Technical Specifications For The Installation of Telecoms Mast and Towers

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
FOR THE
INSTALLATION OF
TELECOMMUNICATIONS MASTS AND TOWERS
1
Table of Contents
Page
Chapter One – General Principles of Practice 3
1.1 Preamble 4
1.2 Types of Structures 5
1.3 General Guidelines 5
1.4 Certification - Company and Employees 7
1.5 Siting 8
1.6 Environmental Requirements 9
1.7 Structural Certification 14
1.8 The Terrain 14
1.9 Basic Wind Speed 16
Chapter Two – Design and Construction 20
2.1 Service Life 21

2.2 Superstructure 21
2.3 Structural Types for Self-Support Lattice 26
2.4 Painting 55
2.5 Obstruction Lighting 55
2.6 Substructure 56
2.7 Earthing and Lightning Protection 75
2.8 Safety Devices 81
Chapter Three – Material Specifications 85
3.1 The Superstructure 86

3.2 Concrete 87
3.3 Earthing and Lightning Protection 88
3.4 Metals and Galvanizing 88
3.5 Earthing Clamps 89
3.6 U-Bolts 89
3.7 Connector Clamps 91
2
3.8 Screw Down Clamps 92
3.9 Earth Bars and Disconnecting Clamps 93
3.10 Lightning Arrestor 95
3.11 Copper Tapes 96
3.12 Connectors 97
3.13 Bi-metallic Connectors 98
3.14 Guy System Materials 99
3.15 Antenna Mounting Frames 101
Chapter Four – Maintenance and Testing 108
4.0 First Line Maintenance 109

4.1 Hot Dip Galvanization 109
4.2 Tower Maintenance 109
4.3 Maintenance Philosophy 110
4.4 Routine Checks 111
4.5 Annual Maintenance Checks 113
4.6 Testing 115
Glossary 121
Index 124
3
CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF PRACTICE
4
1.1 Preamble
This document is intended to be a general, simple to read guide for

telecommunications services operators, fabricators and installers of
telecommunications towers and masts in the environmental, safety and engineering
practice that must be adhered to. It is intended to be a handbook to be used by all
who shall have anything to do with telecommunications towers and masts whether
as owners, fabricator, installers and local authorities.
We have also provided comprehensive data on wind speeds for the entire country
that will form an easy reference material for engineers that are in the business of
designing masts and towers.
Responsibilities of telecommunications tower owners, users, builders are set out in

easy to read format, devoid of technical jargons. These regulations consider towers
from the different standard structures, the perspective of their being made up of
substructures and the superstructures, public safety, safety of personnel and safety
of equipment.
Compliance to the standards set out herein is mandatory.
5
1.2 Types of Structures
Telecommunication towers may be of several types and range in height from 30 to

300 meters or more. Three general forms of telecommunication towers are
 Monopoles that consist of tapered steel tubes that fit over each other to form
a stable pole,
 Guyed towers that are stabilized by tethered wires
 Self-supporting towers that are free-standing lattice structures.
These are illustrated in Figure 1 below.
Guyed Self-supporting
Monopole
.
Figure 1 - Tower Types
1.3 General Guidelines
This specification applies to communication lattice towers and masts constructed

and installed in Nigeria.
(a) It is assumed that the predominant load on these structures is wind load.
(b) Each structure shall be made of hot dip galvanized steel sections.
6
(c) Masts could be guyed or free standing
(d) Free standing masts should not exceed 150 meters in height.
(e) Masts and towers may be installed on a property with the written
permission of the property owner and the approval of the Nigerian
Communications Commission.
(f) Structures above 30 meters in height may only be installed with a
clearance certificate issued by the Nigeria Airspace Management
Authority (NAMA).
(g) No masts or towers (irrespective of the height) may be installed within
15 kilometers of any airport without prior approval and a permit from the
Nigeria Airspace Management Authority (NAMA). This requirement
also applies to such structures within the proximity of helicopter pads and
their approaches.
(h) The armed forces are exempted from this regulation in times of war
only. At the cessation of hostilities any structures erected under this
waiver must be submitted for reassessment and approval.
(i) The open space available at the site of a proposed mast or tower
installation must be at least three times the space required by the base of
the structure.
(j) A permit must be obtained from the Nigerian Communications
Commission for the erection of any Masts or Towers whose height
exceeds 20 meters and such structures shall be registered with the NCC
on completion.
The following documents will be submitted to the NCC as part of the application
for a permit.
I. Site plan showing the proposed structure location in relation to adjoining

structures.
7
II. Evidence of ownership of the property on which the structure is to be installed
or a written consent of the landlord.
III. Geographical coordinates of the proposed location of the structure and that of
the nearest airport, heliport or helipad. In the alternative, a permit issued by
the Nigeria Airspace Management Authority (NAMA) for the erection of the
structure in the proposed location.
IV. Design of the structure showing its effective height, foundation, guys (where
used), members, ladders, rest and work platforms, earthing, lightning
protection and aviation lighting.
V. Detailed information on the software package used in the design to enable easy
verification of the fidelity of the design of the structure.
VI. Certification of the proposed installer issued by the Nigerian Communications

Commission (NCC).
The following guide-lines should be adhered to:
Each completed mast or tower must have a name plate bolted to each of its legs on
which the following particulars of the fabricator, operator and installer are detailed
 Name of owner
 address of owner
 telephone numbers of owner
 Permit Number issued by the NCC for erection of the Mast at the location
and in addition the following particulars pertaining to the antenna.
 date of erection
 height
 number of antenna
 Operating Frequencies
 Location address
 Geographical coordinates
 a log book showing inspection dates and types of inspections performed
8
A tower or mast erecting crew must have a current Workmen’s Compensation
policy from a 1st Class insurance company to a minimum value of five million
naira or any such amount as may from time to time be specified by the Nigerian
Communications Commission, for any one claim for third party claims.
Responsibility for accidents during the installation period shall be that of the
installer and it shall revert to the owner of the masts or towers on completion and
handover.
All masts and towers must be insured by their owners against third party claims in
the event of collapse.
1.4 Certification - Company and Employees
The minimum basic educational qualification for employees in the fabrication,

erection and maintenance of towers and masts shall be a four year training
programme in welding and machining from an accredited Technical College and a
City and Guilds Final Certificate. Installers who meet the basic qualifications shall
be licensed by the NCC. No installers shall operate without the NCC license.
All checking visits and maintenance interventions have to be done by employees

with special qualification in telecom tower manufacture or maintenance.
A tower fabricating company shall be licensed by the NCC upon satisfaction that
 She has acquired enough capital equipment to enable her deliver safe and
quality installation.
 She has in her employ, qualified and licensed fabricators.
 She has a good Workmen’s compensation insurance policy from a reputable
insurance company
 She also has a good third party accident insurance policy
 She has a viable Health, Safety and Environment policy
Tower and mast installation is an equipment based procedure. A company applying

to the NCC for an installation permit shall possess or demonstrate easy access to
the following capital equipment: -
 Packer
 Excavators
 Bull Dozer
 Forklift
 Long Boom Arm Crane
 Concrete Vibrator and Poker
9
1.5 Siting
This Section establishes siting the location of telecommunication towers and masts
with the objective of minimizing their number, protecting and promoting public
safety, and mitigating the adverse visual impacts on the community whilst
promoting the provision of telecommunications service to the public.
Cities may not refuse the placement, construction and modification of tower
facilities on the basis of environmental or radio frequency emissions as long as
such facilities comply with the Nigerian Communications Commission’s
regulations concerning such emissions.
Telecommunications towers and masts, when permitted by the Nigerian

Communication Commission and the local authority, shall be regulated and
governed by the following use regulations and requirements.
1.6 Environmental Requirements
Height
The maximum height that may be approved for a telecommunication tower in

Nigeria is 150 meters. A tower, more than 50 meters in height, may be approved
by the National Communications Commission if the Commission is satisfied that
the increased height of the tower:
(1) Will not be detrimental to the public health, safety or general welfare.
(2) Will not have a substantial negative effect upon neighbourhood.
(3) Is in conformity with the intent and purpose of the planning of the area
and the general plan of the community.
(4) Will not impair the obligation to comply with any other applicable laws or
regulations.
1.6.1 Space requirements.
a. One parking/loading space shall be required to serve a

telecommunication tower site.
b. Any tower site lying 50 meters or less from a paved road shall be paved
10
c. If the site is more than 50 meters from a paved road, hard-surfacing of
parking / loading spaces and driveways shall not be required for those
portions of the site lying more than 50 meters from any paved road.
d. Stealth and/or camouflage design of towers and antennas are

encouraged to reduce the visual impact of the structure.
1.6.2 Screening
An opaque screen at least 2.5 meters in height must surround the base of a
telecommunication tower. The screening shall also include landscaping provisions
for any portions of the development visible from adjacent residential or used
property or right-of-way. The use of barbed wire or other security fencing material
shall be allowed. Screening requirements may be waived if the design of the tower
is found to be compatible with the adjacent land uses.
1.6.3 Removal of abandoned towers
A tower that has not been maintained for a continuous period of three years shall
be considered abandoned. The NCC will determine the date of abandonment and
may request documentation from the owner/operator regarding the issue of usage.
Upon the determination of abandonment, the NCC will issue a removal notice to
the owner.
The owner shall dismantle and remove the tower from the property within 90 days
of receipt of notice from the Nigerian Communications Commission. An
abandoned tower that is not removed within the 90 day period shall be removed by
the NCC and removal costs plus a penalty shall be paid by the owner.
1.6.4 Inspections
Telecommunication towers shall be inspected by a qualified tower inspection

service employed by the NCC once every six months to assess the structural
condition of the tower and support equipment. Owners of towers which fail to meet
the required standards will be notified to remedy the situation within 30 days.
Failure to remedy notified lapses shall attract stiff penalties.
1.6.5 Authorization
11
All telecommunications towers and masts shall be erected and operated in
compliance with Nigerian Communications Commission and Nigeria Airspace
Management Authority regulations.
1.6.6 Structure
Towers and masts shall be designed and located such that should any structure fall,
it will avoid habitable structures and public streets. This shall be the major
determinant factor in the issue of setbacks from adjacent existing structures.
1.6.7 Co-location
Towers shall be designed and built to accommodate a minimum of three service

providers on the same structure, if over 25 meters in height. The owner of the
tower must certify to the NCC that the tower is available for use by other
telecommunications service providers on a reasonable cost and nondiscriminatory
basis. The Nigerian Communications Commission will have the final authority for
arbitration where any serious disagreement that threatens collocation arises.
1.6.8 Fencing
Security fencing, if installed, shall be by a wrought iron, barbed wire, steel chain
link fence with evergreen hedge or a masonry wall not less than 1.8 meters in
height. The exterior of equipment buildings and/or metal equipment cabinets
visible from residential areas or public rights-of-way shall be painted to reflect the
color and character of adjoining structures or blend with adjacent landscaping and
other surroundings.
1.6.9 Setbacks
All telecommunication towers as well as guys and guy anchors shall be located
within the buildable area of the property and not within the front, rear, or side
building setbacks. Telecommunication towers in excess of 150 meters in height
shall be set back a minimum of 50 meters from the right-of-way of all controlled
access, federal and state roadways designated as freeways, to provide unobstructed
flight paths for helicopters.
Towers shall be set back the greater distance of:
(a) 10 meters from any residential or used property;
(b) 25 percent of the height of the tower
12
(c) The distance specified as a potential hazard area by the designer of
the structure.
Guy wire anchors and accessory structures shall not encroach into the mandatory
setbacks listed above.
1.6.10Signage
No signage, lettering, symbols, images, or trademarks in excess of 1200 cm2 shall

be placed on or affixed to any part of a telecommunications tower, mast, antenna
or antenna array fencing other than as required by NCC for the purposes of Telco
identification. No adverts will be allowed on these structures.
1.6.11Lighting
Telecommunication towers shall only be illuminated as required by NAMA and/or

ICAO. No signals, lights or illumination of any kind shall be permitted on or
directed towards any tower unless as required by the NAMA or any other
appropriate public authority. Security lighting around the base of a tower must be
shielded so that no light is directed towards adjacent properties or rights-of-way.
The purpose of obstruction lighting and marking is to ensure that an obstruction to
air navigation remains visible at a range sufficient to permit a pilot to take
appropriate action in order to avoid the obstruction by not less than 305m vertically
within a horizontal radius of 610 meters from the obstruction.
A typical obstruction lighting kit shall include the following:
 Light with bulbs of a minimum of 10,000hrs service life

 Junction box
 Photo sensor
 Power cable (in conduit and armoured)
 Weather proof Light flasher. Flash rates of 40/min are allowable typical
values.
 Assembly hardware such as U-bolts and connection bolts
Design of a lighting kit is regulated by governmental organizations.

One factor in determining lighting requirement is the height of the structures.
ICAO regulates the international industry whilst NAMA is regulator of the
Nigerian industry in line with ICAO recommendations. Aviation lighting gear
13
should be designed to have minimal serviceable components so as to reduce the
problems of regular ascent of towers to service lamps.
1.6.12Residential Areas
Telecommunications towers above 25 meters in height are, as a general rule, not

permitted within districts delineated as residential. Where they are by exception
allowed, they must be placed a minimum ratio of 3 to 1 distance to height to the
nearest residential property.
Towers or masts or monopoles in excess of 25 meters in height are permitted in the

non-residential districts.
1.6.13Tower to Tower Spacing
Any new telecommunications tower in excess of 55 meters in height must be

located a minimum of one kilometer from any other existing tower in excess of 55
meters in height.
14
1.6.14Nearness to Power Lines
No tower or mast shall be installed in close proximity to High Voltage electrical

power transmission lines. The closest distance shall be that equivalent to 120% of
the height of the mast. In other words, the minimum separation shall be the height
of the mast plus 20% of the same height as a safe margin.
1.6.15Alternative Mounting Structures
Alternative Mounting Structures 30 meters or less in height shall be permitted in

residential areas.
Alternative Mounting Structures in excess of 30 meters in height are permitted in

the non-residential areas.
Alternative Mounting Structures must be similar in color, scale and character to

adjoining buildings or structures or blend with the landscaping and other
surroundings immediately adjacent to them so as to generally avoid the creation of
unique visual objects that stand out in the environment.
1.6.16Antenna Mounts
Antenna mounts must have structural integrity so as to guarantee public safety.
(i) Whip and Panel Antenna Mounts
a. Individual telecommunications antennas are allowed on existing low

tension electric utility poles, light standards, and telecommunication
towers in excess of 12 meters in height, provided that the total length
of any antenna does not exceed 15 percent of the height of the existing
structure.
b. Telecommunications antennas and arrays are not allowed on existing
high tension electric transmission towers.
c. Panel and whip antennas are permitted on billboard structures.
(ii) Dish Antenna Mounting Standards
a. Ground mounted dish antennas in excess of five feet (1.5

meters) height shall be screened from roadways and adjacent
15
property by a minimum 1.8 meter high screening fence.
b. Building and roof mounted dish antennas of one (1) meter or less in
diameter, are permitted in all areas. No permits are required for this
category
c. Building/roof mounted dish antennas in excess of 1 meter in diameter,

may be permitted on buildings on the condition that a structural
engineer’s certification that the building will withstand the additional
load is provided to the Nigerian Communications Commission.
1.7 Structural Certification
Prior to the installation of a telecommunications tower, mast and antenna support

structure on any building or roof the NCC shall be provided with a structural
engineer's certification that the structure will support and not be adversely affected
by the proposed mast, tower, antenna and associated equipment.
1.8 The Terrain
The terrain for purposes of this specification is Nigeria and includes its territorial
waters and the continental shelf. In making designs for masts and tower structures,
this terrain is classified into three broad geographical zones based on measured
worst case wind speeds measured over a period of 30 years.
1) Exposed smooth terrain with virtually no obstructions and in which the

height of any obstructions is less than 1.5m. This category includes open sea
coasts, lake shores and flat, treeless plains with little vegetation other than
short grass.
2) Open terrain with widely spaced obstructions (100m apart) having heights
and plan dimensions generally between 1.5m and 10m. This category
includes large airfields, open parklands or farmlands and undeveloped
outskirts of towns and suburbs with few trees.
3) Terrain having numerous closely spaced obstructions generally the size of

domestic and high rise buildings. This category includes wooded areas and
suburbs, towns and industrial areas, fully or substantially developed.
Wind loading shall be the predominant dynamic loading to be considered outside

dead weights since severe environmental conditions that lead to additional
16
seasonally variable loads are non-existent. Wind load rating is based on the height
of the tower and where it is located.
17
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.1 above is a map of Nigeria showing the average wind speeds as
measured by the Nigerian Meteorological Agency. Wind loading for a structure is
to be considered over the full length of the structure and is to be measured in
Newtons per square meter (N/m2). The basic wind speeds depicted in this map are
measured at 10 meters above the ground. These values increase with height and
need to be so corrected when making computations.
18
Engineers are encouraged to consider and design for specific conditions that might
exceed these given standard values. Design philosophy shall be based on two
limiting states - strength and serviceability. The strength limit considers the
loading of a tower under extreme conditions; the serviceability limit ensures the
tower will provide the proper service under normal conditions.
Towers shall be analyzed under three specific types of loading:
(a) wind
(b) environmental
(c) seismic
Wind effect on a tower must take cognisance of a number of external conditions

that might change the dynamics of the wind, such as terrain, gusts, the method of
wind-speed determination and the value of safety factors needed for a specific
tower type. The safety factor defines the impact a failure of the tower would have
to its operational integrity, human life and property. A proportionate amount of
over design must be applied to take care of these.
1.9 Basic Wind Speed
The superstructure is really being designed to resist various pressures, wind load,
being the major one for Nigeria. Wind velocities constitute the measured data
generally available. A conversion has to be made from wind velocity to wind
pressure. Various existing standards define and measure wind velocity in different
ways and therefore the formulas used to convert these velocities to pressure
produce results that can vary as much as 25%. That translates into a 25%
difference in design loads that will produce different foundation sizes all of which
mean a totally different installed cost.
Engineers are therefore encouraged to use basic wind speeds in design of

wind loading. Basic wind speed approach assumes wind given winds
speeds from meteorological measurement to be at 10m above ground
level. Basic wind speed design escalates the wind load from 10 meters
above ground to the top of the structure.
For example, for a 90 meter tower with a basic wind speed design of 115
km hr-1, the wind load design at the top of the tower is 160 km hr -1.
Structures shall be designed to withstand forceful wind speeds that occur on the
average of once every 30 to 50 years. This wind speed is then escalated, with
height, to a much higher wind speed at the top of the structure. A gust factor to
19
account for the varying nature of wind shall also be incorporated into the design of
the structure.
The wind speeds shown in figure 1.1 above were measured from the stations listed
in Table 1.1. Engineers who desire greater accuracy in their wind speed
calculations are encouraged to use figure 1 in conjunction with Table 1.1.
Table 1.1
LAT. LONG STATE ELEV.

S/N STATION NAME .
1 10.53’ 04.45’ 244.0
YELWA N E KEBBI
2 12.28’ 04.13’ KEBBI 220.0
BIRNI KEBBI N E
3 13.01’ 05.15’ SOKOTO 350.8
SOKOTO N E
4 12.10’ 06.42’ 463.9
GUSAU N E ZAMFARA
5 10.36’ 07.27’ KADUNA 645.4
KADUNA N E
6 13.01’ 07.41’ KATSINA 517.6
KATSINA N E
7 11.06’ 07.41’ KADUNA 110.9
ZARIA N E
8 12.03’ 08.12’ KANO 472.5
KANO N E
9 10.17’ 09.49’ BAUCHI 609.7
BAUCHI N E
10 12.53’ 10.28’ YOBE 343.1
NGURU N E
11 11.42’ 11.02’ BORNO 414.8
POTISKUM N E
12 11.51’ 13.05’ BORNO 353.8
MAIDUGURI N E
13 08.29’ 04.35’ KWARA 307.4
ILORIN N E
14 08.40’ 03.23’
SHAKI N E OYO
20
15 09.06’ 06.01’ NIGER 144.3
BIDA N E
16 09.37’ 06.32’ NIGER 256.4
MINNA N E
17 09.15’ 07.00’ 343.1
ABUJA N E FCT
18 09.52’ 08.54’ PLATEAU 1780.0
JOS N E
19 08.11’ 09.45’ TARABA 110.7
IBI N E
20 09.14’ 12.28’ ADAMAWA 186.1
YOLA N E
21 07.58’ 03.36’ OYO 330.0
ISEYIN N E
22 06.35’ 03.20’ LAGOS 39.4
IKEJA N E
23 06.30’ 03.23’ LAGOS 19.0
OSHODI N E
MET.AGRO
24 06.27’ 03.24’ LAGOS 14.0
LAGOS (HQ) N E
ROOF
25 LAGOS (MARINE) 06.26’ 03.25’ LAGOS 2.0
N E
26 07.26’ 03.54’ OYO 227.2
IBADAN N E
27 06.50’ 03.56’ OGUN 77.0
IJEBU-ODE N E
28 07.10’ 03.20’ OGUN 104.0
ABEOKUTA N E
29 07.47’ 04.29’ OSUN 302.0
OSHOGBO N E
30 07.06’ 04.50’ ONDO 287.3
ONDO N E
31 06.19’ 05.06’ EDO 77.8
BENIN N E
32 07.17’ 05.18’ ONDO 375.0
AKURE N E
33 05.31’ 05.44’ DELTA 6.1
WARRI N E
34 07.47’ 06.44’ KOGI 62.5
LOKOJA N E
21
35 06.09’ 06.47’ ANAMBRA 67.0
ONITSHA N E
36 04.51’ 07.01’ RIVERS 19.5
PORT- N E
HARCOURT
37 05.29’ 07.00’ IMO 91.0
OWERRI N E
38 06.28’ 07.33’ ENUGU 141.8
ENUGU N E
39 05.30’ 07.55’ AKWA IBOM 38.0
UYO N E
40 04.58’ 08.21’ CROSS RIVER 61.9
CALABAR N E
41 07.44’ 08.32’ BENUE 112.9
MAKURDI N E
42 05.58’ 08.42’ CROSS RIVER 119.0
IKOM N E
43 06.40’ 08.48’ CROSS RIVER 117.0
OGOJA N E
Table 1.1 – Meteorological Stations in Nigeria
The above data obtained from the National Meteorological Services indicate that
the highest recorded wind speed over a period of 20 years is 7 ms-1, which
translates to a mere 420 mhr-1. However, wind gusts of the order of 55 km hr-1
have been recorded infrequently. Since these data form our worst case scenario,
masts and towers in Nigeria shall be designed to withstand a minimum ground
wind speed of 70 km hr-1.
22
CHAPTER TWO
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
23
2.1 SERVICE LIFE
The expected service life of a tower shall be 25 years. The design, choice of
fabrication materials, fabrication methods, installation accessories, all safety
factors and tower loadings shall all be made to conform to standards for this to be
achieved.
Qualified professional engineers shall design and specify materials that meet the
requirements to give a minimum service life of 25 years in the working
environment. Qualified welders and skilled welding supervision shall be deployed
to give positive effect on the finished product. The highest quality of welding must
be built in. Poor quality welding will be apparent shortly after installation by which
time repairs will be very expensive and time consuming. Proper welding means
good quality finishes and thus minimizes long term maintenance costs.
2.2 SUPERSTUCTURE
2.2.1 Finishes
All steel materials that are to be used in the superstructure shall as a standard be
hot-dip galvanized and later painted according to NAMA paint schedule for
obstructions. All aluminum materials shall have aluminum finish and will be
equally painted according to NAMA paint schedule for obstructions.
2.2.2 Self-Support towers
Self support design is often the solution of choice when land availability is limited.
The tower uses tapered sections, and face widths will vary according to height and
load capacity required.
They are recommended for most applications in Nigeria anywhere it is technically

feasible to install them. They are designed and constructed in:
1) Lattice structure
 Triangular or square structure

 With tube legs, angle legs, lattice legs or solid round legs
 Sections in steel angle steel or steel tubes
 Steel angle cross bracing.
 Tapered sections
 Face widths vary according to height and load capacity.
 Rest platforms provided every 20 meters of height
24
 Work platforms provided at all height where antennas are to
be installed
 Fitted with climbing ladder
Standard support forms for lattice structures are specified as follows:
a) Lattice Leg
 cost-efficient, high-capacity design
 ideally suited for multi-carrier applications
 fast and easy assembly
 Bracings shall be of angle steel
b) Angle Leg
 bolt-up construction
 constructed from steel angle steel
c) Tube Leg / Solid Round Leg

 time-proven strong structural shape
 constructed from schedule 80 pipes
 bolt-up construction
25
Towers legs shall be constructed from schedule 80 pipes or angle steel. Hollow
aluminum pipes shall be used for short towers. Bracings shall be of angle steel
construction or aluminum in case of aluminum towers.
Mast sections, when made from steel pipes, shall be
joined to each other through joint plates welded to the
base of each section. The width of the mast section joint
plates should be double the width of the wall of the pipe
they are supporting.
Gussets shall be used in the strengthening of the weld

joint between the base plate and the tower section.
Each plate shall have four 20mm diameter holes drilled
to accommodate four 18mm bolts, nuts and washers.
When bolting sections together, bolts shall be placed
upside down with washers and nuts on topside of plates,
the connecting face of plates shall not be painted. Lock
nuts must be used but nuts on bolts may be clinched if
lock nut is not utilized. Lock washers and lock nuts shall
on no account be omitted on antenna support steel work
and dish panning arms as that will directly result in loss of signals.
When a tower is made from angle steel, sections shall be joined to each other
through appropriately sized flanges, bolts, washers and lock nuts.
Bracing inhibits torque on a tower and its non adequate application exposes towers
to torque. This in turn results in loss of signal during strong winds speeds.
2.2.3 Monopole Towers
Monopole or Post Masts are to be made from galvanised hollow steel pipes or
high strength steel. They shall be designed for a variety of multi-user
configurations and finishes to meet local aesthetic requirements.
The pipes are to be constructed tapered so that one pipe base fits into the top of
another until the desired height is achieved. A joint in the arrangement has an
overlay between the two adjacent pipes. The depth of the overlay, the base
width and the number of pipes in a particular monopole shall be determined by
height desired of the tower, the thickness of the pipe walls, the base diameter
and whether the tower shall be guyed or not.
For a monopole,
26
 Sections shall be made from hollow, heavy duty, thick steel tubes, flanged
steel tubes or low-alloy, high-strength steel.
 Each shaft section shall be a constant-tapered hollow steel section
 Slip joints are designed with a minimum of 11/2 times the pole diameter at
the splice.
 Sections shall fit into each other with overlap
 Pipe diameter shall decrease from bottom to top
 Shall be guyed or self supported
 Shall be fitted with climbing rugs
 Usually not very tall structure in the self support design
Tapered steel and flanged steel poles feature designs that blend well into
the environment and require minimum space for installation.
Flanged steel poles are easy to handle and install. Connections shall be precision
fitted to allow quick assembly of modular sections and the top platform, side arms
or mounting frame. Pole sections shall be made with identical base flange plates to
permit simplified modifications of mounting heights and antenna reconfigurations.
Tapered steel poles have comparatively smaller base diameters and so demand
minimal land space. Tapered poles can be installed quickly do offer extremely
efficient strength-to-cost ratio.
2.2.4 Guyed Towers
Guyed masts do also come in lattice, triangular or square, tapered or straight, as

well as monopole structural forms. Guyed masts are supported and held in position
by guy wires or ropes. Mast Guy Ropes shall be made from pre-stretched steel
only. For every mast, the specified minimum strength of the guy wire shall be the
maximum tension likely to occur in the worst loading condition.
Guy wires must not be over tightened. Excessive tension may cause alignment
problems and even a cable rupture. It may cause permanent wrapping of tower
structural parts. Extreme precaution must be taken while tightening because just 3
turns of a tightening device would increase the tension of a 45m long guy wire by
about 250kg.
All sections must be straight square sections and eliminate any potential problems
with twisting or the need to shim the legs. Typical tower sections shall have a
brace configuration with horizontals (z, x or k) and pivot base sections. These
tower-structures are wholly of steel, modular and hot-dip galvanized. Sections can
be of the same face width but should the tapered type be contemplated, it shall be
27
designed with junction flanges. Tube or solid legs with solid bracing increases the
tower rigidity to allow for the twist and sway.
In the guyed mode all the forces on a tower are supported by the guy wires.
Everything about the guy wire has to be engineered with precision and a minimum
safety factor of 2.0 applied to the design. The design, based on the load
calculations shall determine working load and the break strength required of the
guy wire and subsequently the choice of the size and grade of the wire.
The choice of each guy earth screw anchor shall be dependent on its holding power
in the soil, which is a function of its diameter and length. This is used to compute
the minimum number of guys required.
As a general rule guys are planted in three directions at 120 o apart from each other.
The distance from the base of the tower to the guy anchor base shall be one quarter
of the height of the tower.
2.2.5 Roof Mounts
Roof mounting is an inexpensiveSingle Bracing

way of elevating signals above roof
interference or any other obstruction. Structural checks must be made to
ascertain the capability of a chosen roof to withstand the additional load
being imposed on it by the structure and the entire antenna array it will
support. All roof mounted
Panel Height
masts or towers must be certified by the
building’s structural engineer before installation.
Face width regulation roof mounts shall be limited to light weight

As a general
structures Redundant
Type S1of low heights andS2 support minimal dead
S3 and dynamic loads.
Roof mounts can be installed in the penetrating or non-penetrating modes. diagonal
They can be self support or guyed. Redundant Horizontal
X - Bracing
Panel Height
Type X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6
2.3 Structural types for Self Support Lattice
K - Bracing
Panel Height
Type K1 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6
28
Figure 2.1 – Bracing Types
Members shall be made from solid rod, pipe or angles.

Engineer must specify wall thickness if design is of pipes and
sizes and thickness of legs if of angles.
Lattice Mast Bracing Types
29
Diagonal Spacing
Double K2 Down
Double K3, K3A, K4 Double K 1 Down
K – Brace Down K – Brace Up
Figure 2.2

Horizontal
30
Secondary Horizontal
Diamond Double K
Z bracing M - Bracing
Figure 2.3
K-Brace End Panel
K-Brace End panel
31
K-Brace End Panel
Face A
Double Slope-Bracing
Diagonal Up Z-Brace Diagonal Down Z-Brace
Figure 2.4

Engineer must specify wall thickness if design is of pipes and sizes and
thickness of legs if of angles.
Horizontal
32
X-Brace
CX-Brace TX-Brace
Secondary Horizontal
Horizontal
CX, TX-Brace with Secondary Horizontal K-Brace

Left
Redundant Vertical
Redundant Sub-Horizontal
K1 Down K2 Down
K1 Up (Opposite) K 2 Up (Opposite)
Figure 2.5
33
Redundant Sub Horizontal
K 3 Down K 3A Down
K 3 Up (opposite) K 4 Up
(Opposite)
Redundant Sub-Horizontal
Redundant Diagonal
Redundant Sub-Diagonal
K 1B Down
Figure 2.6
Sub Diagonal
Working Point
Sub Diagonal
Optional Vertical
34
Red Diagonal 3
Horizontal 3
Diagonal 2
Horizontal 2
Diagonal 1
Horizontal 1
Diagonal
Figure 2.7

Engineer must specify wall thickness if design is of pipes and sizes and thickness
of legs if of angles.
35
Sub Diagonal
Optional Vertical
Diagonal 3
Horizontal 3
Diagonal 2
Horizontal 2
Diagonal
1
Horizont
al 1
Diagonal
Figure 2.8 Portal Bracing

Engineer must specify wall thickness if design is of pipes and sizes and thickness of legs
if of angles.
36
Face width
Section height
Slope change
Height
Face width
Fig. 2.9
X-braced, self supporting, lattice design showing face width,

slope change and tower height
37
Face width
0.16
Section 15
Section 14
Section 13
Section 12
Section 11
Section 10
This represents a generalized design
Section 9 of a 15 section, 6m length per
section tower.
Section 8
300'
Loading considerations to be taken
Section 7 into account in the specification of
275.6'
bracing sizes, bracing configuration

Section 6 (double or single), bracing bolt sizes,
leg size and type, face widths at top
Section 5 and base, etc are: -
 Wind speed to include gust
Section 4 factor if applicable
 Total anticipated antenna load
Section 3
 Maximum Shear per leg
 Maximum uplift reaction
Section 2
 Maximum compression
Section 1
Face width
34'
Figure 2.10
Superstructure of a 15 section X - Braced Steel Tower showing antenna

mounts. Tower can be designed and fabricated as a three or four legged self
support structure. New sections that are intended to result in higher towers shall
be added below section 1 with the design philosophy as to face widths being
maintained.
38
Face width
4
Section 13
Section 12
Section 11
Section 10
Section 9
Generalized prototype design of a 13

Section 8
section, 6m length per section tower.
Section 7 Loading considerations to be taken

H into account in the specification of
Section 6
23623'
bracing sizes, bracing configuration

(double or single), bracing bolt sizes,
Section 5 leg size and type, face widths at top
and base, etc are: -
 Wind speed to include gust
Section 4
factor if applicable
 Total anticipated antenna load
Section 3  Maximum Shear per leg
 Maximum uplift reaction
Section 2  Maximum compression
Section 1
Face width
Figure 2.11
Superstructure of a 13 section X - Braced Steel Tower

Tower can be designed and fabricated as a three or four legged self support
structure. New sections that are intended to result in higher towers shall be
added below section 1 and the design philosophy as to face widths maintained.
78 metre Tower 100 meter Tower
39
1.6m
section 13 section 16
section 6 section 9
section 5 section 8
section 4 section 7
section 3 section 6
section 2 section 5
section 1 section 4
Face Width
8.4metres
section 3
section 2
Two towers of different heights illustrating the
general relationships between lattice tower heights,
number of sections and the face widths at the top
and bottom. Both towers are of identical design but
have different heights. section 1
Face width
10.4 meters
Figure 2.12 - Self Support Lattice Towers of different heights

Structural Design of a 12-section self support tower in single or Z bracing.
Face width decreases from base to top of the tower

40
12" 15" 18" 21" 24" 27"
9"
Top Frame
7 13 19 25 31 37 43
8 X
14 20 26 32 38 44
9 Lower Frame 15 21 27 33 39 45
LEG # 4
LEG # 3
LEG # 7
LEG # 2
LEG # 5
LEG # 6
e 10 H 16 22 28 34 40 46
g
#1 6"
11 17 23 29 41 47
35
24"
12 18 24 30 36 42 48
W 15" 18" 21" 24" 27" 30"
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Section 4 Section 5 Section 6 Section 7
30" 33" 36" 39" 42"
49 55 61 67 73
25 1-/X''
50 56 62 68 74
51 57 63 69 75
LEG # 8
LEG # 11
X'
LEG # 12
LEG # 9
H
LEG # 10
52 58 64 70 76
53 59 65 71 77
24"
54 60 66 72 78
36" 38" 45"

42"
Section 8 Section 9 Section 10 Section 11 Section 12
Figure 2.13
A 12-section, single braced, lattice tower. Each section is tapered to produce an overall
tapered structure. Additional sections, if the tower has to be higher shall be of greater
face width than section 12 until the tower reaches required height.
41
Design Data of a Ten Section Light Duty Self-Supporting Tower
TOWER SCHEDULE
Section Spread Dimension Tower Legs** Tower Braces Bolts
Number Upper Lower 36 KSI Yield STR 36 KSI YIELD STR A 325 GRADE
1 (Top) 30 cm 30 cm 5.0 cm2 2.5cm x 2.5cm x 0.32cm 8mm
2 30 cm 30 cm 5.0 cm2 2.5cm x 2.5cm x 0.32cm 8mm
10(Grnd) 176 cm 198 cm 5.75 cm2 3.2cm x 3.2cm x 0.5cm 10mm
**Cross-sectional area
Table 2.1
Table 2.2
SECTION HEIGHTS AND WEIGHTSD WEIGHTS

Section
Height Legs Braces Lap Links Total
Number
1 3.0 m 36 Kg 8.5 Kg 4.5 Kg 65 Kg
2 3.0 m 36 Kg 8.5 Kg 4.5 Kg 65 Kg
3 3.0 m 36 Kg 10 Kg 4.5 Kg 70 Kg
4 3.0 m 36 Kg 17.7 Kg 4.5 Kg 101 Kg
5 3.0 m 36 Kg 27.5 Kg 4.5 Kg 111 Kg
6 3.0 m 36 Kg 29 Kg 4.5 Kg 127 Kg
7 3.0 m 40 Kg 30 Kg 4.5 Kg 153 Kg
8 3.0 m 40 Kg 33 Kg 4.5 Kg 162 Kg
9 3.0 m 40 Kg 34 Kg 4.5 Kg 171 Kg
10 3.0 m 40 Kg 37 Kg N/A 216 Kg
42
Table 2.3
SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN AND LOADING

HEIGHT ALLOWABLE MAX COAX 9m
MAX COAX WIND LOAD TOP WIND LOAD 9m BELOW
ABOVE WIND SPEED DEAD WEIGHT BELOW
QTY/SIZE (M2) TOP (M2)
GROUND PER SECTION QTY/SIZE
Km/ hr Kg. FLAT ROUND FLAT ROUND
110 90 3 / 25mm 3 / 25mm 0.9 1.4 1.1 1.7

30 m
125 90 3 / 25mm 0.46 0.7

110 135 3 / 25mm 6 / 25m 1.67 2.51 1.86 2.79
24 m
125 135 3 / 25mm 6 / 25mm 0.70 1.05 0.88 1.32
145 135 3 / 25mm ― 0.74 1.11 ― ―

18 m
110 180 6 / 25mm 6 / 25mm 2.14 3.21 2.32 3.48
125 180 6 / 25mm 6 / 25mm 1.11 1.67 1.25 1.88

145 180 3 / 25mm 6 / 25mm 0.64 0.95 0.85 1.13

110 360 12 / 25mm ― 4.83 7.25 ― ―
12 m
125 360 12 / 25mm ― 3.35 5.30 ― ―

145 360 9 / 25mm ― 2.69 4.04 ― ―
Table 2.4 FOUNDATION DESIGN AND LOADING
HEIGHT WIND MAX MAX MAX TOTAL

AXIAL
ABOVE SPEED VERTICAL UPLIFT SHEAR/LEG SHEAR
(KIPS)
GROUND Km / hr (KIPS) (KIPS) (KIPS) (KIPS)
30 m 145 23.0 19.0 2.12 3.50 2.34
24 m 145 22.0 18.2 1.92 3.42 2.09
18 m 145 17.0 14.7 1.40 2.50 1.82
12 m 145 24.1 22.4 1.73 3.30 1.52
43
Below 145 ms-1 wind speed; shear, vertical and uplift forces are negligible.
All foundation designs shall be in accordance with maximum reaction loads indicated
above. Modification of loading locations and equipment can be made provided reaction
loads do not exceed indicated values.
Design Data of a Fifteen Section Medium Duty Self-Supporting Tower
Table 2.5
SELF-SUPPORTING TOWER SCHEDULE

Section Spread Dimension Tower Legs** Tower Braces Bolts
Number Upper Lower 36 KSI Yield STR 36 KSI YIELD STR A 325 GRADE
1 46 cm 46 cm 5.0 cm2 3.2cm x 3.2cm x 0.5cm 10 mm
4 76 cm 1.04 m 5.75 cm2 3.8cm x 3.8cm x 0.5cm 10 mm
5 1.04 m 1.32 m 5.75 cm2 3.8cm x 3.8cm x 0.5cm 10 mm
6 1.32 m 1.6 m 5.75 cm2 3.8cm x 3.8cm x 0.5cm 10 mm
7 1.6 m 1.88 m 9.30 cm2 4.4cm x 4.4cm x 0.5cm 12 mm
8 1.88 m 2.16 m 9.30 cm2 4.4cm x 4.4cm x 0.5cm 12 mm
9 2.16 m 2.43 m 9.30 cm2 4.4cm x 4.4cm x 0.5cm 12 mm
10 2.43 m 2.72 m 10.8 cm2 5cm x 5cm x 0.5cm 12 mm
11 2.72 m 3.0 m 10.8 cm2 5cm x 5cm x 0.5cm 12 mm
12 3.0 m 3.27 m 10.8 cm2 5cm x 5cm x 0.5cm 12 mm
13 3.27 m 3.56 m 16 cm2 6.4cm x 6.4cm x 0.5cm 16 mm
14 3.56 m 3.84 m 16 cm2 6.4cm x 6.4cm x 0.5cm 16 mm
15 3.84 m 4.11 m 16 cm2 6.4cm x 6.4cm x 0.5cm 16 mm
Table 2.6
SECTION HEIGHTS AND WEIGHTS

Section
Height Legs Braces Brace Plates Total
Number
1 3.0 m 36 Kg 25 Kg N/A 65 Kg
2 3.0 m 36 Kg 25 Kg N/A 65 Kg
3 3.0 m 36 Kg 29 Kg N/A 70 Kg
4 3.0 m 40 Kg 57 Kg N/A 102 Kg
5 3.0 m 40 Kg 67 Kg N/A 112 Kg
6 3.0 m 40 Kg 78 Kg N/A 127 Kg
7 3.0 m 65 Kg 79 Kg N/A 153 Kg
8 3.0 m 65 Kg 88 Kg N/A 162 Kg
9 3.0 m 65 Kg 98 kg N/A 171 Kg
10 3.0 m 76 Kg 123 Kg 8.0 Kg 216 Kg
11 3.0 m 76 Kg 134 Kg 8.0 Kg 227 Kg
44
12 3.0 m 76 Kg 145 Kg 8.0 Kg 246 Kg
13 3.0 m 111 Kg 148 Kg 12.7 Kg 288 Kg
14 3.0 m 111 Kg 156 Kg 12.7 Kg 296 Kg
15 3.0 m 111 Kg 166 Kg 12.7 Kg 306 Kg
Table 2.7
SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN AND LOADING

MAX COAX WIND LOAD WIND LOAD
ALLOWABLE DEAD MAX COAX
HEIGHT WIND SPEED 9m BELOW TOP 9m BELOW TOP
WEIGHT PER LEVEL QTY/SIZE
QTY/SIZE (SQ. M) (SQ. M)
KPH KGS. FLAT ROUND FLAT ROUND
110 135 3 / 22 mm 3 / 22 mm 2.09 3.14 3.07 4.60
125 135 3 / 22 mm 3 / 22 mm 1.40 2.09 2.42 3.62

45 m
145 135 3 / 22 mm 3 / 22 mm 0.37 0.56 0.56 0.84

110 205 3 / 22 mm 3 / 22 mm 2.14 3.21 3.16 4.74
125 205 3 / 22 mm 3 / 22 mm 1.58 2.37 2.60 3.90

39 m
145 205 3 / 22 mm 3 / 22 mm 1.02 1.53 1.30 1.95

110 270 6 / 22 mm 6 / 22 mm 2.23 3.34 4.09 6.13
125 270 6 / 22 mm 6 / 22 mm 1.58 2.37 3.25 4.88

33 m
145 270 6 / 22 mm 6 / 22 mm 1.20 1.81 2.32 3.48

110 360 6 / 22 mm 6 / 22 mm 2.23 3.34 4.09 6.13
125 360 6 / 22 mm 6 / 22 mm 1.53 2.30 3.25 4.88

27 m
145 360 6 / 22 mm 6 / 22 mm 1.02 1.53 2.32 3.48

110 400 9 / 22 mm ― 2.14 3.21 ― ―
125 400 9 / 22 mm ― 1.95 2.93 ― ―

21 m
145 400 9 / 22 mm ― 1.72 2.58 ― ―

110 400 9 / 22 mm ― 2.14 3.21 ― ―
125 400 9 / 22 mm ― 1.49 2.23 ― ―

15 m
145 400 9 / 22 mm ― 1.11 1.62 ― ―
45
46
Table 2.8 TOWER FOUNDATION DESIGN & LOADING
TOWER WIND MAX MAX MAX TOTAL

AXIAL
HEIGHT SPEED VERTICAL UPLIFT SHEAR/LEG SHEAR
KPH (KIPS) (KIPS) (KIPS) (KIPS) (KIPS)
45 m 145 63.13 48.14 6.9 13.54 7.5

40 m 145 51 40 5.1 10 5.39

35 m 145 40 33 4.45 7 4.27

30 m 145 29.21 24.21 2.92 4.68 3.97

25 m 145 17.29 14.02 1.79 2.65 2.53

20 m 145 15.94 12.9 1.73 2.6 2.14

Below 145 ms-1 wind speed; shear, vertical and uplift forces are negligible.
All foundation designs shall be in accordance with maximum reaction loads indicated
above. Modification of loading locations and equipment can be made provided reaction
loads do not exceed indicated values.
Table 2.9 Footing Assembly Weight Table
Weight Weight x 12
(Kg/m) (Kg/m)
43 17.16
1.43 17.16
1.43 17.16
2.23 26.76
2.40 28.8
2.40 28.8
1.61 19.32
3.06 36.72
3.02 36.24
47
Table 2.10 Lap Link Weight Table
Weight Weight x 3
(Kg/m) (Kg/m)
55.63 166.89
58.01 174.03
62.63 187.89
65.55 196.65
Table 2.11
STRUCTURAL DESIGN DATA FOR A TYPICAL LATTICE TOWER
80 meter Tower (Pipe) Configuration

Section Height Leg Size (cm) Brace
m Grade A500 steel Configuration Size (mm)
1 6 20 Schedule 80 Double Angle A 90 x 80
2 12 20 Schedule 80 Double Angle A 90 x 80
3 18 20 Schedule 80 Single 2x 100 x 100 x 4
7 42 13 Schedule 80 Single 3x 75 x 75 x 1.5
8 48 13 Schedule 80 Single 3x 75 x 75 x 1.5
12 72 6.5 Schedule 80 Single 4x 50 x 50 x 5
13 80 6.5 Schedule 80 Single 3x 50 x 50 x 5
 All brace connections shall be bolted and provided with locking pal nuts.
 Sections are in typical 6 meter lengths
 Leg strength minimum 46 KSI yield.
 Max Share/Leg: 40.11 KIPS
 Max Uplift: 288.26 KIPS
 Max Compression: 345.76 KIPS
 Design Wind Speed is 120 Km hr-1
Table 2.12
STRUCTURAL DESIGN DATA FOR A TYPICAL LATTICE TOWER
48
100 metre Configuration Lattice Tower
Section Height Leg Thickness
( m) (cm) 50 KSI Brace Redundant
Bolt Size Diag. Config. Size (mm) Size (cm)
1 6 16 (2) 20mm Double A 90 x 75 x 6 6 x 6 x 60
2 12 16 (2) 20mm Double A 90 x 75 x 6 6 x 6 x 60
3 18 16 (2) 20mm Double A 90 x 75 x 6 6 x 6 x 60
4 24 16 (2) 20mm Double A 90 x 75 x 6 6 x 6 x 60
5 30 13 22mm Single 2A 10 x 10 x 6 6 x 6 x 60
49
6 36 13 22mm Single 2A 10 x 10 x 6 6 x 6 x 60
7 42 13 22mm Single 2A 10 x 10 x 6 6 x 6 x 60
8 48 13 22mm Single 2A 75 x 75 x 8 6 x 6 x 60
9 54 10 22mm Single 2A 75 x 75 x 8 6 x 6 x 60
10 60 10 20mm Single 2A 75 x 75 x 8 6 x 6 x 60
11 66 9 20mm Single 3A 75 x 75 x 8 6 x 6 x 60
12 72 7.5 20mm Single 3A 60 x 60 x 600 6 x 6 x 60
13 78 7.5 20mm Single 3A 60 x 60 x 600 6 x 6 x 60
14 84 5 16mm Single 4X 50 x 50 x 6 -
15 90 5 16mm Single 5X 25 SOLID -
16 96 5 16mm Single 1X 25 SOLID -
BRACE
Internal
Traingle
1 6 75 x 75 x 6
2 12 75 x 75 x 6
3 18 75 x 75 x 6
4 24 75 x 75 x 6
 Sections are in typical 6 metre lengths

 All brace connections shall be bolted and provided with locking pal nuts.
 All X-Braces shall be center bolted.
 Structure is designed for a maximum wind speed of 160 Km hr-1
 Total structure design weight (unloaded) is 38,000 Kgs
 Maximum design shear / Leg is 80 KIPS
 Total shear at the Base is 155 KIPS
 Maximum design uplift is 627 KIPS
 Maximum design Compression is 733 KIPS
50
Monopole Tower – Structural Form
Platform
Platform Height
Section 1
d d
Section 2
d – section overlap
d d
Section 3
Height
d d
Section 4
d d
Section 5 Section Height
Base Plate
Figure 2.14
Sections fit into each other with an overlap (d). Base diameter, section height, depth of
overlap between sections and total mast height are all structural stability issues
determined by the structural design engineer. For higher towers, additional sections are
added below section 5 until the required height is reached but there must be
corresponding increases in base width as the number of sections and consequently the
height increases.
51
Table 2.13 Design details of a four section, 45 meter Monopole (Typical)
Section 4 3 2 1
Length (m) 13.7 12 12 11.2
Number of Sides 18 18 18 18
Thickness (mm) 10 8 6.5 5.5
Lap splice / section overlap (m) 1.7 1.45 1.14
Top Dia (cm) 106 80 75 56
Bottom Dia (cm) 130 110 93 75
Grade of Steel A572-65
Weight (Kg) 8.4 5.3 3.5 2.3
Material Strength 80 ksi 80 ksi 65 ksi 65 ksi
Tower above is designed for a 100 Km hr-1 basic wind
52
Antenna carrying Monopole (Self Supporting)
Figure 2.15
Pictorial of a self-supporting monopole tower fully fitted with antenna support bracket
and carrying antennas
53
Section of a Typical Guyed three-legged Mast
(Single or Z-bracing)
A – Face Width (uniform throughout the mast)

B – Vertical brace height
C - Bolt spacing
D – Steel member width
E – Section height
The design of a guyed mast must be such that it is very

straight, easily connected and erector-friendly.
Figure 2.16
54
N-section Guyed Pole Mast
Triangular guy wire support

Antenna support
and outrigger
1
2 H
Turn buckles for Guy wire tension fine tuning
1
4 H
Base Plate
Base Plate
Figure 2.17
A four section guyed monopole illustrating the relationship between tower height (H)
and the horizontal distance from tower base to the guy anchor
(1/4 H). Tower can be installed in many sections.
This design of masts is ideal for the installation of HF-SSB dipole antennas.
55
Tria n g u la r G u y Wire su p p o rt
Fits in to th e to p p o rtio n o f th e
Ma st
G a lva n ise d sta ke fo r a tta c h m e n t o f

b uc kle s
Use d fo r G u y te n sio n fin e tu n in g
Figure 2.18
Details of parts of the guyed pole mast in figure 2.17 above
56
Figure 2.19
Shows in detail, the antenna support outrigger shown in figure 2.17 above.
57
Roof Mounts - Pictorial
Figure 2.20
Different ways of implementing roof mounts showing acceptable installation standards

that guarantee safety.
58
Figure 2.21
Examples of Non-Penetrating Roof Mounts

These can be implemented where possible with mass or reinforced concrete bases.
Figure 2.22
Penetrating Roof Mounts showing acceptable craftsmanship
2.4 Painting
59
All skeleton type structures must be painted to ICAO stipulations on obstruction
painting.
ICAO stipulates that

 For structures up to 212 meters, the structure shall be given seven equal bands of
red and white paint or orange and white paint.
 For structures above 212 metres nine bands of paint in alternating red and white
or red and orange.
 In all cases the top and bottom of mast or tower must be painted red or orange.
 Paint shall be non gloss finish (matt).
In addition mast and towers shall be painted with base primer paint, one suitable under
coat of red and white or orange and white followed by two coats of non gloss (matt)
paint.
2.5 Obstruction Lighting
All mast and tower structures in Nigeria must conform strictly to ICAO / NAMA
regulations with respect to obstruction lighting of tall structures as follows:
 For every fifty meters of height above ground level, a tower shall have installed
on it, one lamp on top and two lamps at the sides.
 Obstruction lamps shall be fitted and shall be maintained in a working condition
at all times on all structures within 15 kilometers of an airport or helipad.
 Light intensity and colour as follows:
Tower Height Light Intensity Light Colour
Below 45 m not below 10 candelas Red and fixed
Betw 45 and 150m not below 1600 candelas Red and flashing
Greater than 150m 4,000 to 20,000 candelas White Flashing
60
NAMA / ICAO Lighting Regulation
105 - 150 m Single light
45 - 107 m
Double
lights
0 - 45 m
Figure 2.23
Schamatic representation of the ICAO / NAMA obstruction lighting regulations.
2.6 Substructure
Foundations for the tower and mast structures shall be designed to withstand the full
expected dynamic loads - antennae, feeders, wind loading, etc. It shall take cognisance
of the complete findings of the site conditions (geotechnical investigation of soils and
wind conditions). This may call for different types of foundation which may take the
form of reinforced concrete blocks, standard pad and column, raft, preset rock anchors
or piles. Engineers must compute the weight of tower structure, weight of antenna
feeders and all associated steel work then calculate effects of wind loads on total
surface.
Constructional materials and installation methods must conform to the conditions

prevalent at the site.
61
Worst case load design condition shall always constitute the initial factor of safety
against overturning for complete foundations or any part thereof.
Standard foundation designs are to be made for normal soils. They may be modified to
suit the soil conditions at the installation site. Soil investigations must be carried out at
each site to determine the bearing pressures (vertical and horizontal) and other
subsurface conditions. The final foundation design shall be made to suit the soil
conditions at the site.
Normal soils are defined as dry cohesive soils having
a) an allowable net vertical bearing capacity 192kPa

b) an allowable net horizontal pressure 63kPa per linear meter of depth to a
maximum of 192kPa.
c) unit weight of compacted soil greater than 16kNm-3
d) water table is at a depth greater than 2.5m below the surface
e) coefficient of passive earth pressure greater than 3.2
f) coefficient of active earth pressure of approximately 0.3
g) non acidic properties
h) no organic materials are present in the soil
Three basic physical forces shall be taken into consideration whilst designing tower and
masts foundations. They are: -
a. Vertical down load

b. Base shear
c. Uplift load
Proper soil borings shall be made by competent soil testing specialists and they must go
deeper than the probable depth of the foundation to make sure of soil type consistency a
little deeper.
For guyed towers, borings are also to be taken at all guy locations and at the base pier
location. Conditions can vary widely on the site. Watch out that the concrete mix
specified by engineer is adhered to.
2.6.1 Foundations and Anchors

62
Foundations and Anchors shall be designed to support the structures and specified loads
for specific soil conditions. Pile, raft or specially designed foundations or anchors are to
be considered in submerged, marshy or peat soil conditions. Foundation designs shall be
made and certified by qualified and registered professional engineers.
2.6.2 Standard Foundation
Standard foundations and anchors may be used for construction when actual soil
parameters equal or exceed normal soft parameters. Geotechnical investigation to verify
that actual site soil parameters equal or exceed normal soil parameters must be made
before standard foundations and anchors are utilized in final designs.
Foundations and anchors shall be designed for the maximum structure reactions
resulting from the anticipated worst loading conditions. When nonstandard foundations
and anchors are to be used for construction, the soil parameters recommended by the
geotechnical engineer should incorporate a minimum safety factor of 2.0 against
ultimate soil strength.
2.6.3 Rock Anchors
Rock anchors shall be of type to permit long life and shall be treated against corrosion
to last over the design life of the tower. Pre-stressed rock anchors are to have their upper
terminating steel work in such a way as to have a steel-to-steel connection between the
structure footing and the rock anchor tendon. The upper end termination of rock anchors
shall not be encased in concrete but shall be protected against corrosion so as to allow
any subsequent checking of the tension in the tendons during the life of the structure.
2.6.4 Anchor Bolts Template
Templates provide proper anchor bolt orientation at the time of foundation forming.
Templates shall be precisely fabricate and used in constructing tower foundations to
design specifications. Use of templates eliminates problems associated with
misalignment. A minimum of two anchor stirrups shall be provided around each leg of a
tower. Each stripe shall have a safe working load (SWL) of 100KN.
2.6.5 Uplift
Anchors are to be dimensioned to provide sufficient safety against overturning. A qualified

geotechnical engineer shall design foundations especially when they are to be sited in non-
standard soils and the application of prototype designs for normal soils becomes
undesirable.
63
Standard foundations, anchors, or drilled and buried piers shall be assumed to resist
uplift forces by their own weight plus the weight of earth enclosed within an inverted
pyramid or cone whose sides form an angle of 300 with the vertical. The base of the
cone shall be the base of the foundation if an undercut or toe is present or the top of the
foundation base in the absence of the foundation undercut. Earth shall be considered to
weigh 16kN/m3 and concrete 24kN/m3.
Straight shaft drilled piers for standard foundations shall have an ultimate skin friction
of 31 kPa per linear meter of depth to a maximum of 48kPa of shaft surface area for
uplift or download resistance.
Nonstandard foundations, anchors, and drilled piers shall be designed in accordance

with the recommendations of a geotechnical report. A mat or slab foundation for a self-
supporting structure shall have a minimum safety factor against overturning of 1.5.
The effects of the presence of water shall be taken into account in the design of
nonstandard foundations. Reduction in the weight of materials due to buoyancy and the
effect on soil properties under submerged conditions shall be considered.
2.6.6 Concreting
Loose material shall be removed from bottom of excavation and the sides of excavation
shall be rough and free of loose cuttings before concrete placement.
Concrete shall be placed in such a way that will prevent segregation of concrete material
and any occurrence that may decrease the strength or durability of the foundation.
Concrete placement shall be continuous. No construction joints shall be allowed.
Weight of concrete mixture shall be 24kNm-3.
Concrete mixture must be such as to enable the concrete develop a minimum
compressive strength of 30Nm-2 in 28 days. Reinforcement steel shall be grade 50
deformed bars and shall be covered with concrete overlay of a minimum thickness of
75mm. Spacers shall be used to achieve this minimum cover on reinforcement. Concrete
should always be thoroughly mixed prior to putting in place, and any water which, seeps
into excavation should be removed prior to placing concrete. A concrete vibration
machine must be used until all concrete is in place.
The concrete column of foundation must always be installed inside wood or steel
formwork and left in place for 24 hours before removing. When the formwork is
removed concrete must be kept wet for first seven days of drying in the south of the
country whilst a ten-day period is recommended for the north.
Aggregate size shall be 20mm.
64
Mechanical vibration shall be used in making concrete so as to eliminate honeycombs
and voids. Welding and splicing is prohibited on reinforcement steel and embodiments.
Concrete curing time should be 28 days.
The surface level of mast foundation, guy anchor and tower foundation blocks shall be
between 150mm and 300mm above the highest point of the existing ground level.
When separate blocks of foundation for each leg of tower are employed, the upper
surface of each must be at the same level. The upper surfaces of all foundations are to
be given a gentle slope to ensure water run off. They are to be painted further with
bituminous paint to avoid dampness around the foundation bolts, sole plates and guy
attachment steel works. All loose materials are to be removed from the excavation
before placement of concrete. A curing time of four weeks (28 days) is to be allowed
before erection of steel on the concrete base.
Structural backfill shall be compacted in 225mm maximum layers to 95% of maximum

dry density at optimum moisture content. It must have a minimum compacted weight of
1.6kNm-3.
Top of the foundation shall be sloped to drain with a floated finish. Exposed edges of
the concrete shall be chamfered.
If power cables, feeders, grounding tape must pass through concrete base, appropriately
sized diameter plastic or asbestos pipe shall be imbedded in concrete works.
Where land for structure is limited, grounding tapes and rods may be placed below or to
the side of foundation.
65
2.6.7 Raft Foundation
The dimensions of the raft are to be chosen so that the pressure distribution under
maximum design loads will be such that tensile forces will not develop under a
significant part of the raft area. Raft foundations shall be designed by certified
foundation engineers using geotechnical data for the site. A name plate giving details of
the designer and the builder shall be placed in conspicuous location at the tower base.
2.6.8 Piles
In swamps and peat soils, pile foundations are recommended in order to overcome
catastrophic effects of uneven settlement in other types of foundation. Pile foundations
shall be designed by certified foundation engineers using geotechnical data for the site.
A name plate giving details of the designer and the builder shall be placed in
conspicuous location at the tower base.
2.6.9 Drilled foundations
Foundations can be drilled in any type of soil formation. In normal soils it is a

straightforward and easy task. Drill the hole. Drop in a pre-wired rebar cage. Place the
concrete with a pump tube. The roughness of the sides of the hole provides the
necessary resistance against pullout.
For sandy soils, it is a little more tricky. The hole will usually cave in as its being
drilled. A casing can be used and pulled out as the concrete is placed so the concrete is
in contact with the sides of the hole. Or drilling slurry could be used. The hole is kept
filled with "mud". As the concrete is pumped into the bottom of the hole, the mud is
pumped out at the top. The concrete likewise makes intimate contact with the soil and
the foundation provides the support that the engineering calls for.
2.6.10 Reinforcement
Main reinforcement bars shall have a minimum concrete cover of 75mm. Sufficient
auxiliary reinforcement shall be included to minimize the occurrence of cracking whilst
the integrity of the foundation remains intact. Reinforcement in block type foundations
shall be such as to ensure that the total weight of concrete can be fully utilized to give
the specified resistance to uplift forces.
2.6.11 Factors of safety

66
The factors of safety of the complete foundations and any component thereof against
overturning shall be made for the worst design load condition.
In the case of guy anchor blocks, a safety factor of 2 shall be applied to the maximum
design guy tension. In calculating the resistance to shear (for the foundation only) the
friction between the bottom face of the concrete and the soil shall be taken into account.
In the case of guy anchor blocks, the earth resistance in the direction of the horizontal
force may be assumed to be utilized, in which case the soil shall be checked against the
possibility of shear-friction failure. The soil surrounding the foundation shall not be
included in the calculation of resistance to uplift and overturning.
2.6.12 Foundation Drawings
Foundation drawings shall indicate structure reactions, material strengths, dimensions,

reinforcing steel and embedded anchorage material type, size and location. Foundations
designed for normal soil conditions shall be so noted. Every foundation design shall
include site soil data as a footnote.
Typical Guy Anchor footing Typical footing of self support Tower

(K – Bracing)
Figure 2.24
67
Foundation design for Self- Supporting Post Mast
Infill between base and
Base Plate
plate (concrete or epoxy)
Studding
4 no. studding assembly Levelling nut

are used on a post mast Y
Retaining plate
Dimensions of X and Y
are dependent on soil
conditions, dead weight
of mast and wind loading
.Square and level shuttering

.Template laid across
shuttering
.Studding fitted
.Infill of concrete
Figure 2.25
68
SECTION VIEWS – SHOWING SUBSTRUCTURE ARRANGEMENT
(Raft Foundation)
X1
X
A
Horizontal Ties
X4 X3
Vertical Bars
FOUNDATION PLAN
Tower Base
D2
D1 Ground Level
Horizontal Ties
Vertical Bars
D
Foundation stub leg
1"-3"
L
SECTION THROUGH FOUNDATION
Figure 2.26
This foundation type can be used for all types of towers. It is applied for individual
legs for a three or four legged structure. Type of soil and the overall dynamic
loading determine the dimensions. These shall be determined for each particular
site by the geotechnical engineer.
69
BASIC RAFT FOUNDATION DESIGN FOR TOWERS
Center of pad and Tower

X
A A
½X
Plan View
19mm chamfer on 4 Horizontal Levelling Brace

sides
Short Base Section
Adequate projection of
leg above concrete top
to enusre good
clearance for bottom
Y
tower brace Y-z
attachment
Bar Clearance
Horizontal bars, spaced according to engineer's design
Section AA
Figure 2.27
All dimensions, reinforcement steel sizes and quantities shall be according to the
engineer’s design which will be dependent on the soil characteristics, dead loading of
mast, its height and worst case calculated wind loading
70
Traditionally reinforced concrete is the choice option for tower guy anchors. A concrete
block, in the size determined by the design engineer, is placed against undisturbed earth
to hold the guys. Construction involves digging, forming and pouring the concrete, then
backfilling and tamping. The equipment required includes backhoes, forming equipment
and concrete mixers, etc.
Steel reinforcement for

Floor mat Tower leg
Completed tower footing
showing leveling bolts
Figure 2.28A Figure 2.28B
Construction of raft foundation for a Tower in a sandy soil
71
Basic Foundation Design - Four Legged Tower
Projection above concrete base

Levelling nuts Lock nuts
Studding (4 No. on each leg)
Y
Z
SECTION
Stud holes
Anchor Plates
X2(All sides)
Studding Details
X1 (All sides)
Mild Steel Base Plate
Figure 2.29
Design for light weight mast in normal soil
Foundation design for one leg in a three or four legged tower configuration.
This is a galvanised steel tower socket base for installation on a concrete foundation. Each corner of
the base is provided with a clearance hole for studs that provide a leveling method. Typical values for a
lightweight tower in a normal soil are as follows:
Concrete Depth 1.2 meter
Concrete Width 1.8 meter
Face Width 0.65 meter
Base Width 1. meter
72
Drilled Pier Foundation Design for Towers in Swamps
(Three Legged)
32' - 6"
Braced anchor bolts

16' - 3" A
9' - 4 9/16"
A
60o 60o 60° 60°
Tower Center
18' - 9 1/18"
120°
120o
Tower Leg Base Plate
A
Double Nut
Drilled Pier
Anchor bolt projection
Form Top. Drilled Pier with
galvanised sheet metal Non shrink grout 135
33" - 0"MINIMUM
Drain plate
BASE DETAIL
A
FOUNDATION PLAN
SECTION A - A .
Figure 2.30
Plan of a typical foundation type for unconsolidated soils.
All dimensions are to be specified by a geotechnical engineer and are strictly dependent
on the site soil characteristics, expected maximum dynamic loads, shear stress, uplift
and compression.
73
Typical Micropile in an unconsolidated Formation
Extension Helical screw pile

Helical pier extension
shaft Forged Couplings
Single or multi helix

Helical Extension
Lead section with
bearing plates
Lead Section
Figure 2.31
Section of drilled Pier Foundation
Typical Anchor Assembly

74
TYPICAL ANCHOR ASSEMBLY

This is easily deployed in unconsolidated
formations for guy anchors, in drilled pier
and micro-pile foundations. They exist in
a lot of configurations.
Lengths can be varied according to the soil
characteristics. Lengths are increased by
the use of extensions.
Figure 2.32:
75
Figure 2.33
Typical Pier and Pad foundation construction
Tower Base
Guy stay blocks

Figure 2.34
Completed Guyed Tower foundation site
76
Basic Foundation Design for a Three legged slim lattice Mast
W Ground Level
Y Expansion fillet
A393 wire mesh to side faces
Nominal Cover to all faces
X
Section View
X
X/2 X/2
W – Lattice face width at the
base
X/2 X – Foundation dimension
(square)
X
X/2
Plan View
Figure 2.35
and compression.
77
C
L
Tower axis and centre pad
C L
A A
Square
(W)
PLAN VIEW
Tower section
Grade
d1 d
#7 Steel bars
Drainage bed of compacted gravel and sand
ELEVATION VIEW - section AA
Figure 2.36
Tower Foundation using micropiles
and compression. Typical values in normal soil for a 45 meter light weight steel tower
are:
Concrete Depth 1.2 meters

Concrete Width 1.8 meters
Face Width 0.57 meters
Base Width 1.0 meters
This design does not give room for leveling after concrete has been poured
78
Foundation Design for a Self –Support Monopole Tower
Section
Plan
Design basic wind speed is 100 Km hr-1

Plate thickness is 6
Plate grade is A36.
Anchor Bolt Grade is A325 X.
Yield Strength is 4 ksi.
Bolt Length is a minimum of 1meter.
Base Plate outer diam is 1.5 m
Base plate inner diam is 1.1 m
Figure 2.37
Dimensions given above vary with the peculiarities of the monopole and the soil
79
2.6.13 Foundation in Swamps
Guyed tower erection in swamps can be performed more quickly, more efficiently and
less expensively with modified construction techniques and an alternative method for
anchoring.
One alternative method is the ‘simple marsh anchor’ method. This technology uses
square rods with screw helices at one meter intervals on the initial three to six meter
length. These rods are then screwed into the ground with one, two, or three meter
extensions being added until the proper depth and torque are reached. This method is
analogous to driving in earth rods into the earth except that here, hydraulic screwing is
used. The torque and final depth are determined by the soil and by the pulling strength
required. Each anchor is then topped with an eye to attach one guy wire.
Using screw anchors requires only the availability of an auger machine to screw the
anchors into the ground. No digging of holes, forming, and pouring concrete for the guy
anchor is required.
With this method, just one anchor per guy wire would do. The anchors are simply
screwed into the ground until a layer of earth is encountered that is resistant enough to
achieve the required installation torque. Anchors could be screwed into the ground for a
few hundred meters. The depth could be shortened considerably by using multiple
anchors with load-distributing linkages.
This method has unique advantage of ease of adding extensions or additional anchors at
a later date, should guy wire capacity need to be increased for additional load
requirements or for the addition of torque arms.
The only concrete needed is for the tower base foundation.
2.7 Earthing and Lightning Protection
All masts shall be grounded. The earth resistance measured at the earth terminal block
shall be less than 2 ohms. A lightning air terminal (Faraday Rod) shall be mounted on
mast top and a vertical copper earth wire or tape run down the side of one mast leg to
ground and connected to the earth at the terminal box.
The most important in getting a good earth is the use of right and good quality materials
for installation.
80
Tapered Base, Guyed Tower - Grounding Guyed Tower Leg Grounding
Twin Lightning rod connection Leg grounding for self-support Tower
ALTERNATE WAYS OF GROUNDING AT GUY - ANCHORS
Figure 2.38
81
Earthing and lightning protection methods
Tower TOWER FOUNDATION AND LEGS

Leg Equipment Room
Earth
Earth Bar
1 Antenna Cable Bulkhead separately
earthed to Tower Earth Tape - Copper
2 Buried Earth Rods
Other Equipment Earth bonded to
Tower
TOWER EARTHING DESIGN - TYPICAL
Figure 2.39
82
2.7.1 Earthing
Earthing and Lightning protection shall be provided in all completed towers sites to
protect equipment from damage and personnel from harm which may result from
excessive voltages during a lighting strike. The arrangement shall be such that lightning
discharge current must be prevented from entering equipment rooms. Equipotential
conditions shall be maintained throughout the site by bonding.
The resistance achievable in an earth installation is directly proportional to the

resistivity of the soil at the depth to which the earth rod has been driven. When the soil
resistivity of a site is not known it can be measured without excavation, by using a
direct reading meter and earth spikes. It can also be read out from tables, such as Table
2.1 below, if soil type is accurately known.
Resistivity at any depth is related to the diameter of the earth rod, the target resistance
and the depth to which the earth electrode is driven into the soil by:
R = (p ⁄ 275L) ×log10 (400L ⁄ d)
Where R is the target resistance

p is the resistivity of the soil
L is the length of electrode in meters
d is the diameter of electrode in cm
An accurate assessment of the soil resistivity should be made around the tower base
using a direct reading resistance meter to determine the appropriate depth to drive in the
copper earth rods, the number of rods, the need for an earth mat, etc.
Table 2.1 gives typical values which can be used for computation but shall not serve as
a substitute for actual measured values.
83
Table 2.14 – Resistivity Values for different Soil Types
Soil Resistivity, ohm, cm
Marshy Ground 200 – 270

Loam and Clay 400 – 15,000
Chalk 6,000 – 40,000
Sand 9,000 – 800,000
Peat 20,000
Sandy Gravel 30,000 – 50,000
Rock 100,000
2.7.2 Construction of an Earth
Lightning rod is clamped to the highest point on the mast. Ground wire is connected to
the lightning rod and shall, most desirably, be one continuous piece all the way to the
earth ground rod. Sometimes, the antenna type may not permit the use of a lightning
rod point. In such cases, the ground wire shall be taped or wire-tied to the mast as far up
as practical. Ground wire shall run from the tip of the mast, be connected to the tower,
and then run all the way to the ground.
Copper bond earth rods made up of copper electrolytically bonded onto a high tensile
steel core shall be driven into the ground at varying depths dictated by earth resistivity
measurements. Several lengths of the rod may have to be so driven in. Each length is
coupled to the next through coupling threads. The rod is driven in by hammering on the
driving high tensile steel head. Each leg of a mast or tower shall have at least one earth
rod driven into the ground beside it. The leg of the mast is tied to the earth rod through a
flat copper tape.
The number of earth rods to be driven into the ground at the optimum depth shall be
such that is necessary to achieve a suitably low resistance.
Where a good grounding cannot be obtained at a reasonable depth, a three meter pit
should be dug and partly filled with layers of carbon, salt and manure and backfilled
firmly.
The maximum permissible resistance to earth is 2 ohms.
84
2.7.3 Protective Grounding
Structures shall be directly grounded to a primary ground.

A minimum ground shall consist of two, 1.2 meter long, 16 mm diameter galvanized
steel ground rods driven not less than 2.4 meters into the ground, 180° apart, adjacent to
the structure base. The ground rods shall be bonded with a lead of not smaller than 5
mm tinned bare copper connected to the metal base of the structure of each leg of a
tower.
A similar ground rod shall be installed at each guy anchor and connected to each guy at
the anchor in case of guyed towers.
Self-supporting towers exceeding 1.5 m in base width shall have one ground rod per
tower leg. All the earth rods shall be tied together to maintain an equipotential all over
the structure. Top ground strap are to be bonded at both ends. Bottom ground strap are
also to be bonded at both ends. All equipment on a structure (antennas, antenna
supports, warning safety lights, etc) shall be connected by a secondary ground.
The earth of the tower shall be bonded to the general earth of any adjoining equipment
room and all shall form a single earth. The maximum permissible resistance to earth is 2
ohms.
2.7.4 Lightning Protection
Separate down conductors shall be installed

from each air terminal (lightning spike). In
addition, the structure shall also be a return
path to the earth. These two systems shall
to be bonded together. Lightning spikes
should be long enough to give 450 cone of
protection over all aerials. Air terminations are
to be copper rod, hard or medium – hard drawn, Air Terminal – Lightning Spike
12mm in diameter. Down conductors shall be Figure 2.40
made from 25mm by 3mm soft annealed copper strip.
The earth termination shall be independent of the foundation reinforcement. When rods
are used as earth electrodes these should be driven into the ground to a depth of at least
2.4m in normal soil or the depth predetermined for the site from measurements. Longer
lengths should, when necessary, be built up of 1.2m lengths screwed onto each other
with internal screw and socket joints. If one earth electrode cannot obtain the specified
85
resistance, additional electrodes should be connected in parallel. Such additional
electrodes may be those provided for other down conductors. The distance between any
two driven electrodes should be about equal to their driven length.
All connections between earth conductors and steelwork shall be via sacrificial legs or
brackets where copper would be in contact with concrete. It shall be painted with
bitumen or separated from the concrete with itemized paper.
Earth conductor runs shall be straight as far as is practicable. Any bends that may be
unavoidable shall be smooth and of maximum radius.
The resistance to ground of the earth system shall be below 2 ohms.
2.8 Safety Devices

Safety devices shall be installed on every tower above 45 meters high. Of importance
are the fall arrest systems, climbing ladders or step bolts, guard rails, work / test
platforms, rest platforms and anti-climb systems.
Fall Arrest Safety System
Figure 2.41
A complete fall arrest system consists of the rail and the trolley.
2.7.1 Trolley
86
 Locking brake pawl attaches to climber’s harness
 Moves freely along the Safety Rail with climber in normal climbing position
 In case of a slip trolley brakes remain locked until the force is removed
Falls are instantly arrested when a sudden downward motion is applied to the Trolley.
Trolley remains stationary once disconnected from the harness.
Installed anywhere on the tower leg, and

adaptable to most structures. It is to be
fabricated from lightweight high tensile
Aluminum
Safety Rail
2.7.2 Anti Climb Shields
Anti Climbs consist of metal sheets bolted

to tower legs. They are constructed to prevent
unauthorized persons from climbing a tower.
It is ideal for tower sites around schools and
public areas where public safety is a concern.
87
2.7.3 Climbing Facilities
(a) Access Ladders

To be made from hot dip galvanized steel
or aluminum sections. Mountable on all tower
types and monopoles. Amenable to inside or
outside mounting. Climbing Ladders shall be of
steel or aluminum depending on tower material and
shall be provided with the following:
(a) Safety cages

(b) Landing places – rest and work platforms
(c) Protective finishes
Ladders are to be attached to the tower structure.
The lowest point on the ladder shall be at a height of 3m to 4.5m above ground level and
it shall run all through to the top of the structure. The ladder shall be so located that a
clearance of at least 150mm at the rear of the ladders exists between the ladder and the
structure.
Anti climbing devices shall be provided on the structure to prevent access except from
the climbing ladder.
The vertical separation between rest platforms shall be 20m. Work and test platforms
shall be located at those points where antennas are to be installed.
Platforms – Work / Rest / Test
All platforms shall be readily accessible from the climbing ladder.

The access to all platforms and walkways from the vertical climbing ladder shall be
from one direction only. Platforms and walkways shall be designed to carry a point load
of 150kg at any point without a deflection exceeding 6.0mm.
Guard-rails
These shall be of height between 0.9m and 1.1m and shall be provided on all platforms,
stairways and horizontal members used as walkways. They shall have an intermediate
rail at half this height and a toe board not less than 150mm high. The distance between
any toe-board and the lowest guard – rail above it shall not exceed 750mm. Widths of
88
walk-ways and platforms should not be less than 650mm. Walk-ways and surface used
as working platforms or traversed to gain access to platforms or traversed to gain access
to working positions are to be provided with anti-slip surface.
Guard rails and toe boards shall be attached at each vertical stanchion. They shall be
secured to prevent rotation.
Step Bolt
They are climbing facilities ideally suited

to fixing on monopoles.
Safety Enhancement
Safety in the installation and use in service of masts and towers are enhance by the
following practices which shall be mandatory on all tower owners and installers
(1) Tower assembly parts shall be standardized e.g. fasteners for the main
structure should ideally be of only one size, length and material.
(2) Manually handing over of parts or tools between installers during tower
erection is totally forbidden.
3) All parts must be fully labeled especially where the method of assembling
is not obvious.
(4) Towers must be structurally designed for simple assembly - ease of fit,
elimination of small loose parts, etc.
(5) On-site welding and riveting is prohibited. All site connections shall be by
bolt and nut with a means provided for locking the nut against loosening by
vibration. All nuts bolts and washers shall be galvanized. Such galvanizing
shall be done so as to permit the ready assembly of nuts and bolts after
galvanizing. Taper washers shall be used whenever the steel section shape
requires their use. Bolt lengths shall be such that with the locking device in
place a minimum of one complete thread shall protrude beyond the nut.
Bolt threads shall protrude inside the structure only.
89
90
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS SPECIFICATIONS
91
3.1 The Superstructure
3.1.1 Members’ Sizes
The sizes of members in compression shall be such that the maximum slenderness ratios
are:
Ladder 120
Bracing members 150
Subsiding members 180
No load-carrying angle shall be smaller than 50 x 50 x 6mm. The minimum thickness of

gussets and similar plates on the main structure shall be 8mm.
3.1.2 Intersecting Bracings
Where a gusset plate connects bracings that cross, at least one of the bracings shall be
continuous between the main members to which it connects.
Towers and Masts shall be manufactured from the following materials
a) Steel with hot dip galvanized finish
b) Stainless Steel with # 4 or # 7 finish
c) Aluminum - polished, anodized and painted finish
3.1.3 Lattice Structures
1. Legs - Tubular
- Angular
- Solid Round Leg
2. Members - Tubular pipes
- Angles
3. Bracing - Angles
- Tubular pipes
- Steel rods
3.1.4 Monopole Structures
1. Sections - hollow, heavy duty, thick steel pipes

92
- hollow, heavy duty, flanged steel pipes
3.1.5 Guys
1. Wires - Extra High Strength stainless steel or galvanised

steel cable.
2. Earth Screw Anchor – Galvanised steel or stainless steel.
3. Thimble -- Galvanised steel or stainless steel.
4. U-Bolt - Galvanised steel or stainless steel.
5. Turnbuckle - Galvanised steel or stainless steel.
Both lattice and monopole structures shall be made from steel for tall, heavy load
bearing towers or aluminum for lightweight light duty towers. Tower components shall
be of the following classification: -
 All steel members shall be fabricated from Grade 50 or 42, A36 or A 572-50.
 All steel tubes shall be fabricated from Grade 43C.
 All structural pipes shall be fabricated from Grade 42 or Grade C steel.
 Anchor rods shall be fabricated from Grade B7 steel.
 Rebar shall be fabricated from Grade 400 steel.
 Diagonals shall be fabricated from Grade 43A steel.
 Structural Bolts fabricated from Grade A325 steel.
 Steel angles shall have a minimum strength of 56ksi for tower legs and 36ksi for
tower members.
 Round legs shall be fabricated from schedule 40 pipes.
 Braces shall be fabricated from Grade A36 or A 572-50 steel
3.2 Concrete
Ordinary cement shall be used. Cement of different types may not be mixed. High
Alumina (HA) cement may not be used for concrete mixing. Additives that hasten the
setting of cement or give a denser concrete shall not be used.
All sand shall be clean, sharp, gritty, and free from loam earth, salt and other impurities
like humic acids. Sand shall not contain more than 15% clay or silt. The sand shall
contain grains from the finest sizes up to 4.75 mm. Grains smaller than 0.25 mm in size
shall not constitute more than 15% of the total weight of the sand to be used.
Aggregate shall be clean screened river ballast gravel, graded in size and free from dirt,
floury stone dust, loam or earth or any other impurities. The maximum size of aggregate
to be used shall be 19 mm.
93
Water to be used for concrete mixing shall be free from oil, salt, and organic substances.
It shall be clear. Cement shall have a mixture of 1:2:4.
The concrete shall be thoroughly mixed by machine.
3.3 Earthing and Lightning Protection Installation Materials
Air Terminals shall be made from copper.

Saddles (ridges, flat, light duty or heavy duty) shall be made from gunmetal or
aluminum.
Clamps shall be made from gunmetal or aluminum. Bi-metallic clamps shall be

employed when joining aluminum earth rods to copper earth conductors.
Earth bars shall be made from high conductivity copper.
Copper Earth rods shall be made from:
 High tensile steel core with copper film electrolytically bonded to it to a

minimum thickness of 0.25mm.
 Solid copper earth rods for extremely high corrosive environments
U-bolts could be of copper but with gunmetal back plates.
3.4 Metals and Galvanising
The following metals and alloys shall be used in tower fabrication, construction and for
foundation reinforcement: -
 Magnesium
 Zinc
 Aluminum
 Lead / Tin
 Brass / Copper / Bronze
 Silver
 Graphite
94
95
3.5 Earthing Clamps
Figure 3.1
Typical clamps for installation of earth tapes
3.6 U-Bolts
96
Multi-Point Air terminal Elevation Rods Mounting Brackets
Figure 3.2
Earth and lightning protection materials
Rod to Tape Coupling Building in Rod Holdfasts
97
3.7 Connector Clamps
Square Tape Clamp
Oblong Box Clamp/7
Figure 3.2
Installation Materials – Earthing and lightning protection
98
3.8 Screw down Clamp
Plate Type Clamp
Figure 3.3
Installation Materials – Earthing and lightning protection
3.9 Earth Bars and Disconnecting Links

99
Insulator Wooden base disconnecting link
6-way disconnecting link Disconnecting link channel Iron base
Inspection Housing
Figure 3.4
These materials are used for earthing installation to make testing easy
100
Figure 3.5
These materials are used for earthing installation to make testing easy
Conductor inspection housing shall be installed at test points to protect the earth rod and
earth connections and make them available for testing. It shall be made from high grade,
heavy duty polypropylene and ultra violet stabilized to prevent degradation by sunlight.
It shall be non-brittle.
101
3.10 Lightning Arrestor Installation Materials
Pointed Air Rod Flat Saddle
Light Duty Saddle
Figure 3.6
Pointed Air rod and installation saddle
102
3.11 Copper Tapes – Can be Tin or lead covered
Copper Tape
Flexible Copper braid
Figure 3.7
Flat Copper Tape and Flexible Copper Braid
103
3.12 Connectors
Circular cable connector
Cable to Tape Junction Clamp
Cable To Cable Test Clamp
Figure 3.8
Cable connectors
104
3.13 Bi-Metallic Connectors
Metal Tape Clip
Non-Metallic Clips
Figure 3.9
Cable and Tape clips
3.14 Guy System Materials

105
Earth Screw Anchor
Turnbuckle Guy Wire
Figure 3.10
Guy materials
Guying materials shall conform to the sizes, mechanical strengths and capacities shown
below in Tables 3.1 (1-4)
Table 3.1.1 Guying Cable

106
Size & Grade Working Load Break Strength Wt. / 100 strands
3.5mm x 7 x 7 Galvanised Steel
154 Kg 771 Kg 1.27 Kg
10mm x 7 x 19 Galvanised Steel 1306 Kg 6532 Kg 1.10 Kg
8mm x 7 x 19 Stainless Steel(304)
245 Kg 1089 Kg 2.27 Kg
5mm x 7 x 19 304 Stainless Steel(304)
336 Kg 1678 Kg 4.10 Kg
6.5mm x 7 x 19 Stainless Steel(304) 581 Kg 2903 Kg 5.00 Kg
Table 3.1.2 Turnbuckles
Working Load (Kg) Diameter & Take Up Unit Wt. (Kg)
750 10mm X 15cm 0.45
1,000 12.5mm X 22cm 0.9
1,500 15mm X 30cm 1.8

Turnbuckles shall be made from drop forged steel, be of hot dip galvanized
Finish and have Eye and eye construction
Table 3.1.3 Earth Screw Anchors

Holding Power
Overall Length Helix
Rod Dial. In. in Normal Soil Unit Wt(Kg)
Diameter
75 cm 12.5 mm 10 cm 1,135 Kg. 3.2
120 cm 16 mm 15 cm 1,815 Kg. 5.5
173 cm 17.5 mm 20 cm 5,000 Kg. 12
12.5mm Link from earth anchor to turnbuckle. Hot dip galvanized finish.
Table 3.1,4 U-Bolt Clips and Thimbles
Description Kgs. Per 100

3mm Galvanized Steel U-Bolt Clip
4.54
8mm Galvanized Steel U-Bolt Clip
8.16
6.5mm Galvanized Steel U-Bolt Clip 8.16
107
8mm Galvanized Steel U-Bolt Clip 13.6
10mm Galvanized Steel U-Bolt Clip 21.8
6.5mm Galvanized Heavy Duty Thimble 4.54
8mm Galvanized Heavy Duty Thimble 6.35
10mm Galvanized Heavy Duty Thimble 11.34
108
3.2 Antenna Mounting Frames
Frames for mounting antennas on towers or masts shall be designed in sympathy with
the type of tower structure, the type and weight and size of the antenna.
They shall be made from galvanised steel, stainless steel or aluminum. There shall be no
welded parts. All joints shall be implemented with bolts and nuts.
Some basic designs exist for certain tower structural forms. A few are shown below.
Tower
structure
Antenna Mount on Self-Support Tower
DETAIL B
A A
Plan View
Section View
Side Antenna Mount
109
Side Antenna Mount
SADDLE- BRACKET
110
Side Mount
Plan View
Section View
111
112
Plan View
Section View
113
metal clip
114
metal clip
metal clip metal bracket
115
CHAPTER FOUR
MAINTENANCE AND TESTING
116
4.0 First Line Maintenance
In tower design, it is assumed that the worst case scenario is a total mechanical failure.
This can be caused by stress, extreme overload, use of defective and poor quality
materials, fatigue, corrosion, poor workmanship, insufficient maintenance, sabotage, as
well as any combination of these factors. Every design must attempt to foresee all
possible combinations of these that can occur in the installation environment and
incorporate protective answers to them in the design. This is the first line of
maintenance.
4.1 Hot Dip Galvanization
Unprotected steel can be seriously damaged due to environmental factors as rain, salty
humid air and extremes of temperature. Corrosion transforms steel back to its natural
state of iron, which is very fragile and can prove to be deadly in structures like towers
which support heavy pressures. The best way to avoid this phenomenon is through a
process called "hot dip galvanization".
This process consists of dipping steel in melted zinc at 450°C. At this temperature iron
and zinc share great affinity, and allow an alloy to form where pure zinc prevails to the
outside. The final product is a steel surface protected with a zinc coating.
Due to the difference of electrochemical potential between zinc and steel (cathodic
protection), a zinc coating protects steel in such a way that slightly exposed surfaces due
to cutting, scratching or piercing are equally protected against corrosion.
What considerably affects the appearance and gauge of galvanization is the contents of
alloy elements that are present in steel: carbon, magnesium, and silicon. The greatest
effect is produced by silicon in concentrations higher than 0.12%.
Most steels can be galvanized: high-strength steel, low-carbon steel, low-alloy steel, and
steels with as much as 0.20% copper content; the most appropriate being low-carbon
steels.
4.2 Tower Maintenance
Towers require regular maintenance. Regular maintenance is especially important for

the purposes of public safety, network availability, environmental aesthetics and life
time quality of the structures.
Maintenance is as important to self supporting masts and towers as it is to guyed masts.
For masts and towers, maintenance is mandatorily preventive as any breakdown comes
usually with catastrophic consequences. Maintenance and inspection of steel antenna
towers and antenna supporting structures should be performed by the owner on a routine
117
basis.
Major inspections shall be performed, at a minimum, every 3 years for guyed towers
and every 5 years for self-supporting towers.
Ground and aerial procedures should be performed only by authorized personnel,
experienced in climbing and tower adjustments.
All structures shall be inspected after severe winds or other extreme loading conditions.
Shorter inspection intervals of 2 years for guyed towers and three years for self
supporting towers shall be obligatory for structures in coastal salt water
environments, in corrosive atmospheres, and in areas subject to frequent vandalisation.
At every tower site, the owner shall keep a maintenance log book in a thick cellophane
folder. This folder shall be readily accessible to the regulators inspectors. It shall have
the following information: -
 Installation Date
 Inspection due dates
 Painting due dates
 Minor Maintenance due dates
 Major Maintenance due dates
 Name and address of Inspector
For each of the due dates, the log must show whether the inspection or the maintenance
was carried out and by whom.
4.3 Maintenance Philosophy
The external condition of Towers and Masts must be regularly inspected with intent to
detect deterioration. Necessary maintenance works must be carried out timely.
Periodic checks and inspection of the structure must be carried out:
At regular intervals of time during the service life of the structure
After the installation of an additional load like antennas on the structure
After each serious climatic event like tempest, hurricane, tornado
The first thorough check of the structure should be carried out 6 months after its
installation and erection.
Maintenance checks should be carried out yearly henceforth
4.4 Routine Checks
118
4.4.1 Main structure
Check that there are no structure components missing

Check that bars are neither warped, holed nor spitted. Replace all defective parts.
Check structure components for corrosion
Check that draining holes on pipe leg members, pipe lattice parts are not blocked.
Check the climbing facilities, platforms, catwalks for integrity
4.4.2 Tower Base Foundation
Check for settlements or movements

Check for erosion
Site condition (standing water, drainage, trees, etc.)
Check bolts, nuts and lock nuts for tightness
Grout condition
4.4.3 Guy wires
Check that each cable that is part of the guy wire is neither broken nor warped
Measure the tension of each guy wire using a strand dynamometer and compare result
with the installer's stated values.
Check guy wires condition (corrosion, breaks, nicks, kinks, etc)

Check that the guy wire tightening system is properly greased.
Check for loose or missing fasteners
Check base for settlement, movement or earth cracks
Check backfill heaped over concrete for water shedding
Check anchor rod condition below earth
Check for signs of corrosion and take remedial timely steps
Ensure anchor head is clear of earth
4.4.4 Bolting parts

119
Check that no bolts or nuts or any bolting part like washers, pins, etc is missing. Replace
these immediately.
Check bolts tightening.
Check bolts, nuts and bolting parts for corrosion.
Check anchorage rod in the concrete.
4.4.5 Verticality
Check with the appropriate devices such as theodolite that the structure stands vertical.
There shall be no tilts. Take two measurements in two different planes with a 90' angle
difference.
4.4.6 Antennas and Accessories
Check antennas and antenna supports good condition

Check coaxial cables good condition
Check fixing clamps good condition.
4.4.7 Safety components
Check that access ladder is in good condition

Check rest and work platforms for defects, wear and tear
Check that all safety components are existing and complete
Check the correct functioning of the fall arrestor system
For a fall arrestor system with cable, check that the cable has not been over tightened.
Check that the anti climbing door is functioning.
4.4.8 Lightning and Earthing system
Check that all lightning and Earthing components are existing and complete including
lightning arrestor, copper strip, connection plate,
Check the Earthing connection of coaxial cables,
Measure the resistivity of the Earth and confirm conformity to expected values.
4.4.9 Aviation Safety Lights
Check that all components are in place,

120
Check condition and well functioning of components (Light bulb, energy cables, fixing
parts, photoelectric cell, connections)
Check earthing of the light wiring.
4.4.10Anti corrosion protection
Check all galvanised members for integrity

Check paint condition.
Check for signs of corrosion on the structure, of the bolts, bolting accessories,
harnesses, antenna supports, etc
For guyed masts, check for corrosion on the entire guy assembly.
4.4.11Salty environment
Wash the structure and accessories with clean water once every six months to eliminate
residue salt particles which may not be washed away by rain.
4.4.12Concrete blocks
Check the good condition of above ground concrete block parts.

There must not be any water collection, cracking or splitting, chipped or broken
concrete.
Check the condition of anchor setting in the concrete block.
Check anchor-bolt corrosion.
4.4.13Tower loading
Check types, numbers and installed heights of all antennas currently on the structure and
confirm that the loading does not exceed structure design load.
4.5 Annual Preventive Maintenance Checks
4.5.1 Structure
121
Tension of Guy wires using a dynamometer.
Geometry of the structure.
Re-tighten main structure and accessories bolted parts (10%)
Geometry of the Bars.
Rigidity of Antennas and Accessories.
4.5.2 Safety
Ensure anti climb door can open and close. Clean and grease all hinges.
Ensure the work platform's trap can open and close. Clean and grease all door hinges.
Fixing of the fall arrestor system
Check tower ladder for any signs of weakness, re-tighten all bolts
Check the riggers’ safety gear, take inventory and record it
Right placing and right installation of safety components.
Test of the fall arrestor system with individual equipment.
4.5.3 Earthing
Physical condition of the lightning rod

Physical condition of the lightning arrestor
Physical condition and installation of the copper strip
Connection of the concrete block copper belting onto the copper strip
Connection of coaxial cables earthing onto the copper strip
Connection between the bottom coaxial cable earthing and the collection Copper bar
fixed on the concrete block
Tightening of the brass bolts of the lightning protection electrodes
Resistivity the lightning protection electrodes
Earth resistance
4.5.4 Aviation Safety Lights

122
Functionality of controllers, flashers, alarms and photo control
Condition of electrical wires, connectors and earthing
Condition and fixing of energy cables
Conduit, junction boxes, and fasteners weather tight and secure
Bulb condition - change all bulbs at one time immediately before the rated service hours
is achieved.
Condition and fidelity of the power supply systems
4.5.5 Coating
Discrepancies in galvanization
Paint coating. Repaint every three years
Rust and/or corrosion conditions
ICAO / NAMA Color marking conditions
Water collection in members - unplug drain holes, etc.
4.6 TESTING
Measurement of Guy Tension
Tension should be measured when wind is relatively still. Measurements in wind

velocity above 25 m/s (90km/h) will yield misleading results. Tension results can be
considered satisfactory if they fall within 15% of the tension value stated by the
manufacturer and/or installer. Excessive tension may cause alignment problems and
even a cable rupture. It may even cause permanent wrapping of tower structural parts.
There are two basic methods of measuring guy tensions in the field:
1. the direct method

2. the indirect method.
4.6.1 The Direct Method (see Figure 4.1)
123
A dynamometer (load cell) with a come-along (length adjustment device), is attached to
the guy system by clamping onto the guy just above the turnbuckle and onto the anchor
shaft below the turnbuckle, thus making the turnbuckle redundant. The come-along is
then tightened until original turnbuckle begins to slacken. At this point the
dynamometer carries the entire guy load to the anchor, and the guy tension may be read
directly off the dynamometer dial.
This method is used to set the correct tension by adjusting the come-along until the
proper tension is read on the dynamometer.
Two control points are marked, one above the clamping point on the guy and one on the
anchor shaft, and the control length is measured. The dynamometer and come-along are
then removed, and the original turnbuckle is adjusted to maintain the control length
previously measured.
Dyanamometer Turnbuckle
Come - Along
(1) Dynamometer Method
As come-along is tightened,
dynamometer carries all
the load
(3) Pulse Method (2) Swing Method

Pulse travels up and Guy swings from a to b and
124
down the guy N times back N times in p seconds
In p seconds
Figure 4.1
Measurement of Tension of Guy
4.6.2 The Indirect Method
There are two common techniques for the indirect measurement of guy initial tension -
the pulse or swing method (vibration) (Figure 4.2) and the tangent intercept method
(Figure 4.3).
(a) The Pulse Method
TA
V L
H
125
Figure 4.2
Relationship between Guy Tension at Anchor and at Mid-Guy
One sharp jerk is applied to the guy cable near its connection to the anchor causing a
pulse or wave to travel up and down the cable. On the first return of the pulse to the
lower end of the guy cable, a stop watch is started. A number of returns of the pulse to
the anchor are then timed, and the guy tension is calculated from the following
equations:
where
TA = Guy tension at anchor
TM = Guy tension at mid-guy
W = Total weight of guy, including insulators, etc.
L = Guy chord length
N = Number of pulses or swings counted in P seconds
V = Vertical distance from guy attachment on tower to guy attachment at anchor

H = Horizontal distance from guy attachment on tower to guy attachment at anchor
N = Number of pulses or swings counted in P seconds
P = Period of time measured for N pulses or swings (s)
Instead of creating a pulse that travels up and down the guy, one may achieve the same
result by causing the guy cable to swing freely from side to side while timing N
complete swings. The formulas given above will also apply for this approach.
126
(b) The Tangent Intercept Method
I
I
α
TA
H
H
Figure 4.3
A line of sight is established which is tangential to the guy cable near the anchor end
and which intersects the tower leg a distance (tangent intercept) below the guy
attachment point on the mast. This tangent intercept distance is either measured or
estimated and the tension is calculated from the following equation:
where
C = Distance from guy attachment on tower to the center of gravity of the weight
W
127
I = The tangent intercept
If the weight is uniformly distributed along the guy cable, C will be approximately equal
to 1-I/2. If the weight is not uniformly distributed, the guy may be subdivided into n
segments and the following equation may be used:
where

Wi = Weight of segment i
Ci = Distance from the guy attachment on the tower to the center of gravity of segment i
If the intercept is difficult to establish, one may use the guy slope at the anchor end with
the following equation:
where
cz = Guy angle at the anchor
Note that
and that
and that WC in equation (7) may be replaced with S, as was done in equation (5).
128
Glossary of Terms
Plumb -- The horizontal distance between the vertical centerlines at any two elevations
shall not exceed .25 percent of the vertical distance between the two elevations.
Twist -- The twist (angular rotation in the horizontal plane) between any two elevations
shall not exceed 0.5 degrees in 3 m and the total twist in the structure shall not exceed
5".
Length -- For tubular steel pole structures with telescoping joint, butt welded or flanged
shaft connections, the overall length of the assembled structure shall be within plus 1
percent or minus 1/2 percent of the specified height.
Normal Soil -- A cohesive soil with an allowable net vertical bearing capacity of 192
kPa and an allowable net horizontal pressure of 63 kPa per linear meter of depth to a
maximum of 192 kPa.
Twist -- The angular rotation of the antenna beam path in a horizontal plane from the
no-wind load position at a specified elevation.
Sway -- The angular rotation of the antenna beam path in a vertical plane from the no-
wind load position at a specified elevation.
Displacement -- The horizontal translation of a point relative to the no-wind load

position of the same point at a specified elevation.
Grounding is the means of establishing an electrical connection between the structure

and the earth, adequate for lightning, high voltage, or static discharges.
Primary Ground is the conducting connection between the structure and earth or some
conducting body, which serves in place of the earth.
Secondary Ground is the conducting connection between an appurtenance and the

structure.
Climbing Facilities -- Components specifically designed or provided to permit access,

such as fixed ladders, step bolts, or structural members.
Climbing Safety Devices -- Equipment devices other than cages, designed to minimize
accidental falls, or to limit the distance of such falls. The devices permit the person to
ascend or descend the structure without having to continually manipulate the device or
129
any part of the device. The climbing safety device usually consists of a carrier, safety
sleeves, and safety belts.
Working Facilities -- Work platforms and access runways.
Guy Connection - the hardware or mechanism by which a length of guy strand is

connected to the tower, or guy anchor.
Lux is lumens/sq m
Candela is light intensity. Its unit is the lumen
Alternative Mounting Structure - man made tree, clock tower, church steeple, bell
tower, utility pole, light standard, identification pylon, flagpole, or similar structure,
designed to support and camouflage or conceal the presence of telecommunications
antennas.
Antenna - structure or device used to collect or radiate electromagnetic waves,

including directional antennas, such as panels, wireless cable and satellite dishes, and
omni-directional antennas, such as whips, but not including satellite earth stations.
Antenna Array - An arrangement of antennas on their supporting structure.
Dish Antenna - A parabolic or bowl shaped device that receives and/or transmits signals
in a specific directional pattern.
Panel Antenna - An antenna which receives and/or transmits signals in a directional

pattern.
Antenna, Stealth - A telecommunications antenna that is effectively camouflaged or

concealed from view.
Telecommunications Antenna - An antenna used to provide a telecommunications

service.
Whip Antenna - An omni-directional dipole antenna of cylindrical shape which is no

more than 15 cm in diameter.
Co-location - single telecommunications tower and/or site used by more than one
telecommunications service provider.
Identification Pylon - A permanent ground mounted sign consisting solely of a single

monolithic structure used to identify a development.
130
Guyed Tower - Any telecommunications tower supported in whole or in part by cables
anchored to the ground.
Tower Height - The distance measured from ground level to the highest point of any and
all components of the structure, including antennas, hazard lighting, and other
appurtenances.
Monopole - A self-supporting telecommunications tower which consists of a single

vertical pole fixed into the ground and/or attached to a foundation.
Self-supporting Lattice - A telecommunications support structure which consists of an

open network of metal braces forming a tower which is usually triangular or square in
plan.
Telecommunications Tower - A self-supporting or guyed structure more than 5

meters in height, built to support one or more telecommunications antennas.
131
Index
 Access Ladders 83, 112

 Accidents during the installation period 7
 Aggregate 59, 87
 Air Terminal 75, 80, 88,90
 Airport 6, 55
 Alternative Mounting Structure 13, 122
 Aluminum – polished, anodized and painted finish 86
 Anchor Bolts Template 58
 Angle leg 21, 22
 Annual preventive maintenance checks 113
 Antenna Mounting Frames 101
 Anti Climb Shields 82
 Anti Corrosion protection 112
 Authorization 10
 Aviation Lighting 6, 12
 Aviation safety lights 112, 114
 Base Plate 23, 74

 Basic Foundation Design for Slim lattice mast 72
 Basic wind speed 15, 16, 74
 Bi-metallic 88, 98
 Bolting 23, 111, 112, 124
 Bolt-up construction 22
 Bracing 21, 25, 26, 27, 28 29, 33, 35, 49, 62, 86
 Building and roof mounted dish antennas 13
 Bull Dozer 8
 Cable and Tape clips 98

 Cable Connectors 97
 Certification 6, 7, 13, 14
 City and Guilds 7
 Clamp 88, 89, 91, 92, 97, 112
132
 Clearance certificate 6
 Climbing 24, 81, 82, 83, 84, 110, 111, 112, 121, 122
 Coating 109, 114
 Co-location 10, 122
 Concreting 59
 Copper-Tapes 79, 96
 Dish Antenna Mounting Standards 13

 Drilled pier Foundation design 67
 Dynamometer 111, 113, 115, 116
 Earthing 75,76, 78, 88, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 112, 114
 Effective height 6
 Elevation Rods 90
 Environmental requirements 9
 Excavators 8
 Fabricators and Installers 4

 Face width 21, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 49, 67, 72. 73
 Factors of safety 61
 Fall Arrest Safety System 81
 Faraday Rod 75
 Finishes 21, 23, 83
 Flat saddle 96
 Flexible copper braid 96
 Footing Assembly 43
 Foundation Design and Loading 40
 Foundation Design 40, 43, 57, 58, 67, 72, 74
 Foundation Engineers 60, 61
 Foundation in swamps 75
 Free standing masts 5
133
G
 Geographical coordinates 6, 7
 Graphite 88
 Ground mounted dish antennas 13
 Guard-rails 81, 84
 Gust factor 16, 35, 36, 126
 Guy Anchor 11, 25, 50, 60, 61, 6, 66, 70, 75, 80,122
 Guy materials 99
 Guy wires 24,25, 111, 113
 Guyed Towers 5, 24, 57, 80, 110
 Guys 6, 11, 25, 66, 87
 Height of Towers 8
 HF-SSB dipole antennas 50
 High Alumina (HA) 87
 Hot Dip Galvanization 109
 Humic Acid 87
 ICAO 11, 12, 55, 56, 114

 Inspections 7, 10, 110
 Installation permit 8
 Insulator 93, 118
 Intersecting bracings 86
 Junction box 12, 114
K
 K-bracing 26, 27, 28, 29, 30. 31
 KNm-3 57, 59, 60
 Kpa 57, 59, 121
134
 Lap Link Weight Table 44
 Lattice 5, 21, 22, 24, 26, 27, 34, 37, 38, 44, 45, 73. 86, 67, 111, 123
 Saddle 86, 95
 Lighting 6, 11, 12, 55, 56, 78, 123
 Lightning and Earthing system 112
 Lightning Arrestor 95, 112, 114
 Lightning protection 6, 75, 76, 78, 80, 88, 90, 91, 92, 114
 Log book 7, 110
 Long Boom Arm Crane 8
 Magnesium 88, 109

 Maintenance 7, 8, 21, 108, 109, 110, 113
 Maximum compression 35, 36
 Maximum shear 35, 36
 Measurement of Guy Tension 115
 Monopole structures 86, 87
 Monopole Towers 23
 Multi-Point Air Terminal 90
 Name plate 7, 60, 61

 Nearness to power lines 12
 Nigeria Airspace Management Authority 6,10
 NAMA 11, 12, 21, 55, 56, 114
 Nigerian Communications Commission 6, 7, 8, 10, 13
 NCC 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14
 Nigerian Meteorological Agency 15
 Non-Metallic clips 98
 N-Section Guyed Pole Mast 50
 Oblong Box Clamp 91

 Obstruction lamps 55
 Obstruction lighting 12, 55, 56
 Open terrain 14
 Operating Frequencies 7
135
 Out rigger 50, 52
 Packer 8
 Painting 55, 110
 Panel Height 26
 Permit Number 7
 Photo sensor 12
 Pier and Pad foundation construction 71
 Piles 56, 61
 Plate Type clamp 92
 Platform height 45
 Platforms 6, 21, 81, 111, 112, 122
 Pointed Air Rod 95
 Post Masts 23
 Property Owner 6
 Protective Grounding 80
 Public Health 9
 Public Safety 4, 8, 13, 82, 109
 Radio frequency emissions 8

 Raft Foundation 60, 64, 66
 Redundant Diagonal 31
 Reinforcement 59, 60, 61, 65, 66, 80, 88
 Removal of abandoned towers 9
 Residential Areas (towers in) 11, 12, 13
 Resistivity values for different soil types 79
 Resistivity 78, 79, 112, 114
 Rest platforms 21, 81, 83
 Rock Anchors 56, 58
 Roof Mounts 25, 53, 54
 Routine checks 111
 Safe Working Load (SWL) 58

 Safety components 112,113
136
 Safety Devices 81, 122
 Safety Enhancement 84
 Safety of equipment 4
 Safety of personnel 4
 Salty environment 113
 Screening 9, 13
 Security Fencing 9, 11
 Self Support Lattice 26, 37
 Service Life of Towers 12, 21, 110
 Setbacks of Towers 10, 11
 Side Antenna Mount 103
 Signage 11
 Silver 88
 Site Plan 6
 Siting 8
 Slip Joints 24
 Slope change 34
 Solid Round Leg 21, 22, 86
 Space requirements 9
 Square structure 21
 Standard foundation 58, 59
 Steel member width 49
 Step Bolt 64,121
 Structural certification 14
 Substructure 4, 56, 64
 Superstructure 4, 16, 21, 35, 36, 40, 42, 86
 Superstructure Design and Loading 40, 42
 Tapered sections 21
 Technical College 7
 Terrain 14, 16, 128
 Thimble 87, 100
 Total anticipated antenna load 35, 36
 Tower Base Foundation 75, 111
 Tower loading 21, 113
 Tower maintenance 109
 Tower schedule 39, 41
137
 Tower to Tower Spacing 12
 Tube leg 21, 22
 Turnbuckle 87, 99,100, 115
U, V
 U-Bolt clip 99, 100

 U-Bolts 12, 68, 89
 Uplift 35, 36, 40, 43, 45, 57, 59, 61, 62, 68, 72, 73
 Verticality 112
 Weather proof light flasher 12

 Wind flow map 15
 Wind Load 16, 40, 121, 14
 Wind loading 14
 Wind Speeds 15, 16, 17, 19, 35, 36, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45, 74
 Work platforms 21
 Workmen’s compensation 6, 21, 83, 112
X, Y, Z
 X-braced, self supporting, lattice design 34, 45

 Z bracing 38
 Zinc 88, 109
138

Technical Specifications For The Installation of Telecoms Mast and Towers

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Technical Specifications For The Installation of Telecoms Mast and Towers

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Technical Specifications For The Installation of Telecoms Mast and Towers

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

TELECOMMUNICATIONS MASTS AND TOWERS

Chapter One – General Principles of Practice 3

Chapter Two – Design and Construction 20

2.1 Service Life 21

Chapter Three – Material Specifications 85

3.1 The Superstructure 86

Chapter Four – Maintenance and Testing 108

4.0 First Line Maintenance 109

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF PRACTICE

This document is intended to be a general, simple to read guide for

Responsibilities of telecommunications tower owners, users, builders are set out in

Telecommunication towers may be of several types and range in height from 30 to

These are illustrated in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1 - Tower Types

1.3 General Guidelines

This specification applies to communication lattice towers and masts constructed

I. Site plan showing the proposed structure location in relation to adjoining

VI. Certification of the proposed installer issued by the Nigerian Communications

The following guide-lines should be adhered to:

1.4 Certification - Company and Employees

The minimum basic educational qualification for employees in the fabrication,

All checking visits and maintenance interventions have to be done by employees

Tower and mast installation is an equipment based procedure. A company applying

Telecommunications towers and masts, when permitted by the Nigerian

1.6 Environmental Requirements

The maximum height that may be approved for a telecommunication tower in

1.6.1 Space requirements.

a. One parking/loading space shall be required to serve a

d. Stealth and/or camouflage design of towers and antennas are

1.6.3 Removal of abandoned towers

Telecommunication towers shall be inspected by a qualified tower inspection

Towers shall be designed and built to accommodate a minimum of three service

Towers shall be set back the greater distance of:

(a) 10 meters from any residential or used property;

(b) 25 percent of the height of the tower

No signage, lettering, symbols, images, or trademarks in excess of 1200 cm2 shall

Telecommunication towers shall only be illuminated as required by NAMA and/or

A typical obstruction lighting kit shall include the following:

 Light with bulbs of a minimum of 10,000hrs service life

Design of a lighting kit is regulated by governmental organizations.

Telecommunications towers above 25 meters in height are, as a general rule, not

Towers or masts or monopoles in excess of 25 meters in height are permitted in the

1.6.13Tower to Tower Spacing

Any new telecommunications tower in excess of 55 meters in height must be

No tower or mast shall be installed in close proximity to High Voltage electrical

1.6.15Alternative Mounting Structures

Alternative Mounting Structures 30 meters or less in height shall be permitted in

Alternative Mounting Structures in excess of 30 meters in height are permitted in

Alternative Mounting Structures must be similar in color, scale and character to

Antenna mounts must have structural integrity so as to guarantee public safety.

(i) Whip and Panel Antenna Mounts

a. Individual telecommunications antennas are allowed on existing low

c. Panel and whip antennas are permitted on billboard structures.

(ii) Dish Antenna Mounting Standards

a. Ground mounted dish antennas in excess of five feet (1.5

c. Building/roof mounted dish antennas in excess of 1 meter in diameter,