Aircraft engine

An aircraft engine, often referred to as an aero engine,

is the power component of an aircraft propulsion system.
Most aircraft engines are either piston engines or gas
turbines, although in recent years many small UAVs have
used electric motors.

Contents
Manufacturing industry
Development history
Shaft engines
A Rolls-Royce Merlin installed in a preserved Avro
Reciprocating (piston) engines York
In-line engine
V-type engine
Horizontally opposed engine
H configuration engine
Radial engine
Rotary engine
Wankel engine
Combustion cycles
Power turbines
Turboprop
Turboshaft
Electric power
Reaction engines
Jet turbines
Turbojet
Turbofan
Pulse jets
Rocket
Precooled jet engines
Piston-turbofan hybrid
Engine position numbering
Fuel
See also
Notes
References
External links
Manufacturing industry
In commercial aviation the major Western manufacturers of turbofan engines are Pratt & Whitney (a subsidiary
of Raytheon Technologies), General Electric, Rolls-Royce, and CFM International (a joint venture of Safran
Aircraft Engines and General Electric).[1] (http://clearwaterinternational.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Aer
ospace-Report-Master-2014.pdf) Russian manufacturers include the United Engine Corporation, Aviadvigatel
and Klimov. Aeroengine Corporation of China was formed in 2016 with the merger of several smaller
companies.[1]

The largest manufacturer of turboprop engines for general aviation is Pratt & Whitney.[2] General Electric
announced in 2015 entrance into the market.[2]

Development history
1848: John Stringfellow made a steam engine for a 10-foot
wingspan model aircraft which achieved the first powered
flight, albeit with negligible payload.
1903: Charlie Taylor built an inline engine, mostly of
aluminum, for the Wright Flyer (12 horsepower).
1903: Manly-Balzer engine sets standards for later radial
engines.[3]
1906: Léon Levavasseur produces a successful water-
cooled V8 engine for aircraft use.
1908: René Lorin patents a design for the ramjet engine. Wright vertical 4-cylinder engine
1908: Louis Seguin designed the Gnome Omega, the
world's first rotary engine to be produced in quantity. In
1909 a Gnome powered Farman III aircraft won the prize for the greatest non-stop distance
flown at the Reims Grande Semaine d'Aviation setting a world record for endurance of 180
kilometres (110 mi).
1910: Coandă-1910, an unsuccessful ducted fan aircraft exhibited at Paris Aero Salon,
powered by a piston engine. The aircraft never flew, but a patent was filed for routing exhaust
gases into the duct to augment thrust.[4][5][6][7]
1914: Auguste Rateau suggests using exhaust-powered compressor – a turbocharger – to
improve high-altitude performance;[3] not accepted after the tests[8]
1917-18 - The Idflieg-numbered R.30/16 example of the Imperial German Luftstreitkräfte's
Zeppelin-Staaken R.VI heavy bomber becomes the earliest known supercharger-equipped
aircraft to fly, with a Mercedes D.II straight-six engine in the central fuselage driving a Brown-
Boveri mechanical supercharger for the R.30/16's four Mercedes D.IVa engines.
1918: Sanford Alexander Moss picks up Rateau's idea and creates the first successful
turbocharger[3][9]
1926: Armstrong Siddeley Jaguar IV (S), the first series-produced supercharged engine for
aircraft use;[10][nb 1] two-row radial with a gear-driven centrifugal supercharger.
1930: Frank Whittle submitted his first patent for a turbojet engine.
June 1939: Heinkel He 176 is the first successful aircraft to fly powered solely by a liquid-fueled
rocket engine.
August 1939: Heinkel HeS 3 turbojet propels the pioneering German Heinkel He 178 aircraft.
1940: Jendrassik Cs-1, the world's first run of a turboprop engine. It is not put into service.
1943 Daimler-Benz DB 670, first turbofan runs
 1944: Messerschmitt Me 163B Komet, the world's first rocket-propelled combat aircraft
deployed.
1945: First turboprop-powered aircraft flies, a modified Gloster Meteor with two Rolls-Royce
Trent engines.
1947: Bell X-1 rocket-propelled aircraft exceeds the speed of sound.
1948: 100 shp 782, the first turboshaft engine to be applied to aircraft use; in 1950 used to
develop the larger 280 shp (210 kW) Turbomeca Artouste.
1949: Leduc 010, the world's first ramjet-powered aircraft flight.
1950: Rolls-Royce Conway, the world's first production turbofan, enters service.
1968: General Electric TF39 high bypass turbofan enters service delivering greater thrust and
much better efficiency.
2002: HyShot scramjet flew in dive.
2004: NASA X-43, the first scramjet to maintain altitude.

Shaft engines

Reciprocating (piston) engines

In-line engine

In this entry, for clarity, the term "inline engine" refers only to engines
with a single row of cylinders, as used in automotive language, but in
Ranger L-440 air-cooled, six-cylinder,
aviation terms, the phrase "inline engine" also covers V-type and
inverted, in-line engine used in
opposed engines (as described below), and is not limited to engines
Fairchild PT-19
with a single row of cylinders. This is typically to differentiate them
from radial engines. A straight engine typically has an even number of
cylinders, but there are instances of three- and five-cylinder engines.
The greatest advantage of an inline engine is that it allows the aircraft to be designed with a low frontal area to
minimize drag. If the engine crankshaft is located above the cylinders, it is called an inverted inline engine: this
allows the propeller to be mounted high up to increase ground clearance, enabling shorter landing gear. The
disadvantages of an inline engine include a poor power-to-weight ratio, because the crankcase and crankshaft
are long and thus heavy. An in-line engine may be either air-cooled or liquid-cooled, but liquid-cooling is more
common because it is difficult to get enough air-flow to cool the rear cylinders directly. Inline engines were
common in early aircraft; one was used in the Wright Flyer, the aircraft that made the first controlled powered
flight. However, the inherent disadvantages of the design soon became apparent, and the inline design was
abandoned, becoming a rarity in modern aviation.

For other configurations of aviation inline engine, such as X-engines, U-engines, H-engines, etc., see Inline
engine (aeronautics).

V-type engine

Cylinders in this engine are arranged in two in-line banks, typically tilted 60–90 degrees apart from each other
and driving a common crankshaft. The vast majority of V engines are water-cooled. The V design provides a
higher power-to-weight ratio than an inline engine, while still providing a small frontal area. Perhaps the most
famous example of this design is the legendary Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, a 27-litre (1649 in3 ) 60° V12
engine used in, among others, the Spitfires that played a major role in the Battle of Britain.
 Horizontally opposed engine

A horizontally opposed engine, also called a flat or boxer engine, has

A Rolls-Royce Merlin V-12 Engine
two banks of cylinders on opposite sides of a centrally located
crankcase. The engine is either air-cooled or liquid-cooled, but air-
cooled versions predominate. Opposed engines are mounted with the
crankshaft horizontal in airplanes, but may be mounted with the
crankshaft vertical in helicopters. Due to the cylinder layout,
reciprocating forces tend to cancel, resulting in a smooth running
engine. Opposed-type engines have high power-to-weight ratios
because they have a comparatively small, lightweight crankcase. In
addition, the compact cylinder arrangement reduces the engine's
frontal area and allows a streamlined installation that minimizes
aerodynamic drag. These engines always have an even number of
cylinders, since a cylinder on one side of the crankcase “opposes” a
cylinder on the other side.

Opposed, air-cooled four- and six-cylinder piston engines are by far

the most common engines used in small general aviation aircraft
requiring up to 400 horsepower (300 kW) per engine. Aircraft that
A ULPower UL260i horizontally
require more than 400 horsepower (300 kW) per engine tend to be
opposed air-cooled aero engine
powered by turbine engines.

H configuration engine

An H configuration engine is essentially a pair of horizontally opposed engines placed together, with the two
crankshafts geared together.

Radial engine

This type of engine has one or more rows of cylinders arranged

around a centrally located crankcase. Each row generally has an odd
number of cylinders to produce smooth operation. A radial engine has
only one crank throw per row and a relatively small crankcase,
resulting in a favorable power-to-weight ratio. Because the cylinder
arrangement exposes a large amount of the engine's heat-radiating
surfaces to the air and tends to cancel reciprocating forces, radials tend
to cool evenly and run smoothly. The lower cylinders, which are
under the crankcase, may collect oil when the engine has been
stopped for an extended period. If this oil is not cleared from the
cylinders prior to starting the engine, serious damage due to
hydrostatic lock may occur.

Most radial engines have the cylinders arranged evenly around the
crankshaft, although some early engines, sometimes called semi-
radials or fan configuration engines, had an uneven arrangement. The
A Pratt & Whitney R-2800 engine
best known engine of this type is the Anzani engine, which was fitted
to the Bleriot XI used for the first flight across the English Channel in
1909. This arrangement had the drawback of needing a heavy
counterbalance for the crankshaft, but was used to avoid the spark plugs oiling up.
In military aircraft designs, the large frontal area of the engine acted as an extra layer of armor for the pilot.
Also air-cooled engines, without vulnerable radiators, are slightly less prone to battle damage, and on occasion
would continue running even with one or more cylinders shot away. However, the large frontal area also
resulted in an aircraft with an aerodynamically inefficient increased frontal area.

Rotary engine

Rotary engines have the cylinders in a circle around the crankcase, as

in a radial engine, (see above), but the crankshaft is fixed to the
airframe and the propeller is fixed to the engine case, so that the
crankcase and cylinders rotate. The advantage of this arrangement is
that a satisfactory flow of cooling air is maintained even at low
airspeeds, retaining the weight advantage and simplicity of a
conventional air-cooled engine without one of their major drawbacks.
The first practical rotary engine was the Gnome Omega designed by
the Seguin brothers and first flown in 1909. Its relative reliability and
good power to weight ratio changed aviation dramatically. [11] Before
the first World War most speed records were gained using Gnome-
engined aircraft, and in the early years of the war rotary engines were
Le Rhone 9C rotary aircraft engine
dominant in aircraft types for which speed and agility were
paramount. To increase power, engines with two rows of cylinders
were built.

However, the gyroscopic effects of the heavy rotating engine produced handling problems in aircraft and the
engines also consumed large amounts of oil since they used total loss lubrication, the oil being mixed with the
fuel and ejected with the exhaust gases. Castor oil was used for lubrication, since it is not soluble in petrol, and
the resultant fumes were nauseating to the pilots. Engine designers had always been aware of the many
limitations of the rotary engine so when the static style engines became more reliable and gave better specific
weights and fuel consumption, the days of the rotary engine were numbered.

Wankel engine

The Wankel is a type of rotary engine. The Wankel engine is about one half the weight and size of a traditional
four-stroke cycle piston engine of equal power output, and much lower in complexity. In an aircraft
application, the power-to-weight ratio is very important, making the Wankel engine a good choice. Because
the engine is typically constructed with an aluminium housing and a steel rotor, and aluminium expands more
than steel when heated, a Wankel engine does not seize when overheated, unlike a piston engine. This is an
important safety factor for aeronautical use. Considerable development of these designs started after World
War II, but at the time the aircraft industry favored the use of turbine engines. It was believed that turbojet or
turboprop engines could power all aircraft, from the largest to smallest designs. The Wankel engine did not
find many applications in aircraft, but was used by Mazda in a popular line of sports cars. The French
company Citroën had developed Wankel powered RE-2 helicopter in 1970's.[12]

In modern times the Wankel engine has been used in motor gliders where the compactness, light weight, and
smoothness are crucially important.[13]

The now-defunct Staverton-based firm MidWest designed and produced single- and twin-rotor aero engines,
the MidWest AE series. These engines were developed from the motor in the Norton Classic motorcycle. The
twin-rotor version was fitted into ARV Super2s and the Rutan Quickie. The single-rotor engine was put into a
Chevvron motor glider and into the Schleicher ASH motor-gliders. After the demise of MidWest, all rights
were sold to Diamond of Austria, who have since developed a MkII version of the engine.
As a cost-effective alternative to certified aircraft engines some Wankel
engines, removed from automobiles and converted to aviation use, have been
fitted in homebuilt experimental aircraft. Mazda units with outputs ranging
from 100 horsepower (75 kW) to 300 horsepower (220 kW) can be a fraction
of the cost of traditional engines. Such conversions first took place in the early
1970s; and as of 10 December 2006 the National Transportation Safety Board
has only seven reports of incidents involving aircraft with Mazda engines, and
none of these is of a failure due to design or manufacturing flaws.

Combustion cycles

The commonest combustion cycle for aero engines is the four-stroke with Powerplant from a
spark ignition. Two-stroke spark ignition has also been used for small engines, Schleicher ASH 26e self-
while the compression-ignition Diesel engine is seldom used. launching motor glider,
removed from the glider and
Starting in the 1930s attempts were made to produce a practical Aircraft diesel mounted on a test stand for
engine. In general, Diesel engines are more reliable and much better suited to maintenance at the
running for long periods of time at medium power settings. The lightweight Alexander Schleicher GmbH
alloys of the 1930s were not up to the task of handling the much higher & Co in Poppenhausen,
compression ratios of diesel engines, so they generally had poor power-to- Germany. Counter-
weight ratios and were uncommon for that reason, although the Clerget 14F clockwise from top left:
Diesel radial engine (1939) has the same power to weight ratio as a gasoline propeller hub, mast with belt
radial. Improvements in Diesel technology in automobiles (leading to much guide, radiator, Wankel
better power-weight ratios), the Diesel's much better fuel efficiency and the engine, muffler shroud.
high relative taxation of AVGAS compared to Jet A1 in Europe have all seen
a revival of interest in the use of diesels for aircraft. Thielert Aircraft Engines
converted Mercedes Diesel automotive engines, certified them for aircraft use, and became an OEM provider
to Diamond Aviation for their light twin. Financial problems have plagued Thielert, so Diamond's affiliate —
Austro Engine — developed the new AE300 turbodiesel, also based on a Mercedes engine.[14] Competing
new Diesel engines may bring fuel efficiency and lead-free emissions to small aircraft, representing the biggest
change in light aircraft engines in decades.

Power turbines

Turboprop

While military fighters require very high speeds, many civil airplanes
do not. Yet, civil aircraft designers wanted to benefit from the high
power and low maintenance that a gas turbine engine offered. Thus
was born the idea to mate a turbine engine to a traditional propeller.
Because gas turbines optimally spin at high speed, a turboprop
features a gearbox to lower the speed of the shaft so that the propeller
tips don't reach supersonic speeds. Often the turbines that drive the
propeller are separate from the rest of the rotating components so that
Cutaway view of a Garrett TPE-331
they can rotate at their own best speed (referred to as a free-turbine turboprop engine showing the
engine). A turboprop is very efficient when operated within the realm gearbox at the front of the engine
of cruise speeds it was designed for, which is typically 200 to
400 mph (320 to 640 km/h).

Turboshaft

An Allison Model 250 turboshaft
engine common to many types of
helicopters
Turboshaft engines are used primarily for helicopters and auxiliary
power units. A turboshaft engine is similar to a turboprop in principle,
but in a turboprop the propeller is supported by the engine and the
engine is bolted to the airframe: in a turboshaft, the engine does not
provide any direct physical support to the helicopter's rotors. The rotor
is connected to a transmission which is bolted to the airframe, and the
turboshaft engine drives the transmission. The distinction is seen by
some as slim, as in some cases aircraft companies make both
turboprop and turboshaft engines based on the same design.
Electric power

A number of electrically powered aircraft, such as the QinetiQ

Zephyr, have been designed since the 1960s.[15][16] Some are used as military drones.[17] In France in late
2007, a conventional light aircraft powered by an 18 kW electric motor using lithium polymer batteries was
flown, covering more than 50 kilometers (31 mi), the first electric airplane to receive a certificate of
airworthiness.[15]

Limited experiments with solar electric propulsion have been performed, notably the manned Solar Challenger
and Solar Impulse and the unmanned NASA Pathfinder aircraft.

Many big companies, such as Siemens, are developing high performance electric engines for aircraft use, also,
SAE shows new developments in elements as pure Copper core electric motors with a better efficiency. A
hybrid system as emergency back-up and for added power in take-off is offered for sale by Axter Aerospace,
Madrid, Spain. [2] (http://axteraerospace.com/)

Small multicopter UAVs are almost always powered by electric motors.

Reaction engines
Reaction engines generate the thrust to propel an aircraft by ejecting the exhaust gases at high velocity from
the engine, the resultant reaction of forces driving the aircraft forwards. The most common reaction propulsion
engines flown are turbojets, turbofans and rockets. Other types such as pulsejets, ramjets, scramjets and pulse
detonation engines have also flown. In jet engines the oxygen necessary for fuel combustion comes from the
air, while rockets carry oxygen in some form as part of the fuel load, permitting their use in space.

Jet turbines

Turbojet

A turbojet is a type of gas turbine engine that was originally developed for military fighters during World War
II. A turbojet is the simplest of all aircraft gas turbines. It consists of a compressor to draw air in and compress
it, a combustion section where fuel is added and ignited, one or more turbines that extract power from the
expanding exhaust gases to drive the compressor, and an exhaust nozzle that accelerates the exhaust gases out
the back of the engine to create thrust. When turbojets were introduced, the top speed of fighter aircraft
equipped with them was at least 100 miles per hour faster than competing piston-driven aircraft. In the years
after the war, the drawbacks of the turbojet gradually became apparent. Below about Mach 2, turbojets are
very fuel inefficient and create tremendous amounts of noise. Early designs also respond very slowly to power
changes, a fact that killed many experienced pilots when they attempted the transition to jets. These drawbacks
eventually led to the downfall of the pure turbojet, and only a handful
of types are still in production. The last airliner that used turbojets was
the Concorde, whose Mach 2 airspeed permitted the engine to be
highly efficient.

Turbofan

A turbofan engine is much A General Electric J85-GE-17A

the same as a turbojet, but turbojet engine. This cutaway clearly
with an enlarged fan at the shows the 8 stages of axial
front that provides thrust in compressor at the front (left side of
much the same way as a the picture), the combustion
ducted propeller, resulting in chambers in the middle, and the two
improved fuel efficiency. stages of turbines at the rear of the
Though the fan creates thrust engine.
like a propeller, the
A cutaway of a CFM56-3 turbofan
surrounding duct frees it from
engine
many of the restrictions that limit propeller performance. This
operation is a more efficient way to provide thrust than simply using
the jet nozzle alone, and turbofans are more efficient than propellers in
the transsonic range of aircraft speeds and can operate in the supersonic realm. A turbofan typically has extra
turbine stages to turn the fan. Turbofans were among the first engines to use multiple spools—concentric shafts
that are free to rotate at their own speed—to let the engine react more quickly to changing power requirements.
Turbofans are coarsely split into low-bypass and high-bypass categories. Bypass air flows through the fan, but
around the jet core, not mixing with fuel and burning. The ratio of this air to the amount of air flowing through
the engine core is the bypass ratio. Low-bypass engines are preferred for military applications such as fighters
due to high thrust-to-weight ratio, while high-bypass engines are preferred for civil use for good fuel efficiency
and low noise. High-bypass turbofans are usually most efficient when the aircraft is traveling at 500 to 550
miles per hour (800 to 885 km/h), the cruise speed of most large airliners. Low-bypass turbofans can reach
supersonic speeds, though normally only when fitted with afterburners.

Pulse jets

Pulse jets are mechanically simple devices that—in a repeating cycle—draw air through a no-return valve at
the front of the engine into a combustion chamber and ignite it. The combustion forces the exhaust gases out
the back of the engine. It produces power as a series of pulses rather than as a steady output, hence the name.
The only application of this type of engine was the German unmanned V1 flying bomb of World War II.
Though the same engines were also used experimentally for ersatz fighter aircraft, the extremely loud noise
generated by the engines caused mechanical damage to the airframe that was sufficient to make the idea
unworkable.

Rocket

A few aircraft have used rocket engines for main thrust or attitude control, notably the Bell X-1 and North
American X-15. Rocket engines are not used for most aircraft as the energy and propellant efficiency is very
poor, but have been employed for short bursts of speed and takeoff. Where fuel/propellant efficiency is of
lesser concern, rocket engines can be useful because they produce very large amounts of thrust and weigh very
little.
Precooled jet engines

For very high supersonic/low hypersonic flight speeds, inserting a

cooling system into the air duct of a hydrogen jet engine permits
greater fuel injection at high speed and obviates the need for the duct
to be made of refractory or actively cooled materials. This greatly
improves the thrust/weight ratio of the engine at high speed.

It is thought that this design of engine could permit sufficient An XLR99

performance for antipodal flight at Mach 5, or even permit a single
stage to orbit vehicle to be practical. The hybrid air-breathing SABRE
rocket engine is a pre-cooled engine under development.

Piston-turbofan hybrid

At the April 2018 ILA Berlin Air Show, Munich-based research institute de:Bauhaus Luftfahrt presented a
high-efficiency composite cycle engine for 2050, combining a geared turbofan with a piston engine core. The
2.87 m diameter, 16-blade fan gives a 33.7 ultra-high bypass ratio, driven by a geared low-pressure turbine but
the high-pressure compressor drive comes from a piston-engine with two 10 piston banks without a high-
pressure turbine, increasing efficiency with non-stationary isochoric-isobaric combustion for higher peak
pressures and temperatures. The 11,200 lb (49.7 kN) engine could power a 50-seat regional jet.[18]

Its cruise TSFC would be 11.5 g/kN/s (0.406 lb/lbf/hr) for an overall engine efficiency of 48.2%, for a burner
temperature of 1,700 K (1,430 °C), an overall pressure ratio of 38 and a peak pressure of 30 MPa
(300 bar).[19] Although engine weight increases by 30%, aircraft fuel consumption is reduced by 15%.[20]
Sponsored by the European Commission under Framework 7 project LEMCOTEC, Bauhaus Luftfahrt, MTU
Aero Engines and GKN Aerospace presented the concept in 2015, raising the overall engine pressure ratio to
over 100 for a 15.2% fuel burn reduction compared to 2025 engines.[21]

Engine position numbering

On multi-engine aircraft, engine positions are numbered from left to
right from the point of view of the pilot looking forward, so for
example on a four-engine aircraft such as the Boeing 747, engine No.
1 is on the left side, farthest from the fuselage, while engine No. 3 is
on the right side nearest to the fuselage.[22]

In the case of the twin-engine English Electric Lightning, which has

two fuselage-mounted jet engines one above the other, engine No. 1 is
below and to the front of engine No. 2, which is above and
behind.[23]

In the Cessna 337 Skymaster, a push-pull twin-engine airplane,

engine No. 1 is the one at the front of the fuselage, while engine No.
2 is aft of the cabin. The thrust levers of a three-engine
Boeing 727, each one bearing the
respective engine number
Fuel
Aircraft reciprocating (piston) engines are typically designed to run on aviation gasoline. Avgas has a higher
octane rating than automotive gasoline to allow higher compression ratios, power output, and efficiency at
higher altitudes. Currently the most common Avgas is 100LL. This refers to the octane rating (100 octane) and
the lead content (LL = low lead, relative to the historic levels of lead in pre-regulation Avgas).

Refineries blend Avgas with tetraethyllead (TEL) to achieve these high octane ratings, a practice that
governments no longer permit for gasoline intended for road vehicles. The shrinking supply of TEL and the
possibility of environmental legislation banning its use have made a search for replacement fuels for general
aviation aircraft a priority for pilots’ organizations.[24]

Turbine engines and aircraft diesel engines burn various grades of jet fuel. Jet fuel is a relatively less volatile
petroleum derivative based on kerosene, but certified to strict aviation standards, with additional additives.

Model aircraft typically use nitro engines (also known as "glow engines" due to the use of a glow plug)
powered by glow fuel, a mixture of methanol, nitromethane, and lubricant. Electrically powered model
airplanes[25] and helicopters are also commercially available. Small multicopter UAVs are almost always
powered by electricity,[26][27] but larger gasoline-powered designs are under development.[28] [29] [30]

See also
Aircraft diesel engine
Aviation safety
Engine configuration
Federal Aviation Regulations
Hyper engine
List of aircraft engines
Model engine
United States military aircraft engine designations

Notes
1. The world's first series-produced cars with superchargers came earlier than aircraft. These
were Mercedes 6/25/40 hp and Mercedes 10/40/65 hp, both models introduced in 1921 and
used Roots superchargers. G.N. Georgano, ed. (1982). The new encyclopedia of motorcars
1885 to the present (https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000unse_v2r4/page/415)
(3rd ed.). New York: Dutton. pp. 415 (https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000unse_v
2r4/page/415). ISBN 978-0-525-93254-3.

References
1. "China launches state-owned aircraft engine maker" (http://www.cctv-america.com/2016/08/29/
china-launches-state-owned-aircraft-engine-maker). CCTV America. August 29, 2016.
2. "GE Pushes Into Turboprop Engines, Taking on Pratt" (https://www.wsj.com/articles/ge-pushes-
into-turboprop-engines-taking-on-pratt-1447700601). Wall Street Journal. November 16, 2015.
3. Ian McNeil, ed. (1990). Encyclopedia of the History of Technology (https://archive.org/details/en
cyclopaediaofh00mcne). London: Routledge. pp. 315 (https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia
ofh00mcne/page/315)–21. ISBN 978-0-203-19211-5.
4. Gibbs-Smith, Charles Harvard (1970). Aviation: an historical survey from its origins to the end
of World War II (https://books.google.com/books?id=hxEOAQAAIAAJ). London: Her Majesty's
Stationery Office.
 5. Gibbs-Smith, Charles Harvard (1960). The Aeroplane: An Historical Survey of Its Origins and
Development (https://books.google.com/books?id=mzcZAAAAIAAJ). London: Her Majesty's
Stationery Office.
6. Winter, Frank H. (December 1980). "Ducted Fan or the World's First Jet Plane? The Coanda
claim re-examined" (https://books.google.com/books?id=XkBWAAAAMAAJ). The Aeronautical
Journal. Royal Aeronautical Society. 84.
7. Antoniu, Dan; Cicoș, George; Buiu, Ioan-Vasile; Bartoc, Alexandru; Șutic, Robert (2010). Henri
Coandă and his technical work during 1906–1918 (in Romanian). Bucharest: Editura Anima.
ISBN 978-973-7729-61-3.
8. Guttman, Jon (2009). SPAD XIII vs. Fokker D VII: Western Front 1918 (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=8TBE5nGmxbEC&lpg=PA25) (1st ed.). Oxford: Osprey. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-1-
84603-432-9.
9. Powell, Hickman (Jun 1941). "He Harnessed a Tornado..." (https://books.google.com/books?id
=UycDAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA66) Popular Science.
10. Anderson, John D (2002). The airplane: A history of its technology (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=FrvrkXYDCL8C&lpg=PA253). Reston, VA, USA: American Institute of Aeronautics
and Astronautics. pp. 252–53. ISBN 978-1-56347-525-2.
11. Gibbs-Smith, C.H. (2003). Aviation. London: NMSO. p. 175. ISBN 1 9007 4752 9.
12. Boulay, Pierre (1998). Guides Larivière (ed.). Les hélicoptères français (in French). ISBN 978-
2-907051-17-0.
13. "ASH 26 E Information" (https://web.archive.org/web/20061008125929/http://www.alexander-sc
hleicher.de/englisch/produkte/ash26/e_ash26_main.htm). DE: Alexander Schleicher. Archived
from the original (http://www.alexander-schleicher.de/englisch/produkte/ash26/e_ash26_main.h
tm) on 2006-10-08. Retrieved 2006-11-24.
14. "Diamond Twins Reborn" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140618032748/http://www.flyingmag.
com/pilot-reports/pistons/diamond-twins-reborn). Flying Mag. Archived from the original (http://
www.flyingmag.com/pilot-reports/pistons/diamond-twins-reborn) on 2014-06-18. Retrieved
2010-06-14.
15. Worldwide première: first aircraft flight with electrical engine (https://web.archive.org/web/20080
110092518/http://www.apame.eu/AA%20Projects.html), Association pour la Promotion des
Aéronefs à Motorisation Électrique, December 23, 2007, archived from the original (http://www.
apame.eu/AA%20Projects.html) on 2008-01-10.
16. Superconducting Turbojet (https://web.archive.org/web/20080223113129/http://www.physorg.c
om/printnews.php?newsid=101391900), Physorg.com, archived from the original (http://www.p
hysorg.com/printnews.php?newsid=101391900) on 2008-02-23.
17. Voyeur (https://web.archive.org/web/20091231174446/http://www.litemachines.com//mil//mil_m
ain.htm), Litemachines, archived from the original (http://www.litemachines.com/mil/mil_main.ht
m) on 2009-12-31.
18. David Kaminski-Morrow (24 April 2018). "Hybrid geared-fan and piston concept could slash
fuel-burn" (https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/hybrid-geared-fan-and-piston-concept-co
uld-slash-fue-447955/). Flightglobal.
19. "Composite Cycle Engine concept technical data sheet" (https://www.bauhaus-luftfahrt.net/filea
dmin/user_upload/CCE_Data_Sheet.pdf) (PDF). Bauhaus Luftfahrt.
20. "The composite cycle engine concept" (https://www.bauhaus-luftfahrt.net/en/research/energy-te
chnologies-power-systems/the-composite-cycle-engine-concept/). Bauhaus Luftfahrt.
21. Sascha Kaiser; et al. (July 2015). "A Composite Cycle Engine Concept with Hecto-Pressure
Ratio" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278674579_A_Composite_Cycle_Engine_Co
ncept_with_Hecto-Pressure_Ratio). AIAA Propulsion and Energy conference.
doi:10.2514/6.2015-4028 (https://doi.org/10.2514%2F6.2015-4028).
22. National Business Aircraft Association (1952). Skyways for business (https://books.google.co
m/?id=t20PAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22engine+number%22+aircraft+left+right+inboard+outboard&q=i
nboard#search_anchor). Henry Publications. p. 52.
23. "English Electric Lightning F53 (53-671) – Power Plants" (https://web.archive.org/web/2018061
2141820/http://www.gatwick-aviation-museum.co.uk/lightning/power_plants.htm). Gatwick
Aviation Museum. Archived from the original (http://www.gatwick-aviation-museum.co.uk/lightni
ng/power_plants.htm) on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 9 June 2018.
24. "EAA'S Earl Lawrence Elected Secretary of International Aviation Fuel Committee" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20130303034122/http://www.eaa.org/communications/eaanews/pr/011207_l
awrence.html) (Press release). Archived from the original (http://www.eaa.org/communications/
eaanews/pr/011207_lawrence.html) on March 3, 2013.
25. "Electric Airplanes - RTF" (http://www.nitroplanes.com/rtf.html). www.nitroplanes.com.
26. "Amazon.com: Photography Drones Store: Buying Guide: Electronics" (https://www.amazon.co
m/Photography-Drones-Store-Buying-Guide/b?ie=UTF8&node=13407343011).
27. "RC Quadcopters" (http://www.nitroplanes.com/quadcopters.html). www.nitroplanes.com.
28. "Yeair! hybrid gasoline/electric quadcopter boasts impressive numbers" (http://www.gizmag.co
m/yeair-hybrid-two-stroke-combustion-quadcopter-drone/37713/). www.gizmag.com.
29. "Goliath – A Gas Powered Quadcopter" (https://hackaday.io/project/1230-goliath-a-gas-powere
d-quadcopter). hackaday.io.
30. "Heavy Lifting Quadcopter Lifts 50 Pound Loads. It's a Gas Powered HULK (HLQ) – Industry
Tap" (http://www.industrytap.com/heavy-lifting-quadcopter-lifts-50-pound-loads-its-a-gas-power
ed-hulk-hlq/2182). www.industrytap.com. 2013-03-11.

External links
Aircraft Engines and Aircraft Engine Theory (includes links to diagrams) (http://www.aviation-hi
story.com/index-engine.htm)
The Aircraft Engine Historical Society (http://www.enginehistory.org/)
Jet Engine Specification Database (http://www.jet-engine.net/)
Aircraft Engine Efficiency: Comparison of Counter-rotating and Axial Aircraft LP Turbines (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20110716102030/http://www.softinway.com/news/articles/Counter-Rot
ating-and-Traditional-Axial-Aircraft-Low-pressure-Turbines/1.asp)
The History of Aircraft Power Plants Briefly Reviewed : From the " 7 lb. per h.p" Days to the " 1
lb. per h.p" of To-day (http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1935/1935%20-%201222.ht
ml)
"The Quest for Power" (http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1954/1954%20-%200959.h
tml) a 1954 Flight article by Bill Gunston
"Engine Directory" (https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1997/1997%20-%202471.htm
l). Flight International. 24 September 1997.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_engine&oldid=967564512"

This page was last edited on 14 July 2020, at 00:45 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.