Chapter 6

Al-Biruni’s Views on Indian Philosopliy of Science

Birani, who was living in the Islamic Golden-Age o f Iran, was
influenced by profound inquiry of Indian science and philosophy. For, in this
long Period many Indian books were translated from Sanskrit into Arabic.
Also, in his time most o f the Muslims were followers o f Greek philosopher
like Aristotle and Plato, and he was too completely aware o f Greek philosophy
and science. In consequence, this profound knowledge helped Biruni to
improve his capacities in the field o f philosophy and science. And, in fact,
Biruni is the first Iranian philosopher, who systematized philosophy o f science.
Biruni used method o f synthesis o f empirical approach along with rational
approach in his philosophy. And later on, the Western philosophers o f
renaissance period such as Francis Bacon were influenced by Biruni.
In this chapter, the approach o f Biruni towards philosophy of
science in two sections are argued: 1) Section I: Indian Science, and 2^ Section
XL Philosophy o f Science.

Section I: Indian Sciences:

The history o f science and technology in the Indian Subcontinent
begins with prehistoric human activity at Mehrgarh, in present-day Pakistan,
and continues through the Indus Valley Civilization to early states and
empires. Following independence science and technology in the Republic has
included automobile engineering, information, communications as well as

space, polar, and nuclear sciences.'

So, this plenteous background o f Indian science on one hand, and
on the other hand Islamic Golden-Age o f Iran that many Indian works on
astronomy, mathematics, medicine, chemistry are translated into Persian and
Arabic, shows that Biruni before coming to India along with Mahmoud
Ghaznavid, was quite acquainted with Indian science. ^

Biruni and Indian Sciences:

The Indica or the Ketab Tahqiq Malele-Hind is considered as an

extensive and profound study o f Biruni on Indian culture, philosophy, religious

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systems and sciences. And it is initially written for Muslims who wanted to
converse with the Hindus in all fields of their sciences as well as philosophy
and religious systems particularly Hinduism. Approximately two-third of the
Indica deals with the achievements o f Indian sciences.^
Biruni about Indian sciences says, “The Hindus cultivate numerous
other branches of science and literature, and have a nearly boundless
literature.”^ He goes on to say, “The Hindus have numerous books about all the
branches o f science. How can anybody know the titles o f all o f them, more
especially if he is not a Hindu, but a foreigner?”’
Biruni learns Sanskrit language perfectly and after that studies all
the scientific books of the Hindus again into original language. For, he knows
very well the books that previously have been translated from Sanskrit into
Arabic by mistake is quite inevitable. In this case Biruni says, ‘The Muslims
are not acquainted with the Hindu methods o f astrology, and they imagine
that Hindu astrology is the same as theirs, and relate all sorts of things as
being o f Indian origin. While I cannot find a single trace o f similarity with the
Hindus themselves.”* That’s why, Edvard sachau who has translated Biruni’s
works states, “Certainly we do not know of any Indianist like him, before his
time or after.” ’

According to classification o f Biruni the most important Indian

sciences, which Biruni explains in detail are: (1) Astronomy, (2) Chemistry, (3)

Medicine, (4) Alchemy, (5) Linguistics, (6) Anthropology, (7) Geography.

(1) Astronomy:
Biruni says, “The science o f astronomy is the most famous among
the Hindus, since the affairs o f their religion are in various ways connected
with it. If a man wants to gain the title o f an astronomer, he must not only
know scientific or mathematical astronomy, but also astrology.” He continues,
‘T he standard book on astronomy is called Siddhanta (i.e. straight, not crooked
nor changing). This book is known among Muslims as “Sindhind”. The Hindus
have five Siddhantas, the most important Siddhanta belonged to Brahmagupta,
Pulisa and Aryabhata.” Biruni stated, “Up to the present time I cannot procure

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these books, except Pulisa and Brahmaguptas’ books. I have commenced to
translate of them, but I have not yet finished my work.” *
The distinguished personalities of this important branch of
science are included; (a) Aryabhata, (b) Siddhanta, (c) Brahmagupta. It is
necessary to make it clear that Siddhanta is the name o f the standard
book on “Indian astronomy” as well as one o f the great Indian astronomer.

(a) Siddhanta: Another great mathematician-astronomers from the Classical-

age o f Indian is Siddhanta (425. B.C). He propounded the theory o f force
gravity before renaissance and Biruni.®

(b) Aryabhata: One of the significant figure o f astronomy and mathematics is

Aryabhata (476- 550 C.E). Aryabhata is considered as one of the prominent

scientist of ‘Classical-Age’ of Indian mathematics and astronomy. He

anticipated before renaissance that the sphere o f the stars is stationary, and
the earth revolves and produces the daily rising, setting o f planets and stars.
Furthermore, there was a prevalent view in the other parts o f the world
that the sky rotates.'” Aryabhata’s works the Aryabhata-Sidhanta and the
Aryabhatiya (or the Aryabhatlyam, a Sanskrit astronomical treatise) had the
great influence in the Indian astronomical tradition. Besides that the Muslims
during the Islamic golden age were particularly influenced. Some of his
results were cited by Khwarizmi (780- 850 A.D.), Khayyam (1048 -1131
A.D.) and in the II"'century Biruni stated, “Aryabhata’s followers believed
that the earth rotated on its axis.” " Biruni respected Aryabhata and his
accuracy as an astronomer. Biruni criticized Brahmagupta‘S for being unduly
harsh and hostile to him. There are altogether thirty eight references to
Aryabhata and his work in the Indica. Fifteen o f which simply mentioned
his name and twenty three times discussed his astronomical theories.'^

(c) Brahmagupta: The last mathematician- astronomer of the ancient India

was Brahmagupta (598-670 A.D). In the 7th Cen. Brahmagupta recognized

gravity as a force of attraction. He introduced extremely influential concepts
to basic mathematics, which was including the use o f zero in mathematical
calculations and the use of mathematics and algebra in describing and
predicting astronomical events.'"* Brahmagupta is considered as the “Father

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of zero” and the “Father of decimal system”. Arabic translation o f his works
soon became available in the Islamic World. Khwarizmi (780-850 A.D.) one of
the greatest Persian mathematician is influenced by decimal system o f
Brahmagupta.
The real impact o f Brahmagupta’s discoveries are felt in the
Islamic Golden Age. The Caliph Abbasid al-Mansoor (712-775 A.D.) invited
Kanka one o f the Ujjian scholar to lecture on Brahmagupta’s application
of mathematics to astronomy. Then, The Caliph ordered his writings to be
translated into Arabic in 771 A.D. The writing o f Brahmagupta had a major
impact on the subsequent writers in Persian, especially scientists like
Khwarizmi, the “Father o f algebra” and Biruni.'^
Most of the mathematical solutions discovered in India, now
belong to the Western legacy, like second order interpolation formula which
is invented a thousand years before in India and is now called the Newton-
Stirling formula.”

(2) Chemistry:
It is said that chemistry originated in India, earlier than in any other
co u n try .W ill Durant writes that something about the chemical excellence o f
cast iron in ancient India, and about the high industrial development o f the
Gupta times.'’ The most significant chemical industries in ancient India are:
dyeing, tanning, soap-making, lass and cement... by the sixth century the
Indian civilization was far ahead o f the Europe in industrial chemistry. They
were masters o f calcination, distillation, sublimation, steaming, fixation, the
production o f light without heat, the mixing o f anesthetic and soporific
powders, and the preparation o f metallic salts, compounds and alloys.^®

(3) Medicine:
The beginning of medicine in Ancient India goes back to Sushmta
(500 B.C.) and Charaka (300 B.C.). Charaka is considered as the “Father of
medicine”^' and Sushmta is known as the “Father o f Indian surgery”.^^ The
earliest works on medicine by Charaka and Sushmta are translated into Arabic
language during the Abbasid caliphate or the Golden-Age o f Iran. Razi (Razes)
and Ibn Sina (Avicenna) in their writing were frequently referring to these

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important Indian medical works. Also some parts of Indian medical such as
surgery, knowledge o f medical sciences herbs and herbal treatments are also
transmitted from India to Baghdad by the caliphate o f Abbasid.'^
Biruni expresses, “The medicine is also important as well as
astronomy. But the latter stands in close relation to the religion of the Hindus.”
Then he states, ‘They have a book called by the name o f its author, i.e.
Charaka. It is considered as the best works on medicine. According to the
Hindus belief, Charaka was a Risi. This book is translated into Arabic.”^"*
The Ketab al-Saydananh fi al-Tibb is regarded as a considerable
work o f Biruni in the field of Pharmacology. Biruni was interested all his life

in gathering precise information on plants and their medical uses. The main
body o f the work is about 197 drugs and herbal treatments o f India, Greek,
Arab and Persian.
Biruni writes about Indian drug, “There is a simple drug from
“India-Shalajit” or “Shalajmah”. ^^It is a fish which is found in the Indian
Ocean and it is very difficult to catch it. Its skin is kept in a jar and is used
for joining bones which is amazing.

(4) Alchemy:
Biruni states, ‘T he Hindus do not pay particular attention to

alchemy, but no nation is entirely free from it. The Hindus who are adept in
this art try to keep it conceal, and avoid from association with those who
do not belong to them. Therefore, I (Biruni) am not able to leam from the
Hindus, which methods they follow in this science. Or, what elements they
principally use, whether a mineral or an animal or vegetable one. So, I guess
that they incline towards the mineralogical method o f alchemy”. Biruni goes
on to say, ‘T he Hindus have a science similar to alchemy which is quite
peculiar to them. They call it “Rasayana”. Rasayana^^ is a word composed with
Rasa, i.e. gold. It means, an art which is restricted to certain operations, drugs
and compound medicines, and most o f them are taken from plants. Its
principles restore the health o f those who are ill beyond hope, and gives
back youth to fading old age.” ^*

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(5) Linguistics:
In linguistics, Biruni can speak, read and write in a number of
different languages, including Khwarezmian ( an Eastern Iranian language),
Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, Greek, Hebrew, Syriac languages. Besides, he was
able to speak some Hindi and Latin. According to him, Sanskrit is so different
from Arabic and Persian that ideas and concepts cannot be easily translated
from one language into another.^® John Hospers says, “Among human beings,
language is the principle instrument of communication. We encounter different
problems in the study o f each o f t h e s e . I n fact, Biruni about one thousand

years ago, is completely aware o f this problem.

Briuni specifies three significant characteristics for Sanskrit
language as follows: (1) He says, “If you want to learn Sanskrit you will not
find it easy. Because the language has an enormous range, both in words and
inflections, something likes the Arabic. They apply one and the same thing by
various name, both original and derived. That’s why nobody can distinguish
between the various shades o f meaning o f a word, unless he understands the
context in which it occurs, and its relation both to the following and the
preceding parts o f the sentence is properly known. The Hindus, like other
people, take pride o f this enormous range o f their language, whilst in reality it
is a defect.
(2) Most Sanskrit words and names begin with consonants without vowels
and we find it very difficult to pronounce them.
(3) The scientific books o f the Hindus are composed in various favourite
metres. It causes that their books soon become corrupted by additions and
omissions, in order to facilitate their books should be learned by heart.
Because they consider as rightful only which is known by heart, not that
which exists in writing. Now, it is well-known that in all metrical compositions
there are much obscure, verbosity and constrained phraseology merely intend
to fill-up the metre. Hence, the metrical form o f literary composition is one
o f the causes, which made the study o f Sanskrit literature so particularly
difficult.” On the other hand, Biruni complains to Indian scribes. He writes,
“Indian scribes are careless, and do not take pains to produce correct and well-
collated copies. In consequence, the scientific works of the Hindus by the

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negligence o f those scribes become totally spoiled in the first or second copy
full o f faults. So that the texts appear as something entirely new, which neither
a scholar nor the one familiar with the subject, whether Hindu or Muslim, can
any longer understand.” ^'
Another important subject o f linguistic is phonology. Indian
phonology is so different from Arabic. Biruni points out how some o f his
Muslim predecessors have fallen into sad mistake through their misspelling
o f Indian words which they thought they have got right but have not.^^

(6) Anthropology:
Except some paragraphs that are approximately related to
anthropology in the Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind, the rest o f the book is estimated
nearly twenty percent strictly dedicates to anthropology matters.
The significant subjects which are propounded by Biruni are: (1)
Obligatory sacrifices, (2) Alms, (3) Pilgrimages and the visiting of sacred
places, (4) Bold rules about what is allowed or forbidden in eating and
drinking, (5) On matrimony, the menstrual courses, embryos and childbed,
(6)Punishments and expiations, (7)0n inheritance, and what are the duties of
the deceased’s children, (8) How people buried the dead’s bodies, (9) Fasting
and the various kinds o f it, (10) On festivals and festive days. Biruni declares
that most o f the Hindu festivals are celebrated by women and children only. He
presents the list of thirty eight festivals with complete details o f them, and (11)
On days which are considered lucky and unlucky times by Hindus.

(7) Geography:
Biruni has composed a number o f works on geography, and
especially he presented extensive and accurate information about Indian
geography. Biruni got too much benefited by the geographical knowledge of
the Hindus, Greeks, ancient Persians as well as the Islamic travelers and
geographers who were living before him like: All al-Masudi (896-956 A.D.)
and Ya’qubi (died 897 A.D). Biruni in a small treatise, in 26 pages known as
the book Al-Biruni’s Knowledge o f Indian Geography, illustrated such accurate
and unique information about three portions o f Matsya, Adity and
Vayupuranas of India. ” Indeed, this small essay can be considered as a very

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systematic pattern for other geographers. In addition, Biruni presented some
useful philosophical and anthropological views. For example, in part of
“Countries and People" o f this small treatise Biruni has written, “Khurasan,
Persia, Irak and Mosul up to the frontiers o f Syria were B u d d h is tic .o r “The
front Daihak near Somanath was the home of Nagarjuna, who was the author
of a book on Rasayana.””
In addition, five chapters of Indica are dedicated to characteristics
o f the geography o f India. Besides, one chapter also allocates to the human
geography o f India as well.
From Biruni’s views we also learn that India is far ahead o f the
West in science, mathematics and astronomy. A.Rahman, a pioneer in the field
o f history and technology in India, elaborates that the scholars are aware o f
the development of sciences in India through the work o f Biruni particularly
in mathematics and astronomy.^®

Section II: Philosophy of Science:

Biruni as a Pioneer of Philosophy of Science:

Biruni is the first Iranian philosopher, who has discussed the
philosophy o f science. He has used empirical approaches as well as rational
approaches in all o f his philosophical investigations. In fact, Biruni much
earlier than Francis Bacon has systematized the philosophy o f science, but
it is not clear why in none of Encyclopedias have mentioned his name as a
pioneer o f the philosophy o f science. In other words, immediately after the
name o f Aristotle, Francis Bacon is introduced as the founder o f philosophy of
science. Whilst, the successive efforts of Biruni towards systematization o f
science one thousand years ago was so much profound works that no one
else could do it too, even Bacon.
In addition, Biruni recommends to other scientists that it is
impossible to restrict the science and knowledge by religious, racial and
nationality limitations. For example, he invents an instrument for
determination o f the prayer’s religious times. But, unfortunately on authority
o f the Imam of Ghazna Mosque, it is declared unlawful. For, Biruni has
designed it based on the Greek’s calendar and scholar’s calculations.” Biruni

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about this painful event, in one of his treatises writes, “Imam o f Mosque
is so stupid person that does not allow us using this scientific instrument.
For, he thinks it belongs to foreigner and we should not use it lawfully.
It means that, we have to leave out eating and walking since the Greeks
eat and walk like us.” ^“

Distinction between Biruni and Bacon in Their Methodology:

As it was mentioned, Biruni long time before Francis Bacon has

systematized the philosophy of science in Iran. In scientific methodology of

these two distinguished personalities, there are some similarities and
dissimilarities as follows: (1) They both have the same scientific methodology
based on: Induction, experience and observation and experimentation.^®
(2) Bacon as well as Biruni followed inductive arguments, but Biruni is
regarded as a founder of that and Bacon is considered as the follower of
Briuni in his scientific inquiries.
(3) Unlike Francis Bacon, Biruni along with his keen observations, insights
and scientific foresights, have a special proficiency over all branches of
sciences.
(4) The last point, which differentiated the two cases: is that Biruni unlike
Bacon simultaneously is recognized as an empiricist as well as rationalist
person.
Biruni like Bacon does not make difference between formal and
non/informal, exact and non-exact, namral and non-natural sciences. For him
anything which is established systematically on observation and can be proved
by repeated experimentation should be entitled as ‘science’. Taking insights
from Indians he uses gemology and astrology even to predict the future events,

and his study o f Yoga and Ayurveda enables him to cure/ prevent discus
scientifically/ medically. To study human mind-emotions, beliefs and customs
scientifically is possible in a stronghold o f Biruni.
All this highlights the impact and influence o f ancient Indian
thoughts available in the Vedas on Biruni. He made use of the Upanisads and
Vedas, scientifically is systematising human fund o f knowledge. If scientific
insights talk of truth as independent o f time, place and individual then Indian
thoughts and ideas, just because there are not based on Abrahamic religions

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should not be rejected and critisied. Rather one should accommodate and adopt
wisdom from any faith and religions practices. This indicates and proves
Biruni’s scientific attitudes which is not traceable in Bacon’s Western thoughts
and sciences.
As we have mentioned before, the “Persian Renaissance” o f Iran
occurred long time before the “Western Renaissance”. And Biruni is regarded
as one o f the outstanding figures of that era. Some o f the important scientific
efforts o f Biruni before the discoveries o f renaissance are:
Now, to clear up the scientific situation o f Biruni, it is necessary to
have a glance at the significant discoveries o f the renaissance. The most
important discoveries o f the Renaissance are:

1. The New World:

According to the ancient beliefs of Greeks and also Indians, at
least for 2500 years, the world was globe and all the subsequent scientists
o f the world have learnt the idea from them.’*" In 1492, while Columbus was
going to prove this ancient theory, he sailed the West to find a new commercial
route to the East. In fact, since Columbus did not inform the geographical
specification o f that land, accidentally lunched at the other place that he
thought was India. But the real name of that land was Continental America
that he did not recognize till his death.
About four hundred centuries before Columbus, this land
(Continental America) is exactly discovered by Biruni. Biruni knew the exact
geographical specification o f that region, and he pointed out a new continent in
the other side o f the earth. Although, this significant discovery o f Biruni,
deliberately is not important for the Western scientists, but some o f the Eastern
scholars such as Hasan Barani Boland Shari (Indian scientist) and Jalal al-Din
Homaee (Iranian scholars) emphasized on this fact.""

2. The Force of Gravity:

According to the ancient Greek and Indian theories, the spherical
shape of the earth and “Force o f Gravity” caused all substances to be
absorbed towards the centre of the earth. Biruni in this case followed them,
and in his book entitled the Ketab Tahdid nihayat al-Amakin li- Tashihmasaft

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al-Masdidn explained the same idea. He found out this scientific discovery
four hundred years before Newton.“^ Of course, it should be made
emphatically clear that long before Biruni and Newton the theory o f Force
o f Gravity was discovered by a great Indian mathematician-astronomer
scientist called Siddhanta (425 He put forth the gravity’s theory.
Siddhanta believed that the earth owing to its force o f gravity and draws

all things to itself.'*^

3. The Earth Rotating on Its Own Axis:

Biruni, in his well-known the book Meftah al-Elm-e-Elahee (key
to Astronomy)” clearly knew that the earth rotates on its axis daily and
moves yearly round the sun."*’ Galileo Galile (1564-1642 A.D.) proves that
the earth is not fixed and revolves around the sun. Although, he presented this
scientific theory, but the “Roman Inquisition” investigated him."** For the
church thought that the earth stands and everything in the sky moves around
it."*’ Of course, Aryabhata (476-550 A.D.) one o f the eminent figure o f Indian
astronomy and mathematics believed that the earth rotates on its axis as
well.-'*

4. The New Religion:

One o f the considerable subject on Renaissance was new religious
reformation. This new momentous movement is innovated by Martin Luther
(1483-1546 A.D). He challenged the status o f the Roman “Catholic Church”^’
as a “Protestant reformation”.“
Biruni as a synthesizer o f the religious beliefs and founder of
scientific “Comparative Religions”, before Martin Luther has presented three

decisive solutions to adjust with all religious problems.

1. To Stop Superstition, Prejudice and Sectarianism: an important case-

study for prejudice and sectarianism was Roberto Nobili (1577-1656 A.D).
Among the missionaries who went to India, there was also little initial
inclination towards learning and intellectual debates between Christianity and
Hinduism. One o f the most important of these missionaries was the great
Italian Jesuit Roberto Nobili. He had great aptitude and energy in learning

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Indian language. Sometimes, he is known as the first European Sanskrit
scholar. He, similar to Biruni, studied the Upanisads, Vedas and scientific and
literary texts o f the Hindus.
According to Wilheim Halbfass,^' prejudice and dogmatic
limitations frequently play a dominating role in the approach o f missionaries to
Indian thought. Nobili learned Indian language in order to teach and
understand Indian religious faiths. On the contrary, Biruni got his success due
to his freedom from any prejudice and scientific temperament that caused
him to became successful in Indological matters.
Another significant difference between Nobili and Biruni is in their
social and psychological content situation. Nobili went to India as a Christians
Missionaries, so his position was completely obvious.^^ But Biruni went to
India along with political ruler Mahmud, who (Mahmood) was interested
in converting the Hindus by governing force, otherwise kill them.”

2. To Observe the Sensitivity o f Religions: These Sensitivities are: (a) “Hall­

marks”: according to Biruni, “Hall-marks” are considered as the fundamental

thoughts and practices of religions.*'' The significant kind o f the “Hall­
marks” are: The “Trinity of Christianity”, the “Incarnation -Avatara” - of
Indian religions, the “Order o f Sabbath” in Judaism and finally the shibboleth
o f Islam in which there is “No god but God and Muhammad is His
prophet.”’*
(b) Idolatry: Biruni, in this point, separates educated and uneducated Hindu
people from each other. He always stresses that uneducated Hindus worship a
multiplicity o f idols. But educated people believe in God and have a strong
tendency towards monotheism. Also, Biruni states, “The unitary Hindus begin
their books with “Om”, the word o f creation, as we begin with “In the
name o f God”. They believe that “Om” will bring them blessing and confirm
the unity o f God”.
(c) Sunna or Customs; Biruni is acquainted well enough with the binding
force o f religious custom (Sunna). He mentions that people love their customs,
have reverence to them, and find it difficult to abandon them. But it is

necessary to be modified.”

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3. The M utual Understanding of Religions: Biruni believes that in foreign

religions the preliminary difficulty is understanding correctly and reporting

accurately o f their teaching. Biruni to deal with this problem writes, “The
writer o f a comparative study must himself take great care about the wording
of every sentence, even though he himself does not believe in them.” ^*

Sub-section 1: Biruni and Science:

In former sections, all peculiarities of Biruni as a great philosopher,
founder of comparative religion, anthropologist, linguist and histographer were
mentioned preciously. In this sub-section, we shall talk about the eminent
scientific status o f Biruni among his contemporaries. As we know, Biruni is
acknowledged as one the important polymaths of the Islamic Golden-Age. He
compiled a lot o f unique works in all fields o f science. Although, most of
them were lost through the passage o f the time, but some o f them are still
are extent in manuscript form in different libraries o f the world. Now, let
us see, what was causing Biruni to became one o f the great figures of the
Golden-Age o f Iran. According to Biruni’s scientific works, it seems that these
following factors are practicable regarding the scientific inquires o f him.
1] Profound knowledge in all fields o f science and having proficiency over the
different languages. In fact, Biruni by means o f these capabilities could access
to the original references, and could compare and verify the scientific books
carefully.
2] Having a creative mind, so that his approaches in scientific inquires are
totally different from his predecessors. Indeed, Biruni in his scientific attitudes,
has presented a new scientific framework, which had a considerable influence

over his followers.

3] Refining the predecessors’ information without any prejudice, just for sake
o f science and its development in a proper manner.
4] Separating uncertainty from certainty, so that if any subject or available
references did not satisfy him, he preferred to be assisted by authoritative and
unbiased people.
5] Reasoning^^ was one of the important features o f Biruni in his scientific
methodology. Biruni never accepted anything without reason. He emphatically

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announced, “Behind each phenomenon, there was some intellectual reason,
but people could not discover it.”®“
6] Applying induction and empirical observation in his scientific works.
The scientific works of Biruni are divided into three different
subjects as follows: (1) Mathematics and Astronomy, (2) Pharmacology, and
(3) Mineralogy.

1. Mathematics and Astronomy:

Before going to India, Biruni used to know Indian astronomy
and mathematics from Arabic translation o f some Sanskrit texts. So 95 of
146 books o f Biruni, about 65 percent, are devoted to astronomy, mathematics,
and related subjects like mathematical geography.*'
Will Durant on Biruni’s contributions to astronomy writes, “ He

wrote treatises on the astrolabe, the planisphere, the armillary sphere, and
formulated astronomical tables for Sultan Masud. He took it for granted
that, the earth is round, noted ‘the attraction o f all things towards the centre
o f the earth,’ and remarked that astronomic data can be explained as well by
supposing that the earth turns daily on its axis and annually around the sun,
as by the reverse hypothesis.””
Biruni in the field of mathematics and astronomy has
comprehensive scientific works. But some o f them are dedicated to just
astronomy, and rest of them are common between mathematics and astronomy,
or mathematical geography as follows:
1] The book Quanon Masudi fia l-H a y ’ah w a’l-Tanjim: it is considered
as one o f A e most important astronomy-mathematic encyclopedia o f Biruni,
which has dedicated to Sultan Masud. It is said that Masud rewarded him
with an elephant-load of silver, but Biruni returned it to the treasure. This
eminent book o f Biruni is an astronomical and mathematical text such that
only the last chapter concerns to astrological prognostication.®^ As a technical
work o f medieval astronomy, the book Quanon Masudi is notable, for Biruni’s
approval of the theory, that the earth rotates its axis. His endorsement of

astrology is limited, insofar as he condemned horary astrology as sorcery

2] Biruni wrote the book Al-Tafliim (understanding astrology) and dedicated to
lady Rayhanah, one of the members of the Kharazm court. She was carried off

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to Ghazna by Mahmud in 1017. Biruni’s instructions to Rayhanah were
certainly comprehensive and based upon the method o f a question and answer
between a master and student. Biruni in the book Al-Tajhim tried to explain the
elementary mathematics, astronomy, geography, chronology and the making of
astrolabe as an observational instrument. Biruni wrote this book, both in
Persian and Arabic languages.*”^
The English text o f al-Tafhim has been translated by Robert
Ramsay Wright ( London Luzac 1934). This critical Enghsh translation is
based on Persian and Arabic manuscript. He said that this is the complete
work, not just a re-publication of the part on Astrology. This is superior to
Ptolemy’s Tetrabiblos (written in the 2nd century) and moreover, was known
to mediaeval European astrologers.^^
3] Another work of Biruni in astronomy field is translation o f the book
Almagest. This book was written by Ptolemy (100-170 A.D.). Almagest served
as the basic guide o f the Islamic and the European astronomers, until about the
beginning o f the 17“’ century. It was translated into Arabic in 827 A.D. And
then from Arabic to Latin in the last half of the 12“' century. Biruni translated
this book into Sanskrit language.*’
4] Next authentic book o f Biruni in the field o f astronomy is the book
Miftah-ilm- al-Hai’a (key to Astronomy) that is no more extant. We are told
that Biruni in this book claimed that according to his astronomical theory, he
has solved all the problems related to Earth’s rotation.
5] The Tahdid Nihayat al-Amakin li-Tashih Masafat al-Masakin
(Determination o f the coordinates o f places for the correction o f distances
between cities)” is Biruni’s masterpiece in madiematical geography.'’* This
book has been translated to English by Edward Stewart Kenned in 1973 (270
pages).^®
In addition o f these five separate books o f Biruni in the field
o f astronomy and mathematics, some parts o f the Ketab Tahqiq Malel- Hind
have been dedicated to astronomical and mathematical subjects.

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2. Pharmacology:
The Ketab al-Saydanah fi al-Tibb is a considerable work o f Briuni
in the field o f pharmacology. Biruni was interested in his life in gathering
precise information on plants and their medical usages. At the end o f his long
life, he wrote the Ketab al-Saydanah fi al-Tibb with the help of his erudite
friend Abu Hamed Ahmad Ibn Mohammad Nahsha’i, who was conversant in
the field o f medicine. The book is divided into one introduction (which is the
first chapter) and five chapters as follows: the first chapter presents an
‘etymology for the Arabic words for druggist.’ The second chapter gives
‘technical terminology for categories o f drugs.’ The third one is on the ‘general
theory o f medicaments.’ And in the fourth and fifth chapters Biruni has stated
his ‘preference for Arabic over Persian as a language o f science’, and the
‘names polyglot dictionaries’ available to him.
The main body o f the work is an alphabetical listing o f drugs
comprising about 720 articles. (Altogether 197 drugs are mentioned, since
some drugs are cited under several synonyms). For a typical entry, the name
o f the substances is given in Arabic, Greek, Syriac, Persian, Indian languages,
and sometimes also in one or more less common languages or dialects such
as Hebrew, Khwarezmian, Tocharian (Tokharian ), Zabuli and so on. There
follows a full presentation o f the Arabic variants and synonyms, liberally
illustrated with quotations, its place or places o f origin named. Also the
therapeutic properties of herbals are given, and their sources are fully and
critically mentioned.™

3. Mineralogy:
Gemstones are special types o f minerals. The ancient Egyptians,
Greeks and Indians as well as the Roman, knew a great deal about gemstones.
Muslim scientists recently over a thousand years have started to build on and
extended this knowledge. One of those Iranian Muslims, who was interested in
the field o f mineralogy, is Biruni. The authentic work o f Biruni in this field
is named Ketab al-Jamahir fi M a’rifat al-Jawahir, which deals with the
properties o f various precious and semiprecious stones. Biruni wrote this book
during Mawdud’s region (the son of Masood Ghaznavid). Biruni in

284
mineralogy performed a lot of observations carefully, and recorded them in
details. He described the mineral deposits from the entire world known to
him such as China, India, Ceylon, Byzantium, Egypt, Mozambique and the
Baltic region. This important reference on precious stones is quoted by the
later scientists frequently. The Ketab al-Jamahir fi M a’rifat al-Jawahir is the
third authentic text known on mineralogy, and equal precision in density
measurement, was not achieved in Europe, until the 18"' century. Biruni
introduced the scientific method into mineralogy in his book Ketab al-Jamahir
f i M a’rifat al-Jawahir, and that is why Biruni is considered as the most
exact o f experimental scientists.
The Ketab al-Jamahir f i M a’rifat al-Jawahir comprises two parts:
The first chapter is on the important gemstones and significant descriptions are
given by Biruni and about the important o f gemstones available different
nations. Likewise, he gives classification o f 20 gems (precious and
semiprecious stones) according to their properties. These properties are: the
colour, powder colour, their varieties, rock occurrences, characteristics,
dispersion, hardness, density and crystal shape.
The second part is on minerals and metals. Biruni described about
10 known minerals and metals, and their peculiarities. Biruni gives different
stories towards the believes of people. Also Biruni due to an apparatus, which
he constructed himself, ” and he succeeded in determining the specific-
gravity o f a certain number of metals and minerals, with remarkable precision.
By the help o f his apparatus, he weighted many metals and minerals.’^ His
measurement is correct to three decimal places o f accuracy, and is almost as
accurate as modem measurements for these minerals. And that’s why
G eorge Saliba considers Biruni as an “Instrument maker”. It means that
Biruni for development o f his scientific projects has invented some apparatus
by himself, which were well- constructed and worked precisely.

Sub-section 2: Medicine:
Biruni is acknowledged as the father o f pharmacology and also
innovator of classification o f plants, seven centuries the leamed Swedish
botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778 A.D.).^'' However, Biruni is not regarded

285
as a physician like Razi (865-927 A.D.) and Avicenna ( 930-1037 A.D.)/^
although he was familiar with the field o f medicine very well. For, he
and Avicenna were the significant students o f Abu Sahl Masihi (960-1000
A.D.), the erudite Persian philosopher, mathematician and physician/®
Although, Biruni never compiled any independent medicine book, but two
eminent books o f him namely the Ketab al-Saydanahfi al-Tibb, and Ketab al-
Jamahir fi Ma ’rifat al-Jawahir are categorized in the field of pharmacology
and medicine. In the former book, Biruni as a learned pharmacologist related
the healing properties o f medical plants; and his own experiences in details,
along with the views o f Razi in Al-Hawi and Avicenna in Qanon. The latter
book, is not completely devoted to the therapeutic aspects o f the gems, stones,
and minerals. But, at the end o f book Biruni presented 72 accurate recipes of
the compounds, containing stones and minerals and their dosages along with
the procedures of administrations. Also the healing properties of them for
body’s organs. For, Biruni and the Islamic system o f medicine, believed that
one o f the most prominent features of stones and minerals was that they were
converted into in compounded forms that can be absorbed by the body, in

compounded forms.”

Conclusion:
From the above discussions it can be said that the background of
history o f science in the Indian Subcontinent goes back to long time before.
And Biruni along with this ancient background o f Indain science and the many
Indian works that have been translated in the Islamic Golden-Age o f Iran, had
completely proficiency over the most of Indian sciences. Also, Biruni leamt
Sanskrit language perfectly, for he knew very well the books that previously
have been translated from Sanskrit into Arabic are full o f mistake.
According to classification o f Biruni the most important Indian
sciences are: (1) Astronomy, (2) Chemistry, (3) Medicine, (4) Alchemy, (5)

Linguistics, (6) Anthropology, and (7) Geography.

Biruni is a well-known polymath in Iran and in the West, and he

has compiled a lot o f unique scientific works. Although, most o f them have
been disappeared through the passing of the time, but some o f them still be

286
exist as manuscripts in different libraries o f the entire world. The scientific
works o f Biruni can be divided into three different subjects as follows: (1) On
Mathematics and Astronomy, (2) On Pharmacology, and (3) On mineralogy.
Biruni in the field o f philosophy of science is known as the first
Iranian philosopher-scientist. Biruni used method o f synthesis o f both
empirical approach as well as rational approach in his philosophy. In fact,
Biruni has systematized science much earlier than Francis Bacon. However, it
is surprising and not clear why, in none of the Encyclopedias his name is
mentioned as ‘a pioneer of philosophy of science’. On the contrary, the efforts
of Biruni towards systematization o f science about one thousand years before

are so much profound than anyone else, even including Bacon.

Based on authentic historical records, the “Persian renaissance” o f Iran
occurred long time before the “Western renaissance”. And Biruni is considered
as one of the outstanding figures o f that era. Some o f the important scientific
efforts o f Biruni before the discoveries o f renaissance are:
1. The Force of Gravity: Biruni discovered it four hundred years before
Newton.
2. Rotation of Earth: The Earth rotates on its own axis. Biruni six hundred
years before Galileo clearly knew that the earth rotates on its axis
daily and moves yearly around the sun.
3. T he N ew R e lig io n : Biruni who is recogn ized as the founder o f
s cien tific “C om parative re lig io n s”, five centuries before Martin Luter.

Notes and References:

‘ H ttp:// W W W . W ikipedia; The H istory o f Science a n d Technology in the Indian

Subcontinent; L ast m odified on 26 O ctober 2014; at 08:51.

' H ttp:// W W W . W ikipedia; Translation o f Indian Texts into A ra b ic under the Abbasids;

D ouglas G albi; N ovem ber 2012.

/n d /a ; Sichuan. E; R upa Publication; N ew D elhi; 2007; P.145.

U b id

^ I b i d ; ? .\ \ 6 .

‘ /f>W ;P.106.

’ Ibid; P.650.
Pp.140-141.

’ H ttp;// W W W . W ikipedia; Siddhanta; last m odified on 11 O ctober 2014; at 03: 17.

287
 H ttp;// W W W . W ikipedia; A o'afc/iato; last m odified on 13 Septem ber 2014; at 23: 03.
" H ttp:// W W W . T ranslation o f Indian Texts into A rabic u n d e r the /Ibbasids; D ouglas Galbi;

N ovem ber 2012

'■ H ttp;// W W W . E ncyclopedia .Com ; B rahm agupta; last m odified on 15 Septem ber 2014.

'^Ibid.

'■* H ttp:// W W W . Indian Science. Organ; The N eedham Q uestion; O ctober 31; 2011.

Ibid.

H ttp:// W W W . Translation o f Indian Texts into A rabic u n d e r the A bbasids; D ouglas Galbi;

N ovem ber 2012.

H ttp:// W W W . Indian science. O rgan; The N eedham Q uestion; O ctober 31; 2011.

W aj'i o f Thinking o f E astern People: India, China, Tibet a n d Japan; N akam ura. H ; Tthe

E ast-W est C en ter Press; 1964; P. 148.

G upta w as an ancient Indian em pire, w hich existed from approxim ately 320 to 550 C E and

covered m uch o f the Indian Subcontinent.

“ The Story o f Civilization (V ol.- I); D urant. W ; Sim on and Schuster; N ew Y ork; 1935.

P.550.

='Http:// W W W . W ikipedia; Charaka; Last m odified on 2 A ugust 2014 at 13: 33. Http://

W W W . Salaam . Co. Uk; E xchange Betw een India a n d C entral A sia in the F ield o f M edicine.

'• H ttp:// W W W . W ikipedia; Sushruta Sam hita; last m odified on 14 Septem ber 2014; at 04:

39

H ttp:// W W W . W ikipedia; salaam , co.uk; E xchange betw een India a n d Central A sia in the

F ield o f M edicine.

-* A l-B e ru n i’s India; Sachau.E; P. 144.

^ Shalajit o r Shalam jm ah, is used in A yn'eda, the traditional Indian system o f m edicine.

“ A l-B e r u n i’s India; Sachau.E; P. 144.

R asayana, is a Sanskrit w ord w ith literal m eaning: P ath (A yana) o f essence (rasa). It is a

term that in early A yrvedic m edicine m eans the science o f lengthening lifespan, and in later

(post 8th-century) w orks som etim es refers to Indian alchem y.

A l-B e r u n i’s India; Sachau.E ; Pp.175-176.

H ttp:// W W W . W ikipedia; A bu R ayhan al-Briuni; last m odified on 12 N ovem ber 2014; at

20:18.

“ A n Introduction to P hilosophical A nalysis; H ospers.J; P.23. Printed by R.N. Sachdev at

A llied publishers; N ew D elhi; 1971

” A l-B e ru n i’s India; Sachau.E; P. 13.

Ibid; P.280.
” A l-B e r u n i’s K now ledge o f Indian Geography; L aw .B .C ; P. 1.

” Ibid.

” Ibid.

288
 H ttp;// W W W . T ranslation o f Indian Texts into A rabic un d er the Abbasids; D ouglas Gaibi;

N ovem ber 2012.

A spects o f Hindu-M usU m Cultural R elation; M ujtabae.F; Iranian In.stitute o f Philosophy;

T ehran; 2007; P. 35.

Ibid; P. 47

P roceeding o f Theology in E urope (V ol.-l); Forooghi. M ; Z a v v a rP u b .; Iran; 1988; P. 144.

^ A l-B iru n i’s C om m em oration Volume; Barani.S; E ssay o f M uslim R esearches in G eodesy,

P.3.

■" A bureyhan-e-B irunr, A zkaee. P; P.91; and A l-B iru n i’s C om m em oration Volume-, Hom aee.J;

E ssay o f the N ew Thoughts and Scientific Invention o fB iru n i; P.109.

Future M agazine; V am eqi. 1; E ssay o f Writing o fB ir u n i in P ersian Language; P. 486.

" The Story o f C ivilization (V o l.-l); D urant. W ; Sim on and Schuster; N ew Y ork; 1935; P.526.

** Ibid.

H ttp;// W W W .W ikipedia; A b u R ayhan al-Biruni; last m odified 2 Septem ber 2014; at 20:55.

H ttp;// W W W .W ikipedia; G alileo Galile; last m odified 16 Septem ber 2014; at 13:36.

Ib id

** H ttp:// W W W . W ikipedia ; A ryabhata

A G lossary o f Literary Terms; Abram s. M .H; Rinehart and W inston Pub.; N ew Y ork; 1971;

P. 145.

D ictionary o f P hilosophy and Religion; Resse.W ; P.485.

Indian a n d Europe; H albfass. W P.148.

^-Ibid.

A l-B e r u n i’s India; Sachau. E;P. xxvi.

A L -B in m i's C om m em oration Volume; Jeffery. A; E ssay o f al-B iruni’s Contribution to

C om parative R eligion; P. 124.

^^Ibid.
^ A l-B e r u n i’s India; Sachau. E; P.35.

” A L -B ir u n i’s C om m em oration Volume; Jeffery. A; E ssa y o f a l-B iru n i’s C ontribution to

C om parative R eligion; P.128.

’‘A l-B iru n i’s India; Sachau. E ; P.65.

” /^etab a l-Jam ahir f i M arefate al-Jaw ahir, B riuni. A; M oham m ad Said. H . (tr.).; Pakistan

H ijra C ouncil; Islam abad; 1930; P.20.

A th a r al-Baqia; B iruni. A ; A lizadeh. A. (tr.).; D iba Pub.; T ehran; 2010; P.65.

H ttp;//W W W . IranicaonIine.org; Biruni, A b u R eyhan, M athem atics a n d A stronom y (Vol. -

IV); Saliba. G ; Pp. 277-279.

A bureyhan-e- B iruni; A zkaee. P; N ew design Publication; T ehran; 1997; P.38.

“ B iography and W orks o f B iruni; Safa.Z; ; A m irkabir Publication; 1655; Iran; P.98 and

H istory o f Literature in Iran (V ol.-V ); Safa.Z; ; Ferdos Pub. Iran; 2006; P. 165.

289
“ H ttp:// W W W . W ikipedia; A bu Rayhan Al-B iruni; Last m odified on 12 N ovem ber 2014; at
20:18.

“ B iography a n d W orks o f B iruni\ Safa.Z; A m irkabir Pub.; 1655; Iran; P.98, and H istory o f
Literature in Iran ('Vol.-'Vy,Sa{a.Z; Ferdos Pub.; Iran; 2006; P. 165.

K eta b al-Tcrfhim\ B iruni. A; H o m a ii. J; (tr.).; A m irk a b ir P u b .; T e h ra n ; 1939. Pp. 10-12.

Tahdid N ihayat al-A m akin li-Taslilh M a s ^ t al-M asdkin; B iruni. A; A ram . A. (tr.).; T ehran

U niversity Press; T ehran; 1960; P. 45.

“ M athem atical G eography is a branch o f geography that deals w ith the figure and m otions o f

the earth, its seasons and tides, its m easurem ent, and its representation on m aps and charts by

various m ethods o f projection. H ttp://W W W . M erriam W ebster; M athem atical G eography;

last m odified 2014.

Tahdid N ihayat al-A m akin li- Ta^hih M asqfat a l-M a s ^ in \ B iruni. A ; Aram . A. (tr.).; T ehran

U niversity Press; T ehran; 1960; P. 45.

™ K etab al-Saydanah f i al-Tibb (Vol.- I and II) ; Biruni.A ; K asani. A. (tr.).; Sotodeh. M and

A fshar. 1. (ed.).; Beheshti U niversity Press; T ehran; 1963; P. 125.

” K etab a l-Jam ahir f t M a ’rifat al-Jawahir; Biruni.A ; P.15.

''■Ibid.

" Ibid.

’■* H ttp:// W W W . W ikipedia; L ist o f Islam ic Scholars described as fa th e r o f fo u n d e r o f a field;

last m odified on 16Septem ber 2014; at 10:24.

^Ubid.
'"‘ Ibid.

” K etab a l-Ja m a h ir f t M a ’rifat al-Jawahir; Biruni.A ; P.80.

2 90