ARTICLE IN PRESS

Journal of Environmental Management 81 (2006) 42–49

www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Permeability predictions for sand-clogged Portland cement pervious

concrete pavement systems
Liv M. Haselbach, Srinivas Valavala, Felipe Montes
University of South Carolina, Civil and Environmental Engineering, 300 Main Street, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
Received 11 April 2005; received in revised form 2 August 2005; accepted 30 September 2005
Available online 24 March 2006

Abstract

Pervious concrete is an alternative paving surface that can be used to reduce the nonpoint source pollution effects of stormwater runoff
from paved surfaces such as roadways and parking lots by allowing some of the rainfall to permeate into the ground below. This
infiltration rate may be adversely affected by clogging of the system, particularly clogging or covering by sand in coastal areas. A
theoretical relation was developed between the effective permeability of a sand-clogged pervious concrete block, the permeability of sand,
and the porosity of the unclogged block. Permeabilities were then measured for Portland cement pervious concrete systems fully covered
with extra fine sand in a flume using simulated rainfalls. The experimental results correlated well with the theoretical calculated
permeability of the pervious concrete system for pervious concrete systems fully covered on the surface with sand. Two different slopes
(2% and 10%) were used. Rainfall rates were simulated for the combination of direct rainfall (passive runoff) and for additional
stormwater runoff from adjacent areas (active runoff). A typical pervious concrete block will allow water to pass through at flow rates
greater than 0.2 cm/s and a typical extra fine sand will have a permeability of approximately 0.02 cm/s. The limit of the system with
complete sand coverage resulted in an effective system permeability of approximately 0.004 cm/s which is similar to the rainfall intensity
of a 30 min duration, 100-year frequency event in the southeastern United States. The results obtained are important in designing and
evaluating pervious concrete as a paving surface within watershed management systems for controlling the quantity of runoff.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Runoff; Permeability; Pervious concrete; Stormwater management

1. Introduction Runoff for any given rainfall event depends on the

Land development can augment the amount of imper-
vious surfaces on a site so that stormwater runoff and its
associated pollutant loads to receiving waters are increased
(Barrett et al., 1998). Pervious concrete is being used as one
of the solutions for decreasing the runoff by allowing rain
water to drain into the land surface. Pervious concrete is a
specially placed concrete mixture with little or no fine
aggregate where there are many more larger pores through
the structure than in conventional concrete (Tennis et al.,
2004).
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 803 777 8318; fax: +1 803 777 0670.
E-mail addresses: haselbac@engr.sc.edu (L.M. Haselbach),
srinivasvalavala@richlandonline.com (S. Valavala), montesf@engr.sc.edu
(F. Montes).
potential permeability of the land surface (Zouaghi et al.,
2000). The porosity of pervious concrete usually ranges
from 15% to 30% and typically water flows through a
layer of pervious concrete with rates from 0.2 cm/s to
greater than 1 cm/s depending on the materials and
placement (Montes et al., 2005; Tennis et al., 2004). This
rate is greater than most rainfall rates and the pervious
concrete surface is many times designed to handle both
direct rainfall (passive runoff) and runoff from upslope
areas (active runoff).
As a pavement surface, the pervious concrete layer is
placed over a subbase, which can consist of the natural
soils or a specially designed subbase such as crushed rock
or gravel. In this combination, the infiltration rate of
stormwater through the pervious pavement system is many
times limited by the permeability of the subbase. Typical
extra fine sand (for example Foster Dixiana sandblast

0301-4797/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2005.09.019
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
L.M. Haselbach et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 81 (2006) 42–49
Nomenclature
AB the total surface area of the pervious concrete
block (cm2)
AP the surface area of the pervious concrete block
occupied by pores (cm2)
I intensity of rainfall (cm/h or cm/s)
P average porosity of the block is the ratio of the
volume of the voids to the total volume of the
block given in percent.
abrasive BX-40) may have a permeability of about
0.023 cm/s, which is an order of magnitude or more less
than the pervious concrete layer permeability, and limits
the flow through the system (Valavala et al., 2006).
However, the pervious concrete top layer is full of voids
that can be used for water storage during a rainstorm and
therefore may prevent stormwater from producing runoff
until the system is fully saturated.
In many coastal areas, where a pervious concrete
pavement may be placed over sand, there is concern about
the pervious concrete pores becoming clogged or covered
with blowing sand and the effect that this will have on the
system. Initially, it may appear that the system will then be
limited for its infiltration capacity of both passive and
active runoff by the permeability of the sand. However, the
authors propose that the system permeability will instead
be reduced by this extreme condition to a fraction of the
permeability of the sand, where this fraction can be
represented by the porosity of the pervious concrete
surface as
keff ¼ ðPtop =100Þksand . (1)
2. Background
There is little literature associated with clogging experi-
ments and none particular to pervious concrete. There have
been experiments analyzing the reduced infiltration rates of
field-installed concrete block pavers and plastic grid pavers
filled with sand and sandy top soil (Hunt et al., 2002).
Clogging problems and the pollution retention capacity for
different metal pollutants in block paver systems with wide
joints were studied (Dierkes et al., 2002). Tan et al. (2003)
studied the sand-clogging potential of cylinders filled with
granite aggregates. The reduction in the permeability
values due to clogging in systems of coarse aggregate can
also be analyzed by the Kozeney–Carmen equation, a
theoretical empirical formula. However, this equation is
usually for systems where the clogging material, if fully
distributed through the aggregate, can fill the voids to
effectively reduce the clogged system permeability to zero
and may not be very representative of the surface clogging
43
Ptop average porosity of the top quarter of the block
as determined by an equation developed from
laboratory analyses of other blocks taken from
the same slab and given in percent
ksand permeability of sand (cm/s)
keff theoretical effective permeability of sand-
clogged or covered pervious concrete block
systems (cm/s)
kclog experimental permeability of sand-clogged per-
vious concrete block system (cm/s)
potential for pervious concrete pavements in the field (Tan
et al., 2003).
It is difficult to simulate a fully sand-clogged pervious
concrete system because it is difficult to get the sand into all
the interior pores. It is also unlikely that a system will be
fully clogged with sand in an actual application for the
same reason. The connecting pore system is made up of
irregular-sized voids caused by the cement matrix layers
around the aggregate in pervious concrete, and the smaller
diameters can effectively prevent sand from entering into
many of the interior voids. However, it is very common for
pavements near sandy soils, such as in coastal areas, to be
fully covered with a layer of sand on a frequent basis due to
wind and drifting. It was therefore concluded that a
pervious concrete pavement system fully covered with a
layer of sand would adequately simulate the worst
conditions of sand clogging.
3. Theory development
Fig. 1 portrays a simplified view of a block of pervious
concrete. The actual pore structure is more complex with
many different pore sizes and meandering pore paths, but
this figure gives a simple overview of approximately 20% of
the surface connecting with pores that allow water to flow
through the system. The pervious concrete matrix around
these pores is in itself porous, but the water seepage
through conventional concrete is negligible as compared to
the flow through the macropores and will therefore be
assumed zero since a typical infiltration rate, or perme-
ability, for a pervious concrete block is on the order of
0.2–1 cm/s (Montes and Haselbach, 2006).
Uncompacted sands have a much lower permeability
than pervious concrete, typically ranging from 0.001 to
0.10 cm/s depending on the coarseness of the sand (Das,
2002). It would therefore seem reasonable to assume that
the flow of stormwater through a system of pervious
concrete covered with sand would be limited by the flow
rate through the sand and therefore have an effective
permeability of the sand.
However, there is an additional limiting bottleneck in the
system. At the sand/pervious interface, the effective
drainage area of the sand is reduced to that of the area
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
44 L.M. Haselbach et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 81 (2006) 42–49

If Eq. (1) is substituted into Eq. (2), then the effective

permeability of the sand-clogged system at the extreme can
be predicted as the permeability of the sand reduced by a
factor representing the porosity of the pervious concrete
(Eq. (1)).

3.1. Theoretical effective permeability of sample sand-

clogged pervious concrete block

Theoretically, based on Eq. (1), an effective permeability

equation for sand-clogged pervious concrete, a pervious
concrete block with a 19% porosity near the top surface
and which is fully covered with a sand layer that has a
permeability of ksand ¼ 0:023 cm=s would have an effective
system permeability of
keff ¼ ð19=100Þ0:023 cm=s ¼ 0:0044 cm=s: (4)

Fig. 1. Block section of pervious concrete with exaggerated pore structure

representing approximately 20% porosity. 4. Materials and methods

4.1. Flume
of the open pores at the surface. At the top, the
effective surface area of the pores is the sum of areas of An adjustable wooden flume was constructed in the
the open circles on the top as depicted in Fig. 1, not the laboratory. The flume was approximately 158 cm
entire square surface of both concrete and pores. There- long  28 cm wide and had an adjustable gap in between
fore, even though the permeability of the sand through for holding the pervious concrete block. The flume can be
these pores may still remain the same, the surface adjusted for surface slope. Fig. 2 shows a photo of the
that is available for infiltration has been reduced by a flume set-up.
factor corresponding to the effective reduction in
surface area from a unit block of sand to the open pore
area and the total flow would be reduced by this factor 4.2. Simulation of rainfall
assuming that there is no additional head created above the
surface. Assuming that the porosity of a block of pervious Rainfall was simulated on to the pervious concrete
concrete is fairly consistent throughout its height, the system through a perforated hose placed on the flume
percent of the surface area that is covered by pores can be located approximately 30 cm upslope of the pervious
approximated by the porosity. Or, if the concrete has a system. The rainfall rate was calculated as the volumetric
vertical porosity distribution, then the lowest vertical flow rate of water pumped to the flume from a reservoir
porosity can be assumed to represent the limiting percent
of the open pore surfaces. If the lowest porosity is near the
top, then the effective permeability of the system would be
limited by this interfacial condition and could be approxi-
mated as the porosity of the concrete near the top surface
(Ptop), given as a volumetric ratio, times the permeability of
the sand.
These conditions can be represented mathematically in
the following way. The effective area available at the
interface for infiltration is the area of the pores, which is a
fraction of the surface area of the block or system and can
be approximated as
AP
ðP=100ÞAB . (2)
The effective permeability of the system is the limiting
flow at this interface which is the ratio of areas times the
unit permeability of sand
keff ¼ ðAP =AB Þksand . (3) Fig. 2. Photo of experimental flume.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
L.M. Haselbach et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 81 (2006) 42–49 45

Table 1 recorded weight change was then used to calculate the

Rainfall intensity values for Columbia, SC volumetric runoff rate based on the density of water.
Storm Intensity of rainfall at respective time of concentration
frequency values (cm/h) 4.4. Subbase
(years)
5 10 15 20 25 30 The pervious concrete system used for the simulations
consisted of a pervious concrete block placed on self-
2 13.83 12.24 10.98 9.95 9.10 8.38
5 16.31 14.37 12.84 11.60 10.58 9.72 compacted 15 cm (approx) thick sand which in turn was
10 18.07 15.87 14.15 12.76 11.62 10.66 placed on a perforated wooden board wrapped with a layer
25 20.74 18.13 16.10 14.48 13.16 12.06 of geo-synthetic filter fabric to contain the sand. This entire
50 22.93 19.97 17.68 15.87 14.40 13.17 set-up was inside a plastic container with a drainage hole at
100 25.10 21.78 19.23 17.22 15.60 14.26
the bottom. The drained reservoir system beneath the
Courtesy of SCDoT (2004). pervious and sand layers had a capacity sufficient to handle
all the tested permeability rates. The sand used as the
subbase was Foster Dixiana Sandblast Abrasive BX-40,
divided by the surface area of the pervious concrete block considered to be an extra fine sand.
in the flume. The reservoir rested on a computer-monitored The permeability and storage capacity of the system
scale and the change in weight over time as measured by varied with the water content of the sand subbase. Hence
the scale was used to calculate the volumetric simulated all the trials were performed under similar antecedent
rainfall flow rate. A portion of this simulated rainwater is moisture conditions. This condition was achieved by
infiltrated into the system, and once the effective perme- wetting the system with 6 l of water approximately 30 min
ability of the system is surpassed, the remaining portion of prior to the experimental run and allowing the system to
rainwater flows to the lower end of the flume as runoff drain during the time lapse.
where it can be collected into a basin resting on a
computer-monitored scale. Having the rainwater flow from 4.5. Surface slope
just upstream of the pervious concrete sample helps
alleviate the boundary condition error which can be caused The runoff volume and the permeability of a system can
due to the bouncing of the water from the pervious vary based on the slope of the pervious concrete surface.
concrete system into the runoff area. Experimental trials were run for calculating the experi-
Rainfall intensity values for any region are a function of mental permeability of sand-clogged pervious concrete
rainfall frequency. Based on available historical data, block systems for slopes of 2% (considered fairly flat) and
intensity/duration/frequency (IDF) curves are available 10% (considered steep for roads and parking areas). It is
for the geographical region from which the rainfall expected that runoff would be greater in the system with
intensity values can be found (Chow et al., 1988; Guo et the higher slope due to horizontal vector components of
al., 2002). The applied intensities used initially corre- the flow coming out of the pervious concrete.
sponded to those that would simulate rainfall events in
South Carolina. For illustrative purposes, the interpolated 4.6. Pervious concrete block
rainfall intensity values typical in Columbia, SC for major
storm events are shown in Table 1 (SCDoT, 2004). The Portland cement pervious concrete block used in the
However, the theoretical effective permeability of the experiments was sawcut from a pervious concrete slab
system is estimated at 0.0044 cm/s (16 cm/h) which is poured in Charleston, SC on April 1, 2004. The block was
greater than many of the largest predicted storm intensities approximately 31 cm in length, 31 cm in width and 16 cm in
for the region. Therefore, no runoff would be expected. depth with a surface area of 948 cm2. The slab poured in
However, pervious concrete systems can also accept Charleston was made from a mix that consisted of 237 kg
additional stormwater from contiguous upstream areas of Portland cement, 41 kg of fly ash, 1113 kg of #789
and in order to simulate water flows coming both from granite as the coarse aggregate, 0.6 kg of WRDA17
direct rainfall and from neighboring runoff flows, the admixture (a retarder) and 72 l of water. Some additional
intensities used were increased beyond the typical rainfall water was added just prior to placing the concrete in the
intensity values, but are still referred to as I (rainfall field to develop a sheen on the mixture.
intensity in cm/h). The porosity that is assumed appropriate for the
calculations in the experiment is the porosity of the top
4.3. Measuring runoff section of the block. The overall porosity was measured
based on a method developed at the University of South
At the lower end of the flume, runoff was collected in a Carolina (Montes et al., 2005) and represents the total
container that rested on a computer-monitored scale. A porosity of the block. This method is based on water
scale under the runoff collection basin was used to record displacement in a specific gravity tank. Other experiments
the change in weight of the water collected over time. This on blocks cut from this slab indicate that there is a
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
46 L.M. Haselbach et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 81 (2006) 42–49
significant vertical porosity distribution within the block
and that the porosity in the top quarter can be represented
by the following equation:
Ptop ¼ 1:07P  7.
The total porosity of the block was measured at
approximately 24% and the porosity in the top quarter
of the block was therefore estimated to be 19% based on
Eq. (5) (Haselbach and Freeman, 2006).
4.7. Permeability of extra fine sand
The permeability of the extra fine sand was measured
experimentally by the Constant Head Permeability Test
Method in accordance with ASTM D2434/AASHTO
T215: Standard Test for Permeability of Granular Soils
by Constant Head Method (ASTM, 2000; AASHTO,
1993). The sand used for both the subbase and the sand
covering was from the same batch as obtained from Foster
Dixiana Sandblast Abrasive and specified as BX-40.
4.8. Sand coverage
The permeability of this pervious concrete block system
over extra fine sand without sand clogging was previously
determined (Valavala et al., 2006). To simulate a varying
range of sand clogging, dampened sand was placed over the
pervious block at three different depths. The sand was also
distributed over the flume surface for an additional 30 cm
upslope of the block to minimize channeling effects at the
flume/pervious interface. The three sand depths used were
1.3, 2.5 and 5 cm. Fig. 3 shows a picture of the sand
covering.
Fig. 3. Photograph of run with sand covering.
4.9. Experimental effective permeability of clogged pervious
concrete block
Laboratory experiments were conducted in order
(5) to determine the validity of Eq. (1), an effective perme-
ability equation for sand-clogged pervious concrete. In
these experiments, a pervious concrete block was covered
with varying layers of sand and rainfall intensities
were simulated that were great enough to produce runoff.
After runoff was initiated, it was assumed that the
volume storage of the pervious concrete was saturated.
Therefore, a mass balance on the steady-state system
would dictate that the volumetric rainfall rate minus
the volumetric runoff rate would equal the infiltration
rate, or
kclog ¼ ðRainfall rate  Runoff rateÞ=Area of the block:
(6)
The mass balance was performed beginning at the first
5 min time interval after runoff was initiated to ensure that
the steady-state condition was achieved, and the rates
averaged over the remaining time. All the trials were
terminated after 30 min.
5. Results and discussion
Experimental trials representing two different slopes
(2% and 10%), different rainfall rates, and three different
sand coverage depths were performed on the same pervious
concrete block with a sand subbase. The experimental
effective permeabilities (kclog) were calculated for all the
runs and the results are shown in Table 2. The results are
only given when runoff occurred and were usually only for
rainfall intensities that far exceeded any expected rainfall
event in South Carolina and therefore represent active
runoff flowing onto the pervious concrete from other
upslope surfaces.
As can be seen in Table 2, the average kclog as determined
for surface slopes of 2% (0.0044 cm/s) is nearly identical
to the theoretically predicted value (0.0044 cm/s)
for this system. There was very little variation regardless
of sand cover or rainfall intensity. A small increase
with increased sand cover could be expected to represent
a condition of slightly increased head above the surface
and an increase in head gives an increase in flow. The data
in Table 2 show a slight trend of a higher permeability with
a deeper sand depth, but the variation is not significant
with respect to the standard deviation of the measured
values.
The average value for the simulations representing a
10% slope was 0.0037 cm/s. It was expected that the
effective permeability would be reduced from the theore-
tical prediction when the slope is increased. The effective
permeability as predicted in Eq. (1) is based on net vertical
flow into a horizontal surface. With an increase in slope,
there will be a horizontal component to the flow which will
discharge horizontally and add to the runoff. Estimating a
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L.M. Haselbach et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 81 (2006) 42–49 47

Table 2
Pervious concrete system permeabilities with sand cover

Slope Sand cover Approx rainfall kclog (cm/s)b For similar rainfall, sand For similar sand cover and For same slope
depth (cm) intensity (cm/h)a cover and slope slope

Average kclog Standard Average kclog Standard Average kclog Standard

(cm/s) deviation (cm/s) deviation (cm/s) deviation

2% 1.3 17 0.0041 0.0038 0.0003 0.0039 0.0004 0.0044 0.0011

17 0.0038
17 0.0035
22 0.0032 0.0040 0.0007
22 0.0044
22 0.0043
29 0.0035 0.0039 0.0003
29 0.0041
29 0.0041
2.5 22 0.0054 0.0036 0.0016 0.0042 0.0015
22 0.0029
22 0.0024
30 0.0063 0.0048 0.0013
30 0.0039
30 0.0043
5 22 0.0051 0.0053 0.0006 0.0055 0.0006
22 0.0059
22 0.0048
27 0.0052 0.0057 0.0007
27 0.0053
27 0.0065
10% 1.3 18 0.0049 0.0038 0.0010 0.0040 0.0006 0.0037 0.0008
18 0.0031
18 0.0033
21 0.0043 0.0042 0.0002
21 0.0040
21 0.0044
22 0.0046 0.0040 0.0006
22 0.0035
22 0.0038
2.5 19 0.0023 0.0026 0.0005 0.0032 0.0009
19 0.0023
19 0.0032
22 0.0026 0.0037 0.0009
22 0.0045
22 0.0043
22 0.0033

5 17 0.0034 — — 0.0038 0.0005

21 0.0043 — —
23 0.0038 — —
a
A typical rainfall intensity for a 30-min, 100 year storm in Columbia, SC is less than 15 cm/h. Therefore, these rainfall intensities represent a
combination of direct rainfall and additional ‘active’ runoff from adjacent land areas.
b
kclog is taken as the average for each storm event approximately 5 min after runoff starts.

10% reduction in vertical infiltration would result in an
estimated permeability of approximately 0.0040 cm/s and
this value compares very well to the measured value of
0.0037 cm/s as the variation is less than the standard
deviation range of 20–25% as calculated for the experi-
mental runs. (As can be seen in Table 2, the standard
deviation for the clogged runs was around 0.0011 cm/s
which is nearly an order of magnitude less than the
difference between the expected permeability when clogged
with sand (0.0040 cm/s) and the limiting permeability of the
sand (0.023 cm/s).)
Throughout the experiments, some channeling through
the sand layer on top of the pervious concrete occurred.
Sometimes these channels led to a more rapid runoff
breakthrough. Channeling would be expected to have a
greater effect in this laboratory flume experiment than in
an actual field situation, due to scaling and the decreased
probability of a channel being routed to another sand-
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
48 L.M. Haselbach et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 81 (2006) 42–49
Fig. 4. Comparison of permeabilities for pervious concrete (719% porosity near the top surface), extra fine sand-clogged systems, unclogged systems and
extra fine sand.
covered area. Hence, an increase in the variation in the
experimental kclog permeability values would be expected in
the laboratory.
From the above results, it can be concluded that the
calculated experimental permeability of the system clogged
with sand (kclog) is consistent with the theoretical effective
permeability (keff). This is illustrated in Fig. 4, where the
experimental system permeability values in the clogged
system are graphically compared to other associated
permeabilities. The permeability of the pervious concrete
block, without a subbase or sand clogging, ranges from
0.20 to 1 cm/s (Montes and Haselbach, 2006). The system
permeability over an extra fine sand subbase, without sand
clogging was determined previously at approximately
0.02 cm/s, similar to the permeability of extra fine sand
(0.023 cm/s) (Valavala et al., 2006). The effective perme-
ability of the sand-covered system was consistently
determined to be near the theoretically derived perme-
ability of the system (0.0044 cm/s) based on Eq. (1), an
effective permeability equation for sand-clogged pervious
concrete. Additionally, as expected, runoff did not occur
for rainfall intensities less than kclog and this region is
highlighted in Fig. 4.
6. Conclusions
Runoff simulations on a Portland cement pervious
concrete block clogged with a surface layer of sand were
carried out in the laboratory. The pervious concrete system
clogged with the same sand as used in the subbase resulted
in negligible runoff for both the 2% and 10% sloped
surfaces with simulations of typical rainfall intensities of up
to 100 year frequencies for the Columbia, SC region.
Runoff was observed when the rainfall intensities
represented a condition that might imitate the additive
effect of both direct rainfall and additional runoff (active
runoff) from neighboring surfaces reaching the pervious
concrete surface. A relation between the permeability of the
sand-clogged pervious concrete block system, the porosity
of the block near the surface and the permeability of the
sand was established theoretically as an effective perme-
ability equation for sand-clogged pervious concrete and
verified experimentally in the flume experiments for the
conditions tested with high rainfall intensities. This
equation represents a limiting permeability of the system
when fully covered with sand, and actual field conditions
would be expected to have higher permeabilities. The
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
L.M. Haselbach et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 81 (2006) 42–49
actual permeability range would therefore be expected to
be between the lower limit, as theoretically calculated with
the effective permeability equation for sand-clogged
pervious concrete, and the expected system permeability
of the unclogged system. The expected system permeability
for the unclogged system is usually limited by the
permeability of the subbase for pervious concrete or the
soil subgrade below. Information for these extreme
conditions can be useful in the design of pervious concrete
pavements that will also infiltrate runoff from other
surfaces or catchments. Care should also be taken in field
design to minimize the effects of increased runoff caused by
channeling through sand on the surface.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Chapman Concrete of Spartan-
burg, S.C., Gordon Singletary of S & W Ready Mix,
Van-Smith Concrete of Charleston, S.C., and members of
the Carolina Ready Mixed Concrete Association
(CRMCA) for their contributions to this project. Dr.
Charles Pierce, Dr. Joseph Flora, Dr. Ken Harrison, Mr.
Kevin Pulis and Mr. Avery Fox of the Civil and
Environmental Engineering Department at the University
of South Carolina generously gave their time in support of
this work. We are also grateful for the support and funding
for this research made available through the Center for
Manufacturing and Technology at the University of South
Carolina.
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