Rodrigo Tavarez

223219116

Laboratory Experiment No.1

First Order and Integrator Dynamical System

Objective:

Explore the time frequency responses of first order and integrator dynamical system.

Theorical Introduction:

Time response

A first order system is a dynamical system described by the following differential equation:

dy (t)
+a1y(t)=bou(t)
dt

Where u(t) is the input of the function, y(t) is the output time function and a 1 and bo are the
system parameters. The transfer function of the system is given by

Y (s ) k
G(s)= =
U ( s) Ts+1

Where k=bo/a1 that is the system gain and T=1/a1 is the first order system time constant.

Frequency response

The frequency response of the first order system can be obtained by making the
substitution s=jw and varying w in the interval 0₊∞. Thus obtain

k k kT ω k
G(jw)= Tj ω+ 1 = 2 2
− 2 2
= 2 2
e− jarcig(T ω )
1+T ω 1+T ω √ 1+T ω

Denote by

k
U(ω)= Re{G(j ω)}= – the frequency response real part.
1+ T 2 ω2

−kT ω
V(ω) = Im{G(j(ω)}= - the frequency response imaginary part.
1+ T 2 ω2

k
A(ω)= – the magnitude response
√1+T 2 ω2
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β(ω)=-arctg(T ω) – the phase response

The Nyquist plot for a linear time-invariant system is the plot of Re{G(j ω) } vs Im{G(jω)}
on the complex plane when ω [0,∞). For first irder system, the Nyquist plot is a semicircle
with center (k/2,0) and radius r=k/2.

Experimental tasks:

1. Assemble the first order and integrator systemon the PID Board with the appropriate
gains and time constants.
2. Obtain the unit step time responses for different values of k and T by using square
waves generated by the function generator.
3. Obtain de Nyquist and Bode plots of the system for a give value of k and T by using
sine waves generated by the function generator.

Description of laboratory equipment

Function generator

Is a specific form of signal generator that can generate waveforms with common shapes.
Unlike RF generators and some others that only create sine waves, the function generator
can create repetitive waveforms with several common shapes.

It can be made to become a sine wave generator, square wave generator, and triangular
wave generator. Also a function generator may be able to vary the characteristics of the
waveforms, changing the length of the pulse, i.e. the mark space ratio, or the ramps of the
different edges of triangular or sawtooth waveforms, but it is only be able to create the
waveforms that are built in to the function generator. It cannot be programmed to create
additional waveforms - an arbitrary waveform generator, AWG is required for this.

Apart from just generating the waveforms themselves, this type of test instrument has the
capability to add a DC offset to the signal. This can be very useful in a number of testing
applications.

Typically function generators are only able to operate at relatively low frequencies, some
only operating to frequencies of around 100kHz, although more costly test instruments can
operate at higher frequencies, up to 20 or 30MHz.
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PID board

A proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller or three-term controller) is

a control loop mechanism employing feedback that is widely used in industrial control
systems and a variety of other applications requiring continuously modulated control. A

PID controller continuously calculates an error value {\displaystyle e(t)}  as the

difference between a desired setpoint (SP) and a measured process variable (PV) and
applies a correction based on proportional, integral, and derivative terms (denoted P, I,
and D respectively), hence the name.

In practical terms it automatically applies accurate and responsive correction to a control

function. An everyday example is the cruise control on a car, where ascending a hill would
lower speed if only constant engine power were applied. The controller's PID algorithm
restores the measured speed to the desired speed with minimal delay and overshoot by
increasing the power output of the engine.

The first theoretical analysis and practical application was in the field of automatic steering
systems for ships, developed from the early 1920s onwards. It was then used for automatic
process control in the manufacturing industry, where it was widely implemented in
pneumatic, and then electronic, controllers. Today the PID concept is used universally in
applications requiring accurate and optimized automatic control.

Oscilloscope

An oscilloscope is a laboratory instrument commonly used to display and analyze

the waveform of electronic signals. In effect, the device draws a graph of the instantaneous
signal voltage as a function of time.

A typical oscilloscope can display alternating current (AC) or pulsating direct current (DC)
waveforms having a frequency as low as approximately 1 hertz (Hz) or as high as several
megahertz (MHz). High-end oscilloscopes can display signals having frequencies up to
several hundred gigahertz (GHz). The display is broken up into so-called horizontal
divisions (hor div) and vertical divisions (vert div). Time is displayed from left to right on
the horizontal scale. Instantaneous voltage appears on the vertical scale, with positive
values going upward and negative values going downward.
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The oldest form of oscilloscope, still used in some labs today, is known as the cathode-ray
oscilloscope. It produces an image by causing a focused electron beam to travel, or sweep,
in patterns across the face of a cathode ray tube (CRT). More modern oscilloscopes
electronically replicate the action of the CRT using a liquid crystal display (liquid crystal
display) similar to those found on notebook computers. The most sophisticated
oscilloscopes employ computers to process and display waveforms. These computers can
use any type of display, including CRT, LCD, and gas plasma.

In any oscilloscope, the horizontal sweep is measured in seconds per division (s/div),

milliseconds per division (ms/div), microseconds per division (s/div), or nanoseconds per
division (ns/div). The vertical deflection is measured in volts per division (V/div),
millivolts per division (mV/div), or microvolts per division (V/div). Virtually all
oscilloscopes have adjustable horizontal sweep and vertical deflection settings.

The control System block diagrams

Tables with observed data:

T=2ms k=1
f[Hz] 20 30 40 50 80 100 200 300 500 1000 2000
2Ai[div] 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
2Ao[div
5 5 4.7 4.4 3.8 3.4 1.9 1.3 0.9 0.4 0.2
]
0.633 0.316 0.066
A[f] 0.8333 0.8333 0.7833 0.7333 0.5667 0.2167 0.1500 0.0333
3 7 7
BB'[div] 2.6 1.4 1.4 1.3 2 1.7 1 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.2
AA'[div] 0.6 0.8 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.2
36.87 90.00 90.00
β[◦] 13.642 34.850 45.585 57.796 49.881 90.000 90.000 90.000
0 0 0
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Nyquist plot:

Blode plot:
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T=50ms k=2

f[Hz] 30 50 80 100 200 300 500 1000

2Ai[div] 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
2Ao[div
1.2 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2
]
A[f] 0.24 0.16 0.10 0.10 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.04
BB'[div] 1.2 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.05
AA'[div] 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.05
90.0 90.0
β[◦] 41.81 90.00 90.00 90.00 90.00 90.00
0 0

Nyquist Diagram:
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Blode plot:

Discussion of obtained results

As we can see in the Nyquist diagrams if in the transfer functions, we increase the
numerator (real part) we are increasing the amplitude of this plot. But increasing the time
constant, we are creating a diphase more marked, as we can see in the image below.

K=1 T=2ms K=2 T=50ms

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Conclusion

As we have notice in systems of first order is important to take care about the frequency
because this controls the amplitude and the angle of the phase of the circuit. Also the time
constant and the gain of the circuit is necessary to calculate the transfer function of the
system, increasing the this values we are increasing the amplitude and the phase of the
output.

Finally, as we can see in the simulation, is no recommendable to get the phase and
amplitude by simulations, because with the eyes is impossible to get the exact number of
this values, because as we increase that values; the output must be represented by
logarithmic plot.