Engineering for Galareous Seinen, AFShale(ed) © 2000 Bakona, Roterda ISBN 80 5809097 X Deep foundations in calcareous sediments Hany J-Kolk gro Engineers BY, Ledschendam, Netherlands ABSTRACT: The paper addresses axel capacity design eriteria for piles in carbonate sand and coral. Pile types are open and closed ended driven piles, bored ples, and drilleddiven and grouted piles. Conventional design ‘iterta for pile fietion and end bearing are summarised. These are compared with test date on laboratory and Field modet piles, and with reslts from load tests on full scale foundation piles. Alternative design criteria are developed and compared. Friction on driven piles is shown to be similar ¢0 that on pites driven in loose silica sand. However, assessment of values for foundation design requires a significant amount of focal experience ‘nd engineering judgement, End beating on al piles and fiction on both dilled and grouted, and bored piles Correlate well with cone penetration test (CPT) cone resistance values. Pile design in coral requires site specific | t pile foad Tests since the engineering characteristics of this material cam tomventional sol iavestigation methods. Recommendations are presented for further ‘zation and pile design p 1 INTRODUCTION Caleareous materials encountered in foundation de- Practice eat be divided into the following groups ‘with rospect to similarity in soil or rock mechanical behaviour: ~ carbonate clayhud = chalk = carbonate sand and silt, calerenite = carbonate gravel and debris, ‘oral Iimestone. paper focuses on axial capacity of piles in luonate sand, calearente and corel, Previous State ‘oF the Att reviews on this subject were presented by ‘Muri (1987) and Randolph (1988), Semple (1988) Feported on the State of the Art on mechanical be- haviour of carbonate sols which is very relevant for this subject, Alba and Andibert (1999) give a histor ctl overview of ple design in carbonate sil Pile types differ. Traditionally the offsiore oil and ‘gas industry has primarily applied open ended drive Heel pipe piles and to a lesser extent drilled and _grouted files. More recently driven closed ended piles have been installed offthore. Numerous re- Search type studies have boon performed on driven, and grouted piles. The later consists ofa (preferably Closed ended) diiven pile which, after driving, is pressure grouted to the formation through valves 3 be defined properly with current reverent of investi mounted in the pile wall. Ths pile type has not yet ‘been applied offshore. ‘Neatshore constructions in carbonate sands, silts and corals are generally supported by open ended land closed ended driven stel pipe piles, Conversely, ‘constructions onshore in these materials are pre- dominantly supported by bored piles, is paper summarises conventional design prac- tice forall the above pile types. The design eriteria are compared with test data on laboratory and field model piles, and load test results on fll scale piles, Where appropriate, modified or altemative design criteria are presented based on the former review. ‘Recommendations are developed for future im- provement of soil investigation and ple design prac- tice, 2. FRICTION ON PILES DRIVEN INTO. ‘GRANULAR SOILS 2.1. Introduction Friction on piles driven into calearcous granular m terials is known to be very low. In order to under stand this phenomencn itis usefil to make a qualta- five assessment of sollplle interaction. in_ such materials, Tia is done by successively considering; =a wished: place" pileRADIAL EFFECTIVE STRESS in-situ stress radial expansion due to pile tip radial contraction towards pile wall compaction due to pile driving consolidation/creepirecemontation axial pile loading = ajacked-in pile = driven pil, Fully drained condi By defnitio al radial effective stress on 2 “wished-in-plece” pile equals the in-situ horizontal cifective stress of the. ground mass, During axial loading shear stresses develop around the pile which ‘can be assumed to be proportional to the radial dis- tance from the pile axis according to: o Where 1, = sail stress at 5; r= radial distance from pile axis; Ry = outer radius of pile; and ty = shear stress onthe pile Shear stresses in the soil cause volumetic stain ‘These en be dilatant in dense sands or contractant in loose sands, These volume changes are associated witha change in sadial effective sress om the pile. An increase in radial effective stress occurs in dilant (Goose) soll and e reaction in conectant (00s) Downward (compression) loading may result in larger radial effective stress than uplift (tension) Toading due to lighily diferent stess paths. largec lffeeice can occur in ples with low axial stifinesses (ea. pipe piles) due to radiat expansion of the pile (ue to the Poisson ratio effect) during compression loading and contraction during tension loading (De Nicole and Randolph, 1993). ‘Stress conditions around a jacked-in-place pile are ‘more complex. Tests on closed model piles rovealed a bulb of crushed and compacted soil pushed down wards with the pile Houlsby otal, 1988). It Seems likely that @ torus of crushed and compacted soil wil oceur beneath non-plusaing pipe ples. ‘Thus radial stresses at a level in the soll inital increase when the pile tip approaches this level However, these subsequently reduce when the com- pacted zone las passed this level (Fig, 1). The redial effective siess on the pile at some level sbove the tip ‘can be higher or fower than the original in-situ hot zontal effective stress, depending upon the pile tip ‘geometry and the sand density. An analogy can be ‘drawn with radiat stresses observed on cone pres- suremeters pushed into sand: both higher and lover cefective sresses compared to estimated in-situ hort zontal offective stresses have been observed on a Dressuremeter membrane above the cone tip (Hughes ‘and Robertson, 1985), 1m addition reduction of radial stress on the pile changes in the sol due to shear siress on the pile wall as described for a "wished-in- Stress conditions around a driven pile are for more complex (Fig. 1). Cyolic loading oF sand due to pile driving causes compaction of soil neat the pile tip ‘This facilitates pencication of the pile tip compared 10 a similar size jacked pile. Hence the radial stress just above a driven pile tip is expected to be lower than fora jacked pile, ‘The sol next to the pile satissubjected fo eyelic shear stresses due to pile driving. ‘These result in additional compaction of soil sur- ‘rounding the pile and associated reduction of radial cffective. stess. The ‘of compaction, and heace the reduction in ratial effective siress on the pile, is ely to increase with increasing distance from the pile tip as a result of soll at a higher level having been subjected to more eyelic shear stresses Ge. more pile driving hammer blows). Driving in duces high axial stresses in the pile during each hhammer blow. The stress wave causes local radial expansion and contraction of the pile due t0 the pile's Poisson ratio, Thus the soi will be loaded by both axel shear and radial eyelie stresses, enhancing compaction, From the above qualitative doscription of soil bo- haviour around piles it can be inferred that the fol Towing geotechnical characteristics influence pile fiction = insite void ratio, in-situ horizontal effective stess, ~ volume change during shear loading, ~ (unloading) stifness. ‘The following section discusses these character based upon laboratory test results. Qualitative ‘clusions on pile fiction will be made based! upon this review. Subsequently, fiction values from jacked ‘noel piles wil be reviewed in the light of the former findings. ‘ThereaRer data fiom axial Jond texts on driven piles will be compaced with the former, These data will also be compared with both conventional ‘and new pile design methods 22 Soil Behaviour based upon Laboratory Tests 2.2.1 In-situ Void Ratio Soil panicles encountered in calcareous soils are ‘generally bioclastc. The high angulaity ofthese ticles results in high interparticle porositios during, sedimentation (typically in-situ void ratio 0.8 < e, < 1.6). This is illustrated by laboratory tests on Dogs Bay sand reported by Nutt (1993). Nutt prepared Dogs Bay sand at various relative densities fora pro- ‘gramme of cone penetration (ests in a calibration chamber. He observed that 4 maxinum relative den- sity (D.) of 30 per cent (void ratio e, = 1.6) could be ‘obtained by dry phuviation. Higher relative densities ‘up to 60 per cent (e, = 1.3) could only be obtained using vibratory compaction in layers, This contrasts with general calibration chamber experience with sl- ica sands where it is difficult to create samples looser than 30 per cent and samples up to 95 pet cent rela- ‘density can generally be obtained by dry pluvia- Caleareous sails generally experience some degree of cementation after deposition, Cementation causes 318 less densifcation than for uncemented soils during, worease of vertical effective stress. during further sedimentation Offshore silica sands can densify atthe seabed due to cyclic shear stresses induced by wave losding ‘Cementation (and possibly the high angulrity) of calearcous soils is likely to provent such densfica tion ‘The above data suggest that offshore carbonate sands are likely to be very loose to loose (i.e. Ds < 35%), and offshore silica sands ae likely to be me- din dense or denser (ie. D, > 35%). ‘The later is confirmed by the Author's experience with soit in vestigation data world-wide. However, the former can not be conclusively confizmed due’to the dit culty in estima i density ofthese materials n following sedimentation will riot reduce porosity significantly. Hovvever severe ‘cementation (eg, limestones) may cause a significant reduction in porosity 22.2 In-situ Horizontal Effective Stress ‘The in-situ horizontal effective stress in normally ‘consolidated uncemented sands can be estimated sc cording to: Ons! ~ Key" @ where oy,'= horizontal effective stress; ay'= vertical elfective stress, and Kem coefficient of horizontal earth pressure at rest. Various researchers have performed laboratory tri- axial tess on reconstituted uncemented sands 10 e2- timate Ke Some of the results are summarised in Ta- biel. ‘Table 1K, values lo Iboratoy essen normally coasll- i ces asst? som |roatos ra DY inghish (BSF Po —O.6} Aye al. 1988) [sas jaibat ass (66 a |Aivey at a. 1988) stoi) Isareke 0 0 ight and Naar) kiss) (Quon Jas Jos Joan ana Nay 1990) DDoxtay — enon ost loop Cam ‘Two conventional methods for estimating K. are: Ke l= sing? @ and owhere = effective angle of internal fiction; and v = Poisson's ratio, Airey et al, (1988) and Coop (1990) indicate that equation (3), after Téky (1944), underestimates labo ratory test values of K. Conversely, Poulos et al. (1982) obtained a good agreement between this rela- ‘ion and laboratory’ test values, ‘Semple (1988) indicated thst, for both silica and bioclastic uncemented calcareous sands, Poisson's ratio reduces with inereasing void ratio. Since the void ratio of offshore calcareous sands is generally significantly higher than for offshore silica sands, ‘equation (4) would suggest that the K, vahies of such sandsis lower than for silica sands Laboratory tes data indicate that both ratio and the fiction angle of uncemented carbor sands reduce with increasing (consolidation) stress level (Hull et al, 1988; Foray etal, 1999), Accord ing to the observed Poisson’s ratios, equation (4) ‘suggests that Ky values reduce with depth. However, according to the observed angles of internal fiction, ‘equation 3) suggests that K, increases with depth A literature review of Ky valves in uncemented (Carbonate) sands, complemented by Ke tian tests ‘was performed by Golightly (1988). This study re- vealed to significant tends ~ Ke inereases with increasing stress level, ~ Ke reduces with increasing (relative) density. ‘These trends agree with thoso trends associated with the Jéky empirical correlation (3) but are contrary to those aszocated with tho casticiy based equal (0), However, Golightly found poor agreement be- {ween measured K, values and predicted values ac- cording 10 Jiky @), Obviously the above review is inconclusive. It op- oars th the K, value of an uncemented normally consolidated carbonate sand isin the order of 0.43, Cementation i likely to prohibit dovelopm eral init stresses dunag, increase of 0 stress due fo sedimentation. The Author believes that Visualy all natural carbonate sande bave some de sree of cementation and that therefore insta Ke val ues are likely 10 be lower than 0.43 (unless signi antl overeonsoidated), 2.23 Volume Change during Shear Loading Carbonate sands with litle oF no cementation ace Known to contract signifcanly ding static shear loading (except at very low sie level), The pressity increases with increasing. ambiente consolidation) ates level ‘The former suggests that, for & “wished in-place’ sialy loaded pile, ctiona dea sess onthe ple at great depths may give more soi compaction com. aed to the same fictional shear tess onthe ple et Shallower depths Cyclic loading of cxtbon cementation causes volumettic compression, This is itysrated by Constant Normal Stiffness (CNS) labo- ratory shear tests reported by Tabucanon et al (1995), However, their test data: for_relatively Smooth (Le. sto!) interfaces are not as conclusive as for relatively rough (ie. prout) interfaces, It is also Unclear if “threshold” exists at which eyelic shear loading of smoot piles will give no (further) change inyolumettie strain. Semple (1988) suggested that all soils (including clays, silica sands and biocaatc ma- terials) may have 2 threshold below which no degra dation occurs. This threshold reduces with increasing clastic stifiness and increasing void ratio, 22.4 Unloading Sufress Pressuremeter tests performed in carbonate weakly cemented silts and sands at North Rankin B reported by Renfrey tal. (1988) shovved thatthe elastic stiff ness observed in pressuremeter contraction! expan- sion loops is significantly higher than the “elasto- plastic stiffiess” during intial pressuremeter inf tion. raving an analogy with the behaviour around a pile as ihisttated in Figure 1, it is suggested that compaction due to shear around a pile would be ns- sociated with a significant reduction in redial effec. tive stress on the pile sha, 2.2.5 Inplications for Pile Frietion Based on the review presented in the previous sec- tions i is considered that for typical bioclastic non to werldy cemented normally consolidated carbonate sands ~ the insta radial effective stress is likely to be ess than 0.43 times the effective overburden stress, ‘compaction occurs in the soil immediately sur- rounding the pile, The amount of compaction varies wath depth and may exceed the volume of soil displaced by the pile, relatively high unloading stiftess for carbonate soils could lead to a significant radial stress re- duction on a pile if the amount of compaction in the annulus around a pile exceeds the volume of soil displaced by tho ple Based upon the above considerations one would qualitatively expect thet unit skin fiction on a pile jtcked into carbonate sands increases les than linear with depth. A. simi laboratory and calibr bby Foray ota, (1999). It is also belioved that unit skin fkction on driven piles wil reduce (compared to jacked piles) in some proportion (o the distance above pile tip level 316 mids Gefn one pi sec! ca estimatvely also hear ge tall ara sing akly ted si sto- vfs wa that ato nate tion Dot nate sof vuld pile her ved E | | i 23. Insin Load wsis on Jacked Piles Axial foad tests on in-situ model jacked piles in ‘North Rankin carbonate sits and sands were re ported by Renfiey etal. (1588). The mode! piles ‘ere approximately 2.5 m long and of various types, ‘They had outer diameters of 36 mm (closed ended) and $9 mm (open ended, two wal thicknesses), They. were installed by jacking into the bottom of a bore- hole. Test depths were up to 110 m below seabed ‘Axial tension, often followed by repeated compres- sion-tension tests were performed after a set-up time (of approximately half an hour. The tests were gener ally performed in weakly cemented carbonate silts and sands at Nosth Rankin A (most thin wall pile {esis) and North Rankin B (other pie tests) Figure 2 shows peak fiction values versus pile Inidsection deptis below seabed. The residual values (efined as the Miction values after approximately fone pile diameter displacement) are not shown, but ‘were generally 20 per cent lower than the peak val- tues. Two trends are remarkable ia this Figure: 1 the peak fiction value does not seom to increase with depth, 2 there is no significant difference in frction values for the three pile types (even though the open ended piles dd not “plug” ding installation), Peak beta values (defined as Bp = peak fri ionleffective overburden stress) versus pile midsec- ion depth are shown in Figure 3. These indicate hy ~ 4 at 25 1m depth reducing to R= 0.1 at 100'm depth ‘The fiction between North Rankin sivsend and steel ean be estinated at tan8~ 0.55. The K, value is estimated at 0.43 at shallow depths possibly reducing erin well cemented layers. place” pile in soils with no vith depth and being s Hence for a “wished volume change during shear one would expect the fallowing Band unit retin f values at any depth 2 By=K, tan" 0.43 x0.55=0.24 “ f= Bo 2=0.24x 7x2 1.66% o ‘These theoretical values are shown in Figures 2 and 3, One could argue thatthe model pile tests up to 75 m depth follow the trends given by (5) and (6). However, the observed fiction values at greater ice fleet i = tiles "rt @ ig. 3 Bete vals, ns model pets He Vig, 2 Friction vs, sit mode ple tests 3i7 Fig Feeioweone reisance rato, insta model peesdepth are 30 to 50 per cent of these theoretical v es. This difference may be possibly related to a slightly higher degree of cementat depth. Such materiis may have a lower zontal effective stress and a larger unloading silf- ness, both of which are associsted with lower fic. tional resistance, The ratio of peak friction and cone resistance is plotted versus pile midsection depth in Figure 4. This fatio decreases from approximately 0.04 at. 40 depth to about 0.01 at 100 m depth. The seater of ‘he data on this plot is considered sine compared to the previous graph with fi values (Fig. 3) Some of the model piles were subjected to re petted cycling in tension and/or repeated compres- sion and tension tests following the intial tension ‘est, Cycling was done slowly and a linited number of load eyeles was applied. Cycling in tension did not reveal a significant reducti te skin Hetion, However a significant reduction in friction occurred following the first maximum load direction reversal (Ge. to failure in compression). Less reduction oe- curred during subsequent cycles Hovrever, these Were sill observed af the maximum number of ap- plied reversals (ie. 10 {0 12 reversals). Observed Fiction values daring the last tension tests ae plotted ‘ersus pile mid section depth in Figure 5. ‘These va tues ae in the order of one thitd oF the ini! peak fiction values. ‘The review of the in-situ model jacked ple test re= sults can be summarised as follows: ~ Slalic peak fiction values do not increase linear vith depth and attain maximum values in the or- der of 60 &Pa, lat ater Reese nig Po) ig. Degraded ction, in-sit model ple ests + no clear comrlation between static peak fetion ‘and measured CPT cone resistance was found, ~ fesidus! static iiction vahis ar inthe order of 80 per cent of the peak values, the pile tip configuration did ot seem to affect the measured fiction values, repeated loading tests indicated insignificant re- duction in one way fests and reductions to ap proximately one third of the static peak fiction iter 10 0 12 two way eyeles ILis noted however that the numbers of eycles wero fimited and re- duction in fretion was stil occurring at the maxi- ‘ium applied number of shear stress reversals, 24 Load Tests on Driven Piles ‘A review was made of both published and proprie- tary load tests on pipe piles driven into carbonate granular materials. ‘The pite load tests have been ‘Brouped as presented in Table 2 ‘Table 2. Tess on divx pies ie Load Tess REO Fey fms. le Ps ios eal (988), JAngemeor tt. (1973) feta et a. isk) Hangcmnee tat 1973) Dbutetat. (1935) it ad Cheng (1988) IHaponaa (198), Clee \a985) he. 1990) ‘The following clrifteations apply tothe above table: 1 Pile fond fests in materials with earbonate content in excess of 90 per cent were selected, Materials range fiom silts snd sands with litle cementation (North Rawkin) to coralline limestone (Ph pines). Suspicious load tests have been eliminated if data Were available ¢o judge this. This was done for ‘North Rankin, Souls Africa and Bass Strait where test details are reasonably to well documented. No details ero available for tests in the Philipines, Gulf of Suez and Red Sea (Hagenanr, 1987), Soil contitions are reasonably to well documented for North Rankin, South Arica, Bass Strait, Red Sea (Gilehist, 1985) and Cubs, these are poorly documented for the Philippines and Red Sea (Hagensar, 1982) Not all load tess are describe Where available, proprietary sulted for ple test details and sel conditions ‘The majority of the piles were open ended with displacement ratios ranging from 8 to 20 per cent (Closed ended piles were used at oi oe ton i ay te Beis te sy tine sent tefl = sa ea : HaeM4 ~ Red Sea (Hlagenaar, 1982) -2 piles + Red Sea (Gilchrist, 1985) 2 piles, = Cuba~ 3 piles 7 The majority of the tess were tension tests, pe formed sonie time after pile driving. Exceptions Red Sea whero all tension tests were (presumably) done ater a compression test, = Cuba where fiction values fiom three compres- sion tesis on instrumented closed ended piles were selected. Also used were friction values from (v0 tension tests on an open ended instrumented pile 1d on. a closed ended instrumented pile respec- tively, These tension tests were performed after ‘compression tests. 8 Residual friction values were reported for the ‘North Rankin, Bass Strait and Cuba tests. The av erage residual values for these three sites are re- spectively 62, 74 and 100 per cent of the peak values, No specifications were ropocted for the other tests, His assumed that reported values rep- resent peak fiction. 9 Limited data are presented on set-up periods bo- tween driving and testing the piles, ‘The shortest reported periods are for the texts offshore South Arica (where the shallowest was done immedi- ately ater driving and the others 0.5 hour after 2) and the two section tests at Nosth Renkin {Gie. Uhourand 3 hours respectivey). LONone of the piles except forthe Cuba tests had in- strumentation inthe embedded part of the ple. Average fizetion values versus pile tip penetration for fully embedded piles are shown in Figure 6, The data Ihave been divided into two groups dependent on predominant soil type: sands/its and cora/silstone ‘ean be observed thet the seatter in the data for the Jattris larger than for the former. The fiction values are denoted fas although itis often uncertain if a peak of a restdnal value has beon quoted. It can be ‘observed that for ples penetrating more than 20 mi, average friction values in sandsiits aro in the order fof 10 kPa to 20 kPa. One test plots significantly lower: One of the deep conductor tests at North Rankin (Poulos tal, 1988). The average friction values for coral and siltstone vary from 0 to 28 kPa. No general desige guidelines for these materials can be inferred from this grap It-was attempted to corzelate all the above fiction values with soll classification and CPT cone resis- tance data. However no significant correlation was, found. This is partially attributed to a combination of tho following; = sumnples Being generally disturbed ater retrieval ‘which lead to erroneous sol elasifcation, ~ soil classification is subjective and different of anisations adopt varying classification systems, vted CPT data being availabe, 319 = uncertainty on the relisbilty of the pile fond test results, jew of the paucity of high quality samples, it was ‘altempied to correlate pile friction to laboratory test results ‘The piles in sands were generally open ended and these did not plug during driving, Displacement ra- tips, DR, for the open ended piles varied fom 0.08 to 0.20 (DR = eross sectional area of stee! wall cxoss sectional area of pile). ‘Open and closed ended piles were driven into coral in the Red Sea Hagenaer, 1982; Gilchrist, 1985) and in Cuba (Puech et al, 1990). A. genera trend of larger fiction values for closed ended piles compared to open ended piles was observed. An ex ception is an 11 m penetrating closed ended pile the Red Sea, for which Gilehrist (1985) reporte zero fiction. No general guidelines for corals can be aiven in view of the linited amount of data and the scatter in the results ‘A 37 per cent higher friction in comparison to a tension load fast on a pile with the same penetration ‘was obtained in the only compression test inthe Bass Strait, A.71 per cent higher friction in a compression test on an instrumented closed ended pile in Cubs ‘wes obtained in comparison to a subsequent tension test on the same pile, The Author notes thatthe ftio- tion value in this tension test may have been ad- versely affected by the preceding compression test ‘Aagemeer etal, (1973) reported that cyclic loud ing tests perfosmed after two of te static tests inthe[Bass Strait (ie. one tension tost and one compression fest) did not indicate that repetitive foading would Significantly change unit skin fiction (or end bearing) values. Ebethar et al. (1988) reported that one of the pile sections tested offshore South AMfica was re ‘riven tothe initial test depth and retested. The test fesults were identical from vhich it yas concluded ‘that all degradation of soil was complete at the end ofthe initial driving ‘Opposite conclusions were reported by Poulos et ‘al (1988) and Randolph (1988) based on conductor lod test and pile (reiving data on North Rankin A. piles. Both data sets indicate degradation of fiction ‘during cyclic toad testing and redriving. ‘The difer- ence betiveen the observed behaviour ia the Nor Rankin sits and sands (compared to the Bass Strat and South Africa sands) is possibly due to North Rankin material being less dense compared 10 the sands fom the later two locations, ‘The fiction values observed in the North Rat conductor load tests and the low resistances ‘ob- served during conductor and foundation pile driving largely ted to the decision to undertake major reme- dial foundation works on the North Rankin A plat form (King and Lodge, 1988). 25. Design Criteria for Frietion on Piles Driven {into Carbonate Sands 25.1 Overview A comprehensive overview of the most common de- sign methods for assessing friction on piles dtiven into caleareous granular materials has been recently Biven by Alba and Audibert (1999). These methods can be grouped a follows U An API RP2A (1993) type approach which eon Slats of fiction increasing linearly with depth and subject 10 a limit skin ftction value, selected based on soi classification data ‘An approach similar to that deseribed above ex- cept that the limiting skin friction value is selected based on a Compressibilty Indox determined in ‘oedomseter oF isotropic compression laboratory fests (Nauroy and Le Tirant, 1983), Use of site specific pile load test results (Murit, 1987, Wilsie eta, 1988), ‘Numerous other methods have been proposed (ee Coop and MeAuley, 1993; Foray etal, 1999). Howe ever the Author is not aware if these have actually ‘been applied in foundation design practice ‘The following comments can be made on the above three most eomman methods: Ad I) ‘A large variety of parameters have been suggested for this method. Reference should be made t0 Alba ang Aubert (1999) for an overview. Pile design is 20 generally dominated by the limiting skin fiction Common to all methods is that very fow fetion val- ies are recommended for uncemented carbonate sands (10 < fy < 20 KPa for suds with carbonate ‘content in excess of 90 per cent), Higher values may be recommended depending on carbonate content and estimated instu density and degree of eementa- tion, Selection of design parameters by consultant is often based on ple design and pile driving expetience for specific areas, An example of this approach is ssiven by Johnson et a. (1999). Although the selec- tion of parameters lacks a sound basis, some comfort ‘may be four in the Tact that (tothe Author's know- edge) no actual pile foundations in such soils have failed in the past 10 years. Ad 2) This method is based on an empirical correlation between limiting Compressibily Index and wltinate skin fiction observed on model piles tested ina cali. bration chamber, Nauroy et al. (1986) recommend tower fiction values than suggested by these model pile tests based on an evaluation of Ginited) pile load date ‘Ad 3) Macft (1987) stated that: “It seems very clear that Prediction of driven pite capacity in ealeareous soils femains a highly speculative exercise. ‘The range of design parameters (shaft resistance and end beating) is s0 large that use of a singlo objective procedure 1 likely to be either unconservative or uneconomical Careful monitoring of installation procedures can be very usefil, but often there is large scatter and this information may be obtained so late that expensive remedial measures may be requited, Inthe long rn, very expensive sitespecific load tests may be the ‘most economical approach.” In view of the pil load test data scatter (Fig. 6), this approach seems certainly warranted for piles driven into corals and very cemented materials such aslimestones. ‘The majority of offshore platform foundations hhave been desiguedl using the APL RP2A type ap proach discussed above (aroup 1), Design parame. fers used before around 1980 were generally higher than parameters used thereafler. Hardly ever has foundation design bee made using methods which explicitly allow for eyelic loading. The Author fs not aware of any foundation problems (e.g. fire of ex- cessive seltlement) of offshore platfomns designed using the former static design criteria, ‘This provides some suppor, albeit not conclusive, that eycic load ing is not a major concern for most offshore piles However, the experience with the North Rankin foundations suggests that some offshore carbonate soils may be more susceptible to frictional degrada tion during pile driving and eyeie pile loading, The Author advises practising geotechnical engineers to sludy the geotechnical characteristics of North Rat kin materials (lewell and Khorshid, 1988) in order to identify driven 252 ( s The mo design lowing where f zontal and sol effective to dept ‘The fol mating > 90 p Toading Ktand- fw 151 Of the a casional kPa are selected between puted av this rang 10 KPa), “The ran pile load that the and silts umber list. Tnsufic both Al predict stalled b sign valu ly of 1 ‘explored ‘and piles level and are show be obser Nomth a the fiition vah nate nate aay tent eta. ass ch is elec vlort vowl have ation cali mend ‘ode load il scot ne) ations © ap: igor has ‘which ‘dentfy potentially adverse foundation conditions for riven ple fourdations for new structures, 2.52 Comperison of Pile Load Test Data with De sign Methods “The most commonly applied, APERP2A (1998) type, design method for estimating fiction uses the fol- lowing frre: £5 K tan 8 64. “fin o and Oe! =¥'2 ® where £= unit ska friction; K = coeficient of hori ‘ontal eath pressure; 8 fiction angle between stel find soi: o.»" ~ in-situ vertical ellective sess, y" ~ eective nit weight of soll ( average fiom seabed to depth 2; and fin= limiting skin fitio. “The following parameters are often used for esti- nating pile fiction (in sand with « carbonate content > 90 per cent) for both tension and compression (Dutt and Cheng, 1984) (Datta et a, 1980) (OF the above parameters, fins the more critical. Oo- casionally vals a5 low a8 5 KPa or as high as 85 [Pe are used, In practice limiting skin friction values selected by geotechnical consultants generally vary betiveen 10 KPa and 20 kPa. The Author has com- puted average pile friction versus tip penetration for this range. Effective unit weights of 7.0 KNinn (laa = 10 kPa), and & 0 KN/at® (ln ~ 20 KPa) wore selected. The range results are plated for comparison with the pile load test results in Figure 6. Tt can be observed that the majority of the pile load test results in sands and silts fall within this range. However, a signifcant ‘umber of tess in coral and siltstone le outside bot! Finis. ‘Insufficient data are available to compare the Com- prestibilty Index based method (Nauroy and Le Ti- rant, 1983) with pte Yond test d ‘The above limiting. skin fiction based methods (bothr API RP2A and Compressibility Index based) predict unit fietion values for pile test sections Stalled below ground lovel which do not exceed de- sign vals for filly embedded piles. Thus, the valid ‘concept can be ity of the limiting skin fictio explored by plotting average fic tnd pile sections agains the distance between ground level and the (vertical) centre of the pile. These data fre shown in Figure 7 for pies in sand and sit. Wea be observed that five of the six pile section tests (at North Rankin and offshore South fica) plot above the friction values for flly embedded piles. The low to. i. yds ands nd) ig, 7 Average etn, paral verses flly ented piles fest vahie was on « test section pulled immediately after diving. “The North Rankin section test fiction values are in the order of 30 kPa, where itis noted thet the shal~ Jowest pile was not pulled out statically but through ‘regular cyclic tension loads. The plotted fiction value is the observed residual friction for this test. “These two tests show friction values about twice that observed in conductor tests. However, fiction was about half Uiar observed in. static tests on jacked tmodel piles (compare Fig. 7 with Fig. 2). Possibly fortuitously, these values are of the same order of rmiagritde ao the last values observed in eyelc load ing tests on jacked model piles (compate Fig. 7 with is suggested wf & pile is nol constant (at great depth). It is believed that ultimate ffition is high near the pile ip but reduces above that level due fo pile deiving, Thos unit skin friction at some level above the tip is reduced depending upon the distance betiveen that level and the pile tip. This concept was successfully applied in a recent design method for piles driven into silica sands, developed by Jardine land Chow (MID, 1996). According, fo this method the nt kn etn for ie ple in eson en oF (os 0,"Nand o ovanre(e2)"(Q)* wo setRee REPRE oD) bert aay ‘where f= ultimate unit fiction at depth 2567 = radi affective stross on pile prior to axially loading the pile, Ao,’ = increase in radial efective stress during Foading, q.— CPT cone resistance at depth 75 x! in-situ vertical effective stress at depth z; pom atmos pheric pressure, I= distance betwoen depth 7 and pile tip; R= outer radius of pile, R= inner radius of piles a © empitical coefficient, =0.9 for pipe piles in tension, ~ 1.0 for pipe piles in compression and for closed ended piles, b~ empirical coefficient, = 0.8 for ples in tension, =1.0 for piles in compression “The Ac’ term in equation (9) can generally be i nored for conventional offshore foundation ple sizes. Based on a literature review of eycic (ring) shear test data between various sands and stee! with @ rough- tess similar (0 constuction steel, the Author found that fan 6 © 0,55 agreed well with vietally all re- viewed test results ‘This corresponds closely with steel to carbonate sand static direct shear tests pet- formed by the Author's company. ‘The direct application of the MTD method for carbonate sands is questionable since cone resistance is not only a measure of in-situ stress and relative sens (ke uncemented sca ds) ut abo dewee of cementation, Kolk and Campbell (1997) explored which fiction values would be predicted by the MID method in an ‘uncomented carbonate sand. For this purpose cone penetration tests in Dogs Bay sand (Nutt, 1993) were reviewed, Loose end medium dense ‘sands were {ested ina large calration chamber. The loose stm ples were prepared by dry pluvition and hd an av~ com acor=an) anne. 0= 51%) asin, 1] Fig. 8 Predict yerut meneued cone resistance, Dogs Bay and erage relative density of 25 per cent. Relative densi ties exceeding 30 per cent could not be achieved by plaviation, Medium dense sand samples were pre- pared by placing sol in leyers, each of which was vi- brated in-situ 10 achiove an average relative density of 54 per cant. The Author compared the mensured cone resistance data with cone resistance data pre dicted by the empisical correlation for silica sands developed by Jamialkowski et al. (1988) for Ticino sand, This correlation is given by: ae eota(Se)" pel a3) where 4, = CPT cone resstenes; p, = atmospheric pressure; oy ~ consolidation pressire (= (Oys" + 2ow. 3); See’ ~ insta vertical effective tess, oy" forsitu horizontal effective stress; and D, ~ relative density (SD, 1.0) Kolative densies, vertical and horizontal sieesses are Known for these ealibration chaniber tests and hence cone resistances can be predicted according to equa- (13). Predicted and measured qe values are com pared. in Figure 8. The predicted values are 19 per ‘ent (loose sand) to 35 per eent medium dense sad) higher than observed, These dilerences are believed to fall within the accuracy of the above formula for predicting cone resistance in any sand (partially doe {o unambiguous relative density. determinations). Conversely, observed ge values are in fir agrocment with equation (13) if 08 times the observed relative densities are inserted, Thus, the to groups of ca onate sands are equivalent 10 “deal” silica sands with relative densities of approximately 20 per cent snd 45 per cent respectively ‘Nat's CPT data in Dogs Bay sand fit the follow- ing equations (using the format of Jemiolkowski ot al, 1988) ay 4 a, =f as) Consiteing the diticaty experienced by Nat to prepa dese carbonate sand sanpls, te Author foreiers i plate th the cle denies and cove restates obtained hy Nat form an upper Beund to thes for natural uncemented carbonate sands, A rove of CPT dat i cana sands salable inthe Author's company sere to conf ths hypotesi tote tat the cone reine “alien the wesly coment mater st Noth Rankin are sito tower, However, thes a= Fate predominate fr whch enone cals enpialcoeation isnot appcabl. 322conate sands fie tance North mate: owski | ‘The empicieal MTD correlation between pile fic~ tion and cone resistance (equation 9) and the empiri- cal correlation of Jamiolkovksi etal. between CPT ‘cone resistance and relative density (equation 13) ean bbe combined into omleP Eom Following Semple’s (1988) suagestion that carbonate sands do not ¢iffer fundamentally in behaviour fiom Toose sien sands, tis of interest to compare fiction values for the later soils with observed fiction val- ‘ues on piles driven into carbonate sands. The Author is not avare of published pile load tests in loose silica sands. Hence it was assumed that the MTD (1996) prediction of fiction is valid, Hence fiction values for loose silica sands were computed using Jardine nd Chow's equation (9) for atypical pile size in the pile foad test data base. The following assumptions ‘were made: = pile outer diameter 0.76 m (30 inch) and « wall thickness of 25 rum (Finch); = lower bound relative density 15 per ce fective unit weight 7 KNim’, = upper bound relative density 38 per ce fective nit weight 8 KNim'; ~ sunt of horizon eth presse at eK 3; = Jamiolkovski et a.’s correlation between cone re- sistance, relative density and in-situ stress (equa- tion 13) applicable; = the Aq,’ teen in Fardine and Chow's correlation for unt pile fiction (equation 9) can be ignored; ion coofficient given by tan and ef: and of ot hin Feton ad lg 9 scion dition in ose sou, MD (1996) 383 = pipe pile loaded in tension, hence a = 0.9 and b= 08, The fiction distributions for the above pile penetra ing 60 m and 120m in sand with 2 relative density of 25 per cent is presented in Figure 9. In addition, test average fiietion values along each pile were com= puled at variable penetrations and are compared with the pile load test date in Figure 10. It can be ob- served that the test data for carbonate sands and silts generally fll within the range of te computed val- tes, It can be shovm that a relative density of 25 per feené (and. an effective unit weight of 7.5 kN’) bves a roasonable “conservative average” to the test data, The shepe of this curve is similar to conven tional design based curves given in Figure 6. itis of interest t0 note that the MTD (1996) method pre dicts a fietion vale in tension which (for a pipe pile) is 72_per cent ofthe friction value in compression ‘The limited load test data on carbonate materials do not contradict this suggestion. 253 Discussion Comparison of fiction values from jacked mode! piles, driven pile sections and fully embedded driven piles indicates that fietion reduces dise to pile driv- lng. This phesomenon is also observed for piles driven into silica sands (MTD, 1996), A review of CPT data. in carbonate sands confirms Semple’s (1988) suggestion that their behaviour is si Toose siliea sends. The MTD (1996) method for Toose sand yield fiction values of the sanie order as carbonate sands and silts with a wide range of ce= poaage Pe eton ee rmton Fig 10. Average fiction i loos sand fom HTD (1986) vere fv pile es ress‘mentation. The former confirms Semple's suggestion tnd the later indicates that cementation does not ap- peat to affect ple fiction significantly in such mate= rials, This may be due to eemeatation being lost due to pile driving, However, both this method and eon vertional design methods yield friction values which ‘ean differ considerably ftom values applicable for coral and siltstone. ‘Most carbonate sands are cemented in-situ. Hence ‘cone resistances in such materials are affected by both degree of cementation and celative density. Consequently, cone resistance in cemented materials are not indicative of ple ition that can be achieved in such materials. 1 is believed that more reliable methods could be developed for estimating ultimate fetion on driven piles, in-situ (oative) density (or void ratio) could be determined. “Although current design methods based on a lim ing fiction value may provide reasonable estimates of fictional resistance of piles in at all carbonate sand profile, estimates in alternating sandiclay pro- filos may be very wrong. ‘This is illastrated by the following example: Unit friction versus depth profiles for tension loading, were computed for 8 1.37 m (54 inch) OD, 38 mm (1.5 jnch) wall pleat $4 m penetration in an ali carbonate sand profile. Ftstly values were computed using a limiting skin rotion of 1S kPa (K tan 8 = 0.14 77 = 75 kNim’). Secondly, (local) fiction values were ‘computed using the MID (1996) based method as- summing a relative density of 25 per cont (plus the as- sumptions given in Section 2.5.2 above). Both meth- Sino ter=25%) Fig. 11 Fiction dstibulon, MTD (1996) verve conventions nein cos give MN tension capacity. However, Coca) ‘limate skin fiction distibuions are signiticantly {Geren as canbe observed in Figure 1 ‘The practical implication is at ie sol profile ‘vas not uniform sand, the two methods would pro- Vie sigeitcanly diffrent resistances. For example, iF the lower half ofthe ile was in clay, the MID based method would provide less ction in sand than the conveational method. Conversely, ifthe up- Der half of the pile was in clay, the MTD based Tnethod would provide more ction in sand than the conventional method ‘Uni both better pile load test data and more el- al soil data are obtained) the Author believes that ‘no sigpfcant improvemenis to current methods for cstnafing fition in calcareous materials can be fnade. These methods, summarised by. Alba and ‘Ausibert (1999), aro primarily based on engineering judgement and loce experience. The Author suggests thatthe MTD (1996) method be considered a5 an altemative. A significant amoutt of engineering judgement is required to estimate insty sol proper- Vis (principally relative. density or “design CPT cone fesistance) to be used in this method. ‘The re- ew presented herein may’ serve as 8 guideline for this eximate ‘Both conventional and MTD methods, provide fiction vahies which correspond reasonebly with peak fation values observed in tension load test. Use of these (peak) values is appropriate for piles which do no displace significantly when loading to Uknae otal resistance (eg, relatively shor ftion piles). However, ition reduction shouldbe cons fed fr piles which will displace sigacanty when loading 10 ultimate total resistance (eg. relatively Tong end bearing ples). Guidance on selecting ap- propdate criteria for the Inter conditions is provided By Pouios etal. (1988) and Wilsie et al (1988) tensive experience with pile foundation design an imited experience with cyclic lozé tests on test piles suagest that eyclic loading does not appear to sive adverse foundation behaviour in most extbonate However, th dramatic opposite eects of ple Aviv and eyelic lading with Noth Rankin A ples and conductas need tobe carey considered when Aesgaing piles in "green ld” ass Friction data for piles driven int limestone were not studied in detail for this paper. I is noted that it fiction values in these materials canbe signi- cantly ghee than for carbonate. sands, In the “Author's opinion ste specific pile load tests are re- ‘quired for assessing pile ition at locations with coral, festone and carbonate matecals which may show significant fietional degradation during cyl pile loading. 3 BND 3.1 Ino End bea pacity i theoretic ining ranging bearing often ‘these me sequent Inborato ate sand with des for end | provided Pile t swith inc end bear a pile he ameter 0 pile di exist. Ur to there cent oft Pile ¢ load is ally eth ‘constant dase gen Unless resistanc "There evidence pile is Similarly ally lowe stated di tance of cussion also inch 32 Des 32.1 Al Convent 1993) ty value spe Fimitng bearing ¢ ‘ous appl sells is3 END BEARING 3.1. Inrodtction End beating is often a major component of pile ca pacity in csfeareous granular materials. Numerous theoretical and empirical methods exist for deter- ng nit-end beating in conventional. materials ranging from sand to rock. Methods used for end bearing design in carbonate sands and soft rocks are often modifications of such methods. An overview of these methods willbe provided in Section 3.2. Sub- sequently, Section 3.3 will present an overview of Taboratory model and in-situ load test data in catbon- ate sands and coral. Those data will be compared wth design criteria in Section 3.4. Recommendations for end bearing design of open ended pipe ples arc provided in Section 3.5 tip resistance generally continues to inerease wih increasing pile tp displacement, Hence, ultimate tend bearing is often defined as the resistance a ether ‘pile heed displacement of 10 per cent of the pie di- ameter ora pile tip displacement of 10 per cent ofthe pile diameter. However, numerous other definitions Exist. Unless stated otherwise, the Author will refer to the resistance a a pile tip displacement of 10 per cent ofthe pile diameter. Pie end bearing is highly dependent on the way toad is applied, Pile load test procedures are gener- ally cither by incremental feading or by applying = ‘constant rate of penetration (CRP), The latter proce- dure generally gives higher values than the former. Unless stated otherwise, the Author will refer to the retistance associated with CRP tess, ‘There are both theoretical reasons and empirical ‘evidence that end bearing on an open ended driven pile is lower then on closed ended driven pile. Similarly, end bearing on a bored pile will be gener- ally lower than fora closed ended driven pile, Unless Stated differently, the Author wil refer to the resis- tance of closed ended driven piles. Hovvever, a dis- cussion on end beaving criteria for other pile types is also included inthe socond half ofthis Chapter. 3.2 Design Methods 3.2.1 APLRP2A Iype Design Criteria Conventional offore practice is to use APL RP2A. (993) type design criteria, This consists of assuming ‘an increase of ple end bearing with increasing effec= tive overburden pressure with a Tiniting end beating value specified at greater depth. The selection of the limiting end beating value generally dominates end bearing design. A comprehensive overview of vari- ‘us applications of this general method for carbonate aiven by Alba and Aubert (1999), 35 ‘Two variations of this method are often applied: 8), The increase in resistance with depth and the limiting. values are. solected using. engineering judgement. end are basod on carbonate content land estimates of in-sta cementation and density 16) This method is similar to (a), except thatthe im- iting end bearing value is selected based on a lim- iting Compressibiity Index determined in ‘osdometer or isotropic compression: laboratory tests ‘Those two methods are fundamentally similar to cor responding design procedures for estimating tition fon driven piles, Hence, comments similar to those faiven in Section 2.5.1 ean be made 10 the above methods. Tn offshore design practice, limiting end bearing values ate offen based on CPT date. A wider teat- Intent of using these data is provided in Section 3.2.2 following 3.2.2 CPT Based Methods ‘The use of CPT cone resistance data to estimate ul- te pile end beating is besed on the hypothesis that end bearing loading of a pile is not dissimilar to Toading & CPT cone, Ifa pile would be pushed into uniform sand at tho same rate as a CPT cone one could expect a similar end bearing resistance on both “piles”, Upon terminating further advance ofthe pile, the tip resistance will reduce (due to east rebounce and creep of tho soil). Upon reloading the can expect that ultimately the resistance profile for = ceontintously penetrating cone (or pile) will be achieved, Thus pile end bearing behaviour can be conceptually visualised as londing/unioadingireload- ing bebwviour in an oedometer or triaxial laboratory test. Uiimate pile end bearing is defined as the 1e- sistance at apo tip displacement of 10 per cent of its diameter. Dae to hystoress in the soil thi value i ‘generally be less than the CPT cone resistance at that level ‘Obviously other effects (such as diferences in pile installation and loading rates, densification and en- suing chaages in stresses due to ple driving) wil also ceause differences between pile ultimate end bearing fand cone resistance. In-house research in the Author's company indicate thal ultimate pile end bearing values are generally in the order of 40 per ‘cent of the average CPT cone resistance (Fugro En- -gineers, 1995). However, this review and mode! pile tests reported by Foray et al. (1998) indicate both higher and lower values depending on soil conditions and pile type. Foray etal, (1999) suggest ultimate end bearing values for closed ended piles in carbonate sands in the ofder of 20 per cent ofthe cone resistance. This value is based on model pile and plate load tests incalibration chambers on Manche and Quiou catbon- ate sands. Foray et al, suggest a seduction to 15 per ‘cent ofthe cone reistanco for open ended pipe piles. late load tests in calcareites at North Rankin A indicated thatthe resistance ata vertical displacement {f 10 per cent of the plate diameter isin the order of 15 per cent ofa weighed cone resistance over 2 plate diameter intervals below the plate (‘Modified Parry Method”, see Sharp and Van Seters, 1988, for fur- ther deal) "The cone resistance is considered a reliable indi ‘ator of pile end bearing in fine grained soils. How= ‘ever, coarse grained materials (defined as materials ‘vith an average grain sizeof more than 10 per cent of the cone diameter) may give misleadingly high one resistence values, Hence conventional CPT based ene beating criteria fr suc soils will generally bbe unconservaive. 3.23 SPY Based Methods lagenaar (1982) gave empirie! correlations between SPT N values and pile end bearing values interpreted fom pile load tests on coral and carbonate sands in the Red Sea. The Author does not recommend to use these correlations for carbonate materials because: a) The interpreted end bearing values are uncertain since thete were largely obtained by subtracting fssumed friction values fom the total pile com pression load SPT vahues at great depths (ie. general pile tip clevatioas) are notoriously untelible. ‘The correlations are based on limited, widely scattered, data, 3.24. Pressuremeter Based Methods Foray etal. (1999) compared model ple end bearing and. pressitemteter limit pressure date obtained in talibeaton chamber tests on Manche and Quiow es Donate sands. Based on these test results ultimate pil end bearing values of 3 to 4 times the pressuremeter limit pressure are recommended. "The Author considers it likely that these two pa- rameters ean be correlated. However, he can not judge the reicbility of the proposed correlation since he s not aware of comparisons of relevant (and rel able) pressuremeter and pile end beating tests. The ‘Author fuethermore notes thatthe pressurerneer test has to added advantages above the CPT: 1) A ill [oad displacoment curve i obtsined which can probably be coreelated to axial and lateral pile design criteria, bp A larger volume of sol is tested, hence gravels ‘and. discontinuities in carbonate deposits are Tigly to have a fsser effect on pressuremeter test than’ on cone resistance dat, 3.2.5. City Expansion Theory Based Methods Various authors have reported successful predictions of bearing capacities of aboratory model footing and trode! pile tests in calibration chambers (Pouios and Choa, 1985; Yeung and Carter, 1989, Golightly and ‘Nauroy, 1990; Yasufuku and Hyde, 1995; Ohno et al, 1998) Ina eases it concerned predictions based fn laboratory tests on uncemented silica and carbor ate sands prepared tothe same density asthe san talbration chambers. The Author notes that in-sita cerbontte sands are generally cemented and undis- tutbed samples (and hence reliable laboratory tests) ‘ean generally not be obtained in routine soil investi- ‘ations, ‘A cavity expansion solution for estimating end beating of piles in rock lias been proposed by Ladanyi (1972). Predictions compared favourably with footing and ple test results in rock. The Author considers this method of potentially greater practicat use than solutions for sands since rock cores ean be miore readily obtained in routine investigations than uundistured carbonate sand samples. 3.2.6 Finite Element Analyses ‘The remedial works of tho North Rankin A platform foundations inchuded installation of approximately 4.5 m diameter bell footings in calcarenites approx: rately 120 m under seabed. The large diameters of these bells in combination with the drainage charac- teristics of the ealeatenites result in parally drained soil behaviour during storm loading of the North Rankin platform, Predictions of (drained, pactially drained and undrained) foundation behaviour were made based on 2 large number of finite element analyses using a highly complex soil mode! (Smith et al, 1988), For this porpose a large number of high {quality cores of the foundation materials were ob- tained end an extensive core logging and laboratory te programme on represent sale wes per formed, ‘The whole programme of field testing, coring, laboratory testing and finite element analyses were of the highest standard achiovable to date. However, rich time and expense was associated with this pro: ‘gramme, Hence, this approach is not suitable for Foutine foundation design, 3.2.7. Design Based on Unconfined Compression fest Data Nomerous empirical design methods are available for catimating pile end bearing from Unconfined Com pression Test data. A review of various methods has been given by O'Neill and Hassan (1994), ‘When using any of these methods one should be vate of the following: Most methods apply for (hard) rocks and are site speci, 926 2 Most m 3 Various than ui Laboratory Dogs Bay empirical ee ee Where qe: Compress “Tests were Dogs Bay Dogs Ray's such layer (1988 and 328 Pile Pile load t ing the be bonste sol piles are tolisbly ase 33. Test D 33.1 Mow AcTiterat ‘nodal pil viewed si irae Houlsby rented, Fi are believe ing of ples con. dense tic, 1), chambe tests pe ‘The see ass Sta ‘Model Pile Mode pte sand inclu diameter & (Houlsby e ‘the sand wewe te oor ned sh aly sent het sigh ob. wy per ing cot ro for efor has be 2, Most methods refer to bored ples. 3. Various methods are based on allowable (rather than ultimate) bearing eapactes. Laboratory model pile tess on attificilly cemented ‘Dogs Bay calcareous sands revealed the following empirical correlation (Houlkby eta, 1994) ay whore qe=uitimate pile ond bearing, qy™ Unconfined Compression Strength; and p, = stmospherie pres- ‘Tests were also performed on thin ayers of cemented Dogs Bay sand interbedded in loose uncemented Dogs Bay sand, Recommendations for end bearing i such layered materials are given by Houlsby et al (1988 and 1994). 3.2.8 Pile Load Tests Pile load tests are the only reliable wey of determin- ing the bearing capacity of foundation piles in car~ Bonate sols, coral and soft rock. However, unless piles ace swell instrumented, end bearing cannot be felialy assessed from such tests 33. Test Data 33.1 Model Tests {A literature seviow of calibration chamber tests or trode! piles and footings was made, For all tests re- viewed soils had carbonate contents in excess of 80 per cent. With the exception of some ofthe tests by Houlsby et al. (1988, 1994) all sands were unce- ‘mented. From this review tests were selected wich aro beloved to provide a reliable insight in end bear- ing of piles driven into carbonate sands. Model tests ‘on dense to very dense sands were discarded be- sands with such carbonate contents and relative densities are unlikely to be found in design prace tice, 1) chamber size effects wore suspected in all model tests performed in dense to very dense sands, ‘The selected tests, made in Dogs Bay, Quiou end Bass Strit sans, are reviewed below. ‘Model Pile Tests on Dogs Bay Sand ‘Model pile tests on uncemented carbonate Dogs Bay included measuring tip resistance on & 16 sam fiameter closed pile during conlinuous penetration (Houlsby etal, 1988, 1994). The relative density of the sand was estimated at 25 per cent. The inner di- 27 ameter ofthe chamber was 450 mm (Le. 28 times the ‘model pile diameter). Various combinations of hori- ‘zontal and vertical confining stress on the soil sample ‘were applied. ‘The end beating during continuous penetration ‘was correlated withthe average consolidation stress, «a, according to: as) This correlstion indicates pile tip resistance values approximately 15 per cent higher than cone resis- tarice valuos in loose Dogs Bay sand reported by Nutt (1992), "The shove correlation is shown in Figure 12. 11 is noted that equation (18) applies for « continu- ‘ously penetrating pile. Lower ultimate end bearing values are expected ifthe pile would fuave been stat cally londed fom an “at rest” position to a pile tip lisplacoment of 10 per ceat of the pile diameter. For silica sands this end bearing velue would be in the ‘order of 40 per cent of the value for a continuously jncked pile (or cone penetrometer) as noted catlcr. Model Plate Load Tests on Quion Sand Embedded plate load tests on uncemented Quiow sand in a “controlled wall” calibration chamber were reported by Fioravante etal. (198. The plate had a 7Pile load tests on cemented Bass Strait sands £16 Pile load tests on corals and sands in the Red Sea. =. 4Pile load tests in Cuba. “These text are discussed below. North Rankin A Plate Load Tests ‘A total of eight plate load tests (PLTS) were por~ formed in caleerenites at depths ranging from 112.6 rm {0 140.8 m below seabed (Van Goudoever et al. 1988; Sharp and. Van Seters, 1988). The tests were performed using a hydraulic jack mounted at the otioin of 762 mm (30 inch) OD conductor driven to the required testing depths, Two plate diameters were used: 406 ran and SOB mm. The fist test (et 112.6 m) performed with the SO8 mm place did not achieve future and was repeated using the smaller 406 mm plate. However, again soit failure was not reatited. The load settlement curves of the remaining Sx tesis generally consisted of three siright lines ‘The intersection of the first two straight fines was called the yield point. This point occurred at placements of 4 {0 12 per cent ofthe plate diameter "The results of the PLTs (except the frst one) are summaised in Table 3. The last column gives a weighted cone resistance ‘over a two plate diameter interval beiow the-plate. ‘This was done by giving more weight to cone resis- tances at depths near the plate and less to those fur- ther away from the plate (“Modified Parry Method!” see Sharp and Van Seters, 1988, for farther detail),in “is ,Nort Rapin A pie ott a, 2 a eat Pine (Yd Pr Frases — rr wait 4 Pies TE bianet fet one estines a ee ese De | snded uct prs la qT os cory foray [or —- Pa S30 | y soi [os Joos aT i ‘bent separ ———fs9 2 this ——€ 10s Ba i vide Sor —— po 2 36 | tel bos foas_——~fis ne Z bor 10 is na Both the avorage yield pressure and the average — by Angemeer etal. (1973) Soil conditions wore de- Det th oe decent are Dist (seeds eeu lly an with ocean ee | bon eetive ranges te 00a, 0.24a,and 0.10, mented lumps. Quartz content was less than 10 pet | ee 0209,): ent Soll somples were obiained by percussion 4 eats eee Sampler Hence, samples lasied as uncemented este Gay oar = 0-15 Q5 (19) may have been ceniented in-sity since percussion 4 ing 34 “The PLITs are considered reasonably representative sampling is knowa to destroy cementation in weakly | fh et for an “ideal” bored pile Higher resistances could be cemented materials. The casings were driven through | expected for a closed ended driven pile due to densi- 508 mm OD conductors (dried ut to below con. a rat Here alow ie pe tp. Ghctor tip level and provided with a grout pag at 4 we “The yl postures are potted versiseffeive the ip (ive tess). One tet on @ SOB mm OD eon a ely! overburden presute at plato level n Figure 13. dhctor was done ater providing a cement grout plug, | at the tip. Grout plugs were stalled by dling the casing/conductor out to 0.4 m above the pile tip and s Bass Sot Pile Toad Tests subsequently pouring, giout above this small. soil 4 pig, End bearing tests on 406 mim (16 inch) OD casings "The tests gonerally showed a bisinear_ ond ql dnd S08 nm (20 net) OD conductors were reported diplacement curve. The fest data are summarised in a Hip Table 4 4 ae ‘timate End Bearing [Pa] beating pile test data z y : eet: oe fs sme ny For a te were i: aoe 4 at the he fees : riven © bane | neler: ae | test (at Psi ferent : did not met fornia pe el ‘stale Pie 4 was not : a nai, it Tnes 210) bes oa | iene bos kbs Fr haya one) are |p ia hes spe Hebe S sistance ile bs he plate 2 one esis Further clarification ofthe tess iso olows = tose fs Genera: “The en bearing txing programme 2 ‘was complementary to a pile test Method”, : dotsls). ‘Saha ieee once programme at the same period to ‘auRPLTS i, 19nd bearing dat ed tess etormine fiction on dive ‘ductors. The latter ests € primarily of tension tests. Frictionvalues from these tests were used to detectine end bearing on the tracting fiction from total load) This is probably unconservative since friction in compression is Vikely to be larger than tension. Hence, actual end bearing vvahies may be lower than preseated boy Angemteor etal. (reproduced in columns 6 and 7 of Table 4), The Auilior made lower bound esti- rmatos of end beating by assuming that pile fiction in compression ‘was tice as high as the fition as- sumed by Angomeer et al. The Computed lower bound end bearing values are_given in the last two columns of Table 4 Tests $2 and 12: Test 5.2 was performed with the ceasing tip clase to. conductor tip level Test 12 was performed on the tame (plugged) casing which was driven 30.5 m deeper. ‘Tests 109, 10b and 11; All tree tests were done us- ing the same casing and conductor. ‘The ceslts of test 10a seemed s0 low thatthe casing was driven 0.6 1m deeper for test 10b. Thereafter the (phigged) casing was driven another [3-4 m for test 11 ‘esis 13aand 15:The tests were done on two fully embedded conductors driven to the same penetration. The sol plug for test [3a was left in place, whereas the soil plug for test 15 was largely removed and replaced by a grout plug. Angemecr et al. note: “The vaunted end bearing, dats. from s should be weighed her tests ‘The ets included a ste of pil tip conditions hie riven open ended, ented without grout plog (est 130), Dies dtiven open ended tested with grout plo 352, Onand 15), piles driven closed ended, tested with grout plug {ests 12, 105 and 11), ‘The Author would expect ond bearing values to ine crease in the order given ab ve due to increasing densification below the pile tip and/or a stiffer plug ‘The texts on piles driven and tested with @ pre- installed grout plug seem to give higher end bearing values than the other pile types. However, insuff- cent data are available to justify a definite conch Te average cone resistance at the pile tip levels is ‘estimated at 25 MPa based on cone resistance data presented by Hyden et al. (1988). This value_ was ‘compared with the (upper bound) estimates of pile end bearing by Angemeer et al. and with the lower bound estimates by the Author (Table 4). This com: parison resulted in the following average cortele tions: @0) @ ey #025 4, 100.30 4 a1" 0.28 4, £0033 qs ‘The Bass Sirait end bearing ~ cone resistance corre- lations (20) and (21) are approximately a factor 2 higher than correlation (19) for the North Rankin PLT, ‘An alternative comparison was made by compat- ing the North Renkin and Bass Strat end bearing data with the estimated in-situ vertical effective stress ‘at PLT and pile tip level, An average effective unit ‘weight y"=7.0 kim? for North Rankin and 7? ~ 7.5 LeN/as' for Bass Strait soils was assumed. The yield prespures are plotted versus estimated vertical in-sint effective strosses in Figure 13, ‘This graph suggosts that ifin-stu vertical effetive stress is used as a basis for comparison, then the Bass Stat end bearing values are also in the order of factor 2 higher than North Rankin PLT values. Red Sea Pile load tests on driven piles tipping in sand and coral were reported by Hagenaar (1982) and Gi- christ (1985). ; “Hagensar reported the results of twelve compres- sion tests (nine on closed ended piles and three on ‘open ended piles). Tension tests were performed on four piles (presumably following the compression tests), of which two were on open ended piles. One closed ended pile could not be brought to failure (Goth in compression and in tension). Pile diameters ranged from 0.61 m to 1.42 m and pile tip penetra- tions varied between 10,75 mand 45.0 m. Lis urleae how failure in compression was de- fined, Some test data prosented in Hagensar and Van Sees (1985) indicate a pile head displacement at failure of 4 to 7 per cent of the pile diameter Hiagenaar used fiction data from the three tension tests to establish end bearing on these thee piles (by subtracting these from the total compression failure loads). Bnd beating on other piles wes estimated us- ing theoretical fiction values. Heace the derived end bearing data are inaccurate due to assumed fiction values dusing compression loading. Gilchrist (1985) deseribed four series of successful pile load tests on 1.42 m OD piles. The first two se- fies were done on an open ended pipe pile driven to 390levels is vee data fae was of pile ¢ lower ccorrela- 2) en factor 2 Rankin wwe stress ative unit lye7s The yield sal in-sita ett t der of ve sand and and Gil- ccompres- three on ‘oemed on pression piles. One *o failure diameters penetra. was de- veand Van ce tension en by ion Yauire imated us lerved end 4 friction successful rst 10 se 364m end 44 m, The second two series of tests were performed on a closed ended pile driven to 11 mand Fo m penetration. At cach level the pile was fist test ioaded in compression and subsequently tested tension. I is uncertain ithe pile was plugging in the fiat (wo compression tests “The pile was probably tipping in coraline silt and silty fine sands in tho fist two test series and “honeycomb” coral in the lest two tes series. “Various criteria were considered by Gilchrist for ‘defining compression failure, The Author selected the average values reported by Gilchrist. These c spond approximately with yield points on the pile head lord-displacement curve and occur at pile head displacements in the order of 3 per cent of the pile ameter, Gilehrist also used various methods 0 ¢s- timate end bearing from these values, The Author selected the method of subtracting fiction in tension from total ultimate compression load. This method is Tike to be unconservative as noted calc. ‘agensor compared estimated end bearing values ‘with SPT N-values and proposed SPT based design cfteria based! on this comparison. These data are shown in Figure 14, Hagenaar recommended end bearing criteria for open ended pipe piles in coral ‘which are approximately 40 to SO per cent of end Dearing values of closed ended ples in coral (fr the same SPT N-value). The Author plotted Gilchris’s data in Figure 14. It can be observed that the open ‘ended pile data correlate reasonably with Hagensar’s ‘proposal. However, the closed ended pile data plot ‘considersbly lower than the corresponding, correla- tion suggested by Hagenaar The Author notes that, forall tests on open ended piles, the piles were tipping in soils described as sands, However, all data points for closed ended ig. ad bearing vere SPT Noles, Red Sex ast piles on or below Hagensar's suggested! correlation for closed ended piles are described as corals. Three tests for closed onded piles (Numbers 7, 11 and 12) were performed on piles tipping in “sand. These plot hove Hagensar's suggested relation “The end beating dats from Hagenaar and Gilchrist were compared with estimated insitu vertical Stresses at pile tip level, The later were computed wing an_avorage soil effective unit weight of 8.5 Nii’. These date are shown in Figure 13. The fol- Towing can be observed: the end bearing values for open ended piles sand plot on the ower bound of al test data =the end bearing data for the three closed ended piles in sand ({e. » 7 MPa) ate in the same order fs the Base Strait values and do not appear to cor= ‘lato with in-situ stress = end bearing values for closed ended piles in coral fare widely scattered and are in the range of the above two groups of end bearing data nba Puech etal, (1990) reported on four series of ina sented pile load tests on 081 m (32 inch) OD, 38 m, penetration, steel pipe piles in Cuba. One series of pile tests was on open enced piles. Bach test series ‘consisted of a compression tet followed by a tension test “The piles were tipping in a formation with a vari- ty of soils ranging from sand to strongly calcified coral blocks. The pile driving data suggest that the pile tp was near the boundary of a sand and a coral satura, Compression filure was defined as a pile head lisplacement of 10 per cent of the pile diameter. Puech et sl, reported an end bearing, value of 680 kN for the open ended pile based on strain gauge meas- urements near the tip. This value is largely due to end bearing on the stool tip and ignores the end bearing ‘contribution through the soil plug. An upper bound estimate of 1050 kN for the fll end bearing area (i, steel wall plas soil plug) is computed by the Author by subtracting the frictional resistance from the te sion test from the failure load in the compression test, “The end bearing values were compared with the estimated vertical effective sess at ple tp level. The Tater value was computed assuming an average ef fective unit weight 7" = 7.5 Nin" These data are shown in Figure 13. It ean be observed that the end bearing of the open ended pile is about ‘one third of the closed ended pile values. = the end bearing of the open ended ple is less than the trend indicated by the open ended pile tests in sand from the Red Sea. The end bearing isin the ‘order of the lower bound to the Red Sea closed ‘ended pile load test data in coralVera tec Sess Tp PP] f a, 15 End bearing on driven pls in carbonate sds + the data for closed ended piles are slightly lower than the upper bound Ret Sea data for closed ‘ended piles in coral 34 Evaluation “The end bearing data from the load tests with piles tipping in sand are compared with the upper and lower bound design recommendations of Datta t a. (980) in Fignre 15. 1 can be observed thatthe test data generally fall within these upper and lower bounds "However, the data indicate that the pit tip condi- tion seems to influence the ultimate end bescing: = the majority ofthe (ets on open ended piles (i.e, all in the Red Sea) indicate values in the order of 2.5 MPa. One test (Bass Strait) on an open ended pile indicates a end bearing in the order of 6 ‘MPs. This difference may either be coincidental (is, only ono date point significantly different) or be die to different soit conditions and/or different pile diameters for Red Sea ples compared to the Tass Strait conductor: The Red Sea piles hed ‘outer diameters of 0.91 m (one pile) and 1.42 m G piles) versus the 0.51 m outer diameter of the [Bass Strait conductor. =the other test data aze for piles driven open ended and grout plugged before testing and for piles driven closed ended, The majority of these tests indicate end bearing values in the order of 6.5 MPa (irrespective of the tip condition during deiving). It is noted thatthe data in Figure 15 refer to goner~ ally weakly cemented sands with carbonate contents in excess of 80 per cent, For carbonate tnaterials, ex 992 cuing coral and harder materials (e.g. Himestono) it is proposed to estimate unit end beating based on CPT cone resistance data For this purpose, the folowing end bearing data are compared with average cone resistance values: FQuiot calibration chamber plate toad tests at 0.1 plate displacement = North Rankin A plate Toad tests at yield 2 Bass Strat end bearing pile load tests at yield ‘These data are compared in Figute 16 "A suggested lower bound estimate, based on the (Quiow and North Rankin plate load test data is given by: 4.0.15 4 (22) ‘This correlation is considered applicable for bored piles and is considered a lower bound for open ended Pipe ples. ‘A. suggested upper bound estimate, primarily the Bass Sat pile load test dat, is given based by. 4.~0304. @3) ‘This correlation is recommended for piles driven closed ended and is considered an upper bound for ‘pen ended piles, Tis noted that equations (22) and (23) both refer to pile tip displacements of 0.1D or less (ie. yield pola). ‘A recommended method for a closer estimate of ced bearing on open ended pipe piles fs presented in the following section, Ui nd Rerog oP, Ccprcane Restanc (NP + ekorr@e10 2 Nemestimarctwernas f omemctnsawee Lonmin Ps Fig. 16 End bearing versus cone resistance3.5 Soll Plug Behaviour Generel experience with driving open ended piles Peale materials is that they 20 not pug ing fying ‘The top ofthe sol plug in Toose to dense rcs genealy belowground level which can igey be attributed to densification duc to cyl ee eons ton pectin owever, during state loading, the top ofthe soi lun goneraly remains stationary relative to the pile at ndieatng plugging behavior. Exceptions may fave occurred in soa carbonate meters: Pow resistance was observed in Toad tess on a 1.52 m (60 ine) OD pipe pil in Tae (Yaron et ai, 1982), The pile was provided wih an inte diving shoe “The monty of the soll pg con Sted of sllemating layers of sand and caletreous Sandstone, ‘The sandstone Teyrs combined i the elects of the inlermal diving shoe possibly prevented adequate contact between sol pg a rer pile wall above the diving shoe. + the pile head load-displacement carves of to pile food tests on a 1.42 m OD pipe pile reported by christ (1985) suggest thatthe ple may not have {faly) plugged uring testing, The majority ofthe Soll lag. consisted of “honeyeoml" coral with pockets of corlie sit and sand, This pile was Provided with an internal driving shoe. Again, the Eonbinaion oft diving shoe and cemented pig frateral my have prevented adequate comact Gatween soll plug and inner pile wall above the diving sho. ‘The interaction between a sand plug and the inner yall of pipe pile has been described by Randolph et al. (1992), Simple closed form solutions, confirmed by finite element analyses, were presented. These re- sults compazed favourably with laboratory tests on soil plugs of uncemented caleareous Bass Strait sand. Based on these findings, the vertical (upward) dis- placement of a soil plug, us, under an end bearing pressure, qp, canbe estimated according to (Murff et al, 1990): a) LD ,0 is OVE Ou eH 2) es) 6 B Bm, 29) Kitand @ where qu = average end bearing pressure on soil pig; uj’ upward daplacement of soit plug, Dy = fonsalned modulus of sel plug: Ey) moctis of elasticity of sot plug; v~ Poisson's ratio of so plug; 338 average vertical effective stress in sol plug, 5 = fic~ tion angle between soil and steot wall, and D,= plug diameter, ‘Theoretical analyses and experimental data. indicate that for ealeareous Bass Strait sands B isin the order (6F0,2010 0.25 (Randolph etal, 1982). ‘The above findings can be used {0 estimate the ‘end bearing zesponse of an open ended pipe pile. For this purpose, the following model ean be made 1 The sol et ple tip level is separated into soil be- love (origina!) tip level end the sol plug ‘The soil below tip evel is loaded by the ste! wall and by the soil phug. Average pressures and asso- ated displacements of these two components can diffe, However, during elastic loading, these can be correlated using elestic theory (Poulos and Davis, 1974) ‘The (upward) pressure on the sol plug and asso- ciated displacement are correlated through equa- tion (24) from Mutt etal. (1990). Upper limits are placed on the resistance on the pile wall and on the total pile tip area (Le. wall and soil pug). 2 ‘Key input parameters for analyses of end bearing re- sponse are: Ex) ~ elastic modulus of soil plug: E= clastic moduls of soil below pile tip level; v = Pois- son's ratio of soll, qe = ulimate resistance of pile wal; qe= ultimate resistance of ple tip (pile wall plus soil plug); 8 = friction ratio as defined previe fusly; D = pile outer diameter, and t = pile wall thickness. “The ultimate resistance of the pile wall can be ¢s- timated at qe» 0.7 based on a comparison of theo retical classical end bearing coefficients of a deep sip (Le pile wall) and a doep circular footing Ge. CPT cone). The iltimate resistance of a fl pie tip can be estimated a q. ~ 0:3 qe as suggested for closed ended driven piles (equation 23). ‘The North Rankin PLT data indicate initial sti nesses B, © 1.8 qeif shallow elastic footing theory is Used, ‘The Hass Strait data indicate an approximately 5 times higher Egg ratio, A ratio of 2.5 was selected by giving more weight to the PLT data. Pile tip toad settlement curves were computed assum and Ey E,~ 2.5 qe for piles with Df ratios of 80, 40 and 20. Using the above assumptions and these dale, it can be shown thet the resistance al 10 per cent pile tip displacement ranges from 0.17 q, to 0.23, ‘9 Pugro Engineers, 1995). The wall thickness at the tip of typical offshore piles isin the order of 10 of the ple outer diameter. Thus for typical open ended ‘offshore piles the following relation is suggested: quar 02q 08)1 is noted that according to this appronch the resis- tance at O.1D pile tip displacement is dominated by the soil stifiess values E, and Eq, Hence i is es ‘ommended that relation (28) be verified in actual de- sign casos using site specific sol stiiess data 4 DRIVEN PILE DESIGN 41. Design Recommendations ‘The review of pilo fond toss in sols with more than 80 per cent carbonate content has confirmed that conventionally applied design criteria for uncemented highly compressible carbonate sands are. generally adequate, Design parameters are dominated by lim- ing skin fiction and end beating values. In conver tional design practice these are in the order of 15 kPa and 3 MPa respectively. It is generally accopted that piles in sands and silts with carbonate contents less than 20 per cent can be designed using design extern Tor silica sands. Design of piles in cemented carbon- ate sands and in sends with carbonate contents in between 20 per cent and 0 per cent rely lrgely on ‘engineering judgement, An overview of various eon- ‘ventional design methods applied forthe full range of carbonate. sands is given by Alba and Audibert (1995), and an example of application of engineering judgement is given by Johnson etal (1999). ‘There are insufficient proper ple oad test data to approve or disprove these design approaches. In view of the uncertainty of pile design in carbonate toils the Author consider it essential that various de- ‘ign methods aro applied and resus compared be- fore a design recommendation is made. For this pur- pose the Author has given tvo alternative methods for fiction and end beating which ate considered ‘more rational than the above methods: = a method for estimating friction distribution on @ pile in carbonate sand with a carbonate content in ‘excess of 80 percent (Section 2.5.2) 1a method for estimating end bearing on closed ded and open ended piles in carbonate sand ‘with a carbonate content in excess of 80 per cent (Geetions 3.4 and 3.3). For soils with carbonate contents between 20 and 80 per cent, the Author suggests the following design proce compute fiction (Qa) and end beating (Qne) = suming sands would fave @ carbonate content in excess of 80 percent, ‘compute friction (Qa) and end bearing (Qs) as- suming sands would have a carbonate content of Tess than 20 percent interpolate in between the above values assuming pile capacity is related to carbonate content, using the following equation: 29) Where Qqe = recommended (fiction or end bearing) ‘capacity, Qs * (ition or end bearing) capacity as- ‘suming silica sand, Qu» (etion or end bearing) ca- pacity assuming carbonate content in excess of 80 per cent; and CaCO, = carbonate content fin %]. Its appreciated thatthe validity ofthis interpolation rthed is unproven since the method is based on en ‘neering judgement only. 42. Optimisation of Driven Pile Designs ‘The review of pile lond test deta has revealed that there are no high quality pile load tost data in cal- ccareous sands, ln addition there is at preset no suit able method to adequately characterise the init properties of these soils. It is believed that inst ‘measurement of porosity together with CPT cone re- sistance is likely to provide suitable parameters to allow more reliable pile design, This would require the development ofa tool for reliably measuring po rosily in-situ, Obviously high quality pile load test dala are required in order to develop more reliable pile design criteria Pile design in coral and highly fractured rock re- uires in the Author's opinion site specific pile toad tests in view of the dificlty to characterise these materials from sol investigation data, The sol inves tigation and the pile load tests performed at Cuba (Puech eta, 1990) iastrate this “Ed beating in competent limestone can probably be predicted with a reasonable degree of accuracy ftom current analytics! procedures. However, 0 suitable design methods are avaiable to assess fic- tion on driven piles in such materials, Pile load test data have confirmed that end bearing cof closed ended piles in carbonate sond and corti significantly higher than for open ended pip piles. Although less conclusively confirmed by pile load ‘oats, itis also likely that friction on closed ended driven piles is higher than for open ended pipe piles, Hence, elosod ended piles (rather than open ended piles) ate prefered foundation solution, ‘A great dificulty is to predict drivabilty of closed ‘ended piles Bernacdes and Kormann (1997) reported ‘on 2.0 m diameter closed ended piles which were ssuccessfilly driven in_caleareous sands for which thoy assigned cone resistances in excess of 70 MPa, ‘Their wave equation analyses indiceted that & max tesistance of 23 MN was overcome ing hammer. This implies that end bear- ing resistances during driving were less than 7 MPa, is appreciated thet large excess pore water pres sures ean develop in caleareous soils wien sheared rapidly. The observed large self.weight penetrations ane low driving resistances of open ended pipe piles 4nal = However, few geotechnical engineers would dare to 4 vedic less than 7 MP tip resistance in sand with 70, : ing) | BaP cone restance unless they have previous expe- S! Znredution a rence in siilar soils. Tis noted that Bemardes and Bored and augered cast in-situ piles in calcareous = | == Kormann had. such experience, though a large sands are often applied for onshore foundations. 0 ‘amount of tal ple driving undertaken by the Brani- Drilled and grouted piles in carbonate sands have a fan cil company Petrobras. been employed for some offshore platforms in the = 'A new development which can enhance the ca. Middle Eas, inthe Bass Strait and on the Northwest 4 = pacity and divabiity of closed ended piles is the Shelf of Australia. These foundations consist gener- = = Gowmthe-pile-driving systom (Arentsen et el, 1998), ally of a driven sleeve pile, underneath which a a "This consists of a pile driving hammer which strikes smaller diameter driled and grouted insert pile is tho pile tip directly and “pulls” the pile shat indi- constructed (Figure 17). Offshore Saudi Arabia, pile tip-pile sleeve connec- drilled and grouted insert piles are applied if the p mary driven pile meets premature refusal, However, Cllcient driving energy transmission. It may have the unlike the above dried and grouted piles, these are z ‘added advantage thal friction during driving is lower installed in soil with alow carbonate content (f any) jn comparison to a top driven pile. Ths difference is Driven and grouted piles form an alternative to ‘due to largely radial contraction of the pile duc to drilled and grouted piles, This pile type is driven to 4 tensile driving stesses with @ bottom driven pile as design penetration and subsequently »pressure- ‘opposed to ral ple expansion for a top driven pile, grovted into the formation through pre-installed Further research and development on both this sys- _yalves. Various laboratory and field research studies rectly through a spec {em and on geotecinial aspects seems warranted hae besn done on this pile type, however, this fou ‘Atother way of improving fiona capacity of dation concept hes not yet been applied for ectual | driven piles i fo expand them radially aller driving, offthore pile foundations. The research studies have “This concept was crigially developed and tried im rovesled that diven and groute piles develop fhe. 4 the fie! by Burland (1992), Kelleher and Carter” onal ressiances sina to conventional dried and a (1993) report on laboratory teats on two types of ex grouted piles, pending model piles jacked into calcareous Bass Significantly different design criteria are used for : Strat sanls, These teits confirned the potential in- bored piles compared to drilled and grouted piles. 2 ‘at many locations around the world confim this, 5 BORED PILES AND GROUTED PILES aa Tee ibe ee a abseet wah Hogucert sleet atop hveecten ak 7 Seeee ie Marcin carcowsedente,Redanety eect fr aco pie pes ‘Hence axial foundation design for both pile types are A discussed herein, s _ \ : al is 3 ‘les. 3 mi 7 bad seifor } | dr ile | need reece a / wel ] | rosters = aes be ers crue pe sea : im me Sonmoens = ontgpan> cana a aed amu, A Dp les | ig. 17 Bored and growed ple pes E 3955.2 Previous Saudies 52.1. Fietion ‘A compreliensive review of design of bored piles in the USA and associated research work was presented by O'Neil and Hassan (1994). This study incicated that the horizontal effective stresses on a bored pile in sand after construction are of the same order as the insta Horizontal siresses, Lower values can oc ‘eu if inadequate construction techniques are used, However, an inventory of US design and const tion practices suggests that this oecors infrequently (Baker, 1994) “Theoretical analyses, supported by empirical dats, indicate that the radial effective stress on bored piles in siliea sand generally increases due to a macro di- Tntancy effect eaused by the uneven surface of the pile siaf. This macro dilatancy effect is apparently Beeally moro doreinant than the eventual contrac~ ero) soil behaviour during shear loading. ‘As a result of their review, O'Neill and Hassan (1994) suggested thatthe fiction on bored piles ean be eximated from EK, on" tan sere for overcome sand Ky canbe eid K,=(I-sing’) OCR ep O'Neill and Hassan recommended that the above computed value for horizontal effective stress (Ke Gn’) be linited to the effective conerete pressure ‘They furthermore noted that this procedure provides a conservative estimate of Fiction since the horizon {al effective stress on a pile ineteases due to the above macro dilatancy effect at the pilessol interface. ‘O'Neil and Hassan presented load test data on piles in sand for which the borehole was drilled using. Yatious Muids. These tests indicated that piles in- slalled using bentonite have less fiction than those installed using water. However, the friction values fr all piles were well above fiction values computed using the above criteria and hence no reduction for tse of (eg ) bentonite needs to be applied in design. ‘An exception was nated for piles drilled in sof rock, ‘where bentonite presumably prevented 2 good cc- ‘ment bond between pile and rock. This resulted in a Tower friction value. The Author notes that ths find ‘ng is in agreement with offshore practice for tnd grouted piles in cemented carbonate sands, ‘where dling mud is considered to adversely affect fictional capacity. Laboretory tests on madel grouted giles indicate that O'Neill and Hassan’s findings also apply to ‘uncemented carbonate sands (Allman et al, 1988), However, the micro contractant behaviour has the ratio of unit skin fection and negative effect sin }) was shown to reduce vertical effective slress ‘with increasing stress level. "Model pile and field tosts on grouted pite sections indizate that the macto dilatancy effect is more fa- vvourable in cemented calcareous soils (Randolph, 1988) ‘The Author has in 25 years design practice never encountered carbonate sands which did not have some degree of cementation. Hence itis be- lieved that design criteria for bored pies in silica ‘sands should provide reasonable estimates for friction ‘on bored piles in eazbonate sands. Some lower values may be expected in sand with a high carbonate con- fent (Gay > 80 per cent) and with litle cementation and in sands at great depth The latter may be appi- able for drilled and grouted piles. This hypothesis ‘will be further explored in subsequent seetions ofthis Draper 5.2.2 Bnd Bearing End bearing on Both bored piles and drilled and routed piles is likely to be less than for a driven Closed ended pile due to the lack of compaction of Soil beneath the pile tip due to pile driving. In view of the similarity of in-situ sess conditions, result from plate load tests are considered applicable for end beating on these ples. “The above is provided that proper bese cleaning procedure ere employed prior to pouring concrete fr grouting, 53. Conventional Design Practice 53.1. Onshore Practice for Bored Piles Midle Bast ‘The Author's assessment of design practice for bored piles in carbonate soils is primarily based on design Projects in the Middle East. Sol investigations con fist primarily of Standard Penetration Tests comple- mented by disturbed sampling and simple laboratory fests, Standaed Penetration Tests generally indicate igh resistances within the investigation depth of say 25 m. Thuis more as a rule then as an exception ‘ninimam SPT N-values are recorded since no full SSPT penetration ean be achieved. Sands have gener- ally carbonate contents of less than 80 per cont ‘These are generally deserbed as on-cemented with ‘cemented lumps, ‘The Author believes that in general these sends are likely t have been flly cemented in situ ith cementation being largely destroyed due to ‘the SPT sampling method. ‘Occasionally Cone Penetration Tests and/or Pres- suremieter "Tests are. performed. Foundation con siruction generally inchudes compression pile load {ests for design verification where it should be shownfoi and reduce sections tore fie ndotph, practice id not tis be- an silica fiction values ute con- entation ve appl pothesis of this, led and 2 driven cation of view of ats from fo 4 cleaning, concrete ‘arbored design ‘comple- vhoratory indicate thf say sxception eno full ve gener~ ser cent, ated “th ng al sented in- sd due to oe Pres- pile load be shown that the pile has @ limited pile head deflection st ‘working load ‘Various design methods are used. The majority fave in common that the angle of internal friction, 69), is estimated fiom SPT N-values using en correlations established for silica sands, These fic jon angles are used to derive design parameters for ho classical equations for unit fiction and end bear- ing FKow' land 2) Bow @3) and = Ngo" ea where K, 8, 8 and Ny are parameters which depend ‘on g” and the selected design method and fg and ‘a! a26 88 defined proviousy Such Middle Fest design methods can be grouped in ‘three classes = methods which apply reduction in design parame ters and liniting fiction and ond bering values in view of perceived disturbance due to pile con- struction (Poulos and Davis 1980; Tomlinson, 1991) = methods which ignore fiction in view of per- ceived construction disturbance; (unlimited) end bearing resistance based on theoretical Na values (anreferenced local practice) + methods whieh do not apply reductions for even tual construction disturbance (Federal Highway ‘Administration, 1988), For details of design procedures, reference should ‘be made tothe publications listed above. Europe Since above design procedures used for bored piles in carbonate sand are basically the same es for bored piles in silica sands, it is of interest to provide som Assign procedures used in Europe for bored piles in sand. Details of design practices in most European ounities ae given by De Cock and Legrand (1997). Some CPT based eriteria ae given below in order to allow a comparison with CPT based design eter {or diiled and grouted piles discussed later in this paper. atch design practice (Everts and Luger, 1997) is based on a comparison of pile load test data with CPT cone resistance values.‘The following empirical conelation between unit ction ed cone resistance was established: £0,005 ¢,<90 kPa Gs) Sinilarty u tend beariig in sand is assessed using sar 705 q.515 MPa G6) ‘The French design practice uses sini friction exte= ria (Bustamante and Frank, 1997): = 0.005 qe < 120 kPa en French end bearing eriteia for bored piles in sand proposed by Bustamante and Gianeselli (1981) are: dium dense sand (q, 12 MPa): 2034 G9) the Dutch and French recommendations result jmilar friction values. The Dutch recommenda- ions appear to provide higher ultimate end bearing values than the French, However, the Dutch use a mote conservative method (o determine representa tive cone resistance atthe ple tip (Le. values up to 4 pile diameters below the tip and 8 diameters above the Gp are considered) than the French (values from 15 pile diameters below the pile tip to 1.5 pile di ametets above). Both the Dutch and the French end bearing crite ria are considered to apply ata ple tip displacement (of 10 per cent ofthe pile diameter, Jamolkovrksi and Lancelotta (1988) considered it more appropriate to use a ettical end beating resistance for bored piles, dofined as the resistance at a tip displacement of per cent of the pile diameter. Based on a review of plate ond tet data on alice sands they recom 2a. 0) ‘This applies to piles less than 0.6 m diameter and tip penetrating at least eight pile diameters into the ‘end beating, sand layer. Lesser values are recom- mended for larger pile diameters and lessor penetra tions (se Jamiotkowski and Lancelotta, 1988). Thus, Jamiolkovski and Lancelotta’s reeomng tend beating is in the same order as mended by Bustamante and Gianeseli (1 Ww 582 Ofthove Pact fr Dried end Groued Piles ‘The traditional method for design of ofshore drilled and grouted piles in sind i to ue ecterin given in ‘API RD2A (1993) for driven piles, with tho exeop- tion that ultimate end bearing is geneclly limited to 10 MPa. Higher sil to grout fiction values are as- signed in very cemented sands, primarily based on enginetng judgement. However, for such nterals design is generally governed by grout to ste! uli- tate fiction for which aditionally a value of 200 Pa was used, based on Eers snd Uhh (1977)‘Two sets of new design criteria were developed in ‘Australia based on grouted ile tests in the Bass Strait and in Western Australia, respectively. Based na series of load tests on grouted pile sections (GSI), Fyden etal, (1988) presented design exter. for (e-}lesign of drilled and grouted piles in the Bass. Strait. This approach consisted of defining straiv-softening friction displacement (cz) curves and assessing ultimate pile capacity ftom axial pile Toad displacement analyses, On purpose, conserva tive design enteria were selected for defining these Fesistance curves in order to allow for uncertainties in extrapolating the GST data to fullsize foundation piles. For details ofthe design procedures, reference ‘Shouid be made to Hyden etal. (1988). "An extensive series of feld tests on both drilled and grouted, and driven and grouted pile sections Avas performed in Australia (Gunesena et a, 1995; TReandojph etal, 1996). These field tests were com- that load was virtually all resisted by friction on these bored piles. Design criteria given in Section 53.1, ‘which account for perceived reduction in fiction due to adverse pile construction effects, yield fitional evstances fower than the working toad. Hence, ‘hose test data indicate that these desig criteria were unduly conservative 5.42. Drilled and Grouted Piles The Author is not aware of any full cate tests on Grilled and grouted andlor driven and grouted piles However, load texts on grouted pile sections have been performed in Australia and France. All sands were cemented and had carbonate contents in excess fof 89 per cent, ‘The static load tess are sommmarised in Table 5. wales. plemented by laboratory tests on mode! drilled and fprouted piles and model driven and grouted piles “The tests were generally in cemented carbonate sands and weak limestones, I was found that the peak fric- tional resistance for both pile types could be corre- lated to CPT cone resistance according to: fa, =002-+ 0.200010" @ Residual friction values during static loading were generally in the upper part ofthe range from 40 t0 80 per ent of the peak faction values. However, severe Fictional degradation was observed during: cyclic. Toading and design velues for residual friction in the prder of 20 to 30 per cent of the peak were recom: mended. A computer model, RATZ, was developed ero Feanee frets, eal Spe scion [Seaton lena [Diameter ea fom, i pis as [econ enter eta | 988) bs iis and lass Isic tuna West icingish Plvasne jo2 aT 988) coi lowest no ‘vlc simulates frictional degradation during cyclic ‘offshore pile loading (Randolph etal, 1996). 3.4 Pile Load Tesi Data 5.4.1 Bored Piles Pile load test data in the USA on bored piles in silica sands indicate that these can generally be designed without applying reductions for adverse effects due to cons (O'Neil and Hessen, 1994). This view is endorsed by the design crteri recommended by the US Federal Highway Administration (1988) However, the latter cautions against using these eri- ‘ein in clea, loose and uncemented sands, "These criteria imply thet high friction values can bye used for bored pile design in silica sands, I is be- ve ha ilo eps to Bore pes neve ‘Unfortunately there are few tests on bored piles in calcareous sands reported in the literature. Propric- tary test cata available to the Author indicate small pile head setlements (less than 5 per eent af the pile Giameter) at twice the working toad. This indicates 238 hoo [a [comer el. 96) “The peak and residual fiction values are compared vith the average cone resistance value along. the GST length in Figures 18 and 19 respectively. Also showa are correlations established from laboratory tests on mode! driven and grouted piles in aciticilly cemented carbonate sand (Gusasena et al, 1995) ‘These correlations are given by: (2) «) fa. 0.024 020-08 Fig. > 0.008 + 0,08 « #4 1 can be observed that these correlations generally foam a lower bound to the field (GST) test data, The fallowing comments can be made regarding points below these trend Hines: = the small size GST at North Rankin indicated ligher resistances when loaded more slowly, fone of the large size GSTs at North Rankin was subjected to a few lond cycles prior to react the peak aud residual strengths, flue atthe grout-stecl interface was observed in atest at Tun,fue tal ce, = no anomalous GST behaviour apples for the three ints” (ce. large size North Plouasie) and the (v0 reniining data points’ (ie. lage size ‘Noxth Rankin GST and Plouasne). Randolph et al. (1996) noted thet the Overland Cor: nner GSTs showed a reduction in fiition with in- ‘creasing diameter of the GST section. ‘This is attib- ‘uted to dilatancy due to the asperites of the grout sol interface: Increase in rail effetive stress due to same size asperities wil reduce with increasing pile diameter. ‘The majority ofthe tests showed residual fiction resistances in tho order of 30 10 80 per cont of the peak resistance. Post-peak behaviour for the offshore (North Rankin and Bass Sait) tests could not gen- rally be well established due to lack of control caused by the elastic loning system, ‘The displacements to peak and to sesidual vary widely: the lowest displacements to peak resistance, 8, were recorded at Overland Comer (0:3 to 0.5 pet tat of te ple diameter) and, the largest values were ‘observed in the Bass Strait @ to 15 per cent of the pile diameter). The extreme displacements to resid- lah 8, were also observed at these two locations: Minimam 0,08D to 0.32D (Overland Comer) and sazinum 0.31D to 1.27D (Bass St loading testing programme on ‘routed sections at Overland Comer was reported by Randoiph et al (1996). These indicated severe fic tion reduction during and after eyeli loding. Based on analyses of these data, Randolph etal ree~ ‘ommended design values for residual fittion in the ‘order of 20 to 30 per cent of the peak values. 35. Braluation 55.1 Bored Piles IFCPT cone resistance data aro available bored pile design can follow the estera for died and prouted piles dssassd in Sesfon 5.5.2, However, bored ple design in Middle East carbonate sands is generally based on empirical corelations between SPT Ne ‘aes and interaction angles established fr si fon ands. Alternatively itis based on empirical cor- relations between SPT N-valuos and unit skin fiction and/or ei! beating of piles proach is considered very que fhonate sands reflect soil strength due to both ce- ‘mentation ad insta density. This is untke sien sands where SPTs indicate in-situ density only. The problem with design in carbonate sand is com- pounded by the fact that proper SPT N-valuos can atten not be established due 10 insifcent peneta- tion ofthe SPT-split spoon. ‘Therefore SPT N-values (and elated angles of internal ition) genesally have ig. 19 Res felon values, Grow Section Tess toe estimated by foundation designers. The lack of proper soil investigation date, com- bined with the absence of well docuntented, pub- lished pile Tond tost deta leads to the situation thet pile capacity cannot be well predicted in such soil, Consequently, predictions made by different founda tion consultants for the same foundation can vary Widely. Local practice to perform pile load tests in tho majerity of the foundation eonstcuction projects is venta in view of these uncertainties, “The Author belioves that foundation design would progcess significantly if insta tests such es CPT. ‘and/or PMT would replace the current practice of performing SPTS in sands. in addition both founds tion design engineers and their Clients would benefit significantly if ile load test data wold be published. 5.52 Drilled and Grouted Piles Both the results of various Grouted Section Tests and laboratory driven and grouted model pile tests indicate that peak and residual unit fiction values can be reasonably correlated to cone resistance using ‘equations (42) aud (43). Those correlations yield for ‘cone resistances in excess of 15 MPa the following, peak and residual unit fiction values Hr002q wy 2000085) i, 20008 uni Friction Gone Resietance ais soteng bon aang (yarnoet + eres 264 tfoc=asos 00 re4Q0u nd ‘oor 008 os pinorent Pla Olamoter Fig, 20 Recommend lower bound wetilrin 20.008 a. as) tis noted that these apply for carbonate sands sith terborate contents of more than 80 per cent and Avhere cone resistances were in the order of 20 times the Uneonfined Compression Strength Significantly lower average fiction values, are used in Europe for bored pile desig in sfca sands: £50,005 g.t0 0.006 qe oO) “This suggests dhat equations (44) and (45) are not applicable to all carbonate sands, “The mobilisation of skin fiction as a funetion of pile wall displacement varied significantly between GST locations. This may be due to a combination of iifereatsoll_sifiessos and different pile rough nesses, Due to these large differences no rinque set Df eern fo establish 6, and B, values for local soi! fgplacement (F-2) relations ean resistance-pile wall be give. ‘The above it established design criteria for economical design of lled and grouted (and driven and grouted) piles for fll carbonate soils, Further research, bulging on the findings of Randolph et al. (1996), is recommendes. fates that at present there are no "The Author suggests that, unless thorough field and laboratory and associated engineering analyses are peeformed ofthe type deseribed forthe reas Sessment of the Bass Strait platforms (Byden et ah, 1988) and for the design of the Goodwyn platform (Randolph et al, 1996) a conservative design proach be adopted, This may consist of using @sim- pile non-softening €-2 curve based on European fou Galion. engineering practice for bored piles. ‘Slernatively, strain-soflening curves might be used where lower bound resistance and displacement val- hues from the cacrently available GSTS are adopted. "The tz curves for these lower bound estimates are ‘Mustrated. in Figure 20. ‘The non sicain-softening teue is considered more appropriate for soils with on OM Tow carbonate content and the stain-softening curve for soils with high carbonete content The end bearing of died and grouted piles can be assessed as discussed in Section 3.4 according 0: a2 0.15 0 an “This resistance ean be considered to apply at @ pile tip displacement of 0.1D. ‘As a final not, itis discouraged to use the con- stant sleel-to-grout bond values suggested by Ehlers tnd Ulich (1977), lastend it i recommended to ¢p- ply the eriteria for steo-grout bond in pile to sleeve ‘connections given in API RP2A (1993), 6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusions and recommendations developed in this paper can be summarised a flfows: 1 ietion values on driven piles in carbonate sands fare similar to values applicable for loose silica sands, Unfortunately the in-situ density of carbon te sands can at present not properly be assessed in routine soil investigations. Hence, design ftic~ tion values sill requice a significant amount of 1o- cal experience and engineering judgement, 2 Guidance on astessing friction values on driver piles can be obtained from an alternative (MTD 11997 based) method whieh complements convet- tional methods, 3 End bearing on piles in carbonate sands can be as ‘sessed based on CPT cone resistance data, Diff ‘ent criteria apply for driven closed ended piles, riven open ended iles and bored/drilled and sgrouted piles. 4 Friction on drilled and grouted pile sections (GSTS) have been successhully correlated. wi tone resistance data. However, these yield signi tently higher fiction values in comparison to CPT based design criteria for silica sandsONS. 1 this sands silica bon. sted ‘ice at lo riven ‘MID bear Ditfel piles, dand tions with ‘gift. >cPr: 5 Significantly different ftition mobilisstion (1-2) ceurves Were observed at various GST test loca. tions ‘The later two points (4 and 5) suggest that cur tent GST experience cannot be uniquely applied for drilled and prouted pile design at all carbonate sand locations unless confirmed by thorough site specific investigations Lower bound design criteria were presented for drilled and grouted pile design for a wider range ‘of carbonate sands ‘Design criteria for drilled and grouted piles are also considered applicable for bored piles. Friction and end beating values from load tests on piles driven into coral show a wide scatter. These ‘alues could not be correlated to sol investigation data, Unless very conservative design parameters are adopted, pile load tests appear to be the only reliable method for pile design in coral. 1OResearch and development with respect to im- proved soil investigation techniques and develop- ‘rent of improved design methods require high quality large scale foad tests on at ple types. 11 Closed enced, bottom driven pipe piles seem a vi- able and attractive alternative to current types of foundation piles applied in carbonate soils Re- search on dsivabilly and bearing capacity of these piles is recommended 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘The Author acknowledges the assistance of many colleagues by providing information used in this pax per: Khalil ALShafel (Aramco), Steve McKean (Fu- {ro Middle East) and Jim Harrison (Fugro Suhaimi) ‘on Middle Kast design and construction practices; Ahin Puech (Fugro France) on design practice in France; Chris Golightly (BP) on laboratory test data fn horizontal stress, Don Marff (Exxon) and Pierre Foray (INP de Grenoble) on clarification of test data presented previously. 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