Geomorphology: Nature and Scope

1. Introduction
2. History and Evolution of Thoughts
3. Nature of Geomorphology
4. Scope of Geomorphology

By Hardik Thory
1. Introduction
Geomorphology is the science looking at the form of the land surface of earth
and the processes that create it. Some authors have however, defined
geomorphology broadly as to include the Earth’s formation as a whole and
extended by some to include the study of submarine features.

The word Geomorphology comes from an Ancient Greek word: gê, meaning
"earth"; morphḗ meaning "form" (relief features); and lógos meaning "study",
meaning ‘a study on the earth forms’.

It is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of:

• topographic (Study of the shape and features of land surfaces)
• bathymetric (study of underwater depth of ocean floors or lake floors)
features created by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at
or near the Earth's surface. Apart from this, it can also include the analysis
of extra-terrestrial terrains. It is a part of the field of physical geography and
covers the geological aspect of the visible landscape. The science has
developed in distinctive ways and is interrelated with other Earth Sciences.

The term geomorphology may have been first used by Laumann in an 1858
work which was written in German. The word came into general use in
English, German and French after John Wesley Powell and W. J.
McGee (American Geologist) used it during the International Geological
Conference of 1891. John Edward Marr (British Geologist) called
geomorphology as the “union of geology and geography”.

2. History and the Evolution of Thoughts

Geomorphology is a relatively young as compared to other fields of Physical

Geography. The origin of geomorphology dates back to Classical Greece but
the main developments were seen in the 20th century in USA and Europe.
Ancient Thoughts: There were many thinkers who had given their views on
the development of landforms mainly of them were from Greece, Egypt
and Rome.

o Herodotus (485-425 B. C.): Talked about silt and clay deposition of Nile and gave
the idea of changing sea levels.
o Aristotle (384-322 B. C.): Gave his ideas on formation of Krast Topography.
o Strabo (54 B. C. – A.D. 25): He noted examples of local sinking, rise of landforms
and differential erosion.

After the fall of the Roman Empire, there was a long break (1st Century AD to
14th Century AD) in the development of thoughts on Geomorphology and
other sciences too. This academic silence was suddenly broken by the
emergence of catastrophists who believed in the quick and sudden origin and
evolution of all animate and inanimate objects in very short period of time.

Modern Thoughts: After a long time, Geomorphology became an

independent discipline in the 19th century. Development of geomorphic
thoughts took place at regional level leading to development of the American
School and the European school.
• Leonardo da Vinci (1425- 1519: Gave many ideas about the formation of fluvial
landforms.
• James Hutton (1726- 1797): He recognized the evidence for metamorphism of
rocks. He also gave the concept of Uniformitarianism (the present is key to the
past) in opposition to that of catastrophism.
• Sir. Charles Lyell (1797-1875): Worked on the uniformitarianism ideology but
could not accept the full implications of stream erosion conceived by Hutton.
• G. K. Gilbert: Analysed processes of sub-aerial erosion and modifications which
valleys undergo as streams erode the land.
• Dutton C. E.: He is chiefly remembered for his in-depth analysis of individual
landforms and his recognition of evidence in the Colorado Plateaus area.
• William Morris Davis (1850- 1934): He will be remembered longest for his concept
of the geomorphic cycle known as the Davison Model of Cyclic Development( the
idea that in the evolution of landscapes there is a systematic sequence of
landforms which makes possible the recognition of stages of development, a
sequence that he designated as youth, maturity and old age) which was later
rejected in 1950s by many geographers.
• W. Penck: Penck thought that landform evolution was better described as an
alternation between ongoing processes of uplift and denudation, as opposed to
Davis's model of a single uplift followed by decay.
 • European School:
Main Focus: Pleistocene Ice Age and glaciation, glacial erosion, marine erosion,
fluvial processes and erosion, arid and karst landscapes.
Notable People: Charles Lyell, Louis Agassiz, A Penck, Bruckner, Sir Andrew
Ramsay, C. G Greenwood

• American School:
Main Focus: Landscape development, cycle of erosion, river valley development
Notable People: J.W. Powell, G.K. Gilbert, C. F. Dutton and W. M. Davis

Recent Developments: These include the inclusion of a newer branch known

as ‘climatic geomorphology’ originating in France, environmental
geomorphology, the development of quantitative (use of statistics, data and
computers) revolution in the field of geomorphology and the criticism of
Davisian Model of landscape development.

3. Nature of Geomorphology

The main focus of geomorphology is to study the evolution and the

characteristics of erosional and depositional:
• landforms and
• processes
operating in that.

3.1 Studying Landforms

“A landform is a feature on the Earth's surface that is part of

the terrain. Mountains, hills, plateaus, and plains are the four major types of
landforms. Minor landforms include buttes, canyons, valleys, and basins.”
3.1.1 Factors Affecting Landforms

There are various factors affecting landform development. Form is one of

them. Form has three facets:

Constitution Configuration Mass Flow

• Chemical and physical • Size and form described • Rates of flow described
properties described by by geometry variables by such massflow
material property variables as discharge,
variable precipitation rate and
evaporation rate

Dynamic Variables on the other hand are different from form variables. These
are chemical and mechanical properties representing the expenditure of
energy. They include power, energy flux, force, stress, and momentum.

Example (A Beach)
Form Variables:
o Constitution: sorting of grains, mean diameter of grains, grain shape, and
moisture content of the beach.
o Configuration: slope angle, beach profile form, and water depth
o Mass-flow: rates of erosion, transport, and deposition.
Dynamic variables:
Drag stresses set up by water currents associated with waves, by channelled water
flowing over the beach, and by wind, forces created by burrowing animals and humans
digging beach material.

3.1.2 Bases of Landform Description

We can describe a landform using the following ways:

o Subjective Description is a generalized and unscientific description of a

landform; thus, it is not used in geomorphology.
o Genetic Description is information regarding the features, origin and
development of the landform.
o Quantitative Description, also known as scientific description involves
mathematical calculations and statistical techniques.

3.1.3 Bases of Landform Classification

We can classify landforms on two bases:

o Genetic Classification: As the name suggests, the landforms categorized

using this approach are on the basis of their origin. E.g. Slopes can be
divided on the basis of Tectonic slopes, Erosional Slopes, Accumulating
slopes etc.
o Non-Genetic Classification: This is also called as the Quantitative
Classification. It involves numerical data for classification and it more
descriptive in nature. E.g. A hillslope can be classified on the basis of
slope angle and pane into summital convex, free-face, rectilinear and
basal concave.

3.2 Studying Processes

A process is defined as “an event that results in a transformation in a physical

or biological object or a substance; a change from one state to another”.
Just like that, geomorphic processes are the diverse chemical and physical
means by which the Earth’s surface undergoes modification.

“A process by which the earth’s land forms are changed or maintained.”

-Jim Gardner (1979)

Types of Geomorphic Process

The most popular way to describe geomorphic processes is on the basis of

their origin. On the basis of origin, they can be categorised under endogenic
and exogenic processes which are part of terrestrial processes.

Geomorphological Processes

Terrestrial Extra-terrestrial
Processes Processes

Endogenic

Exogenic
 Terrestrial processes are those processes which happen to originate from or
on earth itself unlike extra-terrestrial processes which are related with outer-
space. A meteorite fall is an example of extra-terrestrial process.

o Endogenic Processes/Hypogene: These are the processes which are a

result of the pressure that originates inside the earth. These are also
called internal progresses as they form, originate and are located below
the surface of the earth.
Example:
i) Volcanism
ii) Earthquake
iii) Landslide
iv) Diastrophism (folding and faulting)
v) Metamorphism (change in rock structure)

o Exogenic Processes/Epigene: These are the external processes which

take place on the surface of earth. The external or exogenous processes
originating from the atmosphere driven by solar energy change the face
of the earth’s surface through erosional and depositional activities.
Example:
i) Weathering
ii) Erosion/Degradation
iii) Transportation
iv) Deposition/Aggradation
v) Mass movement

3.3 Geomorphic Systems

“A system can be defined as a set of objects or characteristics which are

related to one another and operate together as a complex entity.”
The systems analysis focuses on the relationships between these objects or
characteristics which in geomorphology are the landforms or features and
processes.
We need to understand the system concept to understand geomorphology
as a discipline in general and landforms development in particular.

We have defined boundaries for the analysis of a geomorphic system.

o Open System: both energy and matter across the boundaries are
transferred
 o Closed System: energy is transferred but not matter
o Isolated System: neither energy nor matter is transferred

On the basis of form and process, we can classify geomorphological systems

in 4 types:
1) Form/Morphological System: interrelationship of the form/ measure/
arrangement of components
2) Process/Cascading System: interrelationship of flow of energy and the
resulted processes
3) Form-Process System: interrelationship between morphological system
and process system
4) Control System: a process-form system but with human interaction
Geomorphic systems can have negative feedback, a condition where the
structure of the system is auto-adjusts minimizing the effect of external
changes. It is also called as homeostasis which means that system is in an
equilibrium state.
In other cases, it’s a positive feedback, where an input change may trigger a
system response which produces an output which strengthens the original
input and eventually resulting in a progressive change in a landform.

4. Scope of Geomorphology
The scope of geomorphology can be explained by understanding the scale of
landforms.
4.1 Scale of Landforms
On the basis of scale of the relief features, they can be classified in three
categories:
1) First Order Landforms
This scale covers the largest area. It is used to study the ‘world
geomorphology’ altogether.
The landforms studied at this scale are:
o Continents
o Ocean Basins
 We mainly study the origin, characteristics and evolution of continents,
plate tectonics and ocean basin in this.
2) Second Order Landforms
We focus on the parts of continents on this scale. It includes:
o Mountains
o Plains
o Plateaus
o Lakes
o Rift Valleys etc.
We mainly focus on the diastrophic forces which led to development of
these landforms.
3) Third Order Landforms
These include the micro-level landforms that develop on second order
landforms due exogenic forces, denuding these landforms. These include:
o River Valley
o Krast Valley
o Canyons
o Gorges
o Mesas
o Drumlins
o Sea Beaches etc.

Geomorphology may also be organized on the basis of approaches to the

study of landforms.
4.2 Approaches to Study Geomorphology

o Historical Geomorphology: It focuses around histories of landscape

evolution and adopts a sequential or chronological view. It is a “what
happened approach”.
o Process Geomorphology: It focus around the method of geomorphic
processes and process–response relationships. It is a “what happens”
approach.
o Other Geomorphologies: These are comparatively newer approaches
to study the subject and are very much an extension of process
geomorphology. This includes Applied Geomorphology, Submarine
Geomorphology, Tectonic Geomorphology, Planetary Geomorphology
and Climatic Geomorphology.