July 2020

GROUND ENGINEERING

Constrofacilitator
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construction and infrastructure www.constrofacilitator.com
 GROUND ENGINEERING

Ground engineering is the application of scientic methods and engineering principles to the acquisition,
interpretation, and use of knowledge of materials of the Earth's crust and earth materials for the solution of
engineering problems and the design of engineering works. It embraces the elds of soil mechanics and
rock mechanics and has applications in the elds of geology, geophysics, hydrology, and other related
sciences. Geotechnics is practiced by both engineering geologists and geotechnical engineers.

In this edition of the eMag-Lounge, we covered topics such as foundation importance, fundamentals of
ground engineering study, pile foundation and ground improvement techniques. With the advent of more
ground improvement techniques and sustainable design methods, professionals will be challenged
moving forward – having to ensure the strength of foundations, slopes, and walls, while reducing their
environmental impact.

July 2020 • Constrofacilitator 2

04 An overview of foundation engineering

Pile foundation - An overview of its use

08
and different types

Fundamentals of Ground Engineering

12
Study

Ground Improvement Techniques for

16
Soil Stabilization

4 8
12 16

3 Constrofacilitator • June 2020

 AN OVERVIEW OF FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
An overview of foundation engineering
I
n engineering, a foundation is the
element of a structure which con-
nects it to the ground, and transfers
loads from the structure to the
ground. Foundations are generally
considered either shallow or deep.
Foundation engineering is the appli-
cation of soil mechanics and rock
mechanics in the design of foundation ele-
ments of structures.
Requirements of a good foundation
The design and the construction of a well-
performing foundation must possess some
basic requirements that must not be
ignored. They are:
Ÿ The design and the construction of the
foundation is done such that it can sus-
July 2020 • Constrofacilitator
tain as well as transmit the dead and
the imposed loads to the soil. This
transfer has to be carried out without
resulting in any form of settlement that
can result in any form of stability issues
for the structure.
Ÿ Differential settlements can be
avoided by having a rigid base for the
foundation. These issues are more pro-
nounced in areas where the superim-
posed loads are not uniform in nature.
Ÿ Based on the soil and area it is recom-
mended to have a deeper foundation
so that it can guard any form of dam-
age or distress. These are mainly
caused due to the problem of shrink-
age and swelling because of tempera-
ture changes.
Ÿ The location of the foundation chosen
must be an area that is not affected or
04
influenced by future works or factors
Different Types of foundation
There are four types of foundation, namely
Shallow foundations, Deep foundations
Monopile foundations and Individual foot-
ings.
Shallow foundations
Shallow foundations are those found near
to the finished ground surface; generally
where the founding depth (Df) is less than
the width of the footing and less than 3m.
These are not strict rules, but merely guide-
lines: basically, if surface loading or other
surface conditions will affect the bearing
capacity of a foundation it is 'shallow'. Shal-
low foundations (sometimes called 'spread

footings') include pads ('isolated footings'),
strip footings and rafts.
Shallows foundations are used when sur-
face soils are sufficiently strong and stiff to
support the imposed loads; they are gener-
ally unsuitable in weak or highly compress-
ible soils, such as poorly-compacted fill,
peat, recent lacustrine and alluvial deposits,
etc.
There are three types of shallow foundation-
Pad foundations, Strip foundations and Raft
foundations.
Pad foundations
Pad foundations are used to support an indi-
vidual point load such as that due to a struc-
tural column. They may be circular, square
or rectangular. They usually consist of a
block or slab of uniform thickness, but they
may be stepped or haunched if they are
required to spread the load from a heavy col-
umn. Pad foundations are usually shallow,
but deep pad foundations can also be
used.
Strip foundations
Strip foundations are used to support a line
of loads, either due to a load-bearing wall or
if a line of columns need supporting where
column positions are so close that individ-
ual pad foundations would be inappropri-
ate.
Raft foundations
Raft foundations are used to spread the
load from a structure over a large area, nor-
mally the entire area of the structure. They
are used when column loads or other struc-
Shallow foundations
AN OVERVIEW OF FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Deep foundations
tural loads are close together and individual
pad foundations would interact.
A raft foundation normally consists of a con-
crete slab that extends over the entire
loaded area. It may be stiffened by ribs or
beams incorporated into the foundation.
Raft foundations have the advantage of
reducing differential settlements as the con-
crete slab resists differential movements
between loading positions. They are often
needed on soft or loose soils with low bear-
ing capacity as they can spread the loads
over a larger area.
Deep foundations
Deep foundations are those found too
deeply below the finished ground surface
for their base bearing capacity to be
affected by surface conditions, this is usu-
ally at depths >3 m below finished ground
05
level. They include piles, piers and caissons
or compensated foundations using deep
basements and also deep pad or strip foun-
dations. Deep foundations can be used to
transfer the loading to a deeper, more com-
petent strata at depth if unsuitable soils are
present near the surface.
Piles
They are relatively long, slender members
that transmit foundation loads through soil
strata of low bearing capacity to deeper soil
or rock strata having a high bearing capac-
ity. They are used when for economic, con-
structional or soil condition considerations
it is desirable to transmit loads to strata
beyond the practical reach of shallow foun-
dations. In addition to supporting struc-
tures, piles are also used to anchor struc-
tures against uplift forces and to assist
structures in resisting lateral and overturn-
ing forces.
Piers
These are foundations for carrying a heavy
structural load that is constructed insitu in a
deep excavation.
Caissons
They are a form of deep foundation which
are constructed above ground level, then
sunk to the required level by excavating or
dredging material from within the caisson.
Compensated foundations
These are deep foundations in which the
relief of stress due to excavation is approxi-
Constrofacilitator • July 2020
 AN OVERVIEW OF FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
mately balanced by the applied stress due
to the foundation. The net stress applied is
therefore very small. A compensated foun-
dation normally comprises a deep base-
ment.
Monopile foundation
A monopile foundation utilizes a single, gen-
erally large-diameter, foundation structural
element to support all the loads (weight,
wind, etc.) of a large above-surface struc-
ture. A large number of monopile founda-
tions have been utilized in recent years for
economically constructing fixed-bottom off-
shore wind farms in shallow-water subsea
locations.
The typical construction process for a wind
turbine subsea monopile foundation in
sand includes driving a large hollow steel
pile, of some 4 m in diameter with approxi-
mately 50mm thick walls, some 25 m deep
into the seabed, through a 0.5 m layer of
larger stone and gravel to minimize erosion
around the pile. A transition piece (com-
plete with pre-installed features such as
boat-landing arrangement, cathodic pro-
tection, cable ducts for submarine cables,
turbine tower flange, etc.) is attached to the
driven pile, and the sand and water are
removed from the centre of the pile and
replaced with concrete. An additional layer
of an even larger stone, up to 0.5 m diame-
ters, is applied to the surface of the seabed
for longer-term erosion protection.
Monopile foundations
July 2020 • Constrofacilitator
Individual footings
Individual Footing
When the footing supports a separate col-
umn, it is referred to as individual footing. It
is sometimes denoted as spread footing or
isolated footing. For the purpose of analy-
sis, footing may be considered as a simple
flat plate or slab. It can be square in plan,
acted upon by the concentrated load and
distributing the load onto soil. Usually the
footing is in the shape of square, rectangu-
lar and circular.
06
The enlarged size of the footing at the bot-
tom gives an augmented contact surface
area between soil and footing. This area
serves and decreases stress on soil to an
allowable amount. It will prevent the exces-
sive bearing failure or settlement. Generally
types of individual footing are simple foot-
ing, sloped footing and stepped footing. It is
economical, when compared with other
types of footing. It is provided in cases,
where the bearing capacity of the soil is
good at shallower depths. It is easy to con-
struct. Generally foundation is designed to
satisfy the basic three criteria as follows, 1)
the foundation must be aligned correctly in
both the vertical and horizontal direction, 2)
should be safe from bearing capacity failure
and 3) safe from extreme settlement. Loads
on the foundation are self-weight loads, live
loads, earthquake loads, earth pressure,
and water pressure.
Factors affecting the depth of a foundation
Ÿ Thickness of top layer
Ÿ Ground freezing
Ÿ Depth of volume change
Ÿ Depth of scour
Ÿ Groundwater Level
Ÿ Underground utilities and defects
Ÿ Property line and adjoining structures
Ÿ Sloping ground
Ÿ Foundations at different level
Design for foundation engineering
The design of the foundation depends on

Foundation engineering design
soil consolidation and bearing capacity.
Soil consolidation refers to the mechanical
process by which soil changes volume grad-
ually in response to a change in pressure.
This happens because soil is a two-phase
material, comprising soil grains and pore
fluid, usually groundwater. When soil satu-
rated with water is subjected to an increase
in pressure, the high volumetric stiffness of
water compared to the soil matrix means
that the water initially absorbs all the change
in pressure without changing volume, creat-
ing excess pore water pressure. As water dif-
fuses away from regions of high pressure
due to seepage, the soil matrix gradually
takes up the pressure change and shrinks
in volume. The theoretical framework of con-
solidation is therefore closely related to the
diffusion equation, the concept of effective
stress, and hydraulic conductivity.
In the narrow sense, "consolidation" refers
strictly to this delayed volumetric response
to pressure change due to gradual move-
ment of water. Some publications also use
"consolidation" in the broad sense, to refer
to any process by which soil changes vol-
ume due to a change in applied pressure.
This broader definition encompasses the
overall concept of soil compaction, subsi-
dence, and heave. Some types of soil,
mainly those rich in organic matter, show sig-
nificant creep, whereby the soil changes vol-
ume slowly at constant effective stress over
a longer time-scale than consolidation due
to the diffusion of water. To distinguish
AN OVERVIEW OF FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
between the two mechanisms, "primary con-
solidation" refers to consolidation due to dis-
sipation of excess water pressure, while
"secondary consolidation" refers to the
creep process.
Geotechnical engineers use oedometers to
quantify the effects of consolidation. In an
oedometer test, a series of known pres-
sures are applied to a thin disc of soil sam-
ple, and the change of sample thickness
with time is recorded. This allows the con-
solidation characteristics of the soil to be
quantified in terms of the coefficient of con-
solidation and hydraulic conductivity.
The bearing capacity is the capacity of soil
to support the loads applied to the ground.
The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum
average contact pressure between the foun-
dation and the soil which should not pro-
duce shear failure in the soil. Ultimate bear-
ing capacity is the theoretical maximum
pressure which can be supported without
failure; allowable bearing capacity is the ulti-
mate bearing capacity divided by a factor of
safety. Sometimes, on soft soil sites, large
settlements may occur under loaded foun-
dations without actual shear failure occur-
ring; in such cases, the allowable bearing
capacity is based on the maximum allow-
able settlement. There are three modes of
failure that limit bearing capacity: general
shear failure, local shear failure, and punch-
ing shear failure. It depends upon the shear
strength of soil as well as shape, size, depth
and type of foundation.
07
A general bearing failure occurs when the
load on the footing causes large movement
of the soil on a shear failure surface which
extends away from the footing and up to the
soil surface. Calculation of the capacity of
the footing in general bearing is based on
the size of the footing and the soil proper-
ties. The basic method was developed by
Terzaghi, with modifications and additional
factors by Meyerhof and Vesić. The general
shear failure case is the one normally ana-
lyzed. Prevention against other failure
modes is accounted for implicitly in settle-
ment calculations.
Conclusion
A building foundation actually performs a
number of functions. The three most impor-
tant are to bear the load of the building,
anchor it against natural forces such as
earthquakes, and to isolate it from ground
moisture. The relative importance of these
functions changes with the type of land
underneath the building and the building
design. For smaller accessory buildings
such as sheds, a foundation is less impor-
tant.
Source
environment.uwe.ac.uk, nptel.acin,
yourarticlelibrary.com, issmge, hunker,
padeepz.net, en.wikipedia.org,
jfbrennan.com, offshorewind.biz,
understandconstruction.com,nsccme.com
Constrofacilitator • July 2020
 PILE FOUNDATION- AN OVERVIEW OF ITS USE AND DIFFERENT TYPES
Pile foundation - An overview of its use and
different types
F
oundations can be categor-
ised as shallow foundations
or deep foundations. Shal-
low foundations are typi-
cally used where the loads
imposed by a structure are
low relative to the bearing capacity of the
surface soils. Deep foundations are neces-
sary where the bearing capacity of the sur-
face soils is insufficient to support loads
imposed and so they are transferred to
deeper layers with higher bearing capac-
ity.
Use of pile foundation
Pile foundations are principally used to
transfer the loads from superstructures,
08
through weak, compressible strata or
water onto stronger, more compact, less
compressible and stiffer soil or rock at
depth, increasing the effective size of a
foundation and resisting horizontal loads.
They are typically used for large struc-
tures, and in situations where soil is not
suitable to prevent excessive settlement.
As pile foundations carry a lot of load,
they must be designed very carefully. A
good engineer will study the soil the piles
are placed in to ensure that the soil is not
overloaded beyond its bearing capacity.
Every pile has a zone of influence on the
soil around it. Care must be taken to space
the piles far enough apart so that loads are
distributed evenly over the entire bulb of
soil that carries them, and not concen-
trated into a few areas.
Following are the situations when using a
pile foundation system can be
Ÿ When the groundwater table is high.
Ÿ Heavy and non-uniform loads from
superstructure are imposed.
Ÿ Other types of foundations are cost-
lier or not feasible.
Ÿ When the soil at shallow depth is
compressible.
Ÿ When there is the possibility of
scouring, due to its location near the
river bed or seashore, etc.
Ÿ When there is a canal or deep drain-
Constrofacilitator • July 2020

age systems near the structure.
Ÿ When soil excavation is not possible
up to the desired depth due to poor
soil condition.
Ÿ When it becomes impossible to keep
the foundation trenches dry by pump-
ing or by any other measure due to
heavy inflow of seepage.
Classifications of pile foundation
The purpose of a pile foundation is to
transfer and distribute load through a mate-
rial or stratum with inadequate bearing,
sliding or up- lift capacity to a firmer stra-
tum that is capable of supporting the load
without detrimental displacement. A wide
range of pile types is available for applica-
tions with various soil types and structural
requirements. Piles may be classified by
their basic design function (end-bearing,
friction or a combination) or by their
method of construction (displacement
(driven) or replacement (bored)).
End Bearing Piles
In end bearing piles, the bottom end of the
pile rests on a layer of especially strong
soil or rock. The load of the building is
transferred through the pile onto the
strong layer. In a sense, this pile acts like a
column. The key principle is that the bot-
tom end rests on the surface which is the
End Bearing Piles & Friction Piles
July 2020 • Constrofacilitator
PILE FOUNDATION- AN OVERVIEW OF ITS USE AND DIFFERENT TYPES
intersection of a weak and strong layer.
The load therefore bypasses the weak
layer and is safely transferred to the strong
layer.
Friction Piles
Friction piles work on a different princi-
ple. The pile transfers the load of the
building to the soil across the full height
of the pile, by friction. In other words, the
entire surface of the pile, which is cylin-
drical in shape, works to transfer the
forces to the soil.
To visualise how this works, imagine you
are pushing a solid metal rod of say 4mm
diameter into a tub of frozen ice cream.
Once you have pushed it in, it is strong
enough to support some load. The greater
the embedment depth in the ice cream, the
more load it can support. This is very simi-
lar to how a friction pile works. In a fric-
tion pile, the amount of load a pile can sup-
port is directly proportional to its length.
Pile foundations are deep foundations.
They are formed by long, slender, colum-
nar elements typically made from steel or
reinforced concrete, or sometimes timber.
A foundation is described as 'piled' when
its depth is more than three times its
breadth. A pile is basically a long cylinder
of a strong material that is pushed into the
ground to act as a steady support for struc-
tures built on top of it.
Classification of pile foundation based
on the effect of soil:
Driven piles:
Driven piles, also known as displacement
piles, are a commonly-used form of build-
ing foundation that provide support for
structures, transferring their load to layers
of soil or rock that have sufficient bearing
capacity and suitable settlement charac-
teristics. Driven piles are commonly used
to support buildings, tanks, towers, walls
and bridges, and can be the most cost-
effective deep foundation solution. They
can also be used in applications such as
embankments, retaining walls, bulk-
heads, anchorage structures and
cofferdams..
Driven piles
Bored piles:
Bored piles, also known as replacement
piles, are a commonly-used form of build-
ing foundation that provide support for
structures, transferring their load to layers
of soil or rock that have sufficient bearing
capacity and suitable settlement charac-
teristics. Bored piles are piles where the
removal of spoil forms a hole for a rein-
forced concrete pile which is poured in
situ. The spoil is replaced by the pile,
hence 'replacement' piles as opposed to
displacement piles where soil is forced
away by driving or screwing the pile.
Bored piles are used primarily in cohesive
subsoils for the formation of friction piles
and when forming pile foundations close
to existing buildings. They are popular in
urban areas as there is minimal vibration,
where headroom is limited, where there is
09
 PILE FOUNDATION- AN OVERVIEW OF ITS USE AND DIFFERENT TYPES
Bored piles
no risk of heave, and if there is a need to
vary the length of the piles.
Screw pile
Screw pile foundations are a type of pile
foundation with a helix near the pile toe so
that the piles can be screwed into the
ground. The process and concept is simi-
lar to screwing into wood. A screw pile
may have more than one helix (also called
a screw), depending on the usage and the
ground conditions. Generally, more heli-
ces are specified if a higher load is
required or softer ground is encountered.
Screw pileBored piles
Classification based on Material of
Piles Construction:
Timber piles:
Timber piles are the oldest of all the con-
temporarily used piles. They are usually
precast displacement piles installed with
the driving method, or less commonly, the
vibratory method. The natural conver-
gence of pile shafts allows us to obtain a
relatively high pile load capacity. Prop-
erly applied, they are a highly economi-
cal, efficient and safe foundation solution,
10
both for temporary and permanent struc-
tures. This can be justified by a number of
historical buildings founded on timber
piles that have been in operation for thou-
sands of years. Timber piles applied for
the purposes of permanent structures are
pressure-impregnated
Steel piles:
Driven steel piles are installed using
impact or vibration hammers to a design
depth or resistance. Keller installs the
complete suite of driven piles from small
diameter tube piles to large diameter steel
caissons to support your project. Driven
piles gain geotechnical capacity effi-
ciently by displacing the soil around the
shaft and compacting the soils at the toe
during installation. Steel tubes can be
driven either closed or open ended. The
energy to drive the piles is provided by
either a high frequency oscillating ham-
mer or a percussion hammer.
Concrete piles:
Concrete piles are common structural
foundation elements used to support off-
Timber piles
Concrete piles
shore structures such as bridges, oil-rigs,
and floating airports. The use of offshore
structures is still a fairly new technique
and there is still much research to be done
in this field. The loading of an offshore
structure consists of two components: ver-
tical structural loads and lateral wave
loads. The interaction of these two load-
ing components has a significant impact
on how the pile reacts and the way the
stresses are distributed through the pile. In
addition, the pile will react differently
when subjected to a small structural load
than to a large structural load.
Pile installation method
Piles are installed using a number of dif-
ferent methods, each of which is selected
according to need. The various factors
which influence what type of pile you'll
need and the ways in which your piling
can be installed might include:
Ÿ The depth of your excavation
Ÿ The material your piles are made of
Ÿ The angle at which your piles are
being driven
Ÿ Environmental issues which may
Steel piles
Constrofacilitator • July 2020

impact local residents, flora or fauna
Once your needs have been assessed, you
will feel better able to decide which of the
two most common pile installation meth-
ods you will use for your project: dis-
placement or replacement. Displacement
piling installation refers to the method of
driving piles into the ground without first
removing any of the soil or other material.
Replacement piling installation refers to
the method of first digging out a hole, into
which the pile is then maneuvered.
Decisions on the type of instrumentation
for pile load tests must be an integral part
of the design. The designer should select
instrumentation that has sufficient accu-
racy to measure the required data. Perma-
nent instrumentation is used to gather data
relating to the state of stress and behavior
of the pile under service load conditions.
Useful knowledge can be gained from per-
manent instrumentation, not only about
the behavior of a particular pile founda-
tion, but also about analysis and design
assumptions in general.
Criteria and methods for selecting the
best type of pile foundation
Structural and Geotechnical Coordina-
tion. A fully coordinated effort from
geotechnical and structural engineers and
Pile Foundation in Construction
July 2020 • Constrofacilitator
PILE FOUNDATION- AN OVERVIEW OF ITS USE AND DIFFERENT TYPES
geologists should ensure that the result of
the pile foundation analysis is properly
integrated into the overall foundation
design. This coordination extends
through plans and specifications, precon-
struction meetings, and construction.
Failure Considerations - Structure or
foundation failures can be categorized as
an actual collapse or a functional failure.
Functional failure can be due to excessive
deflection, unacceptable differential
movements, excessive vibration, and pre-
mature deterioration due to environmen-
tal factors. For critical structures, failure
to meet functional requirements may be as
serious as the actual collapse of a lesser
structure. Therefore, designers should be
cognizant not only of the degree of safety
against collapse but also of effects of set-
tlement and vibration on the functional
performance.
Safety Considerations - Factors of safety
represent reserve capacity which a foun-
dation or structure has against collapse for
a given set of loads and design conditions.
Uncertain design parameters and loads,
require a higher factor of safety than
required when the design parameters are
well known. For most hydraulic struc-
tures, designers should have a high level
of confidence in the soil and pile parame-
ters and the analysis. Therefore, uncer-
tainty in the analysis and design parame-
ters should be minimized rather than
requiring a high factor of safety. For less
significant structures, it is permissible to
use larger factors of safety if it is not eco-
nomical to reduce the uncertainty in the
analysis and design by performing addi-
tional studies, testing, etc.
Soil-Structure Considerations - The func-
tional significance and economic consid-
erations of the structure will determine the
type and degree of the foundation explo-
ration and testing program, the pile test
program, the settlement and seepage anal-
yses, and the analytical models for the pile
and structure. For critical structures the
foundation testing pro- gram should
clearly define the necessary parameters
for the design of the pile foundation, such
as soil types and profiles, soil strengths,
etc.
Source
Vpgroundforce.com, engineering discov-
eries, cedengineering.com, weebly.com,
science direct, aboutcivil.org,
theconstructor.org, designbuzz.com,
taranto.co.uk, acivilengineer.com,
designingbuildings.co.uk,
k e l l e r a s e a n . c o m ,
basiccivilengineering.com,
pinterest.com,
11
 FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUND ENGINEERING

Fundamentals of Ground
Engineering Study

Shamanth Kumar M
Project Engineer and
Manager of Design Services
Salarpuria Sattva Group

Constrofacilitator • July 2020 12


G
round engineering com-
bines geology and engi-
neering. Normally ground
engineers have first
degrees in geology or in
civil engineering and many have a post-
graduate degree in engineering geol-
ogy or geotechnical engineering.
During their first degrees, geologists
are trained to observe the ground and
the fossils and structures in it and draw
inferences about the history of planet
Earth. They make use of chemistry, bot-
any, zoology and so on. They relate
their observations to engineering per-
formance largely through empirical cor-
relations and transforms. During their
first degrees, civil engineers are trained
to make measurements of strength and
stiffness of materials, steel, concrete
and soil, and to predict the perfor-
mance of structures. They make use of
physics, mechanics and mathematics
and use theories such as elasticity and
plasticity to represent ground behav-
iour.
Each discipline has a complementary
role to play in ground engineering.
Geotechnical engineers should know
enough geology to be able to commu-
nicate with geologists; geologists
should know enough physics and math-
ematics to be able to communicate
with geotechnical engineers.
There are several books on engineering
geology that give largely empirical rela-
tionships between the geological his-
tory of the ground and its engineering
behaviour and the behaviour of struc-
FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUND ENGINEERING
tures and excavations. This article
describes the physical theories for the
strength and stiffness of the ground
and the analyses that are routinely used
by engineers to predict the behaviour of
slopes, foundations, and other struc-
tures in the ground.
These basic theories apply strictly to the
behaviour of materials made of
unbonded grains, which is a very good
approximation for soil. The ground is
taken to be elastic or plastic and fric-
tional or cohesive and analyses satisfy
the basic requirements of equilibrium
and compatibility. Although natural
soils may behave a little differently, their
behaviour still closely follows the theo-
ries in this book. The outcomes should
be designs that are safe, serviceable,
economic, sustainable and buildable
and the fundamental analyses make
use of the basic theories in this book.
THINGS TO DO
Geotechnical engineers should be
familiar with fundamental principles
and theories. most of them are rela-
tively simple applications of basic
mechanics to the behaviour of granular
materials. But it is not enough to be
able to do the mathematics;
geotechnical engineers need to have an
understanding of geology, knowledge
of soil behaviour and a feel for what are
reasonable numbers.
The photographs have been chosen to
illustrate the general features of routine
geotechnical engineering practice and
they do not necessarily show state-of-
the-art field and laboratory investiga-
tions and geotechnical works. Readers
should search for other pictures or,
better still, see the real thing.
At the end of most chapters there are
suggestions for things to do to illustrate
the principles in the chapter. Most do
not require special equipment and can
be done at home using kitchen equip-
ment and samples commonly found in
the home and garden. Schools once
taught science students how to make
simple test equipment and do simple
experiments and that was part of a phys-
ics course. It is a good skill for an engi-
neer to have.
13 Constrofacilitator • July 2020
 FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUND ENGINEERING

WHAT IS GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEER-

ING?

Geotechnical engineering, with struc-

tural engineering and hydraulic engi-
neering, is one of the major design com-
ponents of civil engineering. Structural
engineering requires structural analysis
and knowledge of man-made materi-
als. Geotechnical engineering requires
geotechnical analysis and knowledge
of natural soils, rocks and groundwater.
The fundamental principles for design
of groundworks use many of the basic
theories and methods familiar in other
branches of engineering.

CONSTRUCTION IN THE GROUND

Engineering geologists
Investigate the ground:
observe and map surface
features; excavate and
observe boreholes and test
pits.
Assess properties and
behaviour from observation
and description.
Create a geological model.
Assess sources of
construction materials.
Engineering geologists
Undergraduate
Principal activities of
Geotechnical engineers
Test soils in the ground
and in the laboratory.
Assess properties and
behaviour from test
results. Create a
geotechnical model.
Analyse and design
foundations and walls
and assess stability of
slopes.
Geotechnical engineers
Scientists Geotechnical engineering is construc-
tion on and in the ground using natural
Investigate and clean up soils and rocks. Foundations add load
contaminated ground. to the ground and settle; excavations
Design waste repositories. remove load and the ground heaves.
Man-made slopes should remain stable
Assess chemical and
but may need support from retaining
biological interactions
between buried structures walls. Dam slopes must remain stable
and the ground. and the dam must retain water. Road
pavements are made from soil and
Use chemicals to modify rock.
and improve ground
properties.
CONSTRUCTION IN THE GROUND
All these constructions require geologi-
Scientists cal investigations to discover what the
ground is made of, testing to determine

Degree in geology Degree in civil engineering Degree in one

its strength and stiffness and analyses
Chemistry or more of
Maths of stability, movement and seepage of
Mineralogy Physics Maths water.
Observation and mapping Mechanics Physics
Trained to observe and record Chemistry WHO ARE GEOTECHNICAL
Trained to analyse and design
Biology PROFESSIONALS AND WHAT DO
THEY DO?
Engineering geology Geotechnical engineering Environmental
Post-graduate

Principles of geology appliedin sciences Geotechnical professionals usually start

Principles of mechanics applied
a civil engineering context to soils, rocks and groundwater Geophysics as geologists, engineers or scientists
and specialise as they progress through
Geological model; identify Geotechnical model; identify
principal strata; locate strata their education and training. Each
ground types and groundwater
boundaries, identify and locate pressures, assign engineering
brings different skills in investigation,
structural features (folds, faults); parameters analysis and design.
identify groundwater regime
Analyse and design EDUCATION AND TRAINING
Locate and assess materials and groundworks; foundations,
aggregate resources; empirical slopes and walls, tunnels, Geotechnical professionals acquire
design of groundworks pavements, etc. their skills through a combination of

Constrofacilitator • July 2020 14

 FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUND ENGINEERING

Structure Example Comment undergraduate and post-graduate

study and on-the-job training,
mentoring and experience. Most have
first degrees in civil engineering or geol-
ogy and occasionally science. Many
geotechnical professionals have a post-
Grain elevator settled
Foundations graduate degree in a relevant subject
and tilted shortly after
settle too much such as engineering geology or
filling.
geotechnical engineering.

WHAT GOES WRONG?

Geotechnical structures sometimes fail,

often because a geotechnical profes-
Landslide in glacial sional made a mistake. Sound under-
soil caused by coastal standing of basic principles should
Slopes slip erosion and ensure this does not happen.
groundwater
pressures. THINGS TO DO

On your next journey, which may be by

Walls collapse
Excavations flood
road or rail or on foot, observe and
make a list of all the structures that
involve natural soil and rock for support
or for a source of materials.
Collapse of strutted
retaining walls Bridges and buildings have founda-
supporting a deep tions; roads and rail have excavated
excavation in soft clay. slopes and built embankments some of
which may be supported by walls; road
pavements are mostly compacted soil;
railway ballast is crushed rock. You may
also see dams and river banks retaining
water.
Excavation in sands
and gravels flooded Image Source:
by seepage
from groundwater. merebrook.co.uk
designingbuildings.co.uk

Concrete lining leaked

and seepage eroded a
Dams leak
channel through the
earth-fill dam.

Collapse of tunnel
Tunnels collapse
during construction.

15 Constrofacilitator • July 2020

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES FOR SOIL STABILIZATION

Ground
Improvement
Techniques for
Soil Stabilization

G
r o u n d
i m p r o v e-
ment and
ground
m o d i f i c a-
tion refer
t o t h e
i m p r o v e-
ment in or
m o d i f i c a-
tion to the engineering properties of soil
that are carried out at a site where the
soil in its natural state does not pos-
sess properties that are adequate to
withstand the load of the structure. The
improvement may be accomplished by
drainage, compaction, preloading, rein-
forcement, and grouting, electrical,
chemical or thermal methods. Among
the various soil stabilization proce-
dures, the most suitable one is
selected depending upon the type of
soil available, time, cost involved etc.
Given below are some ground
improvements techniques adopted.
Vibro compaction
Vibro Compaction is an established
ground improvement method for stabi-
lising granular soils such as loose
sands, gravels and some hydraulic
fills. The technique is primarily used for
seismic mitigation and in-situ
densification of loose sands up to 30m
deep. The water jetting and horizontal
vibratory action of the vibroflot acts to
compact the loose soils into a denser
condition and significantly improve the
bearing capacity of the treated ground.
The vibro compaction technique is well
established for use in tank farm, port
and marine structure projects.
Vibro Compaction significantly
reduces the threat of liquefaction in the
event of earthquakes; densifying
sands to provide a firm founding layer It
is extremely effective for sand compac-
tion and land reclamation projects.
Vibro Compaction provides fast, in-situ
densification of loose sands to depths
of up to 30 metres and is one of the
most economical and sustainable
ground improvement methods avail-
able, with no spoil generated and no fill
material required.
Vacuum consolidation is a soft soil
improvement method that has been
successfully used by geotechnical
engineers and specialists of ground
improvement companies. It does not
necessarily require surcharge fill and
vacuum loads of 80kPa or greater can,
typically, be maintained for as long as
required. However, if loads of 80kPa or
greater are needed in order to achieve
the target soil improvement, additional

16 Constrofacilitator • July 2020


surcharge may be placed on top of the
vacuum system. The vacuum
preloading method is cheaper and
faster than the fill surcharge method for
an equivalent load in suitable areas.
Where the underlying ground consists
of permeable materials, such as sand
or sandy clay, the cost of the technique
will be significantly increased due to
the requirement of cut-off walls into
non-permeable layers to seal off the
vacuum.
Various vacuum consolidation sys-
tems are developed for a number of
applications. As the primary applica-
tion of the vacuum consolidation
method is consolidation and stabiliza-
tion of soft clayey ground. When the
vacuum consolidation method is
extended to other applications with dif-
ferent working conditions and different
treated materials, the systems require
specific features and/or special
designed construction machines.
Moreover, vacuum consolidation
applied in on-land and under-water
conditions are principally different in
equivalent load as the vacuum is
applied on ground surface or under
water table, relatively.
Soil Preloading
Depending on how a preload is
applied, the preloading methods can
be subdivided into preloading using fill,
preloading using vacuum pressure
and combined fill, and vacuum
Constrofacilitator • July 2020 17
GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES FOR SOIL STABILIZATION
Vibro compaction
preloading methods. In addition to
preloading, PVDs have also been used
for some other relatively new methods
such as dynamic consolidation for
clays. In both cases, the main purpose
of using PVDs is to reduce the drainage
path so that the time taken for the con-
solidation of soft soil or the dissipation
of excess pore-water pressure can be
substantially reduced.
According to the soil classification sys-
tem adopted by TC211 (Chu et al.,
2009c), soil improvement through con-
solidation or preloading belongs to the
category of 'ground improvement with-
out admixtures in cohesive soils'. This
category is further divided into the fol-
lowing seven subcategories (Chu et
al., 2009c).
Ÿ replacement/displacement (in-
cluding load reduction using light-
weight materials)
Ÿ preloading using fill (including the
Soil Preloading
use of vertical drains)
Ÿ preloading using vacuum (includ-
ing combined fill and vacuum)
Ÿ dynamic consolidation with
enhanced drainage (including the
use of vacuum)
Ÿ electro-osmosis or electro-kinetic
Ÿ thermal stabilisation using heating
or freezing
Ÿ hydro-blasting compaction.
Soil vitrification
Soil Vitrification technique uses heat to
melt and then solidify harmful chemi-
cals in a solid mass of glasslike mate-
rial. It can be applied both in-situ (in-
situ vitrification or ISV) and above
ground in a treatment unit (ex-situ).
ISV uses space and an electrical cur-
rent is passed between them, melting
the soil between them. ISV uses very
high temperatures (1,600 to 2,000 °C or
a pair of, 900 to 3,650 °F). Melting starts
close to the bottom surface and moves
down. Because the soil melts, the elec-
trodes sink additional into the bottom
inflicting deeper soil to soften. Once
the facility is turned off, the unfrozen
soil cools and vitrifies, which implies it
turns into a solid block of glass-like
material. The electrodes become a part
of the block. This causes the bottom
exterior within the space to sink slightly.
To level it, the sunken space is full of
clean soil.
Ex-situ vitrification is far like ISV, except
that it's done within a compartment.
Heating devices embody plasma
 GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES FOR SOIL STABILIZATION
torches and electrical transference fur-
naces. With plasma torch technology,
waste is fed into a rotating hearth; the
waste and melted material square mea-
sure control aligned with the aspect by
force. Throughout the rotation, the
waste moves through plasma gener-
ated by a standstill torch. To get rid of
the melted material from the chamber,
the earth's rotation slows and also the
dross flows through an underneath
gap. Effluent gases square measure
usually unbroken in an exceedingly sep-
arate instrumentation wherever high
temperatures combust/oxidize the con-
tents.
Ground freezing
Ground freezing is a construction tech-
nique used in circumstances where
soil needs to be stabilized so it will not
collapse next to excavations, or to pre-
vent contaminants spilled into soil from
being leached away. Ground freezing
has been used for at least one hundred
years. Ground freezing is also used to
provide regional groundwater barriers
around mining operations for gold and
other minerals, oil sands or oil shales. It
is often referred to as ground freezing,
soil freezing, or freeze wall. The ground
freezing process involves drilling and
installing a series of relatively closely
spaced pipes and circulating a coolant
through these pipes. The refrigerated
coolant extracts heat from the ground,
converting the soil pore water to ice
resulting in an extremely strong, imper-
meable material. It is the most positive
method of ground improvement used
in the underground construction and
mining industries.
Deep shafts are the most common
application of ground freezing. The
Ground freezing
Vibro Stone Columns
freeze pipes are drilled and installed
around the perimeter of the proposed
shaft to do the required depth. The cir-
culation of the coolant is initiated until a
frozen zone ranging from 1 to ten
meters is formed. The inside of the
shaft is then excavated and lined and
the freezing system turned off. Ground
freezing is used extensively in the tun-
neling industry. Tunnel applications use
several different approaches. The most
common involves horizontally drilling
the freeze pipes around the tunnel per-
imeter very similar to the frozen shaft
approach.
Vibro stone columns
Vibro stone columns or aggregate
piers are an array of crushed stone pil-
lars placed with a vibrating tool into the
soil below a proposed structure. This
method of ground improvement is also
called vibro replacement. Such tech-
niques increase the load bearing
capacity and drainage of the soil while
reducing settlement and liquefaction
potential. Stone columns are made
across the area to be improved in a tri-
angular or rectangular grid pattern.
Column depth depends on local soil
strata, and usually penetrates weak
18 Constrofacilitator • July2020

soil. During construction, a vibrating
tool suspended from a crane pene-
trates to the design depth by means of
its own weight and vibrations.
Predrilling may be required in dense
soil or may be used to reduce the
amount of ground displacement during
installation. Crushed stone is intro-
duced into the hole by one of two meth-
ods. In the dry bottom method, a pipe
attached to the vibrator supplies stone
directly to it. In the wet top method,
water jets located in the vibrator's tip
create an annular space around the
vibrator through which stone is intro-
duced from the top.
Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE)
Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE or
reinforced soil) is soil constructed with
artificial reinforcing. It can be used for
retaining walls, bridge abutments, sea-
walls, and dikes.[ Although the basic
principles of MSE have been used
throughout history.
MSE walls stabilize unstable slopes
and retain the soil on steep slopes and
under crest loads. The wall face is often
of precast, segmental blocks, panels
or geocells that can tolerate some dif-
ferential movement. The walls are
infilled with granular soil, with or without
reinforcement, while retaining the back-
fill soil. Reinforced walls utilize horizon-
tal layers typically of geogrids. The rein-
Constrofacilitator • July 2020 19
GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES FOR SOIL STABILIZATION
Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE)
forced soil mass, along with the facing,
forms the wall. In many types of MSE's,
each vertical fascia row is inset,
thereby providing individual cells that
can be infilled with topsoil and planted
with vegetation to create a green wall.
The main advantages of MSE walls
compared to conventional reinforced
concrete walls are their ease of installa-
tion and quick construction. They do
not require formwork or curing and
each layer is structurally sound as it is
laid, reducing the need for support,
scaffolding or cranes. They also do not
require additional work on the facing.
In a typical MSE wall, compacted gran-
ular soil is reinforced by horizontal lay-
ers of steel strips or geosynthetic mate-
rials. The use of reinforced elements
significantly increases the strength of
Soil nailing
the system. Facing elements are rela-
tively thin components, usually made
out of precast concrete, welded wire
mesh panels or shotcrete. Their struc-
tural objective is to hold the soil
between the reinforcement layers. A
facing system enables the construc-
tion of a steep or even a vertical MSE
wall. Soil material is also placed without
a reinforcement between the stabilized
zone and the natural surface of the
ground. This zone is known as retained
backfill. A complete MSE wall is a grav-
ity-based structure. It relies on its mass
to bear the applied forces including lat-
eral earth pressures, water pressures,
seismic loads or loads related to
human activity.
Soil nailing
Soil nailing is a ground stabilisation
technique that can be used on either
natural or excavated slopes. It involves
drilling holes for steel bars to be
inserted into a slope face which are
then grouted in place. Mesh is
attached to the bar ends to hold the
slope face in position. They are com-
monly used as a remedial measure to
stabilise embankment
Soil nailing uses grouted, tension-
resisting steel elements (nails) to rein-
force in situ soils and creates a gravity
retaining wall for permanent or tempo-
rary excavation support. Soil nail walls
are generally constructed from the top
down. Typically, soil is excavated in
 GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES FOR SOIL STABILIZATION
three to six feet deep stages. After each
excavation stage, near-horizontal
holes are drilled into the exposed face
at typically three to six foot centres. Ten-
sion-resisting steel bars are inserted
into the holes and grouted in place. A
drainage system is installed on the
exposed face, followed by the applica-
tion of reinforced shotcrete wall facing.
Precast face panels can also be used.
Bearing plates are then fixed to the
heads of the soil nails. This installation
process is repeated until the design
wall depth is reached. The finished soil
nails then produce a zone of reinforced
ground.
Micropiles
Micropiles are high-performance,
high-capacity drilled deep foundation
elements typically between 5–12
inches in diameter that can extend to
depths of 200 feet and achieve working
loads of over 200 tons. Micropiles are
composed of high-strength steel cas-
ing, rebar and grout.
Micropiles are small diameter drilled
and grouted friction piles. Each pile
includes steel elements that are
bonded into the bearing soil or rock –
usually with cement grout. The bearing
stratum is logged during installation
drilling to assure that bearing capacity
is adequate. Micropiles do not rely on
end-bearing capacity, so there is no
need to establish the competency of
rock beyond bond-depth. They can be
installed quickly in virtually every type
of ground using highly adaptable
mobile drilling equipment.Micropiles
can be used in a variety of foundation
projects. They are particularly useful
when projects are in areas with limited
access or weak soil. They have
become a preferred method of deep-
foundation stabilization thanks to their
reliability, versatility, and efficiency.
Grouting
Grouting is quite a well-known tech-
nique in the field of civil engineering,
especially in foundation engineering.
Grouting is effective in both sand and
silt deposits. Grouts are liquid suspen-
sions or solutions that are injected into
the soil mass to improve its behaviour.
Such liquids can permeate into the
void space of the soil and bind the soil
particles together. The primary pur-
pose of grouting is to fill the voids of the
formation material by replacing the
Micropiles
existing fluids with the grout and
thereby improving the engineering
properties of the medium, especially
reducing the permeability. The selec-
tion of proper grouting materials
depends upon the type of granular
medium and the purpose of grouting.
Cement, Bentonite, clay and lime are
the grouting materials normally used
for grouting a granular medium. In the
present paper, sand was used as the
grouting medium and cement was
used as the grouting materials.
Grouting is effective in both sand and
silt deposits. Grouts are liquid suspen-
sions or solutions that are injected into
the soil mass to improve its behavior.
Such liquids can permeate into the void
space of the soil and bind the soil parti-
cles together. The primary purpose of
grouting is to fill the voids of the forma-
tion material by replacing the existing
fluids with the grout and thereby
improving the engineering properties
of the medium, especially reducing the
permeability.
Conclusion
These are various methods available
for soil improvement techniques which
will be used for the needs of accelerat-
ing bearing capability, enhancing
shear strength and decreasing consol-
idation settlement of saturated
medium clay such as soil replacement,
preloading with vertical drains, stone
columns, stabilization with additives
and thermal ways.
Image Source:
Irjet.net
Balfourbeatty.com
ijesi.org
semanticscholar.org
rembco.com
iadc-dredging.com
vibromenard.co.uk
pinterest.com
groundfreezing.com
menardgroupusa.com
en.wikipedia.org
designingbuildings.co.uk
20 Constrofacilitator • July2020
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