the mechanical properties. Copper oxidizes at the surface of steel products during heating, and rolling, the oxide forming at the grain boundaries and causing a hot-shortness which adversely affects surface quality 2 BORON has the unique ability to increase the hardenability of steel when added in amounts as small as .0005% . This effect on hardenability is most pronounced at the lower carbon levels, dimin- ishing with increasing carbon content to where, as the eutectoid composition is approached, the effect becomes negligible. Because boron is ineffective when itis allowed to combine with oxygen or nitrogen, its useis limited to aluminum-killed steels Unlike many other elements, boron does not increase the fer- rite strength of steel. Boron additions, therefore, promote improved machinability and formability at a particular level of hardenability It will also intensify the hardenability effects of other alloys, and in some instances, decrease costs by making possible a eduction of total alloy content. LEAD does not alloy with steel. Insicad, as added in pellet form during teeming of the ingot, itis retained in its clemental state as a fine dispersion within the steel’ structure. Lead additions have no significant effect on the room temperature mechanical properties of any steel; yet, when present in the usual range of .15 to 35%, the lead ‘additive enhances the stecl's machining characteristics to a marked degree. Although lead can be added to any steel, its use to date has been ‘most significant with the free-machining carbon grades. Added to a base composition which has been resulfurized, rephosphorized, and nitrogen-treated, lead helps these steels achieve the optimum in machinability (see page 170), NITROGEN is inherently present in all steels, but usually only in small amounts which produce no observable effect, Prescnt in amounts above about .004%, however, nitrogen will combine with certain other elements to precipitate as a nitride. This increases the steel’s hardness and tensile and yield strengths while reducing its ductility and toughness. Such effect is similar to that of phosphorus, and is highly beneficial to the machining performance of the steel (see page 169). ALUMINUM is used in steel principally to control grain size (see page 81) and 10 achieve deoxidation. Aluminum-killed steels exhibit a high order of fracture toughness. ‘A specialized use of aluminum is in nitriding steels (see page 67), When such steels containing 95 to 1.30% aluminum are heated in a nitrogenous medium, they achieve a thin case containing alumi- sum nitride. This stable compound imparts a high surface hardness and exceptional wear resistance to the steels involved. 2Bethlanem’s new, eomputer-contlied, utra-sophistcatad 134 bar mil at out Lacks i. NY plant role superior qultycetbon and alloy bere a speedy af up ta SOMDH, 24 AISI and SAE Standard Grades and Ranges ‘The following tables list the ladle chemical ranges ‘and limits in per cent for those grades of carbon and alloy steel bars, blooms, billets, slabs, and rods designated as standard by ATSI (American Iron and Steel Institute) and/or SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers), and in effect as of the printing date of this book. The tables are not intended to be a listing of the steels which are produced or offered for sale by Bethlehem Steel Corporation. ‘Accompanying these tables are tables on product analysis tolerances and ladle chemical ranges and limits for both carbon and alloy steels,AISI/SAE 26 Number ‘008 1008" 1008 1010 1012 1013" 1015 1018 1017 1018 1019 1020 1021 1022 1023 1028 1026 1029 1030 1038 1037 1038 1033 1040 1042 1043 1044 1045, 1046 104g CARBON STEELS NONRESULFURIZED (Manganese 1.00 per cont maximum) 08 max. 08 max. 10 max 087.13, 10/15 14/46 13.18 13/18 18/.20 15/20 15/.20 18/.23 18/23 18/23 207.25 '22/.28 22/.28 25/.31 28/34 32/.38 32/38 35/.42 | ara 37/.46 | oa '40/.47 43/50 43/.50 43/.50 46/83 Mo 26 mex 25/ .40 “30/ ‘50 30/ 60 30/ 60 50/ 80 30/ .60 60) .90 30/ .60 60/90 70/1.00 30) .60 ‘60/90 70)1.00 30) -60 30) 60 60/90 60/90 60/90 60) .90 70/1.00 ‘60/90 -70/1.00 60/90 60/90 70/1.00 30/ 60 60/0 70/100 60/ 80 P Max 040 040 ‘040, ‘040, (040 040 040 ‘040 040) 040 (040 ‘040, ‘940, 040 ‘040 ‘oa ‘040 040 | 040 040 040 ‘040 040 040 050 (050 1050 (050 “050 (050 050 {060 (050 (050 050 “050 050 ‘050 080 1050 ‘050 060 060 950 “050 060 “060 (050 (050 (080 AISSAE | Pe ‘Number c Mn Max Mae To] aa 55 | aor soar ae ae WE | | arse | sie | Bee 1059* 55/ 65 50/ 80 040 | 050 1060 55/ 65 .60/ 90 040 | 950 We |g 55 | $ohg | 8 | Be es | S838 | Ser S| |e we | 8 | eS | 88) wore | 51.76 sor go | ou | 050 oe | $438 | S48 | oe | 8B ie | 2a | toae | te | ee We | | Sea | oe | ae tos | 75/88 | sor s0 | om | a0 ne ae re ak ae ee eee ee a Was | Se 8308s | om | vo | as 38 gor so | om | 050 1g Sense) eee flee || aes FSiandard grader lor wire rods end wie only. SAE only NOTE: In the case of sartan qualities. the foregoing sanders stele re onsinity {umishad to lower phosphorus te lower silat maxima BARS ANO SEMI-FINISHED Silicon, When slicon ranges ot limits are required, the values shown in the table for lange ona Lis apaly 010 percent maximum 0.20 percent 0.200 0.40 per O07 to0iS percent” 0119030 percent 03016 0.80 por cont AU PRODUCTS Baton.” Standard kiled carbon stools may be produced wih a Boron adction to ‘improve hargenabiy- Such stools can be expected to contain 0.0005 ‘pu cuntiinmum boron. These seas are identied by inserting the lter "8 betwen the second and third aumetals of the AISI number, eg, 1OB4. Standord catbon seis can be produced 10 a lead range of 015 10 038 percent to improve mctinabny. Such steel ate ented By ssering ihe ‘Loreen sho fecord and third numerals ol the AISL sumbar, eg. 10L45, When coppers tequted, 0.20 percent minimum is gensraly usedCARBON STEELS NONRESULFURIZED (Manganese maximum over 1.00 per cent) CARBON STEELS RESULFURIZED ee AISY/SAE P AISI/SAE P \ Number c | Mn Mos 3 Number c Ma vex : ef | 7110) 08/13 307 60 | #0 | .0B/a3 wis 70/46 1.40140) 040 1 a7 | 44720 | 100/130 | 06 | ‘08/43 aig | 34720 | 130/160 | ‘ogo | 08/13 1522 18/.24 1.10/1.40 040, 050 | | 1624 19/28 | 1.28/1.65 | 040 | 050 1197 | 32-39 | 138/165 | 040 | o8y.13 3626 22/29 140/140 | 040 | 050 vi39 35743 | 136/165 | 010 | 19/20 te27 22729 120/160 | 040 | ‘050 sao | 37.44 70.00 | 040 | 08/33 1541 36/44 135/165 040 | 050 tat) Breas | 135/168 | 040 | “og reas | aays2—tto1a0 040 | 050 saa | “aoras | 135/165 | ‘ao | 267.33 | 1146 | a2yag 70/100 | 040 | oBa3 1551 45/58 e515 | 040 | 050 \ 1852/47/65 120/150 | 040 | ‘050 1st | .48/.65 1561 55/65 7511.05 | 040 080 sARS AND ashe 3686 | “60/71 e518 040 | ‘050 Sitcon, When alsen songs Siicon. When siicon ranges and bits are requived. toe values shown i the able ee for Ladie Chemical Ranges and Limits agi. NOTE: inthe case of certin qualities, tho Toregoing standard steels ere erinarily Roos furmisned 10 Tower phosshorss and lower sulla maxina NOTE: Addends to tale “Carbon Stes Nonresuluritd (Manganese 1.00 oe cert b nen sitcom is eauied, Standard Steet tha allowing ranges ang Designations time ae eommanty used av Silicon Ranges or fee nets Bote See, tae a LO amet “Wo10 110inet | ‘able abovs. ) ‘0.10 mex: or 116 andover | 91010020; o15t0030 Au paooucTs a! See ote on le. 27 1 ' 2 28CARBON STEELS ¥ AEPHOSPHORIZED AND RESULFURIZED CARBON H-STEELS AISI/SAE ‘AISI/SAE P Numb | Mn P s Pb unter Mo | moe 1214 13 max 60/ .90 O7/12 | 10/15 1038H | .34/.43 50/1.00 | 040 . 4212 .13max 70/100 | 07/12 1045 H | 42/51 50/1.00 | 040 050 18/.30 1213 | 43max | 70/100 1522H | 17/28 | 1.00/150 | 1040 | 050 | (15/30 121d |e max 88/115 ws24H | 18/26 | 1.25/95" 040 | “obo | “18/30 121, | 0S mex 78/105 3 46264 | (21/30 | 100/1's0 | ‘O40 | ‘050 46/30 a ewe sat | 35/45 | 1:25/1.75" | ‘040 050 "15/'30 - limits for silicon because of its adverse effect on machinability. fwopen, Thee grades ae rermalysiogen vated unless oferse wpe Teed. See nate la, p27 CARBON BORON H-STEELS These steels can be rected to coxain 0.0005 to j0ron. BETHLEHEM FREE-MACHINING 2 ee eo 8 Sete 80H Baron AISI/SAE ep | os CARBON STEELS j ussae |e wm | ee] Nome) e@ Mn [P| 8 } ieaaH) 47/28 70.20 | 080 | —— 158254 | 31/20 | o120 | oa Boivted 08 max | 70/00 | 07/42 | 28/38 | 8/36 | seme Haye | zn | 82 Both-Led 8 15 max | 85/135 | 09.09 | 40min | 18/.35 18841 H | (35/45 1.25/1.75" | ‘O40 1213-8 09 max | .70/1.00 | 07/12 | .26/.35 - | 15B48H | .43/.63 | 1.00/150 | 040 ‘Siloam. It ie not common practice to produce these steele to species 15862 H | 54/67 — 1.00/1.50 | 040 SEES lis for siicon bacauce of ts adverse of Nivogen, Beth-Led and 1212-8 ate rittegon to ‘on machinabiity. f ‘Standard H-Siele with 7.75 per cont maximum mengeneee er classified CARBON STEELS | ‘8 carbon steels — or NOTE: In tho ato of certain quolites, the foregoing 'M" Series | ‘otdinay furrished to lower phosphorus end lower sulfur maxims, Ta | P SEE ALSO: Note on Lead, page 27; and Note 1. nage 29. Number ec | Mn Max M1008 10 max -25/.60 04 mio | ‘07/14 25/.60 04 i012 '09/.16 25/80 04 M015, 12/19 :25).60 04 ) 017 14/.21 125.60 04 1020 17/24 .28/.80 04 mto2s 119,27 :28/.60 04 i025 20/30 25/60 04. 04 04CARBON STEELS LADLE CHEMICAL RANGES AND LIMITS Bars, Blooms, Billets, Slabs, and Rods CARBON STEELS PRODUCT ANALYSIS TOLERANCES Bars, Blooms, Billets, Slabs, and Rods ‘wen geno sarin, | Sane, Tolnee Ove th Maximum Unt or Under Element areen \ » _ the Minmm Lint par cont ton | To OB el lh i sons amie oa, | Gekibosm | om Lior tainum |g | e300 | 30 | Ove 40 Over 0.25 to 0.40 inc ied Range, sain. | 200'sain.| $00 in Geer 0.40 10058 incl | 907 Element arena aa | | “eat | ta QweGae i080 inet | 19 overea | ON Carbon | T0028 incl 002 | 003 | 004 | 005 wnanee BONS ON Over 0.25 10086 incl | 003) O04 | 005 | O08 et 04D 0 05Dinel 0% Over 058 oot | 005 | 0.06 Qyeroso re t65inl | 880 | 6 | One| 0e7 maar} aoe = Manganese | To 0.90 incl 003 | 004 | 008 | oor Busrdoiowooeinet | 003 | Over 090% 1.65inei | 005 | 005 | O07 | 008 Over 0.08 10 0.13 incl | 0.08 _ — et Phosphorus | Over maximum only I far Te 0050 ne = | Geer 0.050 10 0.09 inet | 0.03 10 0.040 inc! 0. 0.008] 0.010! 0.015 Betgeworsint G08 | Qierotsieozaime | O07 Sulfor Overmaximum only | 0008 0010| 0010, Obie | Srereds 0038 inst | 0.08 a sq a Siicon | To 036 incl 002/002 | 003 O08 hens) | Sur tDtoossuel | OOe Over 03510060 incl | 005 | — | = or 018 1 0.20 ne | a — Gerospiogaoin | O18 Coprer | Underminimum only | 002) 008 | — er 030 ie080 ind | 020 | sree iGssina | 038 tam | Over sd und caine wae coon fa 110036 incl | 003| 003 | — -_ Taree aa sage oT pa | Bavaea oan Ta aw fre) generally use ee eee — Aika tron water pec for Sed oped seo oo charactorizad by o nck of niflorly te oh ‘carbon steels, # boron content of 0.0005 %© (81002 per sont ean be expected. NOTE 1 pth cao of coun ques, tower phosphors an lowe sar maxis Upevidnan nah : NOTE 2. Cutan. The eaten: (whan the sect aoa ‘ger sewn above. los roduee a vepospheritd a el torsion beanare fe avers fart OF NOTE 3, lic. not commen [Wied tebor el fo speed Ie machina NOTE 4, Len epanedcoly ge (gente 018 190.38 percent snes itis 2 ‘ements cater fosphetus, sf bulur and for thie NOTE 2 ope of snl bac dio whi hones od sl ec Ihoduct analy tolerances for those elements ate not technologlealy proptiata Torre Dhosphonzed or reslfurzed souls erALLOY STEELS AsisAe = ISisae ] 1330 |.28/.33 | 1.60/3.90 | oder 43) 48 | 75i1.00 | — = tid 35/43 eong9 | sre a8 | 7090) =| = 4023 .20/.25 70/ 90 - - .20/.30 8117.15) .20 = 151.30 so [anz| a 2 f we = (88) = |= =: seat | i E =| = ws Bis) = | = | agg eto 18 8 & = Hrigs| 8 = | = |Be) = i te - ee - - ge) BS) = [Bee ee! ae ae = : ay 3/90 79) 38 = B0/1.10 18,38 = £52100 |.98/1.10 — — |1.30/1.60 3 ig ge We = BER |ie) = a [ay = «| eaui8)) = pes aa |e | temeg | = |-sose | asia | — arise (397 48 20/40 | 307 80 | 087s azz 20198 | 701 $0 — | sss) — 3637 |35/ 40 40/70 | 40) 60 | 16/28 — ” - ~ ~ 351.45 8640 |.38/ 43 mee 40, Eeo) cioli28) = 4815 13/18 | 45/65 1.65! = 8642 1.40/45, 6/25 > ars, tae | 43 65 | eso | — |augo | — see Lae 0/38 | 49) 88 | teas |= aero (tide | a8 tees | — | 3839] — S880" | 48/23 40/70 | oy $0 | 6/28 — men lea: | case | oe laste le 660! |56/ 64 ‘40770 | ‘407 60 | (18/28) = 4815.19.18 | 407.60 3.25375 | — | 20130 + 8822 || 20/925 AOr.70 | .40/ .60 | .30/.40 i 4817.15.20 40! 60 3.25/3.75 - -20/.30° —_ | ‘ B : ———— _ALLOY H-STEELS AISI/SAE Other ‘AISI/SAE sae nmr | ¢ | mm | om | ce | mo | atm mussel CT un | om | cr | mo | corte 13308 | 27/38 |i.as/208 | — - ~ soaeH | 43150 | eenao | — [1 a3) — | iaase | arse ftasaos | | ven [ava ees] = |S eon [ares {oiea| — loo | = || = z + 5130H 21.33 60/1.00 - 7511.20 — — iSish | aaras |taeo08 SS yee ge ate | re) = [ae = | = 135 H 121.38 50 91 _ y' ~ ~ 40274 | 24730 | gor.00 | = | 20130 Sen | see | 8] = leo | — = s 5147 Hit | 45/52 80/1.05 - 801.25 =- _ ao2aH 24/90 60/00/2030 008/050 Sao" | ore | ean orga | | itso ese eae | oso BH | cose | Goteo| «= eat oo : fear [3a | sonao| =) = BIRR diosy [aes | 20%) = fee} = | = foaan | Sora | corto | = - iT soem | aarst | sono | = a Y 4118H | 17/23 | 60/1.00 30/70 .08/.15 - 6118 H | ag/21 40/ 80 = 40/ 60 =. IO/AS a20n | 27/33 | S070 | = | enzo Seas | > ste0H | 9/4 | ‘30.00 gen'20 | | tem a135H | 39/38 | Soro = [75/120 35/28) mara | gat | soco| | aengn qe Mw eor7H |.20/20 | 90 98 | 36/75 [a5 68 | as28 | — aon | ayaa | soto | = | enol asian |Z sexo | 19/39 | 80) ae | se/z8 |-36/ 8 | ae/a5 | — fan | aide sorte) | nde wea goa [ames ate seize ae) anil tere | 4145H | (42/49 | e5/i10 | 75/1.20| 15/28 8625 H | 22/28 | (60/95 | 35/78 | 36/65 | 15/25 = ata7H | laayst | ‘seta | | 78/120| 16/28 3627 H | 24/30 | 80/98 | 35/76 | 36/65 | 15/28 | — 4160H | 47/84 | ‘es/i0| = | 78/120) 18/28 8620 | 27/33 | 80/98) 35/75 | 36/65 | 15/.25 = aera | sees | sito| = | gor'as| ange = gern | avat | sone 3/78 | 38) es | gas | — Soro! | gras | yores 38/98 |-38/ e8 | elas | — 43204 | 47/23 | 4/70 | 185/200 35/ 68 20/20 — Seon | aeas | Joo 38/8 | 36/8 | 1528 | — ABM0H | .37/.44 | 58/ 20 | 1.55/200 | ,65/ .95 | .20/.30 - 8645H | 42/49 | 70/105 .36/.75 | 35/ 65 | .15/.26 =_ E4340H | 37/44 | \60/ (98 | 1186/2.00 | '65/ 95| 20/30, — 8050 H | 47/58 | o/1.08 | 35/75 | 35/ 85 | 15/.25 = Bese | 50/60 | Jo/tos | 35/78 | 3e/ 65 | 1828 | — e620 7128 | 36) 78 | 1.582200 20130 Se se tea see 223 3838 | MRS) Sa Bs00 | se/e8 | o/h.oe | 35/78 | 307 i 8720H | 17/23 | 80/95 | .35/.75 |.36/ 65 | 20/30 = oon) 3 95 | 95725 |.a0 60 | ougo | anon [2 sors | 38/78 |.38/ 88 | 20/30 geist tzia8 | yo | 320380; — | 2030) _ e022 H | 19/25 | roytos | 26/75 | 36/66 | 30/40) = : 70 | 33088 Zo30 4820H | .17/.23 80 | 3.20:3.80 201.30 = 9260 H | 55765 85/1.10 - _ = 1,70/2.20 | 9310H | .07/.13 | 40/ .70 | 2.95/3.55 | 1.00/1.45 .08/.15 _ | | | | | | Taro Tia or ‘Se owe pW asALLOY BORON STEELS NOTES ON ALLOY TABLES : basie iscan be expected to contain at 1. Grades showa with prefix leter Fare made only by the ceria ieee oO OT Ca) electric furnace process. All others are normally manufactured by Aeeeel))00 Reo © xygen processes, but may be manu- T the Basic open hearth or basic oxygen processes, Aine og mn i cr Mo factured b) the basic electric furnace proces with adjstmens in 50840 38/43 75/1.00 — 40/60 = phosphorus and sulfur. Bonsd 43/48 | -75/1.00 40/.60 = 2, ‘The phosphorus and sulfur limitations for each process are as s0B46 = 44/.go | 76/1.00 = 20/35 | = eer 50B50 48/53 | 75/1.00 = 40/.60 = fotlows: cose) Seat | Fen09 | a8 Maximum, per cot 51860 56/.64 75/1.00 = 70/.80, oo 81845 43/48 75/1.00, 20/.40 36/.55 08/15, Basic elect sepas = 43/48 | 75/1100 | 40/70 oreo | “te/28 Basic electric $4815 13/18 | 75/100 | 30/60 50/50 | 08/95 Bosic open hearth ve | e040 94B17 :18/.20 75/1.00 :30/.60 30/50 08/15, ‘or basic oxygen 0.035 | 0. SiBs0 | 28/38 Teen | oreo Sogo | Ber48 Bo Ih er Acid elect (See Now. poe 35) of ald open hearth cose | oso ALLOY BORON H-STEELS 3. Minimum slcon limit for aid open hearth rac electri furnace alloy steel is .15 per ceat. These steels can be expected to have 0,0005% min boron content. ‘4, Small quantities of certain elements are present in alloy steels, but ited or equiv The meat ge considered ic ues mo | oni | ce | mo . al td ay be pes he living nam ex T K, nickel, .25; im, .20; mol} jum, «| SOB40_ 37/48 | 65/1.10 — | 20/70 = copper, .35; nickel, .25; chromiut ly ; SOBOOTH DH 891,88) | sar1-10 = | 30/30 = 6. Standard alloy steels can be produced to a lead range of .15/.35 $1860 H 55/65 65/1.10 | = .60/1,00 sg per cent to improve machinability. sieasH | 4249 | 20/105 | 15/45 | 30/60 08/45 ; t where noted is B6B30H | 27/33 | 0/95 | (38/78 35/65 | 16/25 7. Silicon range for all standard alloy steels except w 86845 Ht) “42/49 | 70/1108 | “38/75 | “35/ (65 | “18/28 15/.30 per cent. S465 HH) 2/18 | 70/1.05 | 26/65 | 25/55 08/15 e417 | “14/20 | o/1.08 | 25/85 | (25/55 08/18 24B30H | 27723 70/105 | 26/85 | 35) 8308/18 ee | ee SAE only ‘See Notes, page 39) 9 38 a DeALLOY STEELS LADLE CHEMICAL RANGES AND LIMITS Bars, Blooms, Billets, Slabs, and Rods eT [ieeeeccarsen | wren st Fo scum wren meimum ot | Opanteotn] Eue | Element ri [meta | SSF | cutter Element eae ont Carbon To 0.55 incl [805 0.05, ‘Chromium To 0.40 inel | 046 Gerdes o70int | Gan | as Four 0 0.90 int 029 Syer 970 0 080 rl oso | oes Over 180 1.08 nel 08 Over 420 10 038 rc! 2 | on Over? oe to 80 ne! ed Over 098 101 38 nel ors | oak Se 178 et ° ;) To060inci 020 | 0.8 Lea 23 22 10 ne = | Over 0.60 to 0.90 incl 020 0.20 Dees 210,Seelinel 4 Ore 0800 8 bet 035 Oe | ajdanam| To 070 el] 008 Ove 198 10 180 bel 630 | O30 Over 6109 020 ne So Over 180 %0 210 mel cao | O38 | Ser 8201 020 to Phosshoras | Base open hear or base onyoon sel [Note 5) ~/ 0035 oat 90 1 0.80 int is Best ofen nor caso | ov | | Basic electric turnace stee! 0.025 Tungsten ‘To 0.50 incl 0.20 fel lot ferme tel eo seismic ay te Samp te Se ese eed 8 Over 1 00te Boo nel 80 Sati] Ye 0080 nr oars | 00% ver 169 to 2.0 net foo ‘Over 0.050 to 0.07 inet 0.02, 0.02 | 1% none Oereorte oto iad Gee | boa dion | To 026 nl 008 Over 0.10 10 0.14 incl 0.08 0.05 Over 025 %0 050 inet | 010 [BREE pe het or bie organ sto ors 6) | ED Hunton} Uo oor Rae eso uesi03 0 tas Bescon forces see ozs ua 010 0 0:29 nat eso | Acie wee turace set d.080 Grerd20woaonel — | ozs | 028 | Siicen | T0016 el 308] 008 Over 080 to 1.30 ine! 038 0.26 | Geer b18 020 it aro | oto Srort 900 1e0in) | as | Ba Over 0.201 040 int cas | ors spe rete at ae tS |} grwaaoivoenins | az | 020 a Over 06040180 net cao | O30 Sere pat oo el bias a Over 1.5010 2.00 incl | _0.38 035 Over 160 te 220 ne dao | O33 1.50 ta || ose csi | Aer | ot arma preduee m open hee or ai nen unacen Nick econ jaa ea, | nim silicon lnit for acid epon heath or acid clctis furnace alloy | Over 0600 1,60 inet 3 | O30 Ca eas 200% 400 ne tye oa 2. Boron stele can be expected to heve 0.0005 per cent minimum boron Over 260 0 9.09 ina bao | a0 are eee tara! 0.0005) = Over 3500 8 Soin cao | 838 : Sver220 16 7000inet | 1.00 | 1.90 Cries orien ea nese nae ea a eee “Aepten crty nonaphesmhorted und nowresatiee wet NOTE 4. The chemical ranges ancl limite of alloy steals te produced to prod uot analysis Tolerances shown in Table on bs 2. NOTE 5. In the case of certain qualities, lower phosphorous end lower sulphur 40 maxima are odinrly tensed FaALLOY STEELS PRODUCT ANALYSIS TOLERANCES Bars, Blooms, Bilets, Slabs, and Rods HARDENABILITY [ta re tania Ln Un OF STEEL he bar Cpr Coe Lint or Maxima | TS Over 00] Ove 200 OTA spectad Range, | sqin. | 200m | 4001900 qi Hardenability isa term used to designate that property of steel which Element per cent incl Inet toot [inet determines the depth and distribution of hardness induced by quench- Garvon To 0.50 inet O0T O03 aos 0.08 ing from the austenitizing temperature. Whereas the as-quenched sur- Seta | ooa | fot oe nner face hardness of a steel part is dependent primarily on carbon content Wanganese [To 080 nat 003 | 008 008] 0.08 ‘and cooling rate, the depth to which a certain hardness level is m: Derdsoio2t0inr | oor | os | cee | oo tained with given quenching conditions js a function of its harden. Eesetorond | Des ao a a ability. Hardenabiliy is largely determined by the percentage of hae fone 2805 | —eaio [0010 | oar0 alloying elements present in the steel. Austenitic gran size. time nnd Sicos To 00 na aaz | 002] 003 [008 temperature during austenitizing, and prior microstructure also can Gea oudve2a0ina | 0s | 90 | coe | oor ears Nat [T0300 om | oe | oe | om | 8 Since hardenablty is determined by standard procedures as Sweboowesona | 007 | oor | cor | oes described below, itis constant for a given compostion, whereas Over bm to mep inal | a1 [Ul 0.10, 10} 00. hardness will vary with the cooling rate. Thus, for a given composi- Crome [Te ORDIee cing | Bas | 908 | 908 | p05 tion, the hardness obtained at any location in& part will depend not Gwe arotessemel | oro | oro | ora | O14 only oa carbon content and hardenabilty but lso on the size and nam | T3020 na oor] 08 configuration of the part and the quenchant and queaching cond Sea eee ee Rel ta Il ae | ae confination of te part and the quenchant and gueaching ond et ete ht The hardenabliy required fora paniculr part depends on Gverotorooasinet | 002 | 002 | aoe | doe many factors, including size, design, and service streses. For highly Garozsmasere | on | os 003 | 0.03 stressed parts, particularly those loaded principally in tension, the check under min mitt | 0.01 oo oor_| oor best combination of strength and toughness is attained by through- Tavares —] To 0014 394] 908] gas | a08 hardening to a martensitic structure followed by adequate tempering Overt.00t2 400inet_| 008 o.08 o10_| 012 ‘Quenching such parts toa minimum of 80% martensite is generally ‘Aluminum’ oon eo , aaa = = = considered adequate. Carbon steel can be used for thin sections, but Overoz01eoa0in | 905, = =. II| = as section size increases, alloy steels of increasing hardenability are Swrosowosonl | oor | = 2) 5 required, Where only moderate streses are involved, quenching to Over 0.80 to 1.20 inal_| 0.10. a = = a minimum of 50% martensite is sometimes appropriate. Leet a poeta ee pas = = = In order to satisfy the stress loading requirements of a parti toe [ei ee tae = ile ular application, a carbon or alloy steel having te requited harden =o ability must be selected. Grades suitable for highly stressed parts are Columblurn*s | To 0:10 inch 208 = = listed on page 60 according to the section sizes in which the proper- Zrecnlon™" | Toot wal 308 tes shown can be attained by ol or water quenching 10 80% marten- izcoen™ | Yo 020 ne 905 | = site. Grades for moderately stressed parts (quenched to 50% marten. {the minimum oi ong 01% he wer tance COTE site) are listed on pages 58 and 59. The usual practice i to select ‘attr ove 2000 pe cont tot sublet to oct aes s"Toleoesn shown apoyo 100 a8 ete -"folwranceo over an ur 2 NOTE: Boron is not subject to product enalysis tolerances, « a EEE!the most economical grade which can consistently meet the desired properties. These tables should be used as a guide only, in view of the many variables which can exist in production heat-treating. Further, these tables are of only nominal use when the part must exhibit special properties which can be obtained only by composition (see Effects of Elements, page 19). ‘There are many applications where through-hardening is not necessary, or even desirable. For example, for parts which are stressed principally at or near the surface, or in which wear-resistance or resistance to shock loading are primary considerations, shallow- hardening steels or surface hardening treatments, as discussed below, ‘may be appropriate, End-Quench Hardenability Testing ‘The most commonly used method of determining hardenability is the end-quench test developed by Jominy and Boegehold'. In con- ducting the test, aI-inch-round specimen 4 inches long is ist normalized to eliminate the variable of prior microstructure, then heated uniformly to « standard austenitizing temperature, The specimen is removed from the furnace, placed in a jig, and immediately end- quenched by a jet of water maintained at room temperature. The water contacts the end-face of the specimen without wetting the sides, and quenching is continued until the entire specimen has cooled, Longitudinal fa surtaces are ground on opposite sides of the {quenched specimen, and Rockwell C scale readings are taken at L6th- inch intervals forthe first inch from the quenched end, and at greater intervals beyond that point until a hardness level of HRC 20 or a distance of 2 inches from the quenched end is reached. A hardenability curve is usually plotted using Rockwell C readings as ordinates land distances from the quenched end as abscssas, Representative data have been accumulated for a variety of standard grades and ate published by SAE and AISI as H-bands. These show graphically and in tabular form the high and low limits applicable to each grade. ‘Steels specified to these limits are designated as H-grades. Limits for standard H-grades arc listed on pages 51-57. Since only the end ofthe specimen is quenched inthis ts, iis ‘obvious that the cooling rate along the surface of the specimen de creases as the distance from the quenched end increases. Experiments re opt non Yo sh AE Heron of ASTM Dain AI. “a (COOLING RATE, DEG, F PER SECOND AT 1600060. F wo 8 8 8 Se pemercdvisge 5 as BAR DIAMETER. Fas duane ls neta Oh + 2d _8 ba TREW TE Ww i81800 2 Be POSITION ON JORINY 8AF-SIKTEENTHS OF ih (COOLING RATE, OFS. F PER SECOND AT 000006 F § 8 3 8 Br eygers ‘BAR DIAMETER IN Poin Ouorchedn — 2a # SOT ORW We Wi MB a POSITION ON JOMINY BAR™SOCTEENTHS OF IN (fram 188 SAE Wanabook 9.8) have confirmed that the cooling rate at a given point along the bar can be correlated with the cooting rate at various locations in rounds of various sizes. The graphs above show this correlation for sur. face, % radius, ¥ radius, and center locations for rounds up to 4 inches in diameter quenched in mildly agitated oil and in mildly agitated water. Similar data are shown at the top of each H-band 2s Published by SAE and AISI. These values are not absolute, but are useful in determining the grades which may achieve a particular hhardness at a specified location in a given section. 45 aCalculation of End-Quench Hardenability Based on Analysis It is sometimes desirable to predict the end-quench hatden- ability curve of a proposed analysis or of a commercial steel not available for testing, The method' described here affords a reasonably accurate means of calculating hardness at any Jominy location ‘ona section of steel of known analysis and grain size. ‘To illustrate this method, consider a heat of 8640 having a grain size of No. 8 at the quenching temperature and the analysis shown instep II, below. STEP I. Determine the initial hardness (IH). This is the hardness at Mo inch on the end-quench specimen and is a function of the carbon content as illustrated by the graph below. The IH for .39% carbon is HRC 55.5. INTIAL HARONESS 0H) (Re Haronese # Vidin tom Qverehea Era) 46 STEP Il, Calculate the ideal critical diameter (D1). Thisis the diameter of the largest round of the given analysis which will harden to 50% martensite at the center during an ideal quench. The DI is the product of the multiplying factors representing each element Fromm the graphs below and on page 48. find the multiplying factors for carbon at No. 8 grain size, and for the other elements. co Mn Si Ni Cr Mo Heat Analysis(%) 39 S125 84 BBO Multiplying Factor 198 403-118 1.20 221 1.60, ‘The product of these factors is 3.93 DI. MULTIPLYING FACTORS FOR CARBON PER GRAIN SIZE Ne 4 GRAIN DEALCRITICAL ELAMETER OF IRON-CAREON ALLOYS, 8 0 0 CARBON, FER CENT a7vanreana rxcron STEP Ill. Determine the IH/DH ratios corresponding to each Jominy distance for 2 DI of 3.93, The IH/DH ratio is based on the observation that with a DI 7.30 or greater, an end-quench curve approximating a straight line out 10 2 inches is obtained, and that a DI less than 7.30 will produce a failing curve. The drop in hardness at any point on the curve may be conveniently expressed as a ratio of the maximum hardness attainable (IH) to the hardness actually obtained (DH). The IH/DH rat.os, or dividing factors, are plotted fon page 49. 48 IDEAL CRITICAL DIAMETER (09, 1, AELATION BETWEEN DI AND DIVIDING FACTORS FOR VARIOUS DISTANCES FROM QUENCHED END 10 200 so ‘aca DIVIDING FACTOR (IH/OH) 49End-Quench Hardenability Limits 7 STEP IV.Calculate the Rockwell C hardness for each distance Same | 1038H | 1045H 1622 H 1624 1526H | 15014 by dividing the IH (55.5) by each respective dividing factor: din" [Mex [Min | Mor [in | Mex [Win | x [Min - = ; /B/R) 8/2) 8/8) 8/8 ie ay i | 8/8 | 8/8 | 88 | 818 tn & PREFS /E/#] [2 Vat 4 7 a 3) 26 | 27 Poy 1 tt as bog" | ale 8| | 1 1.75 32, 3 | | #% @ fs 2 8 x 7 A fod fala 2 1% 192 29 2 | is =| z 18 285 Roa nw 2 ola | [a | | , 15862 H i 7 Al ® 2 g 8 3 s 8 HARDENABILITY 2 BIB E SS le le ee Le & t S40 [2 [es [39 |s3 [43 |e |e | oo | os [es [so tS f/f |e |e le |e |e |e le |e LIMITS 5 3 SB |e 2 18 1818 (ele |e ib 2 [8 Ee |e |S | ee |e |e ‘The following tables show maximum and minimum cf wi» ls lz le |e ls |e ]& |S hardenabilty limite for carbon and alloy Hostels 8 zr _lodn [21S 18 (8 18 Ez from the latest published data of AISI. These values . 7 @ |e |e ja) [3% ae rounded off to the nearest Rockwell C hardness e Ps alo [2/818 ]z le [2 unit, and are to be used for specification purposes. x 25 2 % | | se | oo [8 For steels which may have been designated as ea pe pe pe pe Hsteels after the publishing date of this handbook, A = Z Ble | 8 | |e |e refer to the latest issues of the applicable AISI Car- Es Ea 2 36 | 2 | 30 | 22 | as | 30 bon and Alloy Stee! 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ee ES The versatility of steel is attributable in large measure to its response Cuscched 80% Maerie to a variety of thermal treatments, While a major percentage of stce] ran is used in the as-rolled condition, thermal treatment greatly broadens ta a the spectrum of properties attainable. Treatments fall into two ae = * ‘general categories: (1), those which increase the strength, hardness ate 4 sana wei eresepa Soe are, and toughness by virtue of rapid cooling from above the transforma- pms ae | tion range, and (2), those which decrease hardness and promote to | uniformity by slow cooling from above the transformation range, of ‘Over /90t038 44 | 43354 35H aa 42H ‘SBA by prolonged heating within or below the transformation range, sso mon hardening by quenching and tempering, or a varicty of specialized ter [aoa ae sa age} =a ‘eeatments undertaken to enhance hardness of the surface to a con- veo fom som!) saat ats ; trolled depth. The second category encompasses normalizing and anne sean pet Sonat various ‘ypes of soncaling the pose of whieh may be to improve Tos - machinabily, toughness, or cold forming characteristics, oF to 1e- sma |" | |S ian| ee Jeve eee] asec] sume | lieve stresses and restore ductility after a processing which has i calle! ah be seca a Yolved some form of cold deformation. Te jinn | [ats an — Conventional Quenching em ‘oan at ‘ rs st and Tempering As discussed in the previous section, the best combination of strength and toughness is usually obtained by suitably tempering a WATER QUENCH quenched microstructure consisting of a minimum of 80% martensite throughout the eross section. Steels of suitable hardensbility at- ; irae etre _ tain this martensitic structure when liquid-quenched from their wane aye [ae] atm [aie | are fa austenitizing temperatures. Those used most frequently for quenched mao fasws0| @ "ai and tempered parts contain from .30 to .60% carbon, although the maa pa carbon specification for any particular application must be de- atu termined by the surface hardness and overall strength level required. a2 = ‘The hardenability necessary to attain the desired through hardening Ove |aavea6) 4 [rama stan] stata ‘un | esa ion of the section si i ey ame se spas | ease | cow is a function of the section size and the quenching parameters (see sn cone raph, page 62) 1100 Plain carbon steels with low manganese content can be through- ‘NOTE: Pars mado of steal witha carbon content of SUR or Higher dhouhd nor be ww quenched hardened only in very thin sections when a mild quench is used. With ‘without earful explortion for quench caching 80 ie ee eeehigher manganese carbon grades, or more drastic quenches, somewhat heavier sections can be quenched effectively. For sections beyond the hardening capability of carbon steels, earbon-boron or alloy seals are required. QUENCHING MEDIA. As indicated above, the mechanical properties obtained in @ quenched part are primarily dependent upon the bardenability ofthe steel as determined by its chemical composition and by the rate at which it is cooled from the austenitizing temperature. Once the desired cooling rate has been determined, & variety of factors must be considezed before the method of achieving that rate can be specified. A part with a specific mass will cool at a rate determined by its temperature in relation to that of the quenching medium, by the characteristics of that medium, and by the quenching conditions used. Furthermore, the cooling rate developed in a particular quenching facility will depend on the volume of the quenching medium as well as is temperature, specific heat, viscosity, And degree of agitation. Careful selection of the quenching medium is essential. For example, use of a drastic quench will make possible the development of a given sot of properties in @ steel of a specific hardenability. However, size and design of the part, or the steel composition itself, may be such that a drastic quench will cause quench eracks or distortion, Under these conditions, overall economy’ as well as safety will best be served by using a quenchant with less cooling capacity and a steel of greater hardenability Bevanoy s=nuce orstarce on scare ERD QUENET TEE SND GIVEN MEAD [Gest dt cubes | = UNOS UENCE TN ! + ots ae ‘usance FHoM QueNoHeD END SITEENTHS GFW Pa The most common quenching media are water and various ‘mineral oils. In most quenching facilites, water is maintained at a temperature of about 65 F. As the water temperature inereases, or as the amount of agitation during the quench decreases, there is an increasing tendency for an envelope of stearn (0 form around the part Because this envelope interferes with the flow of water around the part, it reduces the water's effective cooling capacity. A brine of 5 to 10% sodium chloride has a lower tendency than plain water to form an envelope, and therefore provides a more effective quench, Sodium hydroxide solutions are even more effective. The brine and sodium hydroxide solutions are generally used on very shallow- hardening steels to attain high surface hardness while retaining a ductilecore. Quenching oils providing a wide variety of cooling rates are available commercially. These are characterized by relative stability and chemical inactivity with respeet to hot steel, high lash point, and little change in cooling capacity with normal variation in temperature, Most production quenching facilites ineoxporate cooling coils to maintain the ol bath at 2 reasonably constant temperature, and provide for sufficient agitation to minimize localized effects of vapor envelopes formed during quenching. Regardless of the quenching medium used, it is of utmost importance to temper paris immediately after the quenching operation Delay in tempering greatly increases the risk of cracking, since the as-quenched part isin @ highly stressed condition. lsothermal Treatments ‘The preceding sections are concerned with hardening of steel by quenching, using a medium which is at or near room temperature. Another approach to the thermal treatment of steels involves isothermal transformation, accomplished by quenching in a medium held ‘at a constant temperature. For a given steel it may be shown by means of a series of test specimens quenched in media at various temperatures that the time required for the beginning and for the completion of transformation varies considerably. By plotting the various quenching bath temperatures against the time interval required for inception and completion of transformation (on a logarithmic scale) the so-called “S” curve, or TTT (time-temperature-transformation) ccurve is produced. 63It is not within the scope of this book to engage in a lengthy technical discussion of these curves. Some features of the curves have received rather widespread application and will be presented in the following sections. These applications involve both annealing and hardening. Each steel has a temperature range in which transformation takes place quite rapidly. This occurs ata fairy elevated temperature, land that section of the transformation curve is often referred to as the nose of the curve. Above or below this rapid transformation range, the times required for the critical changes are considerably greater. In order to harden steel itis necessary to quench at such a rate that transformation at the higher temperatures is avoided. If the bath temperature is below approximately 400 F, martensite will form ‘The highest temperature at which martensite will start to form is termed the Ms temperature. The Mr temperature is the highest temperature at which the transformation can be considered complete. Ifthe quenching bath temperature is above the M, temperature, other microstructures are formed, as discussed below. (Quenching at a temperature above that of the nose of the curve cesullsin a soft structure after completion of transformation and subsequent cooling to room temperature. (See Annealing, page 71.) Se AUSTEMPERNG TILE é te ad) a DAGAK ™ exhire HED 6s AUSTEMPERING is a hardening treatment which consists of quenching in a molten salt bath maintained somewhat above the M, temperature, end holding until transformation is complete. The product formed is termed lower bainite and is somewhat softer than martensite. ‘The advantage of austempering is the high degree of freedom it provides from distortion and quenching cracks. Higher hardenability ‘material must be used, however, to insure against transformation oc curring at the nose of the curve, since cooling rates in molten salt baths may be lower than in the oil or water used in conventional quenching. The transformation rate of the higher hardenability steels is quite slow in the temperature range involved, and therefore, austempering has the disadvantage of requiring more time than other ‘quenching methods, even though it is not followed by a tempering. ‘treatment. MARTEMPERING i TEMPERED TO DESIRED HARDNESS TeMpereD. MARTENSITE TIMETOG SCALE MARTEMPERING involves quenching from the normal austenitizing temperature in a molten salt bath maintained at approximately the M. temperature. The part is held at this temperature for a period of time sufficient to allow equalization of temperature within the part, but not long enough to permit any transformation to 65cock, The material is then removed from the bath and allowed to cool in air through the martensite range, followed by the customary tempering reatment to obin the desied mechanical properties. Like austempering, irtempeting tends to minimize distortion and quench eracking, since the high stesestypicel of conventional quenching are avoided. The two processes aso share the caracter- istic of equiring higher hardenabiltystecls than those suitable for conventional quencing, x mentioned above. However, mactemper- ing compares favorably with full quenching as far as time is concerned, since the material neo nly be held for temperature eavatization, Surface Hardening Treatments A variety of applications require high hardness or strength primarily at the surface; for example, instances involving wear or torsional loading, Service stresses aré frequently complex, neces- sitating not only a bard, wear-resistant surface, but also core strength and toughness to withstand tensile or impact stresses and fatigue. Treatments required to achieve these properties involve two general types of processes: those ia whieh the chemical composition of the surface fs altered prior to quenching and tempering; and those in ‘which only the surface layer is hardened by the heating and quenching process employed. The first category includes carburizing, cyanic- ing, carbo-nitriding, and nitriding. The most common processes included in the second category are flame hardening and induction hardening CARBURIZING. In this process, carbon is diffused into the sucface of the part to a controlled depth by heating ina carbonaceous medium. The resultant depth of carburization, commonly referred t9 as case depth, depends on the carbon potential of the medium used and the time and temperature ofthe carburizing treatment. The steels, ‘most suitable for carburizing are those with sufficiently low carbon” contents (usually below .30% ) to enhance toughness. ‘The actual carbon level, as well as the necessary hardenability and the type of quench, is determined by the section size and the desired core hhardness, There are three types of carburizing in general use: LIQUID CARBURIZING involves heating in barium eya- ride or sodium cyanide at temperatures ranging from 1550 to 66 1750 F. The temperature and the time at temperature are ad- justed to obtain various case depths, usually up to .03 inch, although greater depths are possible. ‘The case absorbs some nitrogen in additioa (o carbon, thus enhancing surface hardness. GAS CARBURIZING involves heating in a gas of controlled carbon potential such that the steel surface. absorbs ‘carbon, Case depths in the range of .0 to 04 inch are common, the depth again depending on temperature and time, Carbon level in the case can be controlled where advantageous. PACK CARBURIZING consists of sealing the parts in a ‘gasctight container together with solid carbonaceous material and heating for eight hours or more to develop case depths in ‘excess of 04 inch, This method is particularly suitable for pro- | 1575-1025 ite 180 NOTE: Noralising is generally unnecessary or ufiling ether dimensional or machinaity 1095 | 1860-1650 10-1500 | —T676-1625 | Water and normeizngemperturs fae 0 above bara persue scenes 17 = = 1550-1600 oi ‘sae to mints eatrean. Tei = ‘00-1500 | 1500-7550 i NOTE: Tempering tempertures are usually 250-400 F, but higher temperatures may be used Tek T600-1700 | vaso | 1500-550 oil when permite bythe hardness specication forthe fnahed pers 16 451500 — Water oF 07 13% sodium hydroxide, st 1600-1700, = 1475-1500, ‘Water or Oi) The higher manganese ste such 8 1148 andthe 1500 series are not usualy carborividad, = r Weatonisiings performed, care mUst be taken teint the nitrogen conten beesuse High SRT TO | 10 18 = 190 TOT oF ‘siege wil neoeae thir endanay fo retain austen 138) son 1500-1550 oi . ‘son | 1600-700 15751075 of NOTE: When tempering ie requied, temperature should be selected to elect desied fardness "These grades ae commonly sed forparte whe ‘ 3 1030 sp may be ndetion ® Sphereidal suture aa ofan requ for machining purposes and shouldbe cooled very slowly or bo sothermaly uansformed to produce tie desved svuctte ‘May be water or brine quenched by special tchniaues such es ariel immersion ot dine uonched: otherwise, they ere subject to quench eaching, n 76 rc eesSAE Typical Thermal Treatments ALLOY STEELS—Directly Hardenable Grades f number | “Tommy ‘amp. ‘Tere. ® Medium umber | “Same | “tem ome | edu 1390 1600-1700" 1580-1650, 1525-1875 Water or Oi) 1 1s sis ; to | tsmame —vasosese | vmosssa | ot 4 fe wame ] isms [| eano | a te — {| sta 87 : ‘wom sam i 4042 peer : es) 1425-1475 Water | ie = vasesn | NaHS | Wa ow | conse | women a 09 [tema son | ontam |_ waw o “|= vasoiesn sone |g 495 sings | ttesro | reson | essme | fan ; fue = 1450-1550 1650-1600 it e530 | 1600-1700 | 1450-1580 1625-1600 | Water or Gi ae 1637 i ee 445 se40 iw 7 sis ions ais tf - vont | eet | a1 = a CO — — =o | 5 - vwoorom | insist a Saag | 1600-1700 1500-1600, 1500-1550, oil r = 100-1600 1526-1675 il SOB4S T s0B50 | ~ - 1500-1650 Oil sis | tomsror —eeosemnrsass9 50880 | 94830 1500-1700! 1450-1550 wse0i8 | Ot pes 1800-1700" 1450-1550 1825-1575 Water, Caustic or Gil NOTE, When tempering is required, temperature should be selected to elfect desired hardness, 5132 3 See footnotes ¢ and I sis tne in suo | temaror | vsootsm antes ) Stel thr mae rnd emu machina ue Stomper er t0e 225 ' ~ Die ewBar cols ae checkad pros to entering the continuous annealing furnace Instalod with our new 13° bat mil tout Leekawanna, NY, lant GRAIN SIZE sidered within the scope of this publication, is the austenitic grain size. As any carbon or alloy stecl is heated to a temperature just above the upper critical temperature, it transforms to austenite of uniformly fine grain size. On heating to progressively higher temperatures, coarsening of the austenite grains eventually will occur. The temperature at which this occurs is dependent to some extent on the composition of the steel, but is influenced primarily by the type and degree of deoxidation used in the steelmaking process. ‘Time at temperature also influences the degree of coarsening. De- oxidizers such as aluminum, and alloying elements such as vanadium, titanium, and columbium, inhibit grain growth, thercby increasing the temperature at which coarsening of the austenitic grains occurs. Aluminum is most commonly used for grain size control because of its low cost and dependability For steels used in the quenched and tempered condition, a fine grain size at the quenching temperature is almost always preferred, because fine austenitic grain size is conducive to good ductility and toughness, Coarse grain size enhances hardenability, but also increases the tendency of the stee! to crack during thermal treatment. When austenitic grain size is specified, the generally accepted ‘method of determining itis the McQuaid-Ehn test : This test consists of carburizing a specimen at 1700 F, followed by slow cooling to develop a carbide network at the grain boundaries. The specimen is polished and eiched, and then compared at 100 diameters magnilica- tion with a standard (pages 82-83). Since itis impossible to produce steels of a single grain size, a range of grain size numbers is usually reported. For specification purposes, a steel is considered fine grained if itis predominantly 5 to 8 inclusive, and coarse grained if itis predominantly 1 to 5 inclusive. These requirements are usually considered fulfilled if 70% of the grains examined fall within these ranges. Steels which are fine grained at 1700 F willbe fine grained at a lower quenching temperature. A steel which exhibits coarse grain size at 1700 F, is usually fine grained at conventional quenching. temperatures, but this cannot be guaranteed. Consequently, fine grain size (McQuaid-Ehn) is usually specified for applications involving hardening by thermal treatment. 2 Scniseualan eatrartemnae aSTANDARD GRAIN SIZE NUMBERS xsd Seseegy asm esets raaveys Se Bra aie receratteps - Caleenstves= eZee, Wawa rabcweesetMECHANICAL PROPERTIES of Carbon and Alloy Steels ‘The mechanical properties of a number of commen carbon and alloy stecls are given on the following pages. The data were obtained by testing single heats of the compositions indicated, and may be used as a guide in selecting grades for specific applications. However, it should be kept in mind that every grade of steel is furnished to & range of composition, and that the resultant heat-to-heat variations in the percentages of individual elements present in any grade can ‘cause significant differences in the properties obtainable by thermal treatment. Similarly, section size and thermal treatment parameters markedly influence the properties which can be developed in any particular part, Hence, the mechanical properties given in this section should not be considered as maximum, minimum, or average values for a particular application of the grades involved, a Carbon Carburizing Grades Carbon Water- and Oil-Hardening Grades Alloy Carburizing Grades Alloy Water-Hardening Grades Alloy Oil-Hardening Grades 112 18 8 122 124 128 128 130 132 138 138 140 142 148 148 160 182 154 156 158 160 162 168 168 a5 GrCARBON STEEL _ CARBURIZING GRADES ‘01015 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS c Mo P 8 si Grade 13/18 30/60 040 er 050 Mm — Lede 15 53 ore ost 478 Critical Points, F: Aci 1980 Aci 1880 An 1510 Ar, 1380 SINGLE QUENCH AND TEMPER Carburized st 1675 F for 8 hours: pot-cooled :rehested to 1425 F ;water-quenched tempered at 380 F. ‘-in. Round Trested Case Depth 048 in. Case Hardnoss HRC 62 MASS EFFECT SieaRound TonsleSwrongth Yield Point Elongation Reduction Hardness im ai DH ain fares, HB ‘Annealed (Hosted to 1600 F, furnace-cooled 20 F pst hour 10 1340 F, caoled in 1 56.000 41280 370087111 Normalized (Heated to 1700 F, cooled in air) % 63.250 48000 386) 710128 1 61.500 47,000 97069812 2 80.000 aag00 «575682118 4 59.250 4180036578118 ‘Mock-Carburized at 1676 F for 8 hours; reheated to 1425 F; quenched in water: tempered at 350 F % 108260 60,000 150 2.9217 1 75,500 44,000 «30.0 69.0158. 2 70780 «4137532070413 4 67,250 3900030569512 |As-quenched Hardness (water) su Wade Center WRC 365 HRC 22 HRE SS HREST HRS 90 HRB S38 -HRB8s RO 82 HRB S7 HRB 80 HRA 78 1020 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS ce Ma P ssi a etin Grade 18/23 20/60 040M 050me — Sue Ladle 19 48 012 02 186.8. Critical Points, Fc, 1950 Aca 1540. Ar, 1470 An 1340 SINGLE QUENCH AND TEMPER, Carburted at 1675 F for 8 hours: pat-cooled reheated to 1426 F; water-quenched tempered at 350 F. thin, Round Treated Case Depth O46 in. Case Hardness HAC 62 MASS EFFECT Size Round Tensile Stength Yield Point Elongation Reduction Hardness in ° Pi dim oF Area NB As-Rolled = t 62.500 55750 320 68H 197 ‘Annealed (Heated to 1600 F, furnace-coolas 30 F per hour to 1290 F, cooled in ait.) 1 57.250 42,750 «385880111 Normalized (Hosted to 1700 F, cooled in ai.) % 64500 50.250 383684131 1 64000 «60.250 «3B 7S 13 2 63500 46,250 «355 65S 128 4 60000 «40,750 «360666121 ‘Mock-Carburized at 1676 F for 8 hours: reheated to 1425 F; quenched in water; tempered at 350 F. % 129000 «72,000 11.484 285, 1 87,000 © 64000230 4.2179 2 75500 43,750 31379186 4 7250 © 42000 «33078143 ‘As-quenched Hardness (water) Site Round Surface %Raclus__Center % HAC4O5 HRCSO _WRC2E 1 HRC295 HRB 96 HRB S3 2 HREOS-HRESS «HRB ES. 4 -HRB94 | HRB78. HRB 77 89 Aa1022 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS com P ssi Grade 48/23. 70.00 080 wn 050m ~~~ lode 22 82 teats Critical Points, F: Aci 1960 Ac, 1830 Ar, 1440 At, 1300 SINGLE QUENCH AND TEMPER, Carburzed at 1676 Ffor8 house: pot-cooted ;rehet temperod at 350 F ‘sin. Round Trested Case Dopth 046 in, Case Hardness HRC 62 1801425 F; water-quenched: Mass EFFECT SizeRound TenslaSivongth Yield Point Elongation Reduction Herdness a in Psi Pe Sin of Aaa 1 70250 52280 330652107 (Heated to 1600 F, furnace-cooled 30 F per hour to 1260 F cooled in ait) 1 65.250 48,000 38.036 197 [Normaized (Heated to 1700 F, cooted in ai.) % 70500 53,000 35.7 683143 1 70.000 52.000 340 7.8143 2 68750 48,000 340668187 @ 67,250 45,000 338639181 Mock-Carburized ot 1675 F for & hours; ret tempored at 350 F. ated to 1425 F; quenched in water; % 135.000 75.000 136 24a 1 9.000 © 5.000 255573179 2 2,000 60,280 30.0 698163 4 7400043600 32571614) ‘As-quenched Hardness (water) a Sze Round Surfaco 4 Radiue Center “HRC aS HRC 9 HRO a7 1 HRC41 HRB SS HRB 92 2° HRC28 HABE HRA Ss 4 HRCS4 HRB G4 HRB Gt 1117 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS ce Mn P ssi =e Grain Grade 14/20 1,00/130 040 mex 08713 — Site Ladle 19 1.10 1S 082d Ccitcal Points, Fi Aci 1345 Acs 1540 A 1450 An 1340 SINGLE QUENCH AND TEMPER Carburized at 700 F for Bours: pot-cooled ;raheated to 1450 F; water-quenched ; tempered at 360 F. ‘in, Round Treated Case Depth 045 in, Case Hardness HRC 65 MASS EFFECT Size Round Tense Stern Yel fini onan Reduction Haass im est Zin of Ares," HB As-Rolled 1 69750 4960093519 ‘Annealed (Heated to 1575 F, furnace-cooled 90 F per hour 101290 F, cooled in ait.) 1 62250 40,500 328680124, Normalized (Heated to 1650 F, cooled in sir.) % 09.750 45,000 943.143 1 67,750 © 44.000 35, 638137 2 67.000 41,600 3354.7 137 4 63750 35,000 43847128 ‘Mock-Carburizad at 1700 F for 8 hours: reheated to 1450 F; quenched in water; tempered at 360 F % 124750 «6850087 184285 1 9500 60.500 223488183 2 78000 «47,750 263657188 4 7750 «427800273 628149 ‘As-quenched Hardness (water) Size Round Sutsce Radius Center HRC2_HROS4S HAC 296 HRCS7 HRB9S HRB SS HRC33 HRBSO HRB e6 HRCS2 HRB 83 HRB Et1118 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS: c Mn FP ssi Grade 14/20 1.90/60 00mm 0ga3 Sn edie 20 1.34 o7 os on SORE Critical Points, F: Ac, 1930 Acy 1516 Any 1985 Ar, 1175 SINGLE QUENCH AND TEMPER Carburied 9t 1700 Ffor8 hours; pot-cooted: tempered at 360 F, ‘sin. Round Treated Cass Depth 065in. _Cose Hardiness HAC 61 MASS EFFECT SizaRound TensiloStrength Yield Point Elongation Reduction Hardness in pu M Zin ofAree,% HB As-Rolled 1 70500 51,500 923630143 ‘Annealed (Heated to 1450 F. furnace-cooled 30 F per hour to 1125 F, cooled in ait) 1 65250 41.250 346 88ST Normalized (Heated to 1700 F, cooled in sir) % 72780 47,200 333628188, 1 69.250 48280 335659143, 2 68.500 43,280 3300 ar? 137 4 66250 37,750 340874138 ‘Mock-Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours; reheated to 1450 F: quenched in water; ‘tempered at 350 F % 144800 80,000 132 08 285 1 102500 59,250 180 «aus 207 2 2250 47,875 «273688187 4 77900 -45,000 310 ae 18, As-quenched Hardness (water) Size Round Surface % Radius % WRC43_HACe HACaS 1 HRC36 HRB 99 -HAB 98S 2 HRC34 HReS1 — HAB a7 4 HRC32 -HABAs HRB 82 92 weated 101450 F; water-quenched: CARBON STEEL WATER- AND OIL-HARDENING GRADES It will be noted in the properties charts that the hardness values listed are frequently incom- patible with the tensile strength shown for the same tempering temperatures. These carbon steels are comparatively shallow hardening; and hardiness tests made on the surface of a quenched and tempered bar will not be equivalent to the tensile strength obtained on a .505-in. specimen machined from the center of the same bar. 94 36 100 104 108 108 412 16 181030 Water-quenched Water-quenched 1030 ‘SINGLE HEAT RESULTS ‘Treatment: Normalized et 1700 F:; reheated to 1600 F; quenched in water, comm P ssi Tin Round Tested: 608-n. Found Tested Ae-quenched HB 514 Grade 29734 40/80 40m 080 wen ~~ re a rc] ied Poin FAcy 1980" A 1485. 1995. An 1250 - ws Mass EFFECT 200,000 " a pa Se” oPacee Aanesle (eae to 150 F, umace-cooed 20 por hour o 1200 Fools) 1 67290" 48800." 312. 579 126 Normalized (Heated 10 1700 F, cooled in sir) % 7750060000 321i 88 ex 175500 9000 20a a8 2 74000 49500288 sas 7 4 50 = ayze0 2378237 Water-quenched from 1600 F, tempered at 1000 F. % 81,500 76,000 282880187 m=z 88,000 68,500 280686179 ensig 2 fea gee Seng ce eo Te % 88500 © 64000283 63.7179 | Point 1 85250 63.000 «280-708 170 ' a i fae fae Bo lw 1 ec seco eaawe morose coool Ld 0% i ee seme mee 090 2 80,000 56,750 30.2 70.9 158 40% von sex [eeiesico tj PAicc ss PRRESSI” (unalog Temper, F 400 500 600 700 800 900 1009 1100 1200 1200 4 HRB 97, HRB 88 HRB 85. H HB 495 429 401 375 302 277 266 235 207 179 94 > 95 ie ee1040 Oil-quenched Oil-quenched 1040 ‘SINGLE HEAT RESULTS ‘Treatment: Normalized at 1650 F; reheated to 1875 F; quenched in cil, c Mn P s ‘in, Round Tresteg.508-n, Round Tested. As-quenched HB 269, = a a in Grade S7/ad 60/80 040 wax 050M —— Sne lade 38H 19 03855? ‘ Citicl Points, F! Acs 1940” Acs 1445." Ars 1960. Ar 1250 Bi i Mass EFFECT 200,000 Size Round Tense Stength Yielé Pint Slongation Reduction Hardness t oe pa Bn” otaee kN Annesled (Heated.o 1450 F,fumace-cooled 20 F per hourto 1200 Footed inst.) 175250 81,250-302 87219 Normalized (Heated to 1850 F, cooled in ir) % 88250-59500 30058 1 8580054260 280 5d 170, 160.000 2 ga250 63000280 gta? % 83500 49.250 «2708167 Oilequenched from 1575 F tompered st 1000 F. 10875072800 270 «20a = + "96250 890025537 enttc see 2 92250 $3750 370887 _ 4 90000 $7500 270803178, aonane Oi-quenched om 1878 F, tempered 311100 F. % 190500 6950027052207 Yat p 1 81.500 94250282 gate? ine 2 88750 «888752802874 4 82,750 2.250 300 61.6. 170 70% Ci-quenched fom 175 F, tempered st 1200 F Aeavotion of AS 60% % 95.000 65828 2895187 Lal 1 852500250 «G00 67490 50,000 | ——t 50% 2 82500 54500-31048? 40% 4 78750 © so000 «24S 8 30% As-quenched Harines (ol) onooten | oa Size Round Surace Radon Comer % HRC 29 FRC 22 Roz 10% 1 HRC 23 HAC 2t HRCI 2 ime 3 kno s2 na at Tarps F008 Soo) soos Vous endif vo ovagyioo5 a0] suo HB 262 265 206 240 241 235-212 197 192168 96 + 7 Dil1040 Water-quenched Water-quenched 1040 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS tent; Normalized at 1650 F: reheated to 1850 F; quenched in water. Ma Pp si Round Treated: .505-in. Round Tested. As-quenened HB 534. 60/90 040 Max .080Max an or9 936 a5 ints, F: Ac, 1940 Ac 1445 Ar, 1350 psi MASS EFFECT t 200,000 | jon Hardness HB T ‘Weater-quenched trom 1550 F, tempered at 1000 F. % 103,000 238 615 223 i in T 1 107,780 22 © 628 217 2 101'750 247638207 * T 4 99,900 247 602201, 150,000 } | Woter-quenched ftom 1550 F, tampered at 1100 F. | % =~ 101,250 71,000 284 652212 1 100000 9500-260 «650207 2 95,000 68.000 280 «692197 4 94260 58125 270634182 Water-quenched from 1850 F, tampered at 1200 F. % 96,000 99000277 «888201 1 93500 68000 270673187 : joaioag 2 9.000 50875 287690188 4 85,000 54750 302672170 i ‘As-quenched Hardness (water) 0% Siro Round Surtace Radius Center % HRCSS_HACS3_HACES 60% 1 -HRC5O-HRC22 HRC 18 a 50,000 2 -HRC50-HRES7 HRB 68: Soe 4 HRB SB -HRBS6 HRB 95 40% r 30% elongation | | 7 20% | 10% F 400 600 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 IB B14 495 444 401 362 203 269 235 201 187 991050 Oil-quenched Oil-quenched 1050 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS Treatment: Normalized at 180 F;rahested 10 1550 F; quanchod in oi | c Mn P s si ‘in, Round Treated; 508-in. Round Tested, ‘As-quenched HB 321 oo entin | Grade 48/85 60/90 040 mex 050m — | ee oe eee Citieal Points, Ac; 1340 Ac) 14208141520 An ’ zi MASS EFFECT 200,000 Ste Round TendieSuength Yield Point Gongation Reducton Haines e = fa OR Ein tawny AD Anmeated (Heated to 1450 F, turnace-cooled 20 F per hour to 1200 F, coed init) + 9225063000237 389187 | { Nevmalied (Heated to 1880 F, cooled in ai) : % =~ «M11500 62500128 + 108500 62,000 200304217 180,000 2 108260 © 58325 «200388212 Tensis gy 4 100,000 © 56,000 21.7 41.6201 eth | Ci-quenchee from 1650 F, tempered a 1000 F - % 18250087500 207 «S29 262 1 423500 76000 «202533288 | 2 422800 74e75 197 Sk 48 Yo = 421000 © 69000197 «= 480 : seaoce Yat ‘Oll-quenched from 1860 F, tempered at 1100 F. ine N % — 132000«81.000 228 we 1 118000 795002385823, , rr 2 112000 + 6g000-«-730 558223, 4 401000 «58750 252585207 al Cie quenches trom 1850 F,tepeed 91200 F ie % 142500 74000248 ots 229 rear 7 yon000 ea7s0 247 60S 2 50,000 50% 2 joe 64000250 59.217 4 96,750 55,750 255 566 197 40% 30% ‘As-quenched Hardness (ol) songaion | Size Round Suraco anu =I S a 20% %HACS7 HRCS7 _HRC3e 10% 1 HRC2]HRC2O-HRC20 2 WAC2T «HRC 25 HRCZ 4 nese HRSos HRB GT Temper. F 400 600 600 700 809 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 HB - 321 321 293 277 263 262 241 «223 192 |1050 Water-quenched Water-quenched 1050 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS “Treatment: Normalized at 1850 F; reheated to 1825 F; quenched in water. c Ma Pe s ‘sin, Round Treated; .505-in, Round Tested. As-quenched HB 601, re Grede 48/55 60/90 040 nMox 050s Sine Ladle 84 68 12 930 195 Points, F! Ac) 1340 Ac, 1420 Ar,1920 An. 1250 1 = MASS EFFECT 200,000 ‘Size Round TensloSuength Yislé Point Elongation Reduction Hardness in Pet Pa ain ofA ME Water-quenched from 1525 F, snpered 91 1000 F. % ~~ 198,000» 99.000 «200844289, 1 131,250 92250200 55.2262 2 729800 84125 «207 688255 5 4 12275078250 SS 288. 180,000 water quenched from 1825 F, tempered at 1100 F, 1 % ~~ 119000 88.000 21.7 599244 1 118000 80.000 225 599281 2 117,250 78750230 tO 298, 4 41225068250 237 BBS 229, hed fom 1825 F, tempered at 1200 F. % geo $9000 248 gs 288 1 109,000 76,500 237 612 229 4 100,000) 2 tor7s0 aes a7 gta | i @ — toasoo 6525025260827 As-quarchad Hordes (wae) soe Sue Round Su cen = %HRCeE MACS RCS? nS 60% 7 Rc’ HAC 35 HRC 33 . ea000 ee on 2 HRCSO HRCa2 HAC 26 4 HRCS2 HAC]? HRC 20 0%, 30% Biongatio 20% 10% Temper, 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 HB 514 495 444 415 375 352 293 277 235 217 103 a 1021060 Oil-quenched SINGLE HEAT RESULTS co MnP ssi in Grade S58 80/90 OOH OSS Lode 60s wets wR cial Poin, F: Ae, 1988 Aes 1400 Ay 1900 An 1250 MASS EFFECT ‘Size Round Tenslle Strength Yield Point Elongation Reduction Herness is Dek kin ofA HE ‘Annealed (Heated to 1450 F, furnace: cooled 20 F per hour to 1200 F, cooled in air) 1 90750 58000 225 «= 382179 Normalized (Heated to 1850 F, cooled in ain.) % 113000 62,000 «204406229, 1112500 64,000 180 7.2228 2 410000 --57/800 17.7 380228 % 10825051250 180313228, uenched from 1850 F, tempered at 900 F, % 149000 = 98,250 «18.1 48.0902 1 148500 © 93,000 162440203 2 142,750 © 8950016540. 285 4 134,750 7525018248268 quenched from 1550 F, tempered at 1000 F. % ~~ 199500 © 92000196 = S21 277, + 19650065750 17.7 «4802069 2 133000 «79280 «185803262 4 72400 66.250 200 480248. Oit-quenched from 1860 F, tempered at 1100 F. % ~~ 191500 €2500 207 538282 + 127,750 79000 © 20017285 2 128250 7880020283248 4 118750620005 4842 ‘As-quenchad Hardness (oil) Sue Round Suface Radius ener % HRCES HRCG7 HRC 36 7 HRC 34 HRC22_—- HRC30 2 -HRE305 HRC27.5 HAC ZS 2 -HRC29-HRC26 HRC 24 04 oO -quenched 1060 ‘Treatment: Normalized at 1850 F: roheated to 1550 F; quenched in oll sin, Round Trested ;05-in, Round Tested. ‘As-quenched HB 321. psi , 200,000 Tensile Strength 10,000 , Yieid Point 100,000 PS 70% 60% 50,000 a 50% Reduction of Area | 40% 30% tT 20% Elongation = ———= 10% Temper, F 400 600 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 HB 321 321 321 921 att 302 277 248 229 212 108 I ee1080 Oil-quenched Oil-quenched 1080 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS Treatment: Normalized ot 1650 F; reheated to 1600 F quenched in il c Mn P ss, ‘Vin. Round Tested; 605-in.RoundTested. At-quenched HE 388, Guede 75/88 60/80 040 Nox 050 Nox — Sa 20% 5-7 tele 85 762g SORET Cites! Pointe, Aci 1350 Aes 1370. An, 1280. Ar, 1260 psi 200,000 MASS EFFECT SreRound TensleSwengin ied Point Elongation Reduction Hatdness ti ci pa Ein ohn mB 2 Ny Annsin (Hesed 10 450 F,funace-coled 20 Fparhout to 1200 F cone nie) Nee. 1 99250 54500 247450174 | a Normalized (Heates to 1950 F, cooled i air) } | 25 % 180500 80500 124277283 180,000] + 146500 76000 11.0 «208288, \ 2 141000 70.000 107170288 4 138750 «64500 107155268 oit.qvenches from 1500 F, vempared a 900 F % 184000 125800121 344389 1 41800 112800130 358382 2 180,000 110.000 127 a7 352 4 171,250 108000117286 34k 100,000 Oil-quenched from 1500 F, tempered ot 1000 F % 169000 121,500 «150 «988 at 7 498.000 03800 150-378 331 [— 4 167.250 94,500 128 031.4331 [ 150,000 Water-quenched from 1450 F, tempered st 1000 F. ; : % 172,000 111,000 124 44121 1 165,000 1600 44431 | | 2 184,750 167-381-302 4 180,000 187 35.3 285. Woter-quenched from 1450 F, tampered at 1100 F. * 144,000 99,000 172 «449298 1 143,000 96,500 18.7 43.7293, 100,000 2 140,000 90,000 175 43.6 (285 4 131,250 78,000 18.7 at 282 ? ‘As-quenched Hardness (water) Size Round Surface Radius Cantar 70% % HRC6S HACE HAC 4B 60% 1 HRC 64 HRC 46 HRC 4a - 2 HRC63-HRC43 HAC AO 50,000 T tq 50% 4 HRC63 -HRC3B—-HRC3O \ Le oa |r eduction of 40% ) 30% Elongation jade 10% Temper, F 400, 600 600 700 800 900 1000 1300 1200 1300 HB G01 601 634 461 388 331 293 262 235 201 110 am Bee1137 Oil-quenched | Oil-quenched 1137 ‘SINGLE HEAT RESULTS: Treatment: Normalized at 1650 F; reheated to 1575 F; quenched in oil. co Mn P sos Vin. Round Troted: 605-in. Round Tesed, -As-quenched H8 368, Grade 32.39 1351.05 040 mx 08/43 — Sar ladle 37140808 ciical Points, F: Ac) 1390 Ac, 1450. An, 1910. An 1180 vai Mass EFFECT 2ono00 | Size Found TeseStransth Yield Point Wongaon Reduction Hardrese te va ar Sa fens a j Annes (Heated to 1460 F,funace-coold 20 F per hour 11130 Fooled in | 1 84750 60000 268 539.174 Normalized (Hested to 1650 F, cooled in sit) % 98.000 68.500 250 «8820 1 97,000 57,500 25 48.5 197 180,000 2 360004900288 t87 4 98000 48.000 233 B10 182 Ci-quenched from 1575 F, tampered at 1000 F % 127500" 100000 «182s 82s 1 toaoco "75780 a3 GeO 2 toseo0 3000 28082 tT 2 100; a oo 58750-22385 ON 100.000 Ci- quenched rom 1576 F tempered at 110 F | % 11280090000 18 «610229 400750 aso 238601207 | 2 ‘93000 8.800 2808782097 | 4 95.250 7000348 bam Ta 70% quenched trom 1875 F, tempered 1 1200 F aon % 104,000 80,500 246 636 27 | 1 “o7760 63780 238 6B, 201 0,000 és 50% 2 97000 67280 380 Gat “307 we i @ 96300 86000 240s. 192 30% As-quenched Hardness (0) = I i ‘Sze Round Suace _% Radius on a % HRC 48 HRC 43 eal 10% 1 Hne3s hme 28 eT 2 WRO28 Re 22 & hne2t inet Temper. F 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 tie as2 331 286 27? 262 241 229 217 197 178 12 ne1137 Water-quenched SINGLE HEAT RESULTS c¢ Mn P ssi Grade 2/38 136/.65 080 me 08.13 Lede 37 1.40 ons a7 4 Critical Points, F: Aci 1390 Aci 1450 Ar 1910 Ani 1180 MASS EFFECT Site Round Tensile Strength Yield Point Elongation Reduction Hardness in si po Sin. ofA HE Woter-quenchad from 1850 F. tempered at 1000 F. % =~ 129500 112000171 51962 4 422,000 $8000 168228 2 110000 71,250 208 561229 4 193.000 69.000 20321293 ‘Water-quenched from 1850 F, tempered at 1100 F. % 19280095000 21.4 57.6 209 1 107.750 87.750 24069223, 2 105250 78000220 e727 4a 97.750 61.250 235609201 Water-quenched from 1550 F, tempered at 1200 F 39000 239 a2 22g 22300 58827 240 © 641201 240 635187 Center HRC 83 HAC 60 HRCSO HAC 45 HRC35 HAC 24 é HRC 23 HRC 20 ne Water-quenched 1137 sd to 1660 F; quenched in water. As-quenched HB 415, “Treatment: Normalized at 1650 F; rahe 1-in, Round Trested; 605-in. Round Tested. psi 200,000 150,000 400,000 = 0% 60% 50,000 50% 40% [90% elongation 20% == T ions Temper, 400 600 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 8 415 415 375 341 311 285 262 229 187 179 1151141 Oil-quenched SINGLE HEAT RESULTS c Mn Pos si ee a a lade 38188 oe owt SRP Cheat Points F: Acs 1980 Acs 1495 Any 1230 Ans 1180 Mass EFFECT Yeldsreran Sicetound TensieSuengh ORES) Congaton Resuclon Hardness is me ven Ee” Saree Annales (Hebe to 1500 Ffrnaco-oale 20F per hourt@ 900 F, cose in 1 85800" 61200 288. 93 t6 Noralz (Heated to 1650 F,cooldin si) % 10500 82300 «22788207 + teasoo S780 227 sas 2 Yong S700 223 BSB 4% foos00 88000 a7 aaT Ol. quenched from 1600 F, tempered st 1000 F. 3900 110200187 srt 2 2 ¥o200 © 'ies00 203587229 2 jeaso0 = 74700 ate Bra & — tor20 eeeoo 20832 Oiauenched rom 1800 F, romped 81100 % 1920095700 207 eos 28 1 tos000 90088) e220 2 yo1000 S870 ako gz 4 too000 Gro 288 S187 Cisquanched rom 1800 F, temper 011200 F. % 108200" 67400 «235 ga 57 1 "seaco 6900 ake gat ta 2 S300 ees00 zee to $3200 eas00 28230 Asecuenched Hardness (i) Sit Round Sufece Radia _ Can % HRC 62 ARG a3 — HAC aS + tincds reas Rese 2 freee fincze unc 22 & fincay inca? unc i@ we in) Te ent; Normalized at 1875 F; rohi 1530-in, Round Treated: .505-In. Round Tested. Oil-quenched 1141 1d to 1800 F; quenched in oi, ‘As-quonched HB 495. os 200000 10000 ‘ 10% to0ee0 oo oon | noise 50% Z1 40% } 30% ‘ Z| 20% ate soo {| Temaet,F 400 G20 600 700 GBD 00 1000 1100 1200 1300 wig aot Sat Sig Gee at agg see aoe 27 a2 t uw1144 Oil-quenched Oil-quenched 1144. SINGLE HEAT RESULTS Treatment: Notmalized at 1850 F; reheated to 1560 F; quenched in cll Cc Mn P ssi {in Round Toned: 505-in Round Tested. As-quenenee HB 265 Grace 40/4 125/65 00m awa ~~ le 4517 otaze ws RE Citic Points, Fes 1835 Acs 1400. A 1285. An 1200 psi 200,000 Mass EFFECT m ou oo OE” ofan HD Anneted (Heated to 1450 F.frnaccooled 20 F per hour 10 1950 F, cele in air) + 84750 50250 248 a3 167 Normalced (Heated 101650 F cooled in ir) | % 98000 60800 24810201 480,000 + S780 Seo00 ate aod a7 | 2 e600 «S400 as 802 4 4280 sas00 218 aa 18 | Tone st Cu-qvenched rom 1580, tempered at 1000 F ete Sr % 113600" 7900020451235, St 2 Yoo 780 dos tse & Yous eea00 2S 500207 100,000 . \ (eke Poin Oil-quenched trom 1860 F, tempered at 1100 F. a en mw teee00 712502071227 + toa7s0 G00 ats ste — 2 101,000 65,000 23.3 56.5, 207 f= 70% @ “aso 7750288 Sea ee i O-quenched trom 1560 F, tempered ot 1200 F % 87800" 68000-23282 aps Roo R 50% 1 97,000 6800023024201 eauction of Area 2 94,000 61,500 24.0 817 192, J 40% 4 89,000 54,000 25.8 a7 183, ) ro] 30% As-quenched Hardness (ol) ‘ Elongation 20% Sze found Suface —WRales Cx — Sane 38 Res? wR ¢ fiRe2e fincas tne 24 2 nso mez? Rc z2 ‘Temper, 400 600 600 700 800 $00 1000 1100 1200 1300 Seanez © HEBSS Rs Heals Pele 277 269 262 255 248 261 235° 229 217 201 18 r 13, nn ——————EEALLOY STEEL CARBURIZING GRADES4118 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS com of s 1 me Me, Grate 10/23 0/80 — = a38 —— eared ears Se tute 21-80 008 007 2) 8 a oes MASS EFFECT Yield Suara Size Round Tensile Strength {2% Ofeat) Elongation Reduction Hardness ” cy pa din. of Aree % RB Annealed (Haated to 1800 F :furnace-coolad 20 F por hour to 1150 F cooled in ait) 1 7000 $3000 330637137 Normalized (Heated to 1670 F; cooled in sir.) 1865-85000 67000315 70.1170 1 84.500 66.000 320 71.0188 2 77500 54500 38074143 4 75500 49500 3407.21.87 ‘Mock-Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours ‘tempered at 300 F ted to 1825 F; quenched in oll; 565 14300093500 1781.99 1 119.000 64.500 21.0 37528 2 97,000 46.000 265583201 4 93000 43800280 61.3 192 Mock-Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours; reheated to 1825 F; quenched in oil: ‘empored at 450 F 585 138,000 69.500 178 41.9277 122 1 115000 4000-220 48.0235 2 93.500 48500 «280620192 4 89500 43,000 «285635187 ‘As-quenched Hardness (oil) i Suze Round Sur HAC 33 HRC 33 HAG 22 Hac 20 AB BB HRB 87 HRB 87 HRB 85 Double-quench and tempar—for maximum refinement of case and core: 4118 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS como Pe ss Mi _cr_Mo an lede at 80008 —007_a7 ese ttc Pots, F: Acs 1280 Acs 1620 Ars 1490 An 1260 '565-in. Round Trosted; 508-0. Round Testod case CORE PROPERTIES { [Viel Suerai Hardness Dopth | | Tensile Suength (2% Ofte) Elongation Reduction Harcness Blin ofAvs, HE [ame in | | ° Recommended Practice for Maximum Case Hardness Direct quench from pot: 1) Cerburized at 1700 F for 8 hours; 2) quenched in ‘agitated oil; 3) temporod at 300 F. 1088 177500 131,000 90 42.9982 Single-quench and temper—for good case and core properties 1) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours; 2) pot-cooled ; 3) reheated to 1625 F; 4) quenched in agitated cil; 6) tempered at 300 F, 62087 143000 93500178 413203 Double-quench and temper— for maximum refinement of case and core 1) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours; 2) pot-cooled; 3) reheated to 1625 Fs 4) quenched in agitated ol; 5) reheated to 1476 F; 6) quenched in agitated oil; 7) tempered at 300 F. e047 428000 63500 210424241 Recommended Practice for Maximum Core Toughness Direct quanch trom pot: 1) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours; 2) quenched in ‘agitated oll; 3) empered at 450 F. 57063 177,000 130000 120 © 490341 Single-quench and tomper—for good case and core properties: 1) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 houts; 2) pot-cooled; 3) reheated to 1625 F; 44) quenched in agitated cil; 5) tempered at 450 F. 55047 138000 © 83500 17.60 419277 1) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours; 2) pot-cooled; 3) reheated to 1825 F: 4) quenched in agitated cil; 5) reheated to 1475 F: 6) quenched in agitated oil; 7) tempered at 450 F. 55 (87 120,000 63000 220489229 1234320 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS com Pos so re Grae 17/22 46/65 — — 20/36 166/200 40/60 20/30 ladle 2089 OW 27a? MASS EFFECT Size Rourd Tensile Swvength els Point Elongation Reduction Hexdness in ps psi Pin of Aves, HB Annealed (Heated to 1580 F;furnace-cooled 20 F per hour to 790 F; cooled in ait.) 1 8400061625280 6841863 Normalized (Hated to 1640 F: cooled in air) % 124500 74,378 2396832 1 115000 67.250 208607235 2 102500 -58:750 233 692212 4 102000 7000223887201 Mock-Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours tempered at 300 F. ested to 1500 F; quenched in % 212000163250 11845548, 1 162500 107,250 170 «810302 2 1325005000228 8.4288, 4 11975075250 280 712. Mock-Carburized at 1700 F for 8 nour tempered at 450 F. ested to 1800 F; quanched in oil; % ~~ 187500 149,500 «1358288. 1 148,750 105,000 «178 «852285 2 429750 85,000 20838 (286 4 118000 75,000 225 1.9241 ‘As-quenched Hardness (oll) Siae Round Suece _ Raciue_—_Conter. % ~~ HACASS HAC4s5 HAC aas 1 HRC39) HAC 37 HRC 38 2 HRC35 «HRC 30«HRGZ7 4 HRO25 HAG 2a HRC 24 324 4320 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS com es smo me St tase aes oa ee tes! om, Fes 380." Ac, 488 is 1880. 840 eB in, Round Tate B06: ound Tented case CORE PROPERTIES Hardness Depth | [Tensile Suergih Yield Point Elengetion Reduction Hardness HRC mn ef pl e2in. of Area, MB Recommended Practice for Maximum Cose Hardness Direct quench from pot: 1) Carbutlzed at 1700 F for 8 hours; 2) quenched in agitated oll; 3) tempered ot 300 F, 505 060 217,000 189,500 130° 601429 ‘Single-quench and tomper—for good c2so and core properties: 1) Carburizad et 1700 F for 8 hous; 2) pot-cooted:; 3) reheated to 1800 F: 4) quenched in agitated cil; 6) tempered at 300 F. 625 075 218250 178000 135 «482429, Double-quench and temper—for maximum refinement of css8 and core: 1) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours: 2) pot-cooled; 9) reheatad to 1500 F 4) quenched in agitated oil; 6) reheated to 1425 F: 6) quenched in agitated cil; 7) tempered at 300 F, 62 075 181,750 97,000 185 «494 302 ‘Recommended Practice for Maximum Core Toughness Direct quench from pot: 1) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours: 2) quenched in coil; 8) tempered at 450 F 080) 215500 158750 125 49418 Single-quench and temper—for good case and core properties: 1) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours: 2) pot-cooled; 3) rehested to 1600 F: 4) quenched in agitated oil; 5) tempered at 450 F. 59075 211500 173000 125 «= «8081S ouble-quench and temper—for meximum refinement of case and cor 1) Carburzed at 1700 F for 8 hours: 2) pot-cooled: 3) reheated to 1500 F: 4) quenched in aitoted ol :5) reheated to 1425 F 6) quenchod in agitated oll: 7) tempered at 450 F. 59075 145,780 94.500 21.8 583283 125 a eee eee4419¢ 4419 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS SINGLE HEAT RESULTS come Fs si OM cr Me CoM Ps SiN cr Mo See ae es nga etn ts nde 10/23 4565 — — 20a — — aveo Sao lide J 67 0102S lado 1857 O10 0292803 sk Cetical Poin, F:-Acv 1380 Acs7600 A151 An 1420.8 66s, Round Test; 508m, Round Tested Mass EFFECT case Cone PROPERTIES Siea Round Tense Srongih. Yat Pint Elongation Reduction Hardness, 5 SE RSE RS IT i Es es cr Hardness Denti | [Tene Sirengmh Viel Feit Elongation Rodvcion Hadnate i Rain ota Hl lngaton Reduction HRC in est ps ‘Annealed (Heated to 1675 F;furnace-cooled 20 F per hout to 900 F: cooled in ait.) - 1 64,750 48,000 31262812 Recommended Practice for Maximum Case Hardness ) Direct quench from pot: 1) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours: 2) quenched in ‘agitated oil: 3) tompered at 300 F. Normalized (Heated to 1780 F; cooled in me 77,800 82,250 33.2 ga 149 ; fee) [etc eee tae , esos 120,500 88,250 197 «6472 2 72.250 50000 308889143, Single-quench and temper—for good case and core properties: 4 72780 47,780 300608143, ‘ 1) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours; 2) pot-cooled; 3) rehoatod to 1560 F; Mock-Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours; reheatad to 1550 F quenched in oit: eet bo ated oe ea a tempered at 300 F, a 65062 103,250 65250 24360327 % 10325065250 249803 Double-quench and temper—for maximum refinement of case and core: 1 97.260 62760 282884 1) Cerburzed at 1700 F for 8 hours; 2) pot-cooled; 3) reheated to 1875 F: 2 98,000 60,280 253847201 4) quencnedin agitaed oil; 5) cehoatedto 1825 F; 6) quonchod in sgitatad ot: 4 86.000 5825027768379 7) tompered ot 300 F. Mock-Carburized at 1700 F for & hours; reheated 10 1550 F; quenched in ol: 86 070 106500 68,750 2.70487 NT tempered at 450 F. SMM ho! [ecicoo}” roxy Mess ae | Recommended Practice for Maximum Core Toughness 1 84260 6875025088897 Direct quench from pot: 1) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours; 2) quenched in 2 92600 58,000 28282192 ‘aaitated ois 3) tempered et 480 F. 4 83500 44500270 67.1170 59054 118500 86500188 «67.0288 Single-quench end temper—for good case and core properties: As-quenched Hardness (ol) 1) Carburaed at 1700 F for 8 hours: 2) pot-cooled; 3) rehested to 1860 F; See Round Sulaco Radius Cantor 4) quenched in egitated oil; 8) tempered at 480 F. “% HRS 85 HRB 95 —HRBOo | 605 062 102,760 6250083622 1 HRBS$ HRB93 HRB AS .quench and temper—for maximum relinement of ease end core: 2 HRE64 -HABS2 HRB Ga $ 1) Corburized ot 1700 F for 8 hours: 2) pot-cooled; 2) reheated to 1675 Fs 4 HRBS3-HRB90 HRB 2 4) quenched in aiteted ai :5) reheated to 1525 F6) quenched in agitated oll; "Toate o¢ 565 in 17) tempered at 450 F. oe 61070 98500 84500 234 68.7201 ‘tNon-standare grace 126 © 127 i ee4620 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS Ca Ss 6M Ge Me ert Grade 17/22 45/05 — — 20/95 165/200 — 20.20 Gee Lede 17 52 O78 MASS EFFECT SizeRound Tensile Strength Yield Polat Elongation Reduction Herdness ‘n pa pl Zin. ofa, % HB Annealed (Heated 10 1575 F: furnace-coolad 30 F per hour to 900 F: cooled in ait.) 1 74,250 54,000 313603148 Normalized (Heated to 1860 F; cooled in air) % 87.250 54750 307 «680192 1 83250-53128 «(280687174 2 gosco 3.000295 671187 4 7,000 51,750 «308652183 ‘Mock-Corburized at 1700 F for & hours; reheated to 1500 F; quenched in oll tempered at 300 F. % ~~ 127,000 «89.500 2000 688288. 1 98,000 67,000 258 «= 700197 2 96,500 65,250 2700 ea? 192 4 84760 $2,500 288682170 Mock-Carburized a 1700 F for 8 hours; re tempered at 450 F. N86 10 1800 F; quenched in oil: % 117500 81,000 24683 1 98000 68250 «275689192 2 95,750 62000 268682187 4 84500 52.760 298 = 703.170, ‘As-quenched Hardness (oll) - Size Round — Sur YeRadivs Genter HRO40HRCS2 HRC GT HRC27T HRB G9 —-HRE G7 HRC 24 HRB 94 HRB 91 HRBS5) HABSt HRB 8B 128 4620 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS com oP Ss si Wi Grein "Sie ladle A762 teal Points, F: Aer 1900 Acs 1490. Ar, 1935 An 1220 [565-in, Round Treated 505-in. Round Tested cro case CORE PROPERTIES Wordness Depth | [Fenalle Strength Yield Point Elongation Reduction Hardness | HRC al Sin of Area, MB Recommended Practice for Maximum Cese Hardness Ditect quench from pot: 1) Carburized st 1700 F for 8 hours: 2) quenched in agitated cil; 2) tempered at 300 F. 605 075 «148.250 116500170 BT ‘Single-quench and tempor for good ease and core properties 1) Carbutized at 1700 F for 8 hours; 2) pot-cooled; 3) reheated to 1600 F; 4)'quenched in agitated oil; 8) tompared at 200 F. 628 075 11925083500 19584277 Double-quench end temper—for meximum refinement of case and core: 1) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours; 2) pot-cooled; 3) reheated to 1825 F:; 4) quenched in agitated ail; 6) reheated to 1476 F: 8) quenched in agitated oi; 7) temporod at 300 F. 62 060122000 «77,250 «220887248 Recommended Practice for Maximum Core Toughness Direct quench from pot: 1) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours; 2) quenched in ‘agitated oil; 2) tempered st 480 F. 585 060 «147,500 115,760 188 «= 879302, Single-quonch and temper—for good case and core properties: 1) Carbutized et 1700 F for & hours; 2) pot-cooled; 3) rehe 44) quenched in agitated oi 5) tempered at 480 F. 59 085115500 80.750 205 36a Double-quench and tomper—for maximum refinement of case and core 1) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours; 2) pot-cooled; 3) reheated to 1826 F; 4) quenched in agitated oil; 8) rohosted to 1475 F; 6) quenchodin agitated oil; 2) tempered et 450 F. 59 060 «-115,280 «77,000 228 = 62.1238 1d 10 1500 F:; 1294820 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS come ss Ni Gr Mo ee ee ee Grace 18/23 50/70 — — 20,98 925/878 — 20/30 See Lede 2061 O27 18 3a7 Ta MASS EFFECT Size Round Tensile Suength Vild Point Elongation Reduction ardnest in si pi NZI of Ares, % HB ted 10 1600 F: furnace-cooled 30 F por hourto 600 F; cooled in gir.) 1 98750 87,250 223888 «197 ted to 1680 F.; cooled in ai) % 112800 72,500 260 87.8285 1 109500 70.250 «240 50.2229 2 107250 © 9.000230 59822. 4 103:800 2200 5aa 22 Mock-Cerburized at 1700 F for & hous; reheated to 1475 F; quenched in oll tempered at 300 F % 209000 172,750 «142 B43 Ot + 469800126500 1505.08. 2 13550093250 1s8 583207 4 118750 81000230 588 2a ‘Mock-Carburlzed at 1700 F for 8 hours: teheated to 1475 F; quenched in oll: tempered at 450 F. % 205,000 170000132 52.3388 1 163250 1205001558313 2 130000 2.500 180627269 4 117000 80,000 2.038288, ‘As-quenched Hardness (oll) . Size Round Surfeco 4 Radius Center % ~~ -HRC4S -HRC4S AAC 4a 1 HRE43-HACS8-HRO37 2° HRC38 HRCST HRC 27 4 HRC27 HRC 24 HRC 24 130 4820 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS. a lode at SOO) ae! Critical Poms, Fi Acs 1210 Aes 440 Ans 1215 Anj 780. GB 365-in, Round Tn 508.in, Round Tested case CORE PROPERTIES [ Hardee Depih | [Tonsie Svongth Vol Point Congaion Reduction Hanon Wren | \ ost pi Mein ofAeek AD Recommended Practics for Maximum Case Hardness Direct quench from pot: 1) Cerburized at 1700 F for 8 hours: 2) quenched in agitated oil; 3) trmpored st 300 F. 60.039 205,000 165500 133053315 Single-quench and temper—for good case and cote properties: 1) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours: 2) pot-caoled: 3) veheated to 1475 F 44) quenched in agitated oil; 5) tompered at 300 F. 1.047 207,500 167,000 138 «© 52215 Double-quench end temaer—for maximum refinement of case and core! 1) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours; 2) pot-cooled; 3) ehested to 1500 F 4) quenched in agitated ol; 5) reheated 10 1450 F 8) quenched inagitatedeit; 7) ternpered at 300 F. 60.087 206,500 165,500 138 «82418 Recommended Practice for Maximum Core Toughness 4 quench from pot: 1) Carburized at 1700 F for ® hours: 2) quenched in ‘agitated ol; 2) tempered at 450 F. 56.039 200,500 170.000 128 «= 630401 Single-quench and temper—for good case and core properties: 1) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours: 2) pot-cocled; 3) reheated to 1475 F. 4) quenched in agitated oil: 8) tomperad at 450 F. 875.047 205,000 184500 130 «633415 ire Doubie-quench and temper—for maximum retinoment of ease and core: 1) Carbutized et 1700 F for 8 hours: 2) pot-cooled: 3) reheated to 1800 F: 4) quenched in agitated oll; 5) reheated to 1450 F:6) quenched inagitated a; 7) tampered at 450 F. 565 047 196,500 171,500. 130 © 534 401 1a8620 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS: co oMn PS SiN Gr Me gy, Grade 18/23 70/80 = — 20/38 40/70 40/60 15/25 SRE Lode 2081025 1G 288 at MASS EFFECT ‘ize Round Tensile Svengih Yield Point Elongation Reduction Hardness in Po pH Sin of Area, HD Annealed (Heatad to 1800 F ;furnace-cooled 30 F per hourto1150F;cacledin air.) 1 77750 «88878 BB BIA 14D Notmalized (Heated to 1675 F; cooled in eit) % 95500 54250283 62S (187 i 1 91750 81.750 263 68.7183 i 2 87260 © 6150027821179 4 a1750 8150028523163 Mock-Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours; reheated to 1850 F temporod at 300 F. % 1 2 4 Mock-Carburizad at 1700 F for 8 hours; reheated to 1860 F. 199,500 128,750 197.280 98.500 tempored at 450 F % 1 2 4 ‘As-quenched Hardness ( Size Round % 4 2 4 178.500 124,250 414500 98,000 il) Surtece HAC 43 HRC 29 HRC 23 Hac 22 187,000 83,750 73,000 57,750 139,500 80.750 72.250 55,500 4 Realus HRC 43 HRC 27 HRC 22 HRB 95 132 208 230 283 46 195 220 285 enter HAC 43 HAC 25 HAS S7 HRB 93 ‘quenched in oil 49.4 s27 578 578 quenched in ol 539) Ba 590 ere. 388 255 235 207 352 248 229 201 8620 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS com PS si Ni cr wo tn Pr ee ee ar fncal Pons F801 1880 Asp 1520 An 1400. An 1200 1565-in. Round Tosted; .505-i, Round Tested case CORE pRorEATIES Herdness Depth | |TensileStrength Yield Point Elongstion Reduction Hardness HiRes pa Pi Wein ot Avee HB Recommended Practice for Maximum Case Hardness Direct quench from pot: 1) Carburized at 1700 F for & hours: 2) quenched in ‘agitated oil; 3) tempered at 200 F. 63.056 192,000 Single-quench and tempor—for good case and core properties 1) Carburiaed at 1700 F for 8 hours: 2) pot-cooled; 3) reheated to 1860 F 4) quenched in agitated oll; 8) tempered at 300 F 68075, 188500 149,750 «115516388 Double-quench and temper—for maximum refinement of case and core 1) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours: 2) pot-cooled; 3) reheated to 1850 F: 4) quenched inagitated oil; 5) reheated 1 1475 F 6) quenchedin agitatedail; 7) tempered at 300 F. ' 64070 180250 125 494388 193,000 83,000 200588269 5 Recommended Practice for Maximum Core Toughness Direct quench from pot: 1) Cerbutized at 1700 F for 8 hours; 2) quenched in agitated oil; 3) tempered et 450 F. 58.050 181,260 134250 128 «= 506 382 Single-quench and tomper—for good ease and core properties 1) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours; 2) pot-cooled; 3) reheated to 1550 F. 4) quenched in agitated ol; 5) tempered at 450 F. 6078 167,780 120,750 143-632 3at Double-quench and temper—for meximum refinement of case and core: 11) Carburized at 1700 F for 8 hours; 2) pot-cooled ; 3) reheated to 1850 F: 4) quenched in agitated oil; ) reheated to 1475 F 6) quenchedin agitated all: 7) tempered at 450 F 6070 190,260 77,250,225 1.7262.£9310 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS c oMa PS Si Mi cr Me Ot Grade 06/13 45/85 — — 20/.36 300/350 1.00/1.40 08/18 Sie 20% 5 Lode 09 87 012.010 9231123 aa SOS MASS EFFECT Size Round Tensile Sttengty Yield Point Elongation Reduction Hatdnoss in es pei Zin of Awe. HB [Annealed (Heated to 1550 F:furnace-cooled 30 F per hour to 760 F cooled in ar) 111300063750, «17321 at Normalized (Heated to 1630 F; cooled in sir.) % 133000 «87,750 200 63.7285, 1 131,500 82780188 BB 269 2 131,250 © 82,000 19865262 4 1252501750 18867288, Mock-Cerburized at 1700 F fot 8 hours; reheated to 1450 F; quenched in oil; tempered Yeasoo Boo des art a8 70% 2 Toso Gao0 as aati 50% ‘As-quenched Hardness (cll) \ 50% % HRC87 -HRCS7 HRC 66 100,000 T ao 1 fies reas reas 0% 2 HRC 46 = HRC 38 HRC 35 [fe —§ @ fess nc 2s Mme 20 20% ‘Bongation So [eo 10% 12 Temper, F 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 HB 534 514 461 429 375 331 302 269 241 207 ee8740 Oil-quenched Oil-quenched 8740 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS SINGLE HEAT RESULTS ziGLe HEAT GESULT arom c Ma Pp Ni cr Mo ———————— Sire Grae 48 76/100 2035 40/79 40/69 20/30 Yoh Ciel Pains F! es 1370. acy 1405 Ay 1205 Ar 1100 te 189018 Ogg “estat: Nometaed #1600 F wheted 1 1628 F? quenched in apn ol ; 6B" ound Tested SDesIn Round Tested, Ae-quenchad HB 601 MASS EFFECT i renting sane Pspatren Gracey Mets “Anmesad (Hosted to 1500 F,furnace-cooled20F per hour to 1100, coled in ar) N 1 10078080280” 722,484 208 t Normalized (Heated to 1800 F, cooled in sie) 250,000 % 49550089500 16047289 1 434780 88.000 160 ard 68 2 tg2000 87.800 so1 ee 2 132000 87.000, 3128S. C-quenched from 1525 F, tempered at 1000 F. “| % 179000" 166000138 are an * 1 478800 164250 «160 «630352 LNG, 2 7078 S380 189 sae eH 200,000 ON 4 438750 to8s00 igo Ber? NO il:quenched trom 1825 F, tampered at 1100 F. .o © vea500 139800 47851 att i 1 149350 134800 a2 5B 2 14250022800 a8 ez ay? : | 4 faa "30750208 S88 kee | Oil-quenched from 1526 F, tempered at 1200 F. | % 440000" '127260 «198607205 ‘en,900 | 4 438000 Y2se00 200 goes | 2 © 4a7280 10680 eka Lox & 18800 "be2s0 2a?) G23 8. 60% As-quonched Hardness (oi) ‘Size Round Surface Ye Radius Contr pas % HRC 57 HRC 56 HRC 55 100,000 40% * fess ness finesse ie 2 HRC 52 HRC 49 HRC 45 a 4 tinea nmes7 ne a8 Le 20% Elongation SF = 10% 154 : 188 Temper, F 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 HB 578 534 495 461 415 388 363 331 302 2414150 Oil-quenched SINGLE HEAT RESULTS. 0/110 15/25 com Pos si ow Grade 48/53 26)100 — 20/98 ladle S189 18 O17 ara MASS EFFECT Sire Round Tense Stength Yield Point Elongation Reduction Herdness ation in pai Ps Annealed (Heated 10 1625 F, furece-cooled 20 F pe 1 105,750 55,000, Normalized (Heated to 1600 F, cooled in air.) % 198000 129,600 1 167.500 106.500 2 188,750 104,000 4 148000 91,750, Oll-quenched from 1525 F, tempered at 1000 F. % 189500 176,250 1178250 189'500 2 168,750 151,000 4 158,750 127.750 Oil-quenched from 1825 F, tempered at 1100 F. % 170,000 155,800 1 165,500 180,000 2 150260 137,500 4 132/600 98,250 Oil-quenched from 1826 F, tempered at 1200 F. % 148,000 137,250 1 141,000 127.500 2 134,750 118250 4 124,000 91,000 ‘As-quenched Hardness (cil) Size Reund Su % Rodos % ARC HAC 64 1 HRC62 HRC 62 2 HRCSs HAC 97 4 HRCA? HRC 49 188 ‘S2in. 202 109 7 135 195 135 140 155 180 148 187 187 200 174 187 205 25 HAG 63 RC 62 Hine 56 HRC 42 1our 01180 F, cooled in it.) 40.2 248 308 408, 565 472 455 B10 407 455 ent 564 875 533 557, 600 ors Grain Sie 95% 7-8 ome He 197 375 321 an 293 a8 352 ant att 3a 331 302 289 302 285 268 255 Oil-quenched 4150 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS CMn P'S SiN! Gr Mo Gin Ladle 50 76 O18 .012 21 20 95 21 90K7-8 CCiicalPoins.F: Ae, 1990 Ae 1850 Ar 1290 Ar, 1245; Treatment: Normalized at 1800 F; reheated to 1526 F quenched in agitated ol Spas nmol aa hanrreay ae nee enn a 259.000 200.000 150000 [3 8 oe XI eat 10% 100.000 sox zi 20% Sono as ae = 4 Los 20% ongeion sa.c0o meee oo Temper, F 400 500 600 700 800 00 1000 1100 1200 1300 HB 678 855 534 495 444 429 401 363 331 262 d 197— a... a aie 5150 Oil-quenched SINGLE HEAT RESULTS Oil-quenched 5150 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS c¢ Mo ® S$ Si Ni Ce Me Grain UC lide 4S 75 010 018 25 11 80 08 7.8 Grade 40753 70/90 — — 20/95 — Toa — orm ‘Ciel Poina, FA) 1945 Acs 1445. Ae 13H An 1240 Lae 4975 O18 OO iment: Normalized 911600 F: eben 0 1526 F; quenched ino psi 590m Round Tete; S05-n Round ened As-avenched HB 683 Mass EFFECT 309,600 ‘SeeRound TensleSuength ied Point Glngaion Reduction Haidnes ti = pe En” ofan He “Anneeles (Hested to 1520 F,furnece-cooled 20 F per hou: to 1990 F, cooled in air) 1 96,000,750 220437197 Normalized (Hested 101600 F, cooiedin air) Y % 131,000 81.800 21.0008 22 260,000 1 726,250 78,750 20.7 Sey 288 2 123000 72.500 200833 4 122.000 © 63.000 «18.2 aB2 at N Oil.quenched trom 1525 F, tompered ot 1000 F | 6 % 188760 145,250 108 sth es 1183000 131.750 17041302 7 a 2 132000 86.750 1858S 255 eS Ns, 4 12500065750 20075288, 200,000 |B NG Ol-quenched from 1525 F, tempered at 1100 F. s e) % 144,900 131,000 19.2 65228, Z 3 1 137000118250 20298277 $. m 2 126750 67.250 200 sas 255, iE [ 4 120000 80.500 197 56428 j Ci- quenched from 1525 F, tempered at 1200 F. 3 | % 138800 121,000 217507269, 5 1 128,000 108.000 212g 58 180,000 2 118.760 88500-22730 2at 70% 4 11800075500 215 wos 238 | 60% As-quanched Herdness (ot) Vp Meter] ea Size Round Radius Comer pete a % HRC 60 HAC 59 ==] 0%, i ie wee ot = Elongation a 10% 158 Temper, F 400 600 600 700 600 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 HB 601 555 514 461 415 363 321 293 260 241 1586150 Oil-quenched SINGLE HEAT RESULTS c oMn PS Si Ni Cr Me v inde 4753 0180 — = 20/88 — aonso — iemn Se ‘4 rons ude Sta) ou OTS as a ayaa RSS MASS EFFECT SizaRound TensileStength Yiel1Polet Elongation Reduction Herdness in o pe ZIn of Aa, MB ‘Annealed (Hsted 10 1600 F,furnaco-cooled 20 F por hour to 1240 F cooted in ar) 1 96,760 «59,750 23.0 aka 197 ‘Normalized (Heated to 1600 F, cooled in ait) % ~~ 141,250 93,000 208 «= g30 285 1 136250 8828 218 61.0269 2 129750 78250 207 58528? 4 128000 © 67,000 1824968 «255 Oil-quenched from 150 F, tempered et 1000 F. % 173,500 177,750 146848462 1 173500167750 «148 48.2382 2 168000145250 1480 46.7 331, 4 164,500 127,000 160 «48.7302 il- quenched from 1850 F, tempered at 1100 F. % ~~ 160,000 158,500 164 523321 1 188260 180500 600 sa? 311 2 148.250 191,780 17.7828 4 130000 108,500 1505 ©2862 Coll-quenched trom 1860 F, tempered at 1200 F, % 147,000 141.800 178533293, 1 141250129500 187583208 2 133750 1168001858) 52.4 (269 4 121/500 94600210 88.7 2a As-quanchod Hardness (oil) Sie Round Sulace Radius % -HRC6T HRC EO 1 -HRC6O HACEs 2 HRCS HRC a7 4 HRC42 HAC 36 160 Oil-quenched 6150 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS © Ma PS Si Mi Gr Mo v Gan Ladle 49 78 .012 016 29 18 100 05 17 6-8 Chica Points, > Ac) 1995 Acs 1445 At 1318 An 1290 ‘Treatment: Normalized 2t 1600 F; reheated to 1850 F: quenched in agitated of, 555-1. Round Treated: 605-in, Round Test ‘As-quenched HO 627. Ppa 280.000 > AS SONS, 200,000 & B—8 18 150,000 } <4. 6. ie ie 108 sox 00 tan sox son 20% 0% conta pe sooo L—1 Temper. F 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 HB 601 578 §34 495 444 401 375 341 293 241 181 18650 Oil-quenched ol quenched 8650 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS SINGLEJHEAT RESULTS Mn PS Si Ni Gr Mo rain cM PF 8 Micro ein SO Sn cron at in lade “St 00 01 010 M2 e228 Grade 48/59 76700 — — a07a8 w0r70 40/80 a/25 SS Gite Pin, F Aes 1928 ts 18804151290. An 910 Lede 48 #8 020 OTT co od m4 68 “Treatment: Normalized at 1600 F; reheated to 1475 F; quenched in agitated oil. % '530-in. Round Treated; .605-in. Round Tested. ‘As-quenched H8 638, MASS EFFECT pat ‘Se Round TenleStenath Yield Point Elongstion Reduction Hardness . = pa Oras UB Annes (Hested to 1485 F,fumace-cooled 20 F per hour to 869 F, cooled in ait) 11083500000 228464212 250,000 Notrnaized (Heated to 1800 F cooled in i.) % 192000 «19120 «10325368 . i saesco “sa 750 140 404 aon 2 144750 «85750188 das 205 4 136250 93250180 gb 288 , Oi-quenched from 1475 F, tempered a: 1000 F % 477500 168750 146 482963 200,000 1 472500468780 148 a1 382 2 148260 148500170 See 331 % 43260193000 189 Bk9 as . Oi-auenche from 1475 F,tmpered 0 1100 F 3 % 154500 181.000 17.8 = S492 x K 1463500 4427500 197573 tt 3 2 145,000 131,000, 20.0 61.0 293 ee & 426260 © 'sasoo 2c G2 150,000 [2 _| Cik-euenched foo 1478 F,trnpered 9 1200 F % 149,000 197000 1884s 283 he 1 tas000 43200088 Sosa 2 19625042100 bz e237 4 121,750 94,000 225 59.8 241 NI ox 60% As-quenched Hardness (oil) ‘Size Round Surface ‘100,000, Iaeaachow ot Aree -| 50% HRC 81 HAC er 40% + HRGSa HAC 8 2 HRCSs HAC es 30% @ Rea? HRC 8 Bongation | [> oe 10% 162 , 50,000 Temoer, F 400 600 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 18s WB BBS 555 514 495 429 415 363 321 302 2559255' Oil-quenched Oil-quenched ‘9255 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS SINGLE HEAT RESULTS Cert aM Gr Mo Gu g mn P s a Nik 186: Grin Ladle 88 78 020 024 200 08 08 — 6-8 coin 51/88 7088 — 130820 re Cri Pems Aes 810 “hes 1480 A 1990 A $270 tudes? 78 G2 12a a . Tra rates 60 tema 2S unten ate Mass EFFECT abonea Sie Round Tenis Svogth Yield Point angen Rewuton Harare . i sen Spare” Penne HS Ke Annested (Hoted 61880 Ffaco- cooled 20 F per nourio 120 F, cole in ait) ee eetagsa 70800 2) ant 209 Normelized (Heated to 1650 F, cooled in air.) NN | 137800, 85250-20085 277 , 4 135,250 24,000 19.7, 43.4 269 250,000 2 $3000 © sag00 as as ae LA § WSso00 e037 Sen ae Ci guonched fom 1625 F, tempore at 1000 F. A 170000 140800149400 8t LN] 1 Yeezs0 tanys0 187 a3 aH Ne 2 tearsotoze00 180 ase 2 a Ng 3 14000 's¢000 18248728 200,000 oN. | Oil-quenched from 1626 F, tempered at 1100 F. + i Ne 1 tes000. 132280 18148302 tT yeo000 t1e000 192 dese > ae'800 ‘oreo 209872053 & — Yro00 = sscco 10 ea oitcuenched om 1625 F empered at 1200 ee Tagreo, 123000 210 s0a 285 1 138.000 106600 21.2 48.2 27 150,000, — 2 tarsoo ‘eras a 077 Ln & ise sro 248320 0% ss-quenched Hardness (i) ‘Size Round Surface: % Radius Center 50% Re St HRCES HRB 40% Tones? HRCSS Hn 43 aa 2 WRC52 HRC37—-HRC33. ‘100,000 peng 30% 4 HRC 355 HRC31.8 HRC 275 T I i [cone Temper, F 400° 600 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 He 601 601 578 534 477 415 352 321 285 262| 5160 Oil-quenched Oil-quenched 5160 SINGLE HEAT RESULTS SINGLE HEAT RESULTS come PS Si Mi Gr Mo Gain Grede 56/64 75/100 — 20/30 — 70/90 — Sue hs Saal cs Aci 1380 Acs 1420 Arn 1310 Ary 1280, ae AE a heel 24 a « 630-in, Round Treated; .505-in. Round Tested, ‘As-quenched HB 682, MASS EFFECT a f Sr cea Sin” Sane Anneated (Heated 0 1485 Ffunace-cooled 20 F ps hour e900 F, cooled in i.) sonpo pemssea7s) 0000 172.308 187 Normatzed (Heated to 1875 F, cole in a.) 14900093760 182 sO 208 , + 138,750 ©7000 «175 das (289 XI 2 tga7so 7380018038022 i ts3s00 70250148 aan 288 ' Oi-qunched rom 1825 Ftp at 1000 F aS % 170,500 155,250 14.2 451 341 280,000 Vv tess 145600 148 a7 as > ienzso | joazs0 178-5220 \ NG 3 taosco torso 188520288 a Oil-quenched fom 1525 F,tempared at 1100 F. 7 %, % 152280 194000 «166 = Soa 302 s {145280138000 eo S38 302 ae > isez80'an7s0 200 ss 27 a 129260 ©9260-2127. 262 200,000 “a\ it quonchod from 1825. empaed 91200 F 0 y33000 118280 1985888 NT 1 128,750 110,750 207 86.6. 262 70% 3 43280 ‘ao0o 218 Bs a8 SN i 3 ta0s00 77760328 6a at a ee) ‘As-quenched Hardness (oil) 180,000 ae 40% —%_HRG63-HRCe2 HACE? 30% 1 HR ce! HRCeo Sg 2 ness ncaa RG 43 sonerion 4 WRC4D-HRC32-HRC 29 a | ‘ 10% Temper, F 400 600 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 168. He 627 601 555 514 461 388 341 302 269 229 187MACHINABILITY OF STEEL’ ‘Among the many practical methods of shaping steel, machining is perhaps the most widely employed, both alone and in conjunction With such other methods as forging, extrusion, and cold-teading ‘The term, mackinabliy, is most often used t0 describe the performance of metals in machining. By its simplest definition, it is the ability to be eut by an appropriate tool; but notwithstanding the simplicity, there appear to be no fundamental units by which this ability can be measured. Machining performance is therefore generally expressed in relative terms which compare the response of one material ta that of a standard in a similar machining operation and employing similar performance criteria, Machinability Testing Over a period of many years, Bethlchem has conducted almost continuous machinabilty studies involving hundreds of tests run on rmuliplespindle automatic bar machines of the types commonly used in industry. This approach has clearly shown that the machining performances of different steels can be truly compared only when the production conditions for each steel satisly two basic similarity requirements: 1) The level of product quatity with respect to surface finish and dimensions must be similar among the stecls being evaluated: 2) The duration of average tool life must also be similar to that of the other steels being evaluated, Six to eight hours of actual running time isthe preferable duration Under these concitions, mschinability can be rated by compar- ing either the maximum production rates achieved with each steel, or the cutting speeds used to attain these rates. Historically, the cut. ting-speed method of rating has been more commonly employed: yet, this method does not include the equally important effect of tool Feed rate on production, As a consequence, it can overlook the con- Luibutions of some elements, notably nitcogen and phosphorus, which augment production by permitting the use of higher feed rates. This 188 problem is avoided when machinability comparisons are based on maximum production rates consistent with the basic similarity re- ‘quirements, inasmuch as this method automatically considers both cutting speed and tool feed rate, Free-cutting steels, comprising the 1200 and 1100 series, find their greatest application in the manufacture of parts requiring ex- tensive machining into shapes of varying complexity on automatic bar machines. Within the composition ranges of the 1200 series, the ‘elements which most affect machining performance are sulfur, phosphorus, nitrogen, lead, and sclenium; in the 1100 series, sulfur and carbon are major variables, with manganese exerting a secondary but significant influence. Sulfur Increasing sulfur improves machining performance at all carbon Jevels in both alloy and plain carbon grades. Small increases in sulfur up 10 .05/.06% markedly improve the machinability of a nonzesul- furized base. For increases above this level, machinability improves ata lower rate. Inthe case of the 1200 and 1100 series steels, the rate of improvement caused by inereasing sulfur is somewhat higher in steels wth the lower carbon contents Phosphorus and Nitrogen ‘One of the distinguishing features ofthe very free-cutting grades is their ability to be machined at higher production rates while main- taining the desired finish on the product. But even in these grades, the quality of the machined surface varies with composition. Phosphorus and nitrogen can be added to free-machining grades of steel to enhance machining performance. Both increase hardness and tensile strength, particularly in the cold-drawn condition, Actual tests as described above have established that the machinability of the 1200 series steels, as measured by relative production rates for equal part quality anc tool life, is markedly improved by increasing phosphorus content to within the range of 07/.12%. Further improvement is realized when nitrogen content is increased to a level of about 010%. The ability to use higher speeds and feeds with increasing phosphorus and nitrogen contents (within the stated limits) is re- 189lated to the decreased size and more controllable behavior of the EFFECT OF CARBON AND MANGANESE ON MACHINABILITY Duilt-up-edge on the culting tools. This control of the built-up-edge Machinabllty Rating, Per Gent (B1112=100% at 170 ffm) results in an improvement of surface finish. A Lead Additions ‘The machining performance of steel is considerably improved ' by the addition of lead (sce page 23) in the usual specification range of -15/.35%. Lead lubricates the cutting edge of the tool and permits an increase in cutting speed and feed and an improvement in surface finish quality without an attendant decrease in tool life. As 4 result, lead additions ean be expected to improve production rates —in serew-machine operations in particular—by some 20 to 40 per cent As Ralled, Col-rawn | /—(Resulfrzed to .08/.18% S) aled, Cold Oran \ 40 60 50 700 CARBON, PER CENT Carbon and Manganese Plain carbon steels with very low carbon contents tend to be tough and gummy in machining operations. Increases in carbon and, manganese increase the strength and hardness of steel and result in improved surface finish and chip character. For carbon contents up to .20/.25%, this results in improved machinabilicy for both hot- rolled and cold-drawn steels. As the carbon is increased above this level, however, hardness increases to the point where (ool life is adversely affected, leading to a decrease in the machinability rating, ‘The graph above illustrates this effect by plowing machin. ability ratings for a series of grades with increasing carbon contents at two manganese levels. Note also how the machinability ratin v1 1040, 1045, and 1050 were significantly improved by annealing Bethlchem's machinabilty stuios are mede on thete Gspindle ‘auiomatie Dar machines #1 oar Homer Researen Laboratones 170 mMost carbon steels below .35% carbon are machined in the as-rolled or as-rolled, cold-drawn condition. Higher carbon grades are frequently annealed to improve machinability, particularly when they are to be cold-drawn prior to machining. Alloy Steels ‘The commonly used alloying elements increase the as-rolled strength and hardness in comparison with a plain carbon steel of equivalent carbon content. The intensity of this effect on hardness differs for the various elements; but in all cases, hardness increases with increasing percentages of the clement. In the as-rolled condition, the leaner alloys machine more like theie plain carbon counterparts than do the more highly alloyed types. For example, 4023 behaves about the same as 1022 or 1026 under the cutting tool, whereas the more highly alloyed 8620 has about the same machinability as the higher-carbon 1040. Accordingly, it is common practice to ther: rally treat aioy bars prior to cold-drawing and machining. Normalizing is sometimes used for the lower carbon grades, but annealing is more frequently used because it results in lower hardness. Optimum microstructure varies with the per cent of pearlite typical of the composition involved, and to a degree, with the parameters of the machining operation itself. In general, a lamellar annealed structure is preferred in the low and medium carbon ranges, or up to the carbon level of about .40/.50% which corresponds to approximately 90% pearlite, depending on both carbon and alloy content. Above that carbon level, @ spheroidized structure is usually preferred because it improves tool life, although at some sacrifice of surface finish, Where machined finish is of paramount importance in these higher carbon grades, itis sometimes desirable to use a lamellar structure and accept a somewhat shorter tool life. For certain ma- cchining operations, a compromise structure consisting of lamellar Pearlite with some spheroidized carbides may be desirable. Since alloying elements increase the percentage of pearlte in the microstructure of a given carbon level over that typical of plain carbon steels, determination of the optimum microstructure must take into consideration the carbon level and the alloy content, 72 NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION Nondestructive tests are effective for the inspection of the surface or intemal quality of steel products, supplementing or replacing visual methods of inspection. In general, for bar and billet testing, ultra © sonic methods are used for internal inspection, and magnetic particle and eddy cursent methods for the inspection of surface. Ultrasonic Testing Uttcasonic testing is based upon ultr-sound, or sound which is pitched t00 high (above 20,000 cps) for the human ear to detect. Pulses ofthis sound energy are seat into a section of a material, such asa steel bar, and are reflected from the boundaries of the section as ‘well as from internal discontinuities. The reflected pulses are received and portrayed on a cathode ray tube, and the image interpreted with respect (0 the strength of the returning pulse and the time lapse between its generation and reception. With proper calibration of the test equipment, the location, size, shape and orientation of discontinuities within the steel ean be estimated, Two basic calibration methods are used to provide stan- dards for the testagainst which the received signals can be compared In one, the standard is provided by signals from a relerence reflector, such as a notch or hole in a test block. In the second, the standard is, derived from the signal reflected from the far side ofthe steel section. Some discontinuities are not good reflectors, but can be detected by their shadowing effect which results in a partial or total loss of this back reflection signal PULSE ECHO ULTRASONIC SYSTEM. Urasonic test, systems are based upon the behavior of piezoelectric material which, when excited electrically is caused to vibrate mechanically with ultra: sonic energy. Conversely, an electrical voltage is generated when is material, or crystal, is vibrated. The holder containing the rystal v9and its associated electrical components is called a transducer, ot Search unit, and is one of the major elements of the test system, Another essential part of the overall unit is the elecionie package Which functions as the control center. This instrument generates a brief power output, or pulse, that excites the erystal. It also receives and amplifies the voltage generated as a result of reflected sound vibrating the crystal Both the exciting pulse and any echoes are displayed on a cathode ray tube. Since sound travels ata constant speed in a specific material under constant conditions, distance within a material is @ function of time. Thus, distance (time) is represented on the hot zontal axis of the tube, and signal amplitudes (exciting pulse and echoes) on the vertical axis. The mognitude of the echo will depend upon several external factors including the operating frequency, which is usually between 1 and 10 MHz (1MHz=1 million cycles per second), the amount of beam dispersion, the surface condition and internal metallurgical structure ofthe stel, the amount of hot or cold working ofthe stel, temperatures, and variables associated with transducer and instrument characteristics. With these variables relatively constant, the reflected signal amplitude will be dependent upon the following material characteristics: * the area of the reflector, which may be a discontinuity or ‘boundary, its shape and orientation to the ultrasonic path, plus its roughness; TRANSOUCER MARKER =k. lceNtnaToR [-—4 Lf aMpurien | — Sat Fe REFLECTOR VIDEO DISPLAY
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Modern Steels Their Properties

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Modern Steels Their Properties

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