The 90Th Textile Institute World Conference Proceedings of (2016) PDF

25th – 28th April 2016
Poznań, Poland
TIWC 2016
THE 90th TEXTILE INSTITUTE
WORLD CONFERENCE
PROCEEDINGS OF
Textiles
Inseparable from
the human environment
The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

Textiles: Inseparable from the human environment.
25th – 28th April 2016
Poznan, Poland
NAZWA SESJI ORAL PRESENTATION
Presidents Welcome Message
As World President of The Textile Institute I welcome you to

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference in Poznan, Poland.
I would like to take this opportunity to thank the conference
host The Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants,
Poznan, Poland.
The conference theme ‘Textiles: Inseparable from the human
Environment’ aims to provide a significant platform for industry
and researchers around the world to meet, discuss, share and disseminate findings for
future collaborations. Delegates will benefit from a wide range of plenary speakers,
invited speakers and contributed talks from local and international presenters, along
with poster sessions. It is anticipated that the conference will become a catalyst for
bridging the research, innovation and enterprising spirits among the participants.
The conference will aim to establish international interdisciplinary cooperation in
various fields of science, research and economy that are linked by textile technology
in its broad meaning. The theme has resulted from the strong position of textiles in the
human ambient environment and that textiles are present in all aspects of everyday
life.
The Textile Institute strives to provide innovative forums of discussion at local, national
and international level. Networking is at the forefront of this international event. We are
delighted to welcome friends old and new from around the world and encourage
delegates to make the most of this unique opportunity to seek new partnerships,
knowledge and develop new friendships and collaborations.
It is also an opportunity for participants to travel to Poznań the fifth largest city in the
country with a population of around 560,000 people and which shares its borders
with no less than 7 countries. Poznań has a wealth of history that dates back to the
9th century and I hope that you will take the opportunity to enjoy this interesting and
enjoyable city.
Special thanks must be given to the conference sponsors, media partners, keynote
speakers and supporters for making this premier international forum possible.
I look forward to meeting many of you over the next few days at the social events
planned to celebrate this conference and wish you a successful, informative and
pleasant time in Poland.
Muharrem Kayhan
World President of The Textile Institute

Inseparable from the human environment. Hosted by the Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants (INF&MP),
Poznan,
Poznan,
Poland,
Poland,
April April
25th 25-28,
- 28th, 2016
5
NAZWA SESJI ORAL PRESENTATION
Chair Welcome Message
90th Textile Institute World Conference 2016 titled: Textiles,

Inseparable from the human environment is held in Poznan,
Poland from 25th to 28th April 2016. The Conference is hosted
by the Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants, a
research and development Polish institute with more than 80-
year tradition in studies on natural fibre processing, production
and their multi-directional applications.
The Textile Institute World Conference has a long tradition and enjoys hospitality of
Institutions from different parts of the world. Now, the TIWC 2016 takes place in Poznan,
one of the biggest cities in Poland, a strong academic and industrial centre and also an
attractive touristic place with a unique Old Town with renaissance the Old Market Square
and the Town Hall.
The aim of the conference is to establish international interdisciplinary cooperation in
various fields of science, research and economy that are linked by textile technology in
its broad meaning.
The theme of the TIWC 2016 has resulted from strong position of textiles in human ambient
environment, where textiles are present in everyday life in almost all sectors of economy.
I believe that the Conference is a good place to start new cooperation between industry
and researchers investigating similar scientific topics in different parts of the world.
90th Textile Institute World Conference creates great opportunity to gather experts and
textile enthusiasts, the representatives of the world textile community.
Taking this opportunity, I would like to convey deep appreciation to all the Members
of International Advisory Committee, Programme and Organizing Committees and
distinguished Plenary Speakers who have contributed to high scientific level of the TIWC
2016. I would like to express my profound gratitude to all the Sponsors and Media Partners
for valuable support for organizing the conference.
It is great honour for us to host this year TIWC and to welcome so many distinguished
guests in Poland.
I wish all the TIWC 2016 participants fruitful scientific sessions and pleasant stay in Poznan.

Poznan, Poland, April 25th - 28th, 2016
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CONTENTS
FLAMMABILITY PROPERTIES AND FIRE RETARDANCY OF NATURAL FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES
M.Wladyka-Przybylak, D. Wesolek, S. Rojewski, R. Gasiorowski, W. Gieparda, K. Bujnowicz, R. Wojcik 15
EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF RAW SILK FABRIC COMPARING THE DEGUMMING
METHODS WITH MARSEILLE SOAP AND CORONA TREATMENT
Daives Arakem Bergamasco1, João Sinézio de Carvalho Campos2 16
OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF NATURAL FIBRES, PRODUCTION AND APPLICATION
Kozlowski R., Muzyczek M., Zimniewska M., Mackiewicz-Talarczyk M., Barriga-Bedoya J. 21
COTTON SUSTAINABILITY: THE INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL LABELLING ON CONSCIOUS
CONSUMPTION
Joy Bucklow1, Dr Patsy Perry2, Professor Gary Warnaby3 30
CHARACTERIZATION OF COCONUT AND FIQUE FIBERS AND NONWOVENS FOR POTENTIAL
ACOUSTIC APPLICATIONS
Marllory Isaza Ruiz1, Adriana2 RestrepoOsorio1*, Catalina ÁlvarezLópez1,
Diana María GarzaAgudelo , Héctor GarcíaMayén2, Luis Alberto Tafur Jiménez2, Patricia
FernándezMorales1*. 38
IDENTIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF CASHMERE IN GOATS FROM NORTHEASTERN BRAZIL
Lia Souza Coelho1, Elisa Cristina Modesto2 44
NEW TEXTILE FIBRE: CURAUA
Paulo Pimenta1, Laura M. Borges 1, Fernando R. Oliveira2, Simone da Silva3, A. P. Souto4 50
SODIUM SILICATE FOR IMPROVEMENT CATIONIZED COTTON FLAME RETARDANCY
Ana Marija Grancarić1, Lea Botteri1, Anita Tarbuk1, Jenny Alongi2 58
ESTIMATION AND PREDICTION OF LONG SCUTCHED FLAX SPINNING ABILITY
Dyagilev Andrey1, Biziuk Andrei1, Kogan Alexander1 66
EFFECT OF THE EXTRACTION METHOD ON THE PROPERTIES OF SILK FIBROIN
Ángel Daniel Ríos1,2, Catalina ÁlvarezLópez3, Luis Javier Cruz1,4, Adriana RestrepoOsorio1 73
PASHMINA FIBRE AND ITS INNOVATION
DR S.K CHAUDHURI 79
NATURAL FIBRE BIOCOMPOSITES FOR TRUCKS
Miguel Ángel Valera1, Ferran Martí1 87
PRELIMINARY PROCESSES OF BAST FIBRES FOR COMPOSITES REINFORCEMENT APPLICATION
Małgorzata Zimniewska, Wanda Konczewcz 95
THE TEXTILE-SKIN INTERFACE
R M Laing1, C A Wilson, A Liu, L A Dunn 104
A PORTABLE TESTER FOR EVALUATION OFTHERMOPHYSIOLOGICAL COMFORT OF CAR SEATS IN
REAL CONDITIONS OF THEIR USE
Lubos Hes, Antonin Havelka 112
RESEARCH ON HEAVY METALS MIGRATION FROM TEXTILES IN THE ASPECT OF THE SAFETY
ASSESSMENT OF PRODUCTS
Renata Salerno-Kochan 118
SMOOTHNESS AND ROUGHNESS: CHARACTERISTICS OF FABRIC-TO-FABRIC SELF-FRICTION
PROPERTIES
Ningtao Mao, Yiyi Wang, Jianguo Qu 125
COMFORT PROPERTIES FOR DIFFERENT TEXTILE SETS USING A THERMAL MANIKIN
Isaura Carvalho1, Miguel Carvalho2, Liliana Fontes2, Teresa Martins1 135

9

EVALUATION OF THERMOPHYSIOLOGICAL COMFORT PROPERTIES OF THE DESIGNED T-SHIRTS WITH

WEAR TRIALS
Eren Öner1, Ayşe Okur2 142
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF HIGH PERFORMANCE THERMAL INSULATION MATERIALS
Mohanapriya Venkataraman, Rajesh Mishra, Jiri Militky, Veerakumar Arumugam 151
STUDY OF ELECTRO-THERMAL PROPERTIES OF PYRROLE POLYMERISED KNITTED FABRICS
Syed Talha Ali Hamdani1,2, Anura Fernando1, Prasad Potluri1 168
DETERMINATION OF SURFACE PROPERTIES OF KNITTED FABRICS BY IMAGE ANALYSIS METHOD
Gonca Balci Kilic1, Ayşe Okur1 174
MODELING OF PROTECTIVE AND COMFORT-RELATED PROPERTIES OF THE THERMOREGULATIVE
UNDERWEAR FOR MINE RESCUERS
Bartkowiak Grażyna1, Dąbrowska Anna1 Kurczewska Agnieszka, 184
ASSESSMENT OF TEXTILE MATERIALS USED IN GLOVES FOR WORKING IN COLD THERMAL
ENVIRONMENTS TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THEIR PROTECTIVE AND USAGE PARAMETERS
Emilia Irzmańska1, Paulina Chęsy1*, Paulina Wójcik1, Ryszard Lewandowski2, Katarzyna Zdrenka2,
Sławomir Dereszkiewicz2 192
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-PERFORMANCE KNITTED STRUCTURES FOR STAB AND PUNCTURE
PROTECTION
Dionísio Silveira1; Raquel Carvalho1; Raul Fagueiro1; Noel Ferreira2; Carlos Ferreira2; Filipa Monteiro2 200
ASSESSMENT OF TEXTILE MATERIALS USED IN PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT GIVING THE
PROTECTION AGAINST CHEMICALS - THE COMPARISON OF STANDARDS
Chęsy Paulina 208
THE APPLICATION OF SEM AND WAXS TECHNIQUES FOR CHARACTERISATION SUPERABSORBENT
POLYMERS (SAPS) ADDITIVES FOR NONWOVENS STRUCTURES
Michał Puchalski1, Michał Chrzanowski1, Agnieszka Komisarczyk1, Izabella Krucińska1,
Małgorzata Okrasa2, Agnieszka Brochocka2 and Katarzyna Majchrzycka2 222
IMPACT PROTECTION FOR FUNCTIONAL APPAREL
David J. Tyler 227
PROTECTIVE PROPERTIES OF TEXTILE PACKAGES DESTINED ON THE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING FOR
WELDER
Iwona Frydrych1,2, Cichocka Agnieszka1 , Paulina Gilewicz1 236
STUDY OF THE MATERIALS FOR CUT RESISTANCE
Dionísio Silveira1; Raquel Carvalho1; Raul Fagueiro1; Noel Ferreira2; Carlos Ferreira2; Filipa Monteiro2 244
BIO-BASED AND BIODEGRADABLE TEXTILE MATERIALS FOR NEW PERSPECTIVES
Danuta Ciechańska, Magdalena Kucharska, Konrad Sulak, Krystyna Twarowska-Schmidt,
Wacław Tomaszewski 249
SIDE ILLUMINATION OF POLYMER OPTICAL FIBER COVERED WITH FLUORESCENT POLYESTER FABRIC
UNDER BENDING STATE
Juan Huang1, Dana Křemenáková1, Jiří Militký1, Jakub Wiener1 251
EXPERIMENTAL AND ANALYTICAL INVESTIGATION ON THERMAL AND ACOUSTIC BEHAVIOR OF 3D
SPACER KNITTED FABRICS
Veerakumar Arumugam, Rajesh Mishra, Jiri Militky, Dana Kremenakova,
Jana Salacova & Mohanapriya Venkataraman 257
STUDY ON THE DURABILITY OF CONDUCTIVE EMBROIDED YARNS FOR APPLICATION IN
INTERACTIVE TEXTILES
Daniel Dourado1, Cátia Relvas1, Raquel Carvalho1, Raul Fangueiro1, Armando Antunes2 269
Syed Talha Ali Hamdani1,2, Anura Fernando1, Prasad Potluri1 276

10
Textile processes

FUNCTIONAL CLOTHING AND TEXTILES – AN APPROACH TOWARDS FASHION

Dr. Sandip Mukherjee1 280
UTILIZATION OF ACRYLIC FIBROUS WASTE FOR PREPARATION OF ACTIVATED CARBON
NANOPARTICLES
Salman Naeem1, Vijay Baheti1, Malgorzata Okrasa2, Jiri Militky1, Blanka Tomkova1 291
APPLICATION OF VAPORISED HYDROGEN PEROXIDE IN BLEACHING AND DISINFECTION OF
CELLULOSIC HYGIENIC AND MEDICAL PRODUCTS
Anetta Walawska, Jadwiga Sójka-Ledakowicz, Barbara Filipowska,
Magdalena Kiwała 302
THE CONCEPT OF SELECTION OF BIOCIDAL MODIFIERS TO MELT-BLOWN NONWOVENS FOR
REUSABLE RESPIRATORY PROTECTIVE DEVICES
Katarzyna Majchrzycka1, Małgorzata Okrasa1, Justyna Skóra2, Beata Gutarowska2,
Bogumił Brycki3 317
RECENT ADVANCES IN THREE-DIMENSIONAL PRESSURE RELIEVING CUSHIONS FOR THE PREVENTION
OF PRESSURE ULCERS.
S.C.Anand1, C.D.Hepburn1 and C.Wood2. 325
USING QFD AS A METHOD TO DEVELOP FUNCTIONAL MEDICAL PRODUCTS FOR CHILDREN WITH
CANCER
Power, E.J.1, Harris, J.M.2 and Leaper, D.J.3 333
DEVELOPMENT OF FUNCTIONAL 3D WOVEN FABRICS FOR THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS
Małgorzata Matusiak1, Łukasz Frącczak2 341
RETURN TO ZERO:
DETOX THE TEXTILE SUPPLY CHAIN
*Rakesh Vazirani 350
DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW ENERGY EFFICIENT RELAY NOZZLE CONCEPT FOR AIR-JET WEAVING
MACHINES
Achim Schröter1, Andreas Münkel1, Corrado Grassi2, Adjunct Prof. (Clemson Univ.)
Dr.-Ing. Yves-Simon Gloy1, Univ.-Prof. Prof. h.c. (Moscow State Univ.)
Dr.-Ing. Dipl.-Wirt. Ing. Thomas Gries1 352
A STUDY ON OPTIMUM ADJUSTMENTS FOR STITCHING SINGLE JERSEY KNITWEAR FABRICS ON AN
OVERLOCKING MACHINE
John McLoughlin1, Felicia Tang2, Prabu Venkatraman 3, Steven Hayes4 362
CREATING THE POLY(N,N-DIMETHYLAMINOETHYL METHACRYLATE) FIBRES BY MELT SPINNING
METHOD
Dawid Stawski1, Dorota Zielińska1,2, Michał Chrzanowski1 372
DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW ENERGY EFFICIENT PROFILED REED CONCEPT FOR AIR-JET WEAVING
BASED ON A METHOD TO EXPLOIT ENERGY SAVINGS
Corrado Grassi1, Achim Schröter2, Yves-Simon Gloy2, Thomas Gries2 378
FABRIC COVER-FACTOR AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE WHEN STITCHING QUALITY SEAMS FOR APPAREL
PRODUCTS
Dr Steven George Hayes1, CText FTI and Dr John McLoughlin2 CText FTI, Dr Tasneem Sabir, CText ATI 389
TENCEL® IN TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS – FROM FOOTWEAR TO AGRICULTURE, ACOUSTICS AND
SUSTAINABLE PACKAGINGM
Crnoja-Cosic, B. Köll 397
CARBON FIBRES – LATEST DEVELOPMENTS, APPLICATIONS AND USE OF TEXTILE PROCESSING
Vince Kelly, 401
FLY-BAG2 - EXPLOSION-RESISTANT TEXTILE-BASED CONTAINERS FOR AVIATION SAFETY
Petra Franitza1, Heike Illing-Günther1, Yvette Dietzel1, Alessandro Bozzolo2, Donato Zangani2 410

11

NEW FIBROUS SOIL IMPROVERS FOR AGRICULTURE

K. Dziedziczak B. Kowalski M. Wiśniewski, 419
DESTRUCTION OF COMPOSITES UTILIZED FOR SPORTSWEAR IN PROGRAMMABLE FATIGUE
EXAMINATIONS
Katarzyna Kobiela-Mendrek1, Jadwiga Malkiewicz 2 424
STUDY OF THE MATERIALS FOR THERMAL INSULATION IN HOME TEXTILES
Raquel Carvalho1, Cátia Relvas1, Raul Fangueiro1, Armando Antunes2 430
ELECTRET MOISTURE ABSORBING COMPOSITES PRODUCED IN MELT-BLOWN PROCESS FOR USE IN
RESPIRATORY PROTECTIVE DEVICES
Agnieszka Brochocka, Małgorzata Okrasa 435
SUSTAINABLE SOLAR SURFACE DECORATION: THE CORRELATION BETWEEN ANTHOTYPE PRINCIPLES
WITH PLANT EXTRACTIONS AS A FORM OF ECO-PATTERNING FOR FABRICS.
Dr Kate Wells1, Ness Greger2 442
PLASMA MODIFICATION OF TEXTILES BEYOND A BLACK ART
M.R.S. McCoustra1, R.R. Mather1 450
EFFECTS OF LIQUOR RATIO, TIME, AND CONCENTRATION OF DYE ON MERCERIZED 100% COTTON
DYED WITH REACTIVE OR VAT DYES
AZEEZ MUTIU O. 457
INKJET PRINTING CHOLESTERIC LIQUID CRYSTALS ONTO TREATED POLYESTER WOVEN TEXTILE
SUBSTRATES
Celina Jones, Gabriele Wortmann, Franz J Wortmann 463
THE INFLUENCE OF DISTRIBUTION AND DEPOSIT OF CONDUCTIVE COATING ON SHIELDING
EFFECTIVENESS OF TEXTILES
Vitalija Rubežienė1, Aušra Abraitienė1, Julija Baltušnikaitė-Guzaitienė1,
Sandra Varnaitė-Žuravliova1, Žilvinas Kancleris2, Paulius Ragulis2, Gediminas Šlekas2 470
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT METHODS USED FOR COTTON COLOR GRADING
Nayab Khan1, Michal Vik2, Martina Vikova2 471
NATURAL FIBERS, TEXTILES AND EDUCATIONAL GRADUATE PROGRAMS AT THE RUSSIAN STATE
AGRARIAN UNIVERSITY
Presenting Author Belopukhov Sergey1, 477
STUDENT LEARNING AND ENGAGEMENT IN FASHION MARKETING
Priscilla Y. L. Chan 484
TRANSITION INTO UNIVERSITY – FASHION AND MATERIALS SOC – CASE STUDY
Gianpaolo Vignali1, Rachel Studd2 (12 pt, bold) 491
CONTRIBUTION TO AN EFFICIENT TRANSMISSION OF INFORMATION TO THE TEXTILE FASHION
CONSUMER AND THE INFLUENCE IN SUSTAINABLE ATTITUDES
Carneiro N. 1, Refosco E. 1, Soares G. 1 500
CELEBRATING LINEN: COLLABORATIVE DESIGN PRACTICE
Professor Jane McCann 508
VISUAL MERCHANDISING: AN INDESPENSIBLE TOOL IN INTEGRATING DESIGN, FASHION AND RETAIL
Vishaka Agarwal 516
A REVERSE APPROACH TO VIRTUAL SHIRT PROTOTYPING AND PATTERN CUTTING
Abu Sadat Muhammad Sayem 523
THE JEANS IN THE POPULAR BRAZILIAN PANORAMA
Iara Braga12, Maria José Abreu2 534
KHADI IN KIDS WEAR: ANALYZING PARENTAL VIEWS
Priti M. Gadhavi 541

12
Textile processes

WOVEN MULTILAYER MULTILEVEL MODULAR TEXTILE ‘VERTABRAE’: AN OVERVIEW OF WOVEN

NODAL’S TO VERTEBRAE DEVELOPMENTS
Dr. Lindsey Waterton Taylor1, Dr Xiaogang Chen2 551
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GARMENT TECHNOLOGY AND BRAND LOYALTY
Maxwell Arnold1, Zhimin Chen2 560
AN AUTO ETHNOGRAPHIC REVIEW OF 48 PIECES FROM THE EMMELINE 4 RE COLLECTIONS;
DEFINING BARRIERS AND OPPORTUNITIES LEADING TO SUCCESSFUL UPCYCLING
Emmeline Child 568
IMPACT OF LIFESTYLE EXPERIENCES ON PURCHASE INTENTION OF FEMALE CONSUMERS TOWARDS
BLOCK-PRINTED PRODUCTS
Harleen Sahni 576
IART: CONSUMER-ORIENTED ICT SOLUTIONS FOR CREATIVE SMES
PROVIDING ART IN BESPOKE FASHION
Lidia Zdzieszyńska1, Michel Byvoet2, Fabian Di Fiore3 586
GROUNDHOG DAY; IS 1970’S COLOUR REALLY BACK IN FASHION?
Dr Julie A King 593
PRODUCTIVITY IMPROVEMENT OF HOMEBASED EMBROIDERY WORKERS
Dr.Archana Gandhi1 & Aditi Gangwar2 599
RECYCLABLE TEXTILE COVERINGS BASED ON AN ECODESIGN METHODOLOGY
Ulrike Rübsam11,, Achim Schröter1, Adjunct Prof. (Clemson Univ.) Dr.-Ing. Yves-Simon Gloy1, Priv.-Doz. Dr.-Ing. Dipl.-Wirt.-Ing.
Gunnar Seide , Univ.-Prof. Prof. h.c. (Moscow State Univ.)
Dr.-Ing. Dipl.-Wirt. Ing. Thomas Gries1 613
IN WEB2.0 ERA DEVELOPMENT TREND OF PERSONAL LUXURY GOODS IN CHINA
Lisha Hu 618
ART IN FASHION: ARTISTIC INTERVENTIONS BRING FORTH INNOVATION AND ENHANCE
COMPETITIVENESS
Konstantinos Agrafiotis1 , WenYing Claire Shih2 624
LOCAL FASHION VALUE CHAINS: SUCCESS FACTORS AND COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGES
RUDRAJEET PAL1, JONAS LARSSON1, HEIKKI MATTILA1,2, MARKKU HONKALA2 631
DRAPING REALIZATION METHOD OF THE GARMENT STRUCTURE BASED ON FUZZY ORIENTATION
LI Qin1, XU Tingyu1, DENG Chunshan1, ZHANG Longlin12 639
THE DESIGNER IN THE ERA OF WEARABLE TECHNOLOGY
GALINA MIHALEVA1 644
COLOUR OF NATURE IN MODERN ECO-FASHION DESIGN.
Katarzyna Schmidt-Przewoźna, Anna Maria Brandys 649
BASIC PATTERN DESIGN FOR CARE DEPENDENT ELDERLY
Artemisia Caldas1, Miguel Carvalho2, Thayna Piauilino3, Maria Medeiros4, Monique Caldas5,
Humberto Lopes6 658
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF TAILORED CLOTHING DEDICATED TO THE 60+ PEOPLE
Elżbieta Mielicka, Lidia Napieralska 664
IDENTIFICATION OF PREPONDERANT FACTORS FOR WORK-WEAR DESIGN
Sara Bragança1, Miguel Carvalho1, Pedro Arezes1, Susan Ashdown2; Liliana Fontes1 674
AN EVALUATION OF SEWN SEAMING TECHNIQUES TO FACILITATE THE USE OF BIOCULTURES IN
APPAREL
Jane Emma Wood1 683
TRANSPARENT FASHION SUPPLY CHAIN
Hannah Badminton, Priscilla Y. L. Chan 689
RESHORING OF CLOTHING MANUFACTURING IN EUROPE’S PERIPHERIES: SOCIO-CULTURAL
13
Textile processes

COOPERATION AND COMPETITIVENESS IN RELATIONAL PRODUCTION NETWORKS

Konstantinos Agrafiotis1 , WenYing Claire Shih2 696
COMPARATIVE STUDY ON VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUND NEUTRALIZATION AND UV
PROTECTION PROPERTY OF COTTON FABRICS PIGMENT PRINTED WITH DIFFERENT RATIOS OF
TITANIA NANO PARTICLES:-
Rabbia Hassan (rabbia@gift.edu.pk) 704
COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF GREEN AND COMMERCIAL ANTIMICROBIAL SILVER
NANOPARTICLES SOLUTIONS FOR TEXTILE APPLICATIONS
Laura González Echavarría1, Ana Elisa Casas Botero1,
Marta Elena Londoño Lopez3, Santiago Benavides López3, Adriana RestrepoOsorio1 725
PRELIMINARY STUDY EVALUATING THE ERGONOMIC PROPERTIES OF TEXTILE MATERIALS IN
PROTECTIVE GLOVES USING SURFACE ELECTROMYOGRAPHY (EMG)
Emilia Irzmańska1, Tomasz Tokarski2, Paulina Wójcik1 738
TEXTILE CHALLENGE: CATERING TO THE HUMAN BODY IN FLIGHT
Professor Olga Mitterfellner 746
WEAVABILITY AND WEAVING TENSION OF ARAMID TECHNICAL FABRICS FOR PROTECTIVE
GARMENT
Hyun Ah Kim1, Seung Jin Kim2* 749
MODERN TECHNOLOGIES TO BE APPLIED INTO MULTIFUNCTIONAL, CONCEALED BALLISTIC VEST
DESIGN
Elżbieta Maklewska, Grażyna Grabowska, Joanna Błaszczyk, Agata Pawłowska 758
3D APPROACH TO THE CLOTHING FOR HEALING APPLICATIONS
Agnieszka Cichocka 1, Iwona Frydrych 1
, Małgorzata Zimniewska 2
, Małgorzata Muzyczek2, Przemysław Mikołajczak2,
Katarzyna Schmidt-Przewoźna 2
, Barbara Romanowska 2
, Mariola Pawlaczyk 3
, Izabella Krucińska4
, Agnieszka
Komisarczyk4, Stanisława Kowalska4,
Lucyna Herczyńska4, Monika Urbaniak5 763
APPLICATION OF HPLC FOR QUANTIFICATION OF - TOCOPHEROL IN COSMETO-COTTON FABRICS
Sandra Bischof1, Tanja Pušić1, Iva Matijević1 767
COLOUR EXTRACTION FROM GUINEA CORN (SORGHUM BI-COLOUR L) AS TEXTILE DYE USING TREE
EXTRACTS AS MORDANTS
Nkem Udeani1 , Dauda Adamu Milila2 776
MELT SPUN FIBRES BASED ON COMPOSTABLE BIOPOLYMERS FOR APPLICATION IN AUTOMOTIVE
INTERIORS
Romy Naumann1, Bernd Gulich1, Javier Pascual2 783
RESEARCH ON INTERNATIONALIZATION OF CHINA’S TEXTILE INDUSTRY BASED ON THE BELT AND
ROAD INITIATIVE: RISK CONTROL AND COOPERATIVE DEVELOPMENT
Tao He1, Ningchuan Jiang1 , Xin Wang1 790
PROTECTION OF PERSONAL AND BIOMETRIC DATA OF INDIVIDUALS FROM THE MEASUREMENTS
WITH A 3D SCANNER
Grażyna Grabowska, Elżbieta Maklewska, Joanna Błaszczyk, Agata Pawłowska 799

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Innovations for natural fibres
FLAMMABILITY PROPERTIES AND FIRE RETARDANCY OF NATURAL FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES
FLAMMABILITY PROPERTIES AND FIRE

RETARDANCY OF NATURAL FIBER REINFORCED
COMPOSITES
M.Wladyka-Przybylak, D. Wesolek, S. Rojewski, R. Gasiorowski, W.
Gieparda, K. Bujnowicz, R. Wojcik
Institute of Natural Fibers and Medicinal Plants
Email: maria.przybylak@iwnirz.pl
This review will present fire performance data for several types of composites
reinforced by lignocellulosic fibres, will discuss factors determining flammability of these
composites and will describe methods of obtaining fire retardancy. Lignocellulosic
composites are much safer during fire than man-made polymers because of absence
of dripping and lower production of toxic gases and smoke. Heat release rate (HRR)
for pure polymers, in comparison with the matrix reinforced by flax or hemp fibres and
shives shows that thermal decomposition and combustion of the mentioned samples
proceeds in a different way. There is a variety of polymers available for use in natural
fiber reinforced composites e.g. thermoset, thermoplastic, and bio-polymers. The
flammability properties of these polymers are different but all of them are flammable
to a varying degree. The flammability of a composite depends not only on the matrix
polymer and the type of fiber but also on interactions between the two.
Keywords: Natural Fiber Reinforced Composite, fire retardant, fire resistance
Acknowledgement
The study has been carried out within the Project – The study of the phenomenon
of synergism in reducing the flammability of the composites between modified natural
fibres and halogen-free fire retardants, financed by National Science Centre Poland,
2013-2016.

15
EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF RAW SILK FABRIC COMPARING THE DEGUMMING METHODS WITH MARSEILLE SOAP AND CORONA TREATMENT
EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

OF RAW SILK FABRIC COMPARING THE
DEGUMMING METHODS WITH MARSEILLE SOAP
AND CORONA TREATMENT
Daives Arakem Bergamasco1, João Sinézio de Carvalho Campos2
1 State University of Campinas – Unicamp – Campinas, Brazil
2
State University of Campinas – Unicamp – Campinas, Brazil
(Presenting author E-mail: daives@ig.com.br; Corresponding author email: sinezio@feq.unicamp.br)
ABSTRACT
The textile industry has been constantly investing in the processing and in the
improvement of its products. Among the range of materials stands out silk, but there
is a need to adjust it (improvement) in order to obtain their maximum efficiency. This
paper presents results of degumming processes and corona treatment on silk fabrics
by analyzing important physical properties such as hydrophility, tensile strength and
weight loss. Underwent silk tissue samples to traditional degumming process Marseille
soap and also for the corona treating process. Subsequently took place hydrophility
tests (contact angle measurements), tensile strength and weight loss. The results show
that: (i) degumming and corona treatment promote excellent hydrophility, however,
the time to complete hydrophility is 45 s when treated by corona and 60 minutes
when a degumming; (ii) the tensile strength is higher with the corona process, and
(iii) the mass loss is degumming with an average of 26% and the corona process is
0.3%. Note that with the corona process there is no generation of effluent compared
to degumming, which means another advantage to the industry. According to the
results, there are large advantages in using the corona process with regard to the
processing of silk fabric.
Keywords: silk fabric, hydrophility, corona treatment, textiles materials.
INTRODUCTION
This paper aims to study the effects of corona treatment on the surface of raw silk fabrics
in order to improve the hydrophilic property. To improve the hydrophilicity, the corona
discharge technique is used, then the properties of the tissue are characterized before
and after treatment, for comparison with the conventional degumming processing
(treatment with Marseille soap).
The degumming process is a widely used in the textile industry and aims to remove
sericin, in the case of silk fabrics and yarns in the raw state called, making them
soft, bright and whiter. In addition to these properties also improves the hydrophilicity,
which is a very important factor for the improvement process, especially dyeing.
The corona discharge is generated by applying a high voltage between two metallic
electrodes, for example a cylindrical wire and a flat surface (plate) immersed in a
gaseous atmosphere (air, O2, N2, etc.) under certain pressure and relative humidity.
To occur in the discharge gas is the generation of ions, excited molecules and corona
wind, and these can be delivered to the surface of a material, causing changes in
16
their property (adhesion, wettability).

MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
Tests were performed on samples of 100% raw silk fabric: screen ligament, weight 99
g/m². All tests were done in five replications
The samples were divided into three groups:
- Raw silk fabric samples;
- Silk fabrics samples degummed with Marseille soap;
Samples were degummed in the bath type equipment. The degumming process
comprises treating samples for 1 hour at 90-95 ° C in a pH of from 9.3 to 10 in the
following bath:
• 10 g/l of Marseille soap;
• 1 g/l of sodium carbonate
• 1 g/l of sodium tripolyphosphate.
After degumming samples are washed in running water and are subsequently dried.
- Silk fabric samples treated with corona discharge.
Samples were subjected to corona treatment as a function of time parameters (5s
at 120s) and fixed corona current of 130 microamps for the following environmental
conditions: Temperature of 27 ° C (+/- 3) and Relative humidity of 45% (+/- 3%)
The three types of samples were submitted to the contact angle tests, tensile strength
and mass loss.
RESULTS
Contact angle results:
Figure 1 shows the results of measuring the contact angle of raw silk tissue samples
without degumming and degummed silk samples from Marseille soap, without any
corona treatment.
Figure 1
Analyzing the results presented in Figure 1 demonstrates that samples of untreated
raw silk exhibit contact angle around 102º, thereby indicating that the untreated
fabric is quite hydrophobic (non-water absorbing). It is also noticed that the samples
treated by degumming with Marseille soap, have contact angle of 0º, indicating total

17
absorption of water making it completely hydrophilic.

Figure 2 shows the contact angle values as a function of time for corona treating raw
silk samples at distances of 7 to 10 mm between the corona wire and the surface of the
fabric, while maintaining the corona current of 130 microamps. It is worth mentioning
that tests for distances less than 7 mm above and 10 mm were made, however, it was
noted that for distances below 7 mm sparks occur (and intense discharge point) and
for distances greater than 10 mm there is a great instability current corona.
Figure 2
Figure 2 shows the contact angle values as a function of time by corona treatment
of raw silk tissue samples, it is observed that the corona treatment is very efficient
in promoting hydrophilicity and the contact angle decreases as the time corona
treatment increases, reaching full wettability (angle 0), in the time of 45s for distances
of 7 and 10 mm. This result indicates the potential application of corona treatment
raw silk fabric for subsequent dyeing.
Tensile strength results:
Figure 3 shows the tensile strength results for raw samples, degummed with Marseille
soap and subjected to corona treatment (1 minute treatment, distance 7mm and
current corona 130 microamps).
Figure 3
Figure 3 shows results on the tensile strength. It is noted that both the degumming

18
process as corona treatment promotes a decrease in the tensile strength value,

and that this decrease is greater in the case of degumming, thereby indicating an
advantage for the corona treating process.
Mass loss results:
Table 1 shows the mass of the results of 26 samples measured after the degumming
process with Marseille soap and after corona treatment (1 min., Distance 7mm and
current of 130 microamps), compared with the bulk value of the tissue sample silk
before any process (raw tissue).
Table 1
Samples Masses (g) – Mass Loss (%)
Degummed with Degummed with
Raw Silk
Marseille soap Corona Treatment
0,0082 0,0062 24,4% 0,0082 0,0%
0,0095 0,0071 25,3% 0,0094 1,1%
0,0081 0,0058 28,4% 0,0081 0,0%
0,0091 0,0067 26,4% 0,0091 0,0%
0,0084 0,0063 25,0% 0,0084 0,0%
0,0078 0,0059 24,4% 0,0078 0,0%
0,0085 0,0063 25,9% 0,0084 1,2%
0,0095 0,0072 24,2% 0,0095 0,0%
0,0084 0,0063 25,0% 0,0083 1,2%
0,0081 0,0059 27,2% 0,0081 0,0%
0,0087 0,0065 25,3% 0,0087 0,0%
0,0082 0,0058 29,3% 0,0082 0,0%
0,0093 0,007 24,7% 0,0093 0,0%
In examining table 1 it is concluded that the samples degummed with Marseille soaps
have an average weight loss of up to 29.3%, while the corona discharge treated
samples show losses of up to 1.2%. This results show the advantage to treat the silk
fabric with corona treatment, because the mass loss is very low, particularly when
taking into account an industrial process.
CONCLUSIONS
According to tests performed in this study, for the purpose of degumming with Marseille
soap and corona treatment on the analyzed properties of raw silk fabric, it can be
concluded that:
Both the degumming as the corona treatment promote efficient hydrophilicity on silk
fabric;
The corona treatment time for complete hydrophilicity is 45s for distances between
10mm 7 or corona / woven wire, which is very fast compared with the traditional
degumming process Marseille soap (3600s);
Silk fabrics treated with corona discharge are more resistant than degummed with
Marseilles soap.

19
Low mass loss when treated by corona. The traditional degumming lose on average
29% and 1.2% with corona treatment;
The corona process produces no waste compared with the degumming process with
Marseille soap and also does not use chemicals.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Fatec Americana College
REFERENCES
ALTMAN G. H.; DIAZ F.; JAKUBA C.; CALABRO T.; HORAN R. L.; CHEN J.; LU H.; RICHMOND
J.; KAPLAN D. L.; Silk-based biomaterials. Biomaterials, v. 24, p. 401 - 416, 2003.
BRIGGS, D,; KENDALL, C. R.; BL YTHE, AR.; WOOTON, A.B. EletctricalDischarge Treatment
of Polypropylene Film. Polymer, v.24, p.47, 1983.

20
OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF

NATURAL FIBRES, PRODUCTION AND
APPLICATION
Kozlowski R., Muzyczek M., Zimniewska M., Mackiewicz-Talarczyk M.,
Barriga-Bedoya J.
Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants (INF&MP) Ul. Wojska Polskiego 71 b, 60-630 Poznan,
Poland ryszard.kozlowski@escorena.net
ABSTRACT
Natural fibres are very important raw materials with continuously enlarging area of
their usage. The significant role of natural fibres was emphasized by United Nations
and Food and Agricultural Organization of the UN, who declared the year 2009 as the
International Year of Natural Fibres and initiated Discover Natural Fibres Initiative. The
paper will present the role of the Institute of Natural Fibres since 1930 in developing
natural fibres production and processing in Poland and in Europe. The paper will
review the opportunities and challenges of natural fibres, providing the statistic
regarding production of natural fibres, global fibres consumption, world fibre use and
supply, main regions of natural fibres production in the world, classification of natural
fibres. The survey will include new trends in natural fibres production, processing and
finishing, functionalization (plasma, corona, ammonia treatment, PHA phenomenon,
applying dendrimers in natural fibres, MOF - metal organic framework etc.), potential
applications e.g. biocomposites on base of natural fibres, smart natural fibres etc.,
physiology of users and interaction with fibres and derived products, and future trends.
Keywords: natural fibres, lignocellulosic, protein, functionalization, future trends
INTRODUCTION
Currently, natural fibre production constitutes about 30% of total world fibre production,
90% of which falls for cotton and the remaining 10% includes wool, jute, hemp, flax,
silk, ramie, sisal, coir and other fibres.
The global fibre market in 2014 with a volume of about 89.4 million tons is dominated
by oil-based synthetic fibres (62.8%). Cellulosic fibres, which include cotton with
approximately 29% of the volume and man-made cellulose fibres, are a coveted,
high quality niche product (approximately 6.7%). The smallest share of the global
fibre market had wool with approximately 1.3%. (The Global Fibre Market 2014)
The demand for fibres grows steadily by about 3% a year, what is correlated with
population growth and increasing prosperity. By 2020, the global demand for fibres is
expected to exceed 100 million tons.
All market segments within textile industry are expected to grow, with the highest growth
rate (absolute value and %) for technical textiles. Technical textiles are suitable for
other industries and will substitute traditional materials as steel, cement and wood as
they are light weight, flexible, durable, cost effective, and multi-functional materials.
New technologies with fewer manufacturing steps will improve cost efficiency of
nonwovens compared to woven textiles (Maity et al. 2014).
21
RESULTS
CHARACTERISTIC OF NATURAL FIBRES
The natural fibres characterized by unique and important properties like such as air
permeability, hygroscopicity, capacity of giving up moisture, UV blocking properties,
absence of allergic effect (represented by higher level of histamine in human blood),
biodegradability and safer behaviour in flame and fire condition in comparison to
man-made fibres.
Various goods are produced from natural fibrous plants: woven, knitted, technical
and non-woven textiles, eco-friendly composites and also “agro fine chemicals”.
The some natural fibrous plants(including bast), especially their seeds, are rich sources
of valuable fatty acids, amino acids, phyto-estrogens (lignans), cyclopeptides, lecithin,
waxes, pectins, mucilage and others.
Natural fibres are created by Nature also in 3D shape for example Cuban palm, luffa
cylindrical and opuntia fibres reinforcing plant, which grow like tree on Galápagos
Islands.
So far, the main area of application of natural fibres like: cotton, wool, silk, flax, ramie,
hemp, jute, kenaf, sisal, abaca, curaua, coir, cabuya, bamboo, pineapple and many
others is in the textile industry for healthful, comfortable clothing, which can be fully
recyclable and biodegradable.
Natural fibres can be classified in the following groups:
Plant Fibers
Bast (flax, hemp, jute, kenaf, ramie etc.),
Leaf (sisal, abaca, etc.),
Seed (cotton, kapok, etc.),
Fruit (coir, African palm, luffa, etc.),
Grass (bamboo, totora),
Wood (hardwood and softwood),
Animal Fibers
Animal (wool, silk, hair etc.)
Mineral Fibers
Asbestos, glass, basalt, etc. (Kozłowski, Mackiewicz-Talarczyk, Muzyczek, Barriga-
Bedoya 2012)
PLANT FIBRES
Cotton dominates among natural fibres. Cotton is mainly composed of cellulose –
90%. Less than 10% the weight of the raw cotton is represented by waxes, proteins,
pectin and minerals.
Cotton fibre is classified into three basic commercial groups:
a) top quality, with staple length between 30-65mm (Egyptian type)

22
b) medium length, with staple length 20-30mm (American upland variety)

c) lower grade, staple length less than 20mm (Asiatic and Indian cultivars).
Special characteristics of cotton fibres include: increase in the strength by 20% when
wet, limited conductor of the heat, water absorption (standard moisture regain 8.5%),
shrink on washing, especially in strongly alkaline washing, but resistance to alkalis,
weakened by hot concentrated bleaches, scorch above 240o C, easily flammable,
susceptible to damage by mildew in damp conditions, not susceptible to moth attack,
yellowing and weakening when exposed to sunlight, damaged by acids, easily dyed,
and poor resistance to wear. (Textiles 1992)
Trends for more eco friendly fibres turn producers and consumers’ attention to naturally
dyed cotton, which is finer, but also shorter and weaker. Generally, natural colours of
cotton are green and brown. In case of colourful varieties of cotton; the colours result
from flavonoid content. (Textile Magazine 1994)
BAST FIBRES are termed as “soft fibers” with the following plants within the group: flax,
hemp, jute, ramie, kenaf, urena and nettle. Bast fibres are extracted from the stalks
of dicotyledonous plants. The bast bundles of fibres are fixed to the central woody
by gum (mainly pectins) and the bundles determine the strength to the stalk of the
fibrous plants. (Wasif and Singh Vivek 2005), (Montgomery 1954), (Blackburn 2005),
(Kozlowski 2012).
Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) is the oldest textile fibre, the earliest trace of its use dates
from 8000 BC. Linen fabrics wrapped bodies of pharaohs in Egyptian tombs. The
Phoenician merchants spread the flax across Europe.
The modern phase in processing and utilization of flax in Europe began in 17th century
especially in Ireland, England, Holland, Belgium, France, Poland and Russia. Later,
in 19th and 20th centuries the production expanded to South America, Argentina,
Brazil, Chile, Peru, even to Japan. However, at the end of 18th century, lower costs of
processing cotton contributed to the fall of flax industry and rapid expansion of the
cotton.
For good quality of fibre pulling has to be done at the stage of green or yellow
maturity. Retting (degumming of flax) is the process of loosening the bonds between
fibre bundles and surrounding them pectins. This process can be done in water tanks
or rivers (now it is not used) and on the fields (dew retting).
Practically, two methods are used: water retting and dew retting. Water retting
consumes per 1 ton of straw 20-30m3 warm water (temp. 30-330C). Water retted
straw in an anaerobic process is characterized with fibres that have the odour of
unsaturated fatty acid mainly n-butyric acid. In case of dew retting on the fields, there
is risk connected with agro climatic conditions (not sufficient humidity or too much
rain and problems with drying, frequent over-retting of fibres).
The osmotic degumming method is very promising. The fibres obtained as the result
of osmotic degumming are more delicate, whiter, and finer and they can be used for
producing better textile products (yarn, fabric or nonwoven).
For decreasing the cost of this process it is considered to apply the above mentioned
methods for bast fibres decorticated by a mechanical process. Also, bast fibres

23
have to be harvested and processed in a special way to make them finer, more
homogeneous and with additional functionality. (Kozlowski 2012).
Hemp (Cannabis Sativa), an annual plant, grows in moderate climatic conditions
in Europe, Asia, North and South America. Hemp is one of the bast fibres known to
ancient Asians long before Christ. (Kozlowski, Rawluk, Barriga-Bedoya 2005), (Kozłowski,
Baraniecki, Barriga Bedoya 2005).
There are two types of hemp: industrial hemp with low level of gamma tetra
hydrocanabinol (THC) – below 0.2 % and marihuana hemp planted mainly for drugs
– marihuana. Also, we distinguish between monoecious and dioecious cultivars.
Hemp fibres have high tenacity, hygroscopicity and quick moisture transport, high
strength and low homogeneity, depending on agrotechnological conditions e.g.
sowing density, time of harvesting and the cultivar type.
Hemp fibres are used for clothing, technical products such as ropes, composites
and as upholstery material, carpet underlay, nonwovens, household textiles such as
towels, bed linen and tablecloths. Because yarn in hemp fabrics swells and enlarges
its diameter in wet conditions hemp is used for making canvas.
Hemp seeds also find applications in food (hempseed oil) and cosmetic industries.
Woody part of stems (about 75% of total mass) i.e. shives are used as fuel and filler
for composites for example particle boards and building boards glued by lime and
portland cement. (Mahapatra 2007), (Kozlowski and Wladyka-Przybylak 2004)
New trends are visible for functionalisation and obtaining micro and nano hemp fibres
for application in environemental composites also to be used in extreme conditions.
THE ROLE OF THE INSTITUTE OF NATURAL FIBRES AND MEDICINAL PLANTS SINCE 1930 IN
DEVELOPING NATURAL FIBRES PRODUCTION, PROCESSING (FLAX, HEMP) IN POLAND.
The short history of the Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants:
March 15, 1930, Prof Dr. Janusz A. Jagmin created Linen Central Experimental Station
(LCSD) in Vilnius; the first organizational structure of the future Institute of Natural Fibres,
moved to Poznan in 1945.The next continuous structures of the nowadays Institute:
1945 Flax and Hemp Central Experimental Station, Poznan
1951 Institute of Bast Fibre Industry
1972 National Institute of Natural Fibres
1992 Institute of Natural Fibres
2009- Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants
The Institute is an interdisciplinary research centre with international standing, involved
in complex research on obtaining and processing of fibrous and herbal raw materials.
The Institute is involved in a number of national and international research projects;
cooperates multi directionally with numerous research centres worldwide; works for
agriculture, environment protection, construction, transport, food and pharmaceutical
industries and medicine.
The research conducted at the Institute covers also utilization of polluted land by

24
cultivation of non-food crops, use of co-products from processing of textile raw

materials and modern composite materials based on textile raw materials.
Nanotechnology is also of interest for the Institute’s research staff.
Bank of Natural Fibres: at the Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants operates
Bank of Natural Fibres with the collection of fibres gained from different parts of the
world.
The Bank of Natural Fibres contains fibres obtained by different methods of
extraction and degumming, e.g.: decortication, water retting, osmotic and enzymatic
degumming, biodeterioration, influence of ultrasound and electromagnetic fields,
and the diversified modification processes.
The Bank of Natural Fibres collects information on physical and mechanical properties
of fibres such as fibre diameter, linear density, fiber length, pollution. All fibres from
the collection Bank of Natural Fibres have got full characteristics in the form of cross-
sections and longitudinal views taken using a scanning electron microscope Hitachi
S-3400N.
(Information on http://www.infmp.pl)
PHYSIOLOGY OF USERS AND INTERACTION WITH FIBRES AND DERIVED PRODUCTS
Another field of research conducted at the INF&MP is determining the physiological
effect of fibres, fabrics and other textile products on human organism.
Flax fibers are known as favorable in contact with human body, show specific synergy
with the skin, and linen garment ensures proper comfort for wearer in conditions of low
and moderate level of physical effort. Linen garment is known as a breathable and
providing optimal comfort for users. It allows for exchange of the air captured in skin-
clothing area through the fabric with outer environment, allows for rapid escape of
moisture (sweat) from the skin hindering bacteria growth. This is related to the highest
water retention of flax in comparison to other fibers and particular flax ability for water
sorption.
Fig. 1. Examples of global EMG records

taken at resting state from a forearm of
volunteer wearing: (a)-100% linen clothing,
(b)-100% double layer linen clothing, (c)-
50% linen 50% PES clothing, (d)-100% PES.
The results of study on clothing influence on parameters of human muscle activity

(Zimniewska and Krucińska 2010)
conducted in INFMP proved, that linen garment (in opposite to PES) has positive effect
in ensuring well-being, without causing desynchronization of muscle motor units and
thus without increasing of tendency to tiredness of users, see Figure 1.
25
Fig. 2. The TAS level in people wearing linen

and PES
Linen clothing characterizing by hydrophilic properties do not cause the increase

of reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress of human organism in opposite to
garments made of synthetic fibers (Zimniewska, Witmanowski, Kozlowski 2006)
Linen garment does not cause the increase of reactive oxygen species and oxidative
stress.
Sleeping in linen bedding ensure deeper sleep, quicker human body regeneration
and better rest – human immune system grows stronger (Zimniewska and Kozlowski
2004). The lowest body temperature and increase of Immunoglobulin A during the
sleep in linen bedding proved, that such raw material is the most positively influencing
human rest and sleep quality (Figure 3).
SOME MORE NEW AND INNOVATIVE APPLICATIONS AND PRODUCTS FOR NATURAL
FIBRES
The current trend in textiles is to move away from traditional uses and seek for increased
complexity and ‘intelligence’ in terms of applications. Intensive research is in progress,
following a multi-directed scheme where key sectors can be distinguished:: textiles
structures, functionality and composites.
Examples of new Composites is currently exploring by Boeing for interior aircraft
panels, Canadian snowboard and skis manufacturer Magine has developed the
biocomposites snowboard using Composites Evolution’s Biotex flax fabric, Norafin
reports that it has successfully qualified its 100% flax, lightweight spunlaced
nonwovens as the complementary reinforcement material for surfboard.
(Information on http://www.ecocomposites.net)
Bast fibrous plants, especially seeds, are perfect raw materials for agriculturally based
industries such as the production and processing of food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals
(lignans and cyclopeptides, waxes and others), the richest plant sources of
polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega 3 and omega 6 ‘family’), which are effective for
the prevention of cardiovascular and heart diseases (CHD).(Kozlowski, Kozlowska et
al. 2004)
The emerging new potential of genetically modified lignocellulosic fibrous plants
(GM) opens up possibilities of achieving their better performance including the yield
of major products as cellulosic fibre and carbohydrates. There is also possibility of
26
obtaining in statu nascendi polyhydroxyalcanate (PHA) e.g.: polyhydroxy butyrate

PHB– as naturally produced polyester. GM fibrous plant can be resistant to herbicides
and also to environmental stress such as salinity and drought. There are attempts to
apply GM techniques to increase the biomass of fibrous plants and control the lignin
and pectin levels.
FUTURE FIBRES IN 21ST AND 22ND CENTURY
Future fibres in 21st and 22nd century are: nanocellulosic fibres, carbon hollow
nanotubes, and “Buckypapers” for novel aeronautical multifunctional composite
structures as well as hollow fibres on base of polylactic acid, fibroin, flexible basalt
fibres etc. (Zimniewska, Wladyka-Przybylak, Mankowski 2011), (Kozlowski, Mackiewicz-
Talarczyk, Barriga-Bedoya 2010)
Fig.3. Temperature and Immunoglobulin

content for cotton and polyester bedding
Efforts are undertaken also to obtain the spider biosilk.

As with most biomaterials, spider silk has evolved over millions of years resulting in a
combination of properties that far exceeds any man-made material.
Commercially produced biosilk as AMSilk has developed a proprietary process for
producing biopolymers on an industrial scale. (Information on http://www.amsilk.
com)
The progress in area of breeding and agricultural technology of fibrous plants open
also future prospects for cost-effectiveness of their production and application
lignocellulosic fibrous plants in pulp and paper industry (for saving forest areas), agro-
polymers, and fuel.
In case of bast fibrous plants, old and new retting techniques of extraction and
processing provide new promising features and properties of these fibres. New
techniques of processing and functionalization open a new area in modern transport,
building industry.
Great attention will be done on environmental pressures on existing chemical processes
and development of new functional finishes to further enhance performance.
Now there’s many new smart textiles e.g. functionalized cotton fibres with a conductive
polymer composed of poly (3,4 –ethylenedioxythiophene) and poly(styrene
sulfonate) that can analyze sweat and potentially help its wearer figure out whether
dehydratation is imminent. (Everts 2012)
27
CONCLUSIONS
New trends in finishing of natural fibres are connected with:
corona treatment - improvement of hygrophylicity
plasma treatment
nano Ag, nano–TiO2, stain removal, UV barrier properties, self-cleaning, bacteriostatic
properties
using natural dyestuffs
osmotic and ultrasound degumming
liquid ammonia treatment
fire retardancy
bio-deterioration protection
functionalisation by reaction with polyoxymetalate (e.g. molybdenium polyoxy
metalate)
functionalisation by dendrimers - improvement of dyeability, antibacterial effect,
special finishing fibers and fabrics in biomedical application
functionalisation by metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) application in e.g. military
fabrics
(Kozłowski, Mackiewicz-Talarczyk, Muzyczek, Barriga-Bedoya 2012)
REFERENCES
Blackburn, R.S. 2005. Biodegradable and sustainable fibres. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing in
Textiles.
Everts, S. 2012. T-Shirt To Athlete: You’re Dehydrated, C&EN Chemical & Engineering News, October
15, 90, 42: 32.
Kozlowski, R., ed. 2012. Volume 1 Types, properties and factors affecting breeding and cultivation;
Volume 2 Processing and application, In Handbook of natural fibres. Cambridge: Woodhead Textiles.
Kozlowski, R., Kozlowska, J., Rawluk, M., Barriga, J. 2004. Potential of Lignocellulosic Fibrous Raw
Materials, their Properties and Diversified Applications, Nonlinear Optics, Quantum Optics, 31, 1/4:61-
90.
Kozlowski, R., Mackiewicz-Talarczyk, M., Barriga-Bedoya, J. 2010. Natural Fibers Production, Processing,
and Application: Chapter 3 In: Inventory and Future Prospects, in: Contemporary Science of Polymeric
Materials, 1061:41-51. USA: ACS Symposium Series,
Kozlowski, R., Rawluk, M, Barriga-Bedoya, J. 2005. Ramie. In: Bast and other plant fibres, ed. RR Frank,
207-227. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing.
Kozlowski, R., Wladyka-Przybylak, M. 2004. Uses of natural fiber reinforced plastics. In Natural fibres,
plastics and composites, ed. FT Wallenberger, 249-274. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Kozłowski, R, Baraniecki, P, Barriga Bedoya, J. 2005. Bast fibres (flax, hemp, jute, ramie, abaca), In: Bast
and other plant fibres, ed. RR Frank, 36-87. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing.
Kozłowski, R.M., Mackiewicz-Talarczyk, M., Muzyczek, M., Barriga-Bedoya, J. 2012. Future of Natural
Fibers, their Coexistence and Competition with Man-made Fibers in 21st Century, Molecular Crystals
and Liquid Crystals, 556: 200-222.
Mahapatra. 2007. Processing of hemp fibre in textile industries. Colourage;8:96-102.
Maity, S., Prasad, Gon D., and Palash P. 2014. A Review of Flax Nonwovens: Manufacturing, Properties,
and Applications. Journal of Natural Fibers, 11(4): 365-390.
Montgomery, B. 1954. The bast fibers. In: Mauersberger HR, Textile fibers, their physical, microscopic
and chemical properties. ed. Matthews’s 6th,VII: 257-359. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

28
Textile Magazine, Spring. 1994.

Textiles 1992, 3.
The Global Fibre Market in 2014, available at: http://www.lenzing.com/en/investors/equity-story/
global-fibre-market.html
Wasif, AJ., Singh, Vivek L. 2005. Naturally coloured cotton growing awareness. Colourage Annual, 89.
Zimniewska, M. Wladyka-Przybylak, M., Mankowski, J. 2011. Cellulosic Bast Fibers, Their Structure and
Properties Suitable for Composites Applications, Chapter 4 In Cellulose Fibers: Bio - and Nano-Polymer
Composites. Green Chemistry and Technology, eds. S. Kalia, B.S. Kaith, I. Kaur, 97-119. Berlin: Springer
–Verlag.
Zimniewska, M., Kozlowski, R. 2004. Natural And Man - Made Fibers And Their Role In Creation Of
Physiological State Of Human Body. Molecular Crystals and Liquid Crystals,, 418: 841 – 858.
Zimniewska, M., Krucińska, I. 2010. The Effect of Raw Material Composition of Clothes on Selected
Physiological Parameters of Human Organism Journal of the Textile Institute, 101,2: 154 – 164.
Zimniewska, M., Witmanowski, H, Kozlowski, R. 2006. Clothing Effect on Selected Parameters of
Oxidative Stress, LENZINGER BERICHTE, 85: 17 – 21.

29
COTTON SUSTAINABILITY: THE INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL LABELLING ON CONSCIOUS CONSUMPTION
COTTON SUSTAINABILITY: THE INFLUENCE OF

ENVIRONMENTAL LABELLING ON CONSCIOUS
CONSUMPTION
Joy Bucklow1, Dr Patsy Perry2, Professor Gary Warnaby3
ackville Street Building, School of Materials, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL. UK
1,2,3S
(joy.bucklow@postgrad.manchester.ac.uk, patsy.perry@manchester.ac.uk, gary.

warnaby@manch ester.ac.uk)
ABSTRACT
As one of the world’s most popular and polluting fibres, sustainability issues of cotton
farming are a notable matter to consumers. However, from a consumer perspective,
the dynamics of sustainability in cotton farming are not always clear. The information
provided to consumers about the sustainability of textiles, and the multiplicity of eco-
labels can create confusion and mistrust by consumers when buying textile products.
Furthermore, the evolution of conscious consumption (i.e. an increased mindfulness
in purchasing decisions) means consumers now have many channels through
which they can seek out information and assurances of quality; thus the need for
transparency in the cotton supply chain is of great significance. This paper will critically
review the literature on the farming and processing of cotton, and the awareness,
knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of the conscious consumer to cotton products.
Increasing understanding of conscious consumption in the context of cotton products
will support consumer purchasing decisions based on the environmental level and
quality of information provided by retailers and manufacturers.
Keywords: cotton, eco-labels, sustainability, conscious consumption
INTRODUCTION
The current global textile market is worth $425bn (Riello 2013) and cotton accounts
for approximately 30% of volume share (Lenzing 2014). Despite its widespread
consumer appeal, cotton is also highly scrutinised from an environmental perspective
(Sherburne 2009). Over the last two decades, cotton has undergone a radical
change in morphology, following the introduction of genetically modified (GM) seed,
which has profoundly transformed cotton farming, with GM cotton now representing
70% of all cotton fibre produced (GMO compass 2014). Cotton is also grown
conventionally (28% of global cotton fibre production), with the remaining balance
split equally between biodynamic and organic production. Although organic cotton
has significantly increased in production in 2014, 56% of companies worldwide have
explicit growth targets for organic cotton (TE 2014), which cannot be met given the
current under-supply.
Consumers can make conscious choices on many aspects of the products they
purchase; for example, ecology, social issues, ethics, brand, value and health. However,
an environmentally conscious consumer is mainly concerned with ecological matters
(Tsarenko et al. 2013). Organic cotton is generally perceived to be the most sustainable
form of cotton, and eco-labels focus on ecological and environmental aspects of

30
the product, providing a means of differentiation (Youssef & Abderrazak 2009) in

the minds of consumers. Although consumers are often wary about the perceived
safety of GM products (Paarlberg 2002), GM cotton seed producers have promoted
it as sustainable production due to the reduction of chemicals used in the farming
methods associated with it (Morse & Mannion 2008). In addition to the farming of
cotton, the processing of cotton can also have a significant environmental impact,
and hence this factor is a criterion in many eco-label initiatives.
However, the concept of sustainability is not fully understood by many consumers
(Grunert et al. 2014) and is difficult to define objectively (Moore & Wentz 2009).
Definitions of sustainability focus on the needs of the present without jeopardising
future generations (Brundtland 1987), and the principle of harmony and balance
between humans and nature (Moore & Wentz 2009). The issue of sustainability has
been relevant since the start of the industrial revolution, when Britain and other
developed nations became involved in the large-scale consumption of the earth’s
resources in order to support human activity. Little importance was given to the
environmental consequences of increased production, and consumption has shown
no sign of slowing down, despite consumer concerns. As most systems in the modern
world are built on the premise of growth (Papanek 2011), divergent schools of thought
on consumption have evolved.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sustainable cotton farming methods
Cotton farming methods are diverse and have environmental impacts that are not
necessarily compatible with the principles of sustainability, including energy use,
materials use (seed, fertilizers etc.), water use, biodiversity, CO2 emissions, effluents and
water run-offs (Wakelyn & Chaudhry 2009). Accessibility and availability of inputs such
as energy, materials, water, land, labour and finance affect the sustainability of the
chosen cotton farming method (Williamson et al. 2005). Such inputs are dependent
on geographical location, availability of natural resources, local climate, access to
technology, farmer expertise, pest problems and soil conditions (Grose 2009).
Cotton today is a major cash crop (Wakelyn & Chaudhry 2009) and a valuable global
commodity. The main methods of growing cotton are conventional, organic, biological
(bio) and GM (Forster et al. 2013), with Integrated Pest Management (IPM) systems
potentially integral to any of these methods. Traditional conventional cotton farming
sprays chemicals at set intervals, whereas organic cotton and biological cotton both
work within the principles of nature. GM cotton uses genetically engineered seed to
minimise chemical usage and IPM systems monitor pest cycles to reduce chemical
usage. Within each of these methods, there can be good and bad practices and
many fluctuating dependent variables, such as climate and farmer expertise (Forster
et al. 2013). Furthermore, all of these methods can be sustainable and they continue
to evolve. For example, GM cotton could be appropriate in highly degraded areas,
and organic cotton is suitable where cotton pests are manageable (Grose 2009).
Green/Conscious Consumption
Since the 1960’s, there has been an increasing momentum of environmental concerns
which have altered consumption behaviour (Cherian & Jacob 2012). However, eco-

31
friendly textiles need to be attractive, fit for purpose and affordable (Sherburne
2009), with attributes such as brand, cut, purpose, durability and colour all affecting
willingness to pay for fashion items (Ha-Brookshire & Norum 2011; Jones & Williams
2012).
Demographically, Connolly & Prothero (2003) found green consumers appeared
willing to engage in numerous activities, but not at the expense of reducing their
consumption levels. Voluntary Simplifiers, in contrast, may be influenced by terms
such as organic, but may also decide to reduce their consumption (Etzioni 1998).
Ethical consumption research studies largely began in the 1990’s (Vitell 2003), and
went beyond green consumerism. Shaw & Shiu (2002) identified a complex decision
making process which extended beyond the green definition to encompass wider
ethical issues associated with purchase behaviour. The ethical consumer is concerned
with all the aspects that concern the green consumer, including environment, animal
welfare, social concerns and business ethics (Cowe & Williams 2000), but additionally
they are concerned with the human aspect of manufacture (Strong 1996), such as
low wages and poor working conditions. Extensive research has been carried out on
the ethical consumer to see if there are cultural, political, religious or demographical
differences in attitudes (Auger et al. 2007; Vitell 2003), in addition to testing a number
of specific factors, such as GM material usage and product biodegradability (Auger
et al. 2007). The conscious consumer’s concerns are perhaps wider still than the
ethical consumer’s, and they may be interested in issues such as food miles, buying
locally, ethical fashion and the impact on climate change (Naidoo 2008). Conscious
consumers often exhibit a range of behaviours when seeking ethical alternative
products, as other social and economic forces impact on their behaviour (e.g. family,
convenience, price), such that a nature of compromises may be reached in decision
making processes (Szmigin et al. 2009).
Eco-labels
Eco-labels can be mandatory or voluntary, national or international, self-declared
or independently verified by a third party. However, many labelling guidelines
(such as the Federal Trade Commission and ISO) do not permit the use of the term
‘sustainable’, unless it can be referenced to a set of verifiable and independently set
criteria (Wakelyn & Chaudhry 2009; Moore & Wentz 2009). Existing research on eco-
labels and consumer behaviour suggests that eco-labels play an important role in
influencing green consumers’ purchase intentions (Grankvist & Biel 2007; Brennan &
Croft 2013) and behaviour. Several eco-label constructs are considered in this literature
review, including consumer awareness, consumer knowledge, persuasiveness
and private benefits. Consumer awareness is a prerequisite for decision making
(Taufique et al. 2014) and awareness of technical product advantages (price,
quality and environmental neutrality) has gradually increased (Koszewska 2011).
Consumer knowledge (familiarity and expertise) regarding the characteristics of a
stimulus object (e.g. its sustainability) influences how messages about a product are
processed and used (Taufique et al. 2014). Grunert et al. (2014) found understanding
of the general concept of sustainability was limited, but understanding of the specific
messages of individual labels (in this case Fair Trade, Rainforest Alliance, Carbon
Footprint, and Animal Welfare) was reported. Labels which are difficult to understand
may negatively influence consumer attitudes towards the product, as attitude is
32
generally accepted to be affected by knowledge (Spruyt et al. 2007). Persuasiveness

greatly influences consumers’ assessment and purchase decision (Taufique et al.
2014). Value Based Labels (VBLs) can communicate a product’s value (McEachern
2008), reduce information asymmetry, provide transparency between producers and
consumers, and exhibit additional credence characteristics such as country of origin,
fibre content, quality and organic content (Ha-Brookshire & Norum 2011). Private
benefits, such as the perceived health benefits of organic food, and softer fabric from
organic cotton, improve consumers’ perception of eco-labels (Taufique et al. 2014),
as consumers appear to care more about their own health than society as a whole
and associate a direct personal benefit with a perceived health benefit, such as
‘pesticide-free’ or ‘free from genetically modified ingredients’ (Brennan & Croft 2013).
Therefore many consumers may only be willing to pay a premium if the product label
implies additional private benefits (Delmas & Grant 2014). McEachern & Warnaby
(2008) found 50% of respondents deemed quality to be the most important purchase
factor, in comparison to welfare-friendly and organic criteria, which were far less
significant. This suggests that consumers are unwilling to sacrifice personal utility for a
wider social gain (Bleda & Valente 2009).
Gaps in previous research
Many studies have been conducted into organic cotton and particularly willingness
to pay (WTP) (Hustvedt & Bernard 2008; Ha-Brookshire & Norum 2011), in which
consumers have also been found to financially discount GM products (Huffman
2003). The price of organic cotton apparel was the most important attribute relative to
fibre origin and then fibre production (Hustvedt & Bernard 2008), with wool products
being distinguished by US consumers based on origin (Peterson et al. 2012). Many
price premiums and WTP studies have also been conducted for eco-labelled food
products, for example Magnusson et al. (2006).
Ethical attributes (symbolic or utilitarian) have been shown to have functional as well
as symbolic benefits (Bodur et al. 2014). How an eco-label is viewed by the consumer
depends on the product category (Brécard et al. 2009), with studies suggesting that
while conscious consumers wish to purchase ethical apparel, it is not a priority if other
factors, such as colour, cut, price or quality are compromised (Jones & Williams 2012;
Joergens 2006). Previous studies on eco-labelled products suggest they are associated
with lesser quality than their counterparts (Peattie & Crane 2005).
Consumer awareness is an essential qualification for decision making (Taufique et
al. 2014), particularly for complex products (Houe & Grabot 2009). Studies indicate
awareness of health and environmental concerns are the reasons for choosing
organic, or eco-labelled food and drink (Chinnici et al. 2006). However, there are
divergent views as to whether awareness directly affects purchase intention.
Consumers are more likely to purchase green products if there is qualification
of additional private benefits. Delmas & Grant (2010) and Brennan & Croft (2013)
found that consumers associate a direct personal benefit to a perceived health
benefit. However, much research to date has related private benefits to food and
drink. Grankvist & Biel (2007) identified factors for the purchase criteria of orange
juice, which were, in order of preference: tasting good, healthy, long shelf-life and
organically produced. Miles & Frewer (2001) reported organic foods were viewed as

33
safer than conventional products, with health and environmental concerns being the
reasons identified for choosing organic foods over conventional options (Wandel &
Bugge 1997).
Studies specifically looking at eco-labels suggest apparel consumers do not distinguish
eco-labels from mandatory care and fibre content labels, and eco-labels therefore
go unnoticed (Dickson 2001). As such, there is a need to focus on a product that has
a degree of complexity and moves from general to specific label attributes. As Costa
et al. (2009) argued, eco-label specificity is difficult to evaluate where there are multi-
product attributes and credence characteristics that are not always confirmable
following purchase, and moreover, green characteristics become entangled in
quality or sustainability features. Therefore, determining preferences and premiums of
features is the first step in discerning the usefulness of an eco-label (Costa et al. 2009).
According to Bodur et al. (2014), products with a high degree of physical contact
throughout consumption are positively affected by the benefit congruity of the ethical
attributes and this is consistent with positive contagion theory.
Many studies on attitude, intentions and behaviour have been conducted on organic
and GM food (Guido et al. 2009a; Guido et al. 2009b), Environmentally Friendly
Apparel (EFA) (Dickson 2001) and attitude towards organic cotton (Ha-Brookshire &
Norum 2011). A Korean study revealed that it is specific factors (attitudes, perceived
benefits, performance risk, individual expression, financial risk, and subjective norm)
which influence attitude toward purchasing organic cotton apparel (Han & Chung
2014). However, much of the previous research comparing attitudes of organic or GM
have focused on food products, not textiles (Guido et al. 2009a; Guido et al. 2009b).
Planned research agenda
This aim of this work-in-progress is to widen the focus of conscious consumption to
sustainable cotton, considering issues that may compromise consumer choice, such
as social norms, availability and price (Mainieri et al.1997). By moving away from the
general to the specific and focusing on one cotton textile product (bed linen), the
research aims to simplify the sustainability choice with the context of eco-labels as a
point of differentiation (Brennan & Croft 2013). The private benefits of eco-labels will
be measured, as Delmas & Grant (2010) and Costa et al. (2009) identified a lack of
studies that combined eco-labels with other mechanisms and their resulting impact
on well-being. The following objectives will guide the ongoing research:
To assess current sustainability issues in the textile industry of various fibres, relative to
cotton;
Critically review the variations in current cotton farming production methods and the
subsequent processing of cotton;
Review the literature on eco-labels and conscious consumption of textile products;
Analyse how consumer perceptions of cotton textile products are governed by
attitudes to, and awareness of, conscious or sustainable consumption;
Establish a typology of purchase factors which influence the purchase of cotton textile
products, in order to inform strategic action for players in the industry.
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37
CHARACTERIZATION OF COCONUT AND FIQUE FIBERS AND NONWOVENS FOR POTENTIAL ACOUSTIC APPLICATIONS
CHARACTERIZATION OF COCONUT AND FIQUE

FIBERS AND NONWOVENS FOR POTENTIAL
ACOUSTIC APPLICATIONS
Marllory Isaza Ruiz1, Adriana RestrepoOsorio1*, Catalina ÁlvarezLópez1,
Diana María GarzaAgudelo2, Héctor GarcíaMayén2, Luis Alberto Tafur
Jiménez2, Patricia FernándezMorales1*.
1
Escuela de Ingenierías, Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, Medellín, Colombia.
2
Faculta de Ingeniería, Universidad de San Buenaventura, Medellín, Colombia.
(Presenting author E-mail: *adriana.restrepo@upb.edu.co;
Corresponding author email: *patricia.fernandez@upb.edu.co)
ABSTRACT
Noise must be controlled for working environments in order to protect humans; or in
specific buildings that demand isolations of sound as: museums, theatres and music
places. Commercial acoustic panels are usually made of synthetic materials, which
may be hazardous to health and environment. As alternative, the current trend is
to replace them with natural fibers that offer solutions for this disadvantage and
besides are relative cheaper. Nonwoven structures made of natural fibers have low
production costs, low specific gravity and potential as noise absorbent. Colombia
is a producer of natural fibers which are obtained either from agroindustrial waste
(e.g. coconut fiber) or commercial farming (e.g. fique fiber). Due to its particular
morphologic structure, these type of fibers work as a noise absorbing material, making
them as a very promising and feasible source, able to produce various products such
as nonwovens, fiberboards, and others similar.
From the acoustical point of view, woven and nonwoven fibers forming interconnected
passages that make them suitable for sound absorption. The above mentioned due
to the coupling between the fibers and the fluid inside them as a sound wave passes
by. The aim of this work is to evaluate the morphological properties of coconut and
fique fibers; and to determine mass per unit area and mechanical properties of
commercial nonwovens, which are made of a blend of both fibers. The measuring
and prediction of the acoustic normal incidence absorption coefficients of coconut/
fique nonwovens are determined by both ISO standard 10534-1 and the Allard-
Champoux’s empirical model. The inputs for both methods correspond to measured
values of flow resistivity which are obtained through Ingard & Dear’s methodology.
Keywords: Nonwovens, coconut, fique, morphology, acoustic properties.
INTRODUCTION
Since ancient times, natural fibers are being exploited in applications such as craft twine,
food packaging bags, rugs, shoes and bags, among others. Comparatively, natural
fibers have today several advantages over the most common used synthetic fibers,
such as glass wool. These advantages include the low cost, acceptable mechanical
strength, good thermal properties, high toughness, lightness, biodegradability, and

38
also good acoustic properties (Wambua, Ivens y Verpoest 2003, Suddell 2008).
Aforementioned has led to natural fibers to be used into more technical applications.
This has fostered more studies and characterizations of different types of fibers.
These materials have recently been considered as agro-industrial residues and they
might include: kenaf, sisal, cotton, banana, coconut, jute, bamboo, fique and others
(Wambua, Ivens y Verpoest 2003, Hidalgo-Salazar, Mina y Herrera-Franco 2013, Li, Luo
y Han 2010, Holmer Savastano , Cerqueira Luz y Nolasco 1997, Suddell 2008).
Natural fibers, especially the ones obtained from lignocellulose plants, are important
examples of renewable and biodegradable materials. In addition, their nature makes
them cheaper than the synthetic ones and its trade represents an alternative income
for agricultural communities that harvest the plants from which they are obtained.
Two of these natural fibers with important engineering applications are coconut and
fique fibers, which are composed of a combination of polymeric substances, mainly
cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin (Tonoli, y otros 2011). Recently, some authors have
reported promising results of investigations on thermal and acoustic properties of this
kind of fibers (Khedari, Charoenvai y Hirunlabh, New insulating particleboards from
durian peel and coconut coir 2003, Khedari, Nankongnab, y otros 2004, Zulkifli, y otros
2008, Fouladi, Ayub y Nor 2011, Zhu, y otros 2014, Koizumi, Tsujiuch y Adachi 2002,
Suhawati, y otros 2013, Ramis Soriano, y otros 2010).
In the case of its acoustical performance, like fibrous materials in general, they are
potentially suitable for sound absorption purposes, since the connected threads
make interconnected passages through which the fluid flows and supports the waves
that couples the motion of the fluid and solid phases (Ingard y Dear 1985). The sound
absorption characteristics of coconut fibers were investigated previously because this
kind of fibers have high potential to be used as economic acoustic materials (Zulkifli, y
otros 2008, Fouladi, Ayub y Nor 2011). This work presents the analysis of the potential use
of nonwovens made of coconut and fique fibers for acoustic absorption purposes by
characterizing in terms of its morphology, through a scanning electron microscopy;
mass per unit area; and normal incidence acoustic absorption coefficient.
Morphological analysis
Both kind of fibers were embedded in paraffin and cut crosswise with microtome
Leica RM2235 V 1.8 RevC. Morphological analysis was performed with a scanning
electron microscope JEOL JSM 6490 LV in high vacuum. The fibers were observed at
different magnifications (130, 500, 1000 and 3000 X). For allowing a better observation
in SEM, the samples were fixed on a graphite tape and coated with gold (Au) using a
DENTON VACUUM equipment Desk IV.
Mass per unit area
In order to find the density of the material, six samples of coconut and fique nonwoven
with dimensions of 200x100 mm were weighed. The relation weight by area given in
grams per square meter was determine according to ASTM D3776.
Acoustic absorption coefficient
Normal incidence absorption coefficient tests were made according to the ISO 10534 1

39
with an impedance tube for a frequency range from 125 Hz to 2000 Hz for three
samples of 1.1 cm thickness and 8 cm of diameter. Also, flow resistivity measurements
tests where made using the Ingard and Dear impedance tube method (Tonoli, y otros
2011) for three samples of 1.1 cm thickness and 6 cm of diameter. The results obtained
were used in the empirical model developed by Allard and Champoux (Khedari,
Charoenvai y Hirunlabh, New insulating particleboards from durian peel and coconut
coir 2003), in which the simplified version assumes that values of porosity and tortuosity
are close to unity. Through the model, estimations were made for both, the absorption
coefficient of the studied samples, and the coefficient of a thicker sample, in order to
predict its behavior with different dimensions. The absorption coefficient is computed
according to Eq. (1) in which 0 is the fluid characteristic impedance and Zs is the
surface impedance that can be computed by using Eq. (2)
!! !!! ! !
!! = 1 − (1)
!! !!! !
!! = !! ! ∗ coth (Γ ! ∗ !), (2)
Where !! (!) is the characteristic impedance at normal incidence and Γ ! is

the propagation constant of the material, which can be obtained with Eqns. (3)
to (6).
!
!! ! = ! ! ∗ ! ! !, (3)
!
Γ ! = !2!" ! ! /! ! !, (4)
!! ! !! !! ! !!
!!".!"! !.!" !
!!!".! !
! ! = 101320 , (5)
!! ! !! ! ! !!
!!".!"! !.!" !!!".! !
! !
!! ! !! !! ! !!
! ! = 1.2 + −0.0364 − !0.1144 , (6)
! !
Where !(!) is the dynamic density and !(!) is the effective dynamic bulk
modulus, these depends only on fluid equilibrium density (!! ), flow resistivity
(σ) and frequency.
RESULTS

Morphology
Based on the SEM microscopy images obtained from the coconut and fique fibers, it
is possible to analyze the structure of both fibers. It was observed that both samples
are composed of numerous cell fibers formed by lumens of approximate an average
size of 14.59 ± 3.0 μm and secondary walls of 1.86 ± 0.8 μm for coconut fiber, and
15.18 ± 5.4 μm and 2.79 ± 0.6 μm respectively for fique fiber. Besides, it is possible
to observe the middle lamella, which serves to combine individual cells, and is
composed of hemicellulose, lignin or pectin (Khedari, Charoenvai y Hirunlabh, New
insulating particleboards from durian peel and coconut coir 2003). Due to the porous
columnar structure, these fibers can be used for building panels and they might
present excellent acoustic properties.
40
Mass per unit area

The coconut and fique nonwovens were made with long fiber with 40 mm in length, and
both samples had around 8.70 ± 2.60 mm and 5.20 ± 0.20 mm in thickness respectively.
The average estimated value for mass per unit area of coconut nonwovens was
853.59 ± 78.15 g/m2 and fique nonwovens was 1052.1 ± 168.54 g/m2.
Acoustic absorption coefficient
The measured value of flow resistivity for sample one of coconut nonwoven was
3197.23 rayl/m, for sample two 3319.36 rayl/m, and for sample three 2980.44 rayl/m.
The average value and the standard deviation were 3163.64 rayl/m and
171.65 rayl/m, respectively. Furthermore, flow resistivity mean value for sample one
of fique nonwoven was 11029.29 rayl/m, for sample two was 13397.06 rayl/m, and for
sample three was 13184.85 rayl/m. The average value and standard deviation were
13184.85 rayl/m and 2057.67 rayl/m respectively. The normal incidence absorption
coefficients average for the three samples of coconut and fique nonwovens do not
show significant absorption behavior, it could be improved for higher thickness. Table
1 shows average and standard deviation results.
Table 1- Average and standard deviation values of normal incidence sound absorption
coefficients measured for three samples of coconut and fique nonwoven
Frequency [Hz] Nonwoven 125 250 500 1000 2000
Average normal Coconut 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.13
incidence sound
absorption coefficient Fique 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.09 0.18
Coconut 0.008 0.015 0.006 0.005 0.026

Standard deviation
Fique 0.004 0.004 0.002 0.006 0.051
It has been made a comparison of the average measured value of absorption

coefficient with the estimation made with the empirical model for both the coconut
and the fique nonwoven. As a comparison of a predicted value of a thicker sample
of the coconut and fique fiber material with a commonly used material for sound
absorption in Colombia, that is made of fiberglass. All samples were measured under
the same conditions, using same impedance tube as it was described in the methods
section.
The differences are very low compared to what can be considered a high value for
a sound absorption coefficient of a material which is higher than 0.5, for instance.
The values presented show the low effectiveness for the low frequency range of a
more efficient fibrous material (fiberglass). A comparison was made between the
nonwoven of coconut fiber 11 mm thick and a material commonly used for sound
absorption purposes in Colombia made of fiberglass of 1”. Nevertheless, it can also
be seen that for samples 2” thick, similar values could be obtained according to the
prediction made by the Allard-Champoux’s model, assuming that flow resistivity does
not change with the thickness of the sample.
Values observed are relatively low compared to values measured from materials
used for sound absorption as fiberglass commonly used in acoustic applications,

41
nevertheless, this can be due mainly to the small thickness of the samples. It can also
be observed that, estimated normal incidence sound absorption coefficient value
from a nonwoven fique fiber sample with an estimated thickness of 38 mm in which
flow resistivity is assumed to be the same as in the 6.5 mm sample, is comparable
with a 25 mm fiberglass sample, as said this material is commonly used for acoustical
applications of sound absorption in Colombia due to its effectiveness for this purpose.
CONCLUSION
The morphological characterization of fique and coconut fibers demonstrated that
its intrinsic porosity allows the attenuation of the sound waves showing its potential
use in acoustic applications. Additional sound attenuation could be obtained if the
fibers are made on a nonwoven panel, due to the random porosity left by the spaces
between the fibers.
Although thin samples of nonwoven fique and coconut fibers showed low values of
normal incidence sound absorption coefficient, theoretical estimation of the same
coefficient for a thicker sample shows that it could be possible to compare the
behavior to that of fiberglass based materials.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project has been funded by Research Center for the Development, Researching
and Innovation (CIDI) of the Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, Medellin, Colombia
and Colciencias through the scholarship for Young Researchers 2015.
REFERENCES
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characteristics.» Applied Acoustics 72, nº 1 (2011): 35-42.
Hidalgo-Salazar, Miguel A., José H. Mina, y Pedro J. Herrera-Franco. «The effect of interfacial adhesion
on the creep behaviour of LDPE–Al–Fique composite materials.» Composites Part B: Engineering 55
(2013): 345-351.
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de alguns tipos de fibras vegetais, para reforma de componentes de construção.» Canela, RS, 1997.
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insulation particleboards from mixture of durian peel and coconut coir.» Building and Environment
39, nº 1 (2004): 59-65.
Khedari, Joseph, Sarocha Charoenvai, y Jongjit Hirunlabh. «New insulating particleboards from durian
peel and coconut coir.» Building and Environment 38, nº 3 (2003): 435-441.
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ECOFIBRAS%20PC/Congresos%20y%20ponencias/POLONIA/HPS02016FU.pdf (último acceso: 26 de
07 de 2015).
Li, Y., Y. Luo, y S. Han. «Multi-Scale Structures of Natural Fibres and Their Applications in Making
Automobile Parts.» Journal of Biobased Materials and Bioenergy 4, nº 2 (2010): 164-171.
Ramis Soriano, Jaime, Jesús Alba Fernandez, Romina Del Rey, Eva Escuder, y V. J. Sanchís. «Nuevos
materiales absorbentes acústicos basados en fibra de kenaf.» Materiales de Construcción 60, nº 299
(2010): 133-143.
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Suhawati, I. , K. Shamsul, I. Ismaliza, y A.M. Kamarudin. «Sound Absorption Analysis of Foamed Rubber
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Murphy. «Effects of natural weathering on microstructure and mineral composition of cementitious

42
roofing tiles reinforced with fique fibre.» Cement and Concrete Composites 33, nº 2 (2011): 225-232.
Wambua, Paul, Jan Ivens, y Ignaas Verpoest. «Natural fibres: can they replace glass in fibre reinforced
plastics?» Composites Science and Technology 63, nº 9 (2003): 1259-1264.
Zhu, Xiaodong , Birm-June Kim, Qingwen Wang, y Qinglin Wu. «Recent Advances in the Sound
Insulation Properties of Bio-based Materials.» BioResources 9, nº 1 (2014): 1764-1786.
Zulkifli, Rozli, Mohd Jailani Mohd Nor, Mohd Faizal Mat Tahir, Ahmad Rasdan Ismail, y Mohd Zaki
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Sciences 8, nº 20 (2008): 3709-3714.

43
IDENTIFICATION and characterization of cashmere in goats FROM northeastern Brazil
IDENTIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF

CASHMERE IN GOATS FROM NORTHEASTERN
BRAZIL
Lia Souza Coelho1, Elisa Cristina Modesto2
1
Rural Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
2 Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
(liacoelho@ufrrj.br)
ABSTRACT
In Brazil, approximately 8 million goats are used mainly to milk and meat production,
and 91% of this amount is located in the Northeast of the country. In this study, it is
registered for the first time the appearance of cashmere from goats born in that region,
through morphological and physical characterization of the fiber. Such a discovery
may be considered as unexpected since cashmere commonly occurs in animals
predominantly found in countries with cold and mild temperatures. The identification
of cashmere from animals born in semi-arid climate is of great importance both for
the textile industry and also for the Brazilian producers. Five herds of goats of Saanen
and Savannah breeds were investigated, totalling 150 animals. Combing during the
period of June 2015 (winter) provided the fiber samples. The samples were evaluated
using scanning electron microscopy to properly characterize the fiber (to check
the absence of medulla, its thickness and other physical properties), and software
IMAGE J was used to obtain the mean fiber diameter. The cashmere found for the
two breeds had a mean diameter of 11.00 ± 0.2 µm and a 16% coefficient of variation
with characteristics consistent with cashmere according to the Cashmere and Camel
Hair Manufacturers Institute.
Keywords: Fiber, Fine down, Saanen, Savannah.
INTRODUCTION
The goat population on Brazil is estimated in 8 million of animals, distribuited on 436
thousands agricultural business establishments (IBGE, 2012). Nowadays, Brazil is the
15th world’s biggest producer of goat goods (FAO, 2012). A flock of around 7 million
goats is located on the northeast, with emphasis on Bahia, Pernambuco, Piauí, Ceará
and Paraíba. The cities of Pernambuco and Paraíba are responsible for respectively
20.7% and 5.5% of the total goat population raised in Brazil.
The goat breeding in the northeast is related to the social and economic population’s
condition (Lopes et al., 2012). In the study area, goats are mainly intended for the
production of meat, milk and skin (Caniello, 2012). The potencial for developing the
production of cashmere on Brazil’s northeast can provide a new way of income for
family farming. Although, the existence of a fine down fiber of cashemere on Brazil is
still unknown.
The presence of fine down fiber of cashmere in wild Australian goats was first reported
by Smith et al. (1973). The first recognition of cashmere goats in the Boer breed in South
Africa, highlighted the economic importance and viability of cashmere production

44
as a supplemental income source for their countries was reported by Couchman

(1987).
The cashmere obtained from goats (Capra hircus), is one of the finest and softest
fibres produced by animals and is used exclusively in the production of luxurious
textile products (McCarthy, 1998). Camel Hair Manufacturers Institute (CCMI) consider
cashmere a fine down fiber that should not present marrow, have an average
maximum diameter of 19μm and may be no more than 3% (by weight) of the guard
fibers having more than 30μm according to the reference method (IWTO-8, 2004).
The physical characteristics of cashmere’s fine down fibers have been evaluated by
several researchers (Vineis et al., 2008; Iñigueza et al., 2014; McGregor et al., 2009)
in different countries. The surface morphology of cashmere fiber has been widely
described in the technical literature (Wildman, 1954; Wortmann and Arns, 1986;
Knott, 1990; Phan, 1991; Ross, 2005). The structure of cashmere’s fine down fiber has
cylindrical rod down, with cuticle with distant border, soft edges and a scale every
time the fiber that fully involves the fine down.
In this study, the objective was to register for the first time the appearance of cashmere
from goats born in the Northeast of Brazil, through morphological and physical
characterization of the fine down fiber.
Animals and localization
One hundred and fifty one-year-old female goats, with an initial body weight of 20
kg were analyzed for the presence of cashmere. The samples of fiber fine down of
the races Saanen and Savanah goat were collected in the northeast of Brazil. The
state of Pernambuco, the city of Recife Brazil is at 8°3’S, 34°54’W, 7 m (23 ft). Recife has
a tropical monsoonal climate (Köppen-Geiger classification: Am) with a dry season
and a heavy monsoon the rest of year and no cold season.
In the state of Paraíba, Brazil samples were collected in the municipalities of Soledad
(latitude 07º03’26”S, longitude 36º21’46”W and at an altitude of 523m) and Taperoá
(latitude 7° 12′ 28″ S, longitude 36° 49′ 34″ W and at in altitude of 533m). Paraíba has a
subtropical dry semiarid climate (Köppen-Geiger classification: BSh) with low-latitude
dry steppes.
Collection and sample preparation
The animals showing fiber fine down production (the sub fell) were manually brushed
in june 2015. The samples of fine fiber down were stored in sealed plastic bags and
maintained in the laboratory on a temperature-controlled environment (20°C and
65% R.H.). The samples were then analyzed for characterization of the thickness of the
scale, the frequency of scale and average fiber diameter.
The samples of fiber fine down were separated from the thick fell and maintained
for 24 h at standard conditions (20 ° C, 65% RH). The samples of fiber fine down were
cleaned with a mild detergent (Extran®) and cut into pieces of 2 mm medial region
of the fiber stem.

45
Characterization technique
Three fragments of fiber fine down were mounted on a ribbon of aluminum stub.
Samples were metalized with gold 5 nm thick, by Sputter Coater BAL-TEC SCD 050.
The morphological characteristics of the fiber fine down of scale regions, cortex
and medulla were obtained using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of the mark
and HITACHI Model TM-3000. It was used backscattered electrons in COMPO mode
measured at a voltage of 15 kV acceleration and 4.2 mm working distance for the
acquisition of images. To analyze the characteristic scale thickness was used an SEM
EGF JEOL JSM -7500F with secondary electrons, a measured acceleration voltage of
2 kV and 10.2 mm working distance.
The images obtained were worked through software (Fiji Is Just) ImageJ involving
processing and image analysis. The images were given a pre-treatment using
contrast and sharpness adjustment operations. The scale was calibrated for each of
the images and measurements made of the mean fiber diameter (MFD, expressed
in µm) through Plugin DiameterJ (Hotaling et al., 2015), mean scale frenquency (SF,
expressed in/100 µm), scale thickness (ST, expressed in µm) for the morphological
characterization of the physical and fine down.
Statistical analysis
The data mean fiber diameter, mean scale frequency, scale thickness were analyzed
for mean, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, minimum and maximum values
According to the procedures of the SAS software v. 9.2 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC)
Were used for statistical analysis of the data.
RESULTS
Scale Pattern
The image of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) (Fig.1) is a micrograph of the inner
central portion of the fiber fine down. The inner region hasn’t show medullary cavity
throughout the stem of the fiber. It was only found cortex region, different from that
found in Merino wool that Angora’s goats (McGregor et al., 2013) could show that
marrow, depending on the fiber diameter.
Figure 1. SEM micrograph of the cross section of fine goat down fiber in the Northeast
in Brazil, showing the absence of medullary region.

46
The fine fiber down the scales are, on average, scale pattern in transverse position
imbricate with a scale at each height the fiber stem, known as coronal (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. SEM micrograph of the morphological structure of the scale fiber fine down
the goats Northeast in Brazil.
Fiber Diameter
The mean fiber diameter (MFD) found was of 10.65 µm ± 0.24 individual values in the
range 7.7-14.1 µm to Saanen goats 11.26 µm ± 0.26 and individual values ranging
from 8.22-16.5 µm for Savannah goats (Table 1). The results are in accordance to the
Cashmere and Camel Hair Manufacturers Institute to be considered cashmere. The
mean fiber diameter (MFD) of goats studied is thinner than cashmere fibers found in
goats in the provinces of Osh 15.7μm, 16.7μm Naryn in Kyrgyzstan (McGregor et al.,
2009) and the regions of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan with individual values
in the range of 13.2–26.2 µm (Iñigueza et al., 2014). The CV% of MFD was 15.83% and
16:13% for Saanen and Savannah, respectively, showing good accuracy on the data
analyzed (Table 1).
Scale Frequency
The frequency of scale is an important parameter to characterize the animal fibers
and influence some thread properties such as friction and felting (Harizi et al., 2014)
and fiber strength (Phan, 1996).
The frequency scale is the number of scales along the rod of 100 µm. The scale
frequency (SF) was in fine down 7.65 ± 0.15 /100 µm and 7.28 ± 0.19/100 µm
scales/100 µm, Saanen and Savannah, respectively (Tab. 1). The finding is close to
that found by Phan et al. (2000). He found that thin and thick cashmere fibers have
a similar frequency of scales of 6-7 scales / 100 µm. Vineis et al. (2008) evaluated
cashmere of 13.9 µm of average diameter and found an average frequency of 6-7
scales/100 µm, differing from Mohair fiber that presented scale frequency of 5/100μm
and slim wool that second Knott (1990) is among 10-12 scales/100 μm.
Scale thickness
The thickness of the scale is an important parameter to identify animal fibers, however
the measurement depends on an electron microscope of high resolution scan.
The thickness of scale (ST) (or scale height) of the goats races Saanen and Savannah
was of 0.40 ± 0.01 and 0.38 ± 0.01, respectively (Fig. 3) (Tab. 1). These results are consistent
47
with (IWTO-58, 2000) that uses the thickness of scale to differentiate between wool with
thickness of scale greater than 0.55 µm and cashmere as having thickness of scale
less than 0.55 µm. Cashmere scales with an average diameter of 13,9 µm present a
thickness of 0.50 µm (Vineis et al., 2008).
Figure 3. SEM micrograph of the thickness of the scale of fine fiber down of Northeast
Brazilian goats.
Table 1. Least squares mean diameters of down fiber characteristics produced by
goats of the Northeast in Brazil goats.
Goat fiber Trait or measure n Mean SD CV (%) Minimum Maximum
Saanen Mean fiber diameter (MFD) (µm) 50 10.65 ± 0.24 1.69 15.83 7.7 14.1
Scale frenquency (SF) (/100µm) 50 7.65 ± 0.15 1.07 13.97 5.88 9.9
Scale thickness (ST) (µm) 50 0.40 ± 0.01 0.05 11.81 0.26 0.47
Savannah Mean fiber diameter (MFD) (µm) 100 11.26 ± 0.26 1.82 16.13 8.22 16.5
Scale frenquency (SF) (/100µm) 100 7.28 ± 0.19 1.33 18.28 5.15 11.7
Scale thickness (ST) (µm) 100 0.38 ± 0.01 0.06 14.73 0.26 0.47
CONCLUSIONS
The morphological and physical characteristics show that the northeastern goats
produce high quality cashmere. This fact is very important because it proves that
cashmere production is possible in tropical and semi-arid climates.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge the support of teachers PhD. Roberto Carlos Costa Lelis
(UFRRJ), PhD. Clarissa Oliveira da Silva (UFRRJ) and PhD. Francisco Fernando Ramos
de Carvalho (UFRPE) for institutional support to carry out the assembling of the
samples. The SENAI CETIQT for financial support. We would like to thank the LMDS and
SUPERCABO Project P&D ANEEL with CEMIG, CTEEP, TBE, TAESA, UFRRJ and FAPUR, the
infrastructure for SEM measurements. We would like to thank the LME-IQ- UNESP for the
FEG SEM facilities.
REFERENCES
Caniello, M. A. Caprinocultura e o desenvolvimento do Semiárido uma proposta para a UFCG.
Centro de Desenvolvimento Sustentável do Semiárido. Available at: http p.//www.cdsa.ufcg.edu.
br/portal/index.php?option=com_content&article&id=8890.a caprinocultura-e-o-desenvolvimento-

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do-semiarido-uma-proposta-para-a-ufcg&catid=92p.artigos&Itemid=460. Accessed 3rd September

2012.
Couchman, R.C. 1987. Cashgora. Proc. Inter. Cashmere Seminar, West. Australia, p. 49-66, 1987.
FAO. FAOSTAT Agriculture Data. Available at: <http p.//faostat.fao.org/>. Accessed April 06, 2012.
Harizi, T., S. Msahli, F. Sakli, M. Mekki and T. Khorchani. 2014. Surface Morphology Investigation of
Tunisian Dromedary Hair. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology, A 4: 454-459.
Hotaling, N. A., K. Bharti, H. kriel, C. G. Simon Jr. 2015. DiameterJ: A validated open source nanofiber
diameter measurement tool. Biomaterials, 61: 327–338.
IBGE. 2012. Divisão Municipal – Geociências, Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Available
at <http p.// http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/mapa_site/mapa_site.php#geociencias> Accessed 6th
April 2015.
Iñigueza, L., J.P. Muellerb, A. Ombayevc, S. Aryngaziyevc, A. Ajibekovd, S. Yusupove, A. Ibragimove,
M. Suleimenova, M. El-Dine Hilali. 2014. Characterization of mohair and cashmere in regions of
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan. Small Ruminant Research, 120: 209–218.
IWTO-58: Scanning Electron Microscopic Analysis of Speciality Fibres and Sheep’s Wool and their
Blends. International Wool Textile Organisation. The Woolmark Company, Techn. Marketing,
Department, Ilkley, UK, 2000.
IWTO-8: Method of Determining Fibre Diameter Distribution Parameters and Percentage of Medullated
Fibres. In: Wool and other Animal Fibres by the Projection Microscope. International Wool Textile
Organisation. The Woolmark Company, Techn. Marketing, Department, Ilkley, UK, 2004.
Knott, J, Fine Animal Fibres. 1990. 1ª ed. EEC Comett: Guimarães: Universidade do Minho,
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Carvalho Júnior, C. McManus. 2012Spatialization of climate, physical and socioeconomic factors that
affect the dairy goat production in Brazil and their impact on animal breeding decisions. Pesquisa
Veterinária Brasileira, 32: 1073-1081.
McCarthy, B. J. 1998. Specialty animal fibres. Textiles, 1: 6–8.
McGregor, B.A., C. Kervenb, S. Toigonbaevc. 2009. Sources of variation contributing to production
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development. Small Ruminant Research, 84: 89–99.
McGregor, B.A., K.L. Butler, M.B. Ferguson. 2013. The relationship of the incidence of medullated fibres
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Wortmann, F.J. and W. Arns. 1986. Quantitative Fiber Mixture Analysis by Scanning Electron Microscopy
Part I: Blends of Mohair and Cashmere with Sheep’s Wool . Textile Research Journal, 56: 442-446.

49
New textile fibre: Curaua
NEW TEXTILE FIBRE: CURAUA

Paulo Pimenta1, Laura M. Borges 1, Fernando R. Oliveira2, Simone da Silva3,
A. P. Souto4
Researcher, University of Minho Campus Azurém, Guimarães, Portugal
1
2
Professor, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Textile Engineering Department, Natal, Brazil.
3
Researcher, Centro de Biotecnologia da Amazônia, Amazonas, Brazil
Professor, University of Minho Campus Azurém, Guimarães, Portugal
4
Presenting author: paulopimenta24@gmail.com; Corresponding author: souto@det.uminho.pt

ABSTRACT
Curaua fibres are leaf fibres extracted from an Amazon-forest plant (Ananas comosus
var. erectifolius) closely related to the pineapple. There is evidence of successful
use of curaua fibre in different areas, such as: reinforcing composite structures and
products in the automobile industry, due the high mechanical resistance associated
with low density values. Furthermore, there is the fact that this fibre is easy to care and
plant arouses great interest in new applications for the textile industry. Based on these
characteristics the Physico-chemical and dyeing behaviour using reactive and direct
dyes of curaua fibre were studied by means of FTIR, DSC, SEM and colour strength
(K/S) analyses. The dyeing experiments were performed in the same conditions for
cotton and curaua fibres, in order to verify the difference between both. The dyeing
results obtained confirmed the real possibility for the use of this fibre in textile industry.
The introduction of curaua fibre in the industry could help to respond to the demand
that the market has for natural fibres.
Keywords: Ananas comosus var. erectifolius, curaua, cotton, dyeing process, natural
fibres, cellulose,
INTRODUCTION
The fibre that has aroused great interest in recent years due to its characteristics is
curaua “Ananas comosus var. erectifolius” which is of the pineapple plant family,
originally from the Amazon jungle in Brazil (Spinacé M. et al. 2009). There are four
varieties of plants: white, purple, red and bright white (Correia et al. 2010). The most
common are the purple ones, with purple-reddish leaves, and the white curaua, with
light green leaves as showed in Fig. 1. (IMCC Lamb et al. 2010). The curaua fibre has
been successfully applied in different areas, such as civil engineering, architecture
and others strengthening of composite structures and products in the automotive
industry (Tomzack F. et al. 2007). Curaua fibre has a huge potential to be used as an
engineering material owing to its reported high mechanical resistance associated
with low density values and low-cost of production. Furthermore, the fact that they are
easy to care and plant arouses great established, for example, as reinforcement in
composite materials, the dyeing properties of curaua is not well studied yet. Thus, the
physico-chemical and dyeing properties of curaua fibre were studied by means of
colour strength, DSC, SEM and FTIR spectroscopy analyses using reactive and direct
conventional dyes. The study of the tinctorial behaviour of cotton fibres was also
performed in order to compare the difference between these both fibres.
50
Fig. 1: Curaua plants, species bright green and reddish purple. (Source: Pires J, 2009)

Materials
Curaua fibre with count number of approximately 13,6 tex was supplied by a farm
of Manaus, Amazonia Ocidental, Brazil. A commercial 100% cotton fabric with a
taffeta structure, a mass per unit area of 198 g m-2 and a texture of 18 threads/cm in
warp and 14 threads/ cm in weft direction was used in order to compare the dyeing
behaviour with curaua fibre.
Direct dyes (Syrius Blue K-CFN, Syrius Yellow, K-CF Syrius Scarlet K-CF), and reactive dyes
(Levafix Blue CA gran, Levafix Yellow CA gran and Levafix Red CA gran), supplied by
Dystar Textil farben, Frankfurt, Germany were used to obtain light, medium and dark
colours.
Bleaching
The bleaching process of curaua fibres was made according to stipulated by the
Bayer catalogue in a Ahiba Spectradye-Datacolor equipment, with a bath ratio of
1:40. The most influential variables during bleaching by changing the concentrations
of the different products were studied. The optimized recipe applied was as follows:
6 mL L-1 of NaOH 38ºBe, 20 ml L-1 of H2O2 35%, 2 ml L-1 of detergent, 1 mL L-1 of
dispersant, 1 ml L-1 of wetting agent, 2 ml L-1 of sequestering agent and 1 ml L-1 of
hydrogen peroxide stabilizer.
The program was started at 25ºC and raised at a rate of 2 ºC min–1 up to 100 ºC, and
kept at this temperature for 60 minutes. Afterwards, the fibres were washed with tap
water and dried at 60°C for either 24 hours or until a constant weight was obtained.
Chemical and Morphological Characterization
The Attenuated Total Reflectance ATR-FTIR spectra of the curaua samples before and
after bleaching process were recorded in a Nicolet Avatar 360 FTIR spectrophotometer.
The spectra were collected in the region of 4000-400 cm-1 and at a resolution of 16
cm−1. The DSC analysis was carried on a Mettler Toledo DSC822 equipment in order
to evaluate the structural and thermal properties of the curaua fibre. The analysis
took place in a nitrogen atmosphere at 20 mL min-1 with a heating rate of 20°C min-1
within a range from 25ºC to 400ºC.
Hounsfield dynamometer H10KS model according to the ISO 5079 standard, with
claws distance between 20 mm, a pre tension of 0.07 N at a speed of 10 mm.min-1
was used In order to evaluate the physical properties of the curaua fibres. The tests
established allowed to evaluate the elongation, tenacity and breaking strength of
curaua fibres. 60 trials were performed in order to analyse the properties of curaua
fibres before and after bleaching process.
51
Morphological analyses of curaua samples before and after bleaching process

were carried out with a Scanning Electron Microscopy (Tabletop) TM-3000 HITACHI
Company.
Dyeing
Six solutions using distilled water were prepared with three different direct dyes (Syrius
Yellow K-CF Syrius Blue K-CFN Syrius Scarlet K-FC) and three reactive dyes (Levafix
CA Gran Yellow, Red and Blue) using concentrations of 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2 and 4% over
weight fibre (owf). The dyeing process with direct and reactive dyes were performed
in similar conditions, with equal amounts of each dye. The solution of direct dyes were
prepared with NaCl (2.5 g L-1, 5.0 g L-1,7.5 g L-1,12.5 g L g L-1) and dye (0.3 ml, 1.5 ml,
3 ml, 6 ml, 12 ml) respectively, and the solutions with reactive dyes were made using
NaCl (15 g L-1, 20 g L-1, 35 g L-1, 50 g L-1, 70 g L-1), Na2CO3 (5 g L -1, 7 g L-1, 10 g L- 1,
13 g L-1, 17.5 g L-1) and dye (0.3 ml, 1.5 ml, 3 ml, 6 ml, 12 ml).
The dyeing method was carried out with 3 g of fibres (curaua and cotton) in a
laboratorial Ahiba Spectradye-Datacolor machine equipped with infra-red heating
with a liquor ratio of 1:20 and neutral pH in case of direct dye and alkali pH to reactive
dyes, using stainless steel dye-pots with 150 cm3 of capacity each. For the dyeing
process using direct dyes the program was started at 25 ºC and raised at a rate of
2 ºC min–1 up to 100 ºC, and kept at this temperature for 60 minutes. With reactive
dyes the temperature was raised at a rate of 2 ºC min–1 up to 60 ºC and kept at this
temperature during 60 minutes. After dyeing, 4 washes at different temperatures for
dyed samples with reactive dyes, and 2 washes, also at different temperatures for
dyed samples with direct dyes were made. Later, all the samples were washed with
a 1 g L-1 of non-ionic detergent solution at 40 ºC during 30 minutes in order to remove
unbounded dye.
The exhaustion of the dye baths was calculated from the absorbance readings
with a visible radiation spectrophotometer HITACHI Model 100-60. Washing fastness
was evaluated according to ISO 105 C06, method A1S and rubbing fastness was
performed according to ISO 105-X12. The evaluation of colour strength K/S related
to the Kubelka Munk model, colour coordinates (L *, a *, b *), staining degree of
fastness test (Washing and Rubbing) of the samples were determined from the use of
a Datacolor spectrophotometer SF-600 + CL.
RESULTS
The spectrum obtained by FTIR of curaua fibres before and after bleaching can be
identified in Fig.2. The main components are most likely alkenes, aromatic groups,
and different oxygen-containing functional groups such as ester, alcohol and ketone.
These groups are found in cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. They can also be found
in water- linked groups adsorbed / absorbed by the fibre and in the carboxylic acid
groups found in extractives of the fibre (Spinacé et al. 2009). In the wavelengths of
3346.1 cm -1 to 3200 cm -1 OH groups and hydrogen bonds can be observed, at
2916.89 cm-1 to 2800 cm-1 groups relative with CH bonds of saturated hydrocarbons
and lignin are found, in the region of the spectrum between 1800 cm-1 and 400 cm-1
can be noted bands which are typical of cellulose. Can be found also acid and
carboxylic groups in 1723.58 cm-1, aldehyde groups C=O at 1642.67 cm-1 and water

52
molecules adsorbed/absorbed. Between 1700 cm-1 and 1100 cm-1 several chemical
bonds related with groups CC, C=C, OH, CO, CHn, COC, and aromatic CH bonds
can be observed (Tomzack 2010). Also at 1027.19 cm-1, CO groups present in the
hemicellulose fibres is presented. Comparing the spectrum of bleached fibre with the
raw fibre, may be verify the existence of differences in the spectrum region between
1800 cm-1 and 1100 cm-1, where the carboxylic acid groups are no longer present
in the region of 1 720 cm-1, at 1320 cm-1 shows a peak which may be related to the
oxidation of lignin belonging to syringic groups (Oliveira F. et al 2015). It is also possible
to see that at the peak of 1030.5 cm-1, COC groups with a greater accentuation in the
graph may have to do with increased exposure of hemicellulose inner layer with the
degradation of lignin (Oliveira F. et al 2015).
Looking at the thermal curves obtained by DSC in Fig.3, it shows a maximum
exothermic peak at 344ºC for the raw fibre that in the bleached fibre occurred at
338ºC, where this peak obtained demonstrates the degradation of α-cellulose present
in curaua fibre. Can be also observed a peak at 289ºC in raw curaua fibre regarding
the degradation of hemicellulose, which can be seen much less pronounced and
almost imperceptible in bleached fibre spectre (Oliveira F. et al 2015). There was an
exothermic peak in the raw fibre between 50 °C to 100 °C relating to water absorbed
/ adsorbed.
Fig. 2. ATR-FTIR spectrum of curaua fibres Fig.3. DSC analyses of curaua fibres
before and after bleaching before and after bleaching
Table 1 shows the mechanical properties results of the curaua fibres before and after
bleaching process.

53
Table 1 . Results of the breaking force test in curaua fibres

Linear
mass Tex Break N Alongment % Tenacity N/Tex Curaua Fibres
Mean 13.55 8.55 6.68 0.68 Raw
S. Deviation 6.59 4.97 1.91 0.17 Raw
CV (%) 48.59 58.22 28.67 24.96 Raw
Mean 14.87 7.46 6.74 0.51 Bleached
S. Deviation 7.79 4.43 1.64 0.14 Bleached
CV (%) 52.40 59.42 24.34 27.63 Bleached
According to the tensile test performed can be verified that after bleaching process
the average of mechanical properties of curaua fibres are changed. The break force
(N) exerted in bleached fibres becomes smaller, reducing about 12%. The tenacity
N/Tex reduces about 25%. The difference between the results of raw and bleached
curaua fibres can be explained due to the fact that bleached fibres no longer have
the same amount of lignin and hemicellulose in their structure, because they were
eliminated with the bleaching and boiling.
Fig. 4 shows the SEM analysis of control and bleached curaua fibres. Can be observed
that bleahced fibres display a clean and smooth surface. Bleaching treatment leads
to the increase in the amount of amorphous cellulose reducing the crystalline phase
due to the removal of hydrogen bonding from the network structure (Oliveira F. et al.
2015).
Fig. 4. SEM image of the curaua fibres before and after bleching process
From all the dyeing represented in Fig.5, and values demonstrated in Tables 2 and 3, it
is observed that the best colour strength results are presented in cotton dyed samples
when compared with the dyed curaua fibres. The major difference in K/S values,
between cotton and curaua fibres, can be seen at the concentrations of 1.0%, 2.0%
and 4.0% owf. The blue dye (Sirius Blue K-CFN) presented the greatest values of K/S
in the dye concentrations studied. In the dyeing performed with reactive dyes at a
concentration of
0.1%, the K/S values presented lower variations and the colours are approximated,
while for higher concentrations, the difference observed between substrates is very
significant. This event is due to the fact that at low concentrations the bath exhaustion
is almost complete. All samples dyed with reactive dyes have colourless areas

54
and a white tone, which can be explained due to the presence of a non-cellulosic
material in the fibre that cannot be dyed. Reported values of K/S may result from the
difference of cellulose present in the curaua and cotton fibres. Cotton has about
20% more cellulose than curaua fibre, having other compounds, such as lignin and
hemicellulose which do not form strong chemical bonds with the dye molecules such
as those established with the chemical groups present in cellulose.
Table 2 - Results of colouristic strength K/S obtained in the dyeing with direct dye
Dye Sirius Yellow K-CF Sirius Scarlet K-CF Sirius Blue K-CFN
% Dye 0,1 0,5 1,0 2,0 4,0 0,1 0,5 1,0 2,0 4,0 0,1 0,5 1,0 2,0 4,0
K/S
Cotton 16,3 43,5 55,3 149,2 235,0 17,4 65,9 120,7 209,2 331,1 27,7 103,6 180,3 215,9 399,3
K/S
curaua 13,4 22,1 23,1 50,9 127,0 11,4 42,9 87,8 91,8 163,3 19,7 71,9 84,2 97,4 201,2
Table3 - Results of colouristic strength K/S obtained in dyeing with reactive dyes
Dye Levafix Yellow CA gran Levafix Red CA gran Levafix Blue CA gran
% Dye 0,1 0,5 1,0 2,0 4,0 0,1 0,5 1,0 2,0 4,0 0,1 0,5 1,0 2,0 4,0
K/S
Cotton 7,6 24,5 38,4 73,8 133,3 4,9 17,9 39,9 77,5 165,8 10,7 34,7 63,9 136,3 234,3
K/S
curaua 5,8 12,1 24,8 42,3 67,8 4,5 9,7 12,7 42,2 99,3 22,8 30,4 62,7 71,1 114,7
Fig.5: Dyeing results of cotton and curaua fibres with direct and reactive dyes
Table 4 shows the K/S values obtained with the dyeing process using three colour

55
(dyes) simultaneously. As can be observed in the dyeing performed with direct dyes
the concentrations of 0.1%, 0.5% and 1.0%, obtained higher values of colour strength in
curaua fibres than cotton fibre. For reactive dyes, the best results of K/S were obtained
to curaua fibre compared with cotton in all concentrations studied.
Table 4. Results of colouristic strength K/S obtained in dyeing with three colour process
Type of Dye Direct Reactive
% Dye 0,1 0,5 1,0 2,0 4,0 0,1 0,5 1,0 2,0 4,0
K/S Cotton 23 85,1 142,3 253,0 380,0 10,5 38,0 65,7 115,6 207,9
K/S curaua 42,1 155,2 226,9 246,1 348,3 10,6 55,0 128,9 124,6 295,9
Considering the dye exhaustion of the samples studied, can be observed that dye
exhaustion percentage decreases with the increasing of dye concentration in the bath
as supported by the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm (M. Clark 2011). According to
the results obtained the best values of dye exhaustion were to Syrius Blue K-CFN and
Levafix Blue CA gran, and lower results were for the yellow dyes (Syrius Yellow K-CF,
Levafix Yellow gran CA). By use of colour reproducibility was verified the possibility of
reproducing a colour with the dyes in question, however, to obtain a colour difference
(E) acceptable by industry, a database would be required with greater range of
colours and dyes.
The washing fastness tests performed in the samples dyed with direct dyes showed
worse results to curaua fibres compared to those obtained with cotton, being the best
results evaluated by spectrophotometer 4-5 and 3-4 in lower concentrations and 1-2,
2-3 in higher concentrations. On the other hand the washing fastness results to the
samples dyed with reactive dyes were considered excellent with evaluation 4-5 in
both fibres. Finally, the results of rubbing fastness in dry showed excellent values and
similar results were obtained for both fibres (4-5). However, when rubbing fastness was
measured in wet form, not good results were obtained for curaua fibres comparing to
cotton in the following concentrations: 1.0%, 2.0% and 4.0% owf.
CONCLUSIONS
According to results presented in this paper the following conclusions can be
addressed:
- DSC, FTIR and SEM analyses of curaua fibres allowed to observe the elimination
of some of the fibres inherent impurities after bleaching process.
- Tensile strength tests on curaua fibres showed that there were small changes in
the average values of mechanical properties before and after bleaching process.
- Comparing the dyeings performed with six dyes in different concentrations,
it can be seen that the best results of colour strength (K/S) were obtained in cotton
samples. On the other hand for the three colour process with direct dyes the colour
strength (K/S) values were better in curaua fibre than in cotton at the concentrations
of 0.1%, 0.5%, 1.0%. The three colour dyeing process with reactive dyes have overall
higher colour strength (K/S) in curaua fibres than over those performed with the cotton.
- The washing fastness results were very good to reactive dyes showing values
of 4-5 for all the tested fibres. However, to samples dyed with direct dyes the best

56
ratings were obtained to cotton compared with curaua. These results showed that
it is possible to dye curaua fibre using conventional reactive and direct dyes with
excellent colour strength values and good washing and rubbing fastness, creating
more opportunity to apply these fibres in other areas with more values added.
- Testing at industrial level must be conducted for the introduction of this fibre in
the market. But prior to its implementation, other studies comparing curaua fibre with
flax, which has some similar features, and the dyeing behaviour with vat dyes should
be carried out.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research is funded by FEDER funds through the Operational Programme
Competitiveness Factors - COMPETE and national funds by FCT - Foundation for
Science and Technology under the project UID/CTM/00264.
REFERENCES
Clark, M. 2011. Handbook of Textile and Industrial dyeing: Volume 2 Applications of Dyes. Woodhead
Publishing.
Cordeiro I.M.C.C., Andrade A.C. da S., Ferreira G. C., and Braga R. da S. 2010. “Cultivo Y Produccion
Agroambiental Sostenible de Curaua En El Nordeste de Pará (PA), Brasil.” In Produtos Florestales No
Madereros.
Correa A.C., Teixeira E.D., Pessan L.A. and Mattoso, L.H.C. Cellulose nanofibers from curaua fibers,
Cellulose, 17 (2010) 1183-1192.
Oliveira, Fernando R., Felipe M.F. Galvão, Tábhita L.T. da Silva, Késia Karina O.S. Silva, José H.O.
Nascimento, António P. Souto, and Andrea Zille. 2015. “Tinctorial Behavior of Curaua and Banana
Fibers and Dyeing Wastewater Treatment by Porous Alumina Membranes.” Desalination and Water
Treatment, no. JUNE: 1–9.
Spinacé, M. A S, Carlos S. Lambert, K. K G Fermoselli, and Marco A. De Paoli. 2009.
“Characterization of Lignocellulosic Curaua Fibres.” Carbohydrate Polymers 77: 47–53.
Pires, Joyce S. P. 2009. “FIBRAS NATURAIS: Características Químicas e Potenciais
Aplicações. Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita Filho”
Tomczak, Fabio. 2010. “Estudos Sobre a Estrutura e Propriedades de Fibras de Coco e
Curauá Do Brasil,” 150.
Tomczak, Fábio, Kestur Gundappa Satyanarayana, and Thais Helena Demétrio Sydenstricker. 2007.
“Studies on Lignocellulosic Fibers of Brazil: Part III – Morphology and Properties of Brazilian Curauá
Fibers.” Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 38 (10): 2227–36.

57
SODIUM SILICATE FOR IMPROVEMENT

CATIONIZED COTTON FLAME RETARDANCY
Ana Marija Grancarić1, Lea Botteri1, Anita Tarbuk1, Jenny Alongi2
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Textile Technology, Prilaz baruna Filipovica 28a, HR-10000 Zagreb,
1
Croatia
2
Dipartimento di Scienza Applicata e Tecnologia, Politecnico di Torino, Alessandria, Viale Teresa
Michel 5,15121 Alessandria, Italy
Corresponding author E-mail: amgranca@ttf.hr
ABSTRACT
Cotton is one of the most flammable materials. In the case of fire cotton materials
represent a major risk as burning strong and fast. Therefore, it is necessary to make
cotton fabric flame retardant. In order to eliminate the use of toxic compounds, espe-
cially for cotton flame retardancy, silicate compounds were recently researched. The
synergistic effects occurring between water glasses and urea/ammonium dihydrogen
phosphate was proved, however the durability of treatment was low. For the purpose
of enhancing efficiency and durability, in this research cotton fabrics were modified
by mercerization and cationization during mercerization and then treated with the
conventional flame retardants urea and ammonium hydrogen phosphate with ad-
dition of water glass. The influence of such modification to the flame retardancy of
cotton was researched and compared with untreated/bleached cotton. Burning be-
havior of flame retarded cationized cotton was studied through Limiting Oxygen In-
dex, LOI determination in the LOI Chamber (Dynisco) according to ISO 4589:1996. For
better understanding the changes in cotton structure under the heat conditions, the
results of thermogravimetric method, TGA (Pyris1, Perkin Elmer) and micro combustion
calorimetry, MCC (MCC-2, Govmark) were discussed. As the change in color occurs
in FR treatment, fabric degree of whiteness and yellowness index were determined.
The achieved results suggested better crosslinking and durability if flame retardants
applied to modified cotton fabrics. This effect is more enhanced for cotton fabric cat-
ionized during mercerization with reactive polyammonium compound.
Keywords: cotton cationization, flame retardancy, synergism, LOI, TGA, MCC
INTRODUCTION
Cellulose textiles are the most flammable materials. On the other hand, the cotton
and its blends are the most commonly used textile materials in the design and pro-
duction of protective textiles. Since cotton is easily ignited and burns rapidly, it is very
important to make cotton fabrics flame retardant. According to Horrocks (2005) all
flame retardant cottons are usually produced by chemically after-treating fabrics as
a textile finishing process which, depending on chemical character and cost, yields
flame retardant properties having varying degrees of durability to various processes
of textile care. One of the well-known conventional flame retardants is urea, which
shows synergistic effect with ammonium hydrogen phosphate (Horrocks 2005). How-
ever, its application results in toxic gas production when heat and decompose. The
application of silicone based compounds was investigated recently since these com-

58
pounds have excellent thermal stability and high heat resistance with very limited
release of toxic gases during the thermal decomposition (Alongi 2012, 2013; Grancarić
2012, 2014, 2015). The application of sodium metasilicate, Na2SiO3, commonly known
as sodium silicate, water glass or liquid glass, with urea/ammonium dihydrogen
phosphate, resulted in the synergistic effects. However, the durability of treatment
was low (Grancaric 2015). For the purpose of enhancing efficiency and durability
of this treatment, in this research cotton fabrics were modified by mercerization and
cationization during mercerization.
In the mercerization process, as Neal suggested in 1933, the change of crystal lattice from
cellulose I to cellulose II results in better strength, more available –OH groups, and high-
er adsorption. Cationisation with an epihalohydrin during the mercerization process
results in novel cotton cellulose that gives a new dimension to cotton pre-treatment
and finishing. The modified cotton retains all the beneficial properties of mercerised
cotton with a change of the surface charge that ensures even higher adsorption of
water, anionic surfactants, and anionic dyestuff (Tarbuk 2014). In this paper, cotton
fabric was cationized during mercerization with an epihalohydrin 3-chloro-2-hydroxy-
propyl trimethyl-ammonium chloride (CHPTAC) and with more eco-friendly cationic
reactive polyammonium compound Rewin OS (CHT-Bezema). The influence of such
modification to the flame retardancy of cotton treated with the conventional flame
retardants urea and ammonium hydrogen phosphate with addition of water glass
was researched and compared with untreated/bleached cotton.
Chemical bleached plain woven cotton fabric of mass per unit area 208 g/m2 was
mercerized and cationized during mercerization according to Tarbuk 2014 with 50 g/l
of: 3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl trimethyl-ammonium chloride (CHPTAC by Sigma Aldrich)
and cationic reactive polyammonium compound Rewin OS (CHT/Bezema).
Table 1: The labels and treatments
Label Treatment
B Chemically bleached cotton fabric
BM Mercerized cotton fabric
BCM Cationized during mercerization with CHPTAC
BOM Cationized during mercerization with Rewin OS
Treatment with conventional flame retardants. The bath contained 240 g/l
FR1
urea and 115 g/l ammonium hydrogen phosphate
Treatment with the bath containing conventional flame retardant concen-
FR1_50 tration reduced to half: 120 g/l urea and 57.5 g/l ammonium hydrogen phos-
phate
WG10 Treatment with the bath containing: 10 g/l water glass
Treatment with conventional flame retardants with addition of 10 g/l water
FR2
glass
Treatment with the bath containing conventional flame retardant concen-
FR2_50
tration reduced to half with addition of 10 g/l water glass
For durability fabrics were washed at 40 °C for 30 min in in Polycolor (Mathis) apparatus
according to ISO 6330:2000 – Textiles – Domestic washing and drying procedures for
textile testing with 2 g/l ECE Test Detergent without phosphate and optical brightening
agents.
59
Remission spectrophotometer SF 600 PLUS CT (Datacolor) was used for measuring

spectral characteristics of cotton fabrics. CIE whiteness degree (WCIE) acc. to ISO
105-J02:1997, and Yellowness Index (YI) acc. to DIN 6167:1980 were calculated
automatically.
Burning behavior of fabrics was determined through Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI) in
LOI Chamber (Dynisco) according to ISO 4589:1996 – Plastics – Determination of burn-
ing behavior by oxygen index.
Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) was performed on TGA Pyris1 (PerkinElmer). 5 mg
of sample was stacked in an open platinum pan. The mass loss as a function of the
temperature was measured in the air atmosphere within the range from 50 °C to 800
°C with changes of 30 °C/min.
Microscale Combustion Calorimeter (MCC) tests were done according to ASTM D
7309 on MCC-2, Govmark, USA. The 5 mg of test sample (three samples per each sys-
tem) was placed within the sample cup and test is performed under following condi-
tions: pyrolyser operating temperature range of min. 75 °C to 600 °C at a heating rate
of 1 K/s in an inert gas stream (nitrogen, 80 ml/min); detection sensitivity limit of min. 5
mW, repeatability of ± 2 %.
RESULTS
In this paper the influence of cotton mercerization, or cationization during mercer-
ization process, to its flame retardancy after treatment with the conventional flame
retardants was researched and compared with untreated/bleached cotton. Cation-
ization was performed with an epihalohydrin 3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl trimethyl-am-
monium chloride (CHPTAC) and cationic reactive polyammonium compound Rewin
OS (CHT-Bezema), whilst urea and ammonium hydrogen phosphate with addition of
water glass, were used as FR.
The spectral characteristics of bleached and FR treated modified cotton fabrics were
measured on remission spectrophotometer. From the results of the CIE degree of
whiteness and the Yellowness Index, shown in Table 2, it can be seen that bleached
fabric has the best whiteness since all cotton impurities as waxes, pectin, proteins,
pigments and other organic compounds are removed in the scouring and bleaching
processes.
Mercerization results in unchanged whiteness, whilst the waterglass treatment (WG10)
and cationization lowers it slightly. As expected, a significant change in whiteness
or yellowness is observed when conventional FRs - urea and ammonium hydrogen
phosphate (FR1) were applied. However, when water glass applied with conventional
FRs, the degree of whiteness is better, whilst the yellowness index is lower. Applied
on modified cotton fabrics the whiteness degree is higher than when applied on
bleached one.
During the washing process non-linked FRs were washed off, resulting in better
whiteness. It is to point out that for cotton fabric cationized with reactive poly-ammo-
nium compound Rewin OS (BOM), the whiteness degree stays the same suggesting
better crosslinking with FRs. The results of burning behavior presented in Table 3 as
Limiting Oxygen Index, LOI confirm that.

60
Table 2: CIE degree of whitness (WCIE) and Yelowness index (YI) of untreated and FR
treated modified cotton fabric
Fab- After treatment After 1 washing cycle
Treatment
ric W CIE
YI WCIE YI
0 69.0 5.7 70.5 5.0
FR1 42.8 14.8 55.8 10.6
FR1_50 49.1 12.8 54.8 10.8
B
WG10 66.1 6.2 68.5 5.6
FR2 47.3 13.0 59.3 9.0
FR2_50 50.0 11.9 60.1 8.7
0 68.2 5.3 68.6 5.0
BM FR2 55.7 10.0 55.9 10.0
FR2_50 54.3 10.5 59.3 8.7
0 66.5 6.0 64.4 6.9
BCM FR2 53.3 11.1 61.3 8.0
FR2_50 54.8 10.3 63.2 7.3
0 63.6 6.9 61.1 7.7
BOM FR2 55.0 10.4 57.3 9.4
FR2_50 54.1 10.6 59.1 8.9
Table 3: Burning behaviour according to the ISO 4589:1996 LOI values of untreated
and FR treated modified cotton fabric
Fab- After treatment After 1 washing cycle
Treatment
ric LOI t [s] LOI t [s]
0 19 105 19 114
FR1 44 72 23 78
FR1_50 30 61 22 73
B
WG10 20 57 19 122
FR2 47 54 26 75
FR2_50 35 68 22 75
0 20 121 20 135
BM FR2 43 62 27 84
FR2_50 29 94 20 116
0 20 118 20 122
BCM FR2 38 71 28 98
FR2_50 29 81 21 103
0 19 139 19 140
BOM FR2 45 65 28 92
FR2_50 29 79 21 101
According to the results of Limiting Oxygen Index presented in Table 3 it can be
seen that untreated cotton burns rapidly when present only 19 % of O2. Application
of flame retardants improved its burning behavior, as expected. The conventional
flame retardants for cellulose, urea and ammonium hydrogen phosphate (B_FR1),
showed very high LOI values (LOI 44). When the concentrations of these conventional
flame retardants were reduced to half (B_FR1_50), LOI decreased to 30, but still
indicating good flame retardancy. Application of water glass slightly improved LOI
to 20. Treatment with conventional flame retardants with addition of water glass
(FR2) increased the LOI regardless of applied in full or reduced concentration of
conventional FRs. It is to point out incredibly high LOI value of 47 for fabric B_FR2 which

61
features the highest flame retardancy possible to measure on Dynisco Instrument.

Even thou the highest possible LOI was achieved, after 1 washing cycle it significantly
decreased, indicating low durability of this treatment. When conventional FRs were
applied to modified fabric, LOI values were lower. However, after 1 washing cycle LOI
was higher, suggesting better crosslinking as well. Therefore, for better understanding
of the change in cotton thermal properties under the heat Thermogravimetric
analysis (TGA) and Micro combustion calorimetry (MCC) were done on all cotton
fabrics treated in full concentration of urea and ammonium hydrogen phosphate
with addition of water glass (FR2). Results are presented in Figures 1-2, and in Tables
4-5.
Table 4: Thermogravimetric data of untreated and FR treated modified cotton after
1 washing cycle
Tmax1 [°C] Residue at Residue at 800
Fabric Tonset 5% [°C] the end of Tmax2 [°C] °C [%]
volatilation
B_1w 298 354 49.8 522 0.6
B_FR1_1w 292 347 64.8 599 5.1
B_FR2_1w 273 340 64.3 584 5.6
BM_FR2_1w 293 361 64.7 627 7.0
BCM_FR2_1w 298 356 65.0 625 6.7
BOM_FR2_1w 289 352 68.4 632 9.3
From Figures 1 and Table 4 it is evident that the thermal degradation of cellulose takes
place at 300–400 °C through two competitive processes, namely depolymerisation and
dehydration. In depolymerisation is initiated by the scission of acetal bonds between
the chain glycosidic units, followed by successive splitting of volatile laevoglucosan,
the cyclic monomer of cellulose, from ensuing chain ends. Competing dehydration
reactions lead to thermally stable aliphatic structures (char I), which subsequently
are converted into aromatic structures (char II), with water, methane, carbon mono
and dioxide evolution (400–600 °C). Char II is thermally stable at least up to 800 °C
(Horrocks 2001, Alongi 2013). Cotton treated with conventional flame retardants urea
and ammonium hydrogen phosphate (B_FR1) started the degradation at lower
temperature (as demonstrated by the Tonset5% linear decrease, Table 4) and the
maximum temperature of first weight loss (Tmax1) is strongly reduced. The reason
of that is the presence of phosphor and nitrogen groups’ in urea and ammonium
hydrogen phosphate.
Further heat increment leads to inhibition of volatile species and promote char
formation. The char residue was slightly increased by the addition of water glass
(B_FR2). This can be explained by the knowledge that silicates acting in condensed
phase of combustion process. They are creating a barrier to return heat, increasing the
charred residue and in this way increase the protection from burning. When the FRs
were applied to modified cotton fabrics the char residue is significantly higher than
of untreated one (B) what confirms better crosslinking. The char residue is the highest
for the cotton fabric cationized during mercerization with reactive polyammonium
compound Rewin OS.

62
Figure 1: TGA/DTG curves recorded in air, heating rate 30 °C/min of FR treated cotton
fabrics after 1 washing cycle: 0-B; 1-B_FR1; 2-B_FR2; 3-BM_FR2; 4-BCM_FR2; 5-BOM_FR2
From Figure 2 and Table 5 it is clear that cotton material treated with conventional
flame retardants urea and ammonium hydrogen phosphate (FR1) has much lower
Heat Release Rate (HRR) and Specific Heat release (hc) than untreated one. The
63
HRR has slowly decreased by the addition of water glass (FR2), whilst modification,
especially mercerization and cationization with reactive polyammonium compound,
significantly decrease it.
Table 5: MCC data of untreated and FR treated modified cotton after 1 washing
cycle
Maximum
Heat re- specific Specific Yield of Specific heat of
Heat re-
Fabric lease ca- heat re- Heat re- pyrolysis combustion of
lease tem-
pacity lease lease residue fuel gase
peratureTmax
ηc (J/g-K) Qmax (W/g) (°C) hc (kJ/g) Yp (g/g) hc.gas (kJ/g)
B_1w 199.66 222 318 10.2 0.09 11.22
B_FR1_1w 92 95.15 302.5 3.3 0.29 4.67
B_FR2_1w 85 87.48 303.3 2.8 0.33 4.18
BM_FR2_1w 74 75.8 300.5 2.5 0.24 3.30
BCM_FR2_1w 83 84.13 300.2 3.2 0.30 4.54
BOM_FR2_1w 65 65.2 295.2 2.3 0.33 3.43
Combustion temperature of the treated cotton is lower and time to ignition is faster than
of untreated cotton. The higher the char yield, the more carbon/inorganic material
was left behind, the decreased amount of combustible volatile release, resulting in
lower flammability. From the MCC results it can be noticed that the samples that have
lower Heat Release also produce less volatiles species and more char. The MCC results
confirm TGA results presented in Table 5. Once more it is to point out excellent results
of cationization with reactive polyammonium compound prior to FR treatment (BOM).
250
B_1w
B_FR1_1w
B_FR2_1w
200
BM_FR2_1w
BCM_FR2_1w
BOM_FR2_1w
150
HRR [W/g]
100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Temperature [°C]
Figure 3: MCC curves of washed untreated and FR treated modified cotton fabrics

64
CONCLUSIONS
Sodium metasilicate, Na2SiO3 (water glass) significantly improves the flame retardancy
of cotton when added in the bath with conventional flame retardants - urea and
ammonium hydrogen phosphate. It showed an excellent thermal stability and
formed higher amount of char than cotton fabric treated with urea and ammonium
hydrogen phosphate only.
When applied to modified fabrics, LOI is slightly lower. However, after 1 washing cycle
is better, suggesting better crosslinking and durability. This effect is more enhanced
for cotton fabric cationized during mercerization with reactive polyammonium
compound.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The paper is a part of the research under the COST Action project MP1105: FLARETEX.
The authors would like to thank the European Commission for the funding of the
project.
REFERENCES
Alongi, J., G. Camino, and G. Malucelli. 2013. Heating rate effect on char yield from cotton,
poly(ethylene terephthalate) and blend fabrics. Carbohydrate Polymers 92:1327-1334.
Alongi, J., M. Ciobanu, and G. Malucelli. 2012. Sol-gel treatments on cotton fabrics for improving
thermal and flame stability: Effect of the structure of the alkoxysilane precursor. Carbohydrate
Polymers, 87: 627–663.
Grancarić, A. M., I. Prlić, A. Tarbuk, and G. Marović. 2012. Activated Natural Zeolites on Textiles:
Protection from Radioactive Contamination. In Intelligent Textiles and Clothing for Ballistic and NBC
Protection, eds. P. Kiekens and S. Jayaraman, 157-176. NATO Science for Peace and Security Series B:
Physics and Biophysics; Heidelberg, Springer.
Grancarić, A. M., L. Botteri, J. Alongi, and G. Malucelli. 2015. Synergistic effects occurring between
water glasses and urea/ammonium dihydrogen phosphate pair for enhancing the flame retardancy
of cotton. Cellulose, 22: 2825-2835.
Grancarić, A. M., P. Kiekens, L. Botteri, A. Tarbuk, and J. Alongi. 2014. Sodium Metasilicate for
Improvement Cotton Flame Retardancy. In Book of Proceedings of the 7th International Textile,
Colothing & Design Conference, ed. Z. Dragčević, A. Hursa Šajatović, and E. Vujasinović. 205-210.
Zagreb, Faculty of Textile Technology.
Horrocks, A. R. 2001. Textiles. In Fire retardant materials. Eds. A. R. Horrocks and D. Price, 128-181.
Woodhead Publ. Ltd, Cambridge, England.
Horrocks, A. R. 2005. Thermal (heat and fire) protection. In Textiles for Protection, ed. R. A. Scott, 398-440.
Cambridge, England, Woodhead Publ. Ltd.
Tarbuk, A., A. M. Grancarić, and M. Leskovac. 2014 Novel cotton cellulose by cationisation during the
mercerisation process - Part 1: Chemical and morphological changes. Cellulose 21: 2167-2179.

65
ESTIMATION AND PREDICTION OF LONG

SCUTCHED FLAX SPINNING ABILITY
Dyagilev Andrey1, Biziuk Andrei1, Kogan Alexander1
1
Vitebsk State Technological University, 72, Moscowski Pr., 210035, Vitebsk, Republic of Belarus
(E-mail: dyagilev@vstu.by)
ABSTRACT
This article describes the developed information system of quality control of long
scutched flax fiber, based on modern technology of development of network
applications. The system is implemented in the production process of RUPTE “Orsha
Linen Mill”, which is the largest enterprise in the Republic of Belarus in terms of volume
of flax fiber processing. The information system collects data on the physical and
mechanical properties of flax fiber and its products and provides basis for estimation
of flax spinning ability by methods of mathematical statistics. Information system
allows the following:
- operatively implement quality control of flax fiber delivered to the linen mill;
- prepare different kinds of statistical reports in real time mode;
- predict the physical and mechanical properties of the products produced by
processing long scutched flax fiber.
The article discusses the developed methodology of comparative analysis, which
allows to resolve disputes about the quality of the flax fiber between suppliers and
linen mill, and introduces the concept of individual quality functions for each of the
controlled properties.
Keywords: quality control, long scutched flax, spinning ability, quality indicator
INTRODUCTION
In today’s rapidly changing requirements of world market for the production of textile
enterprises, a modern manufacturing technology as well as information systems for
analysis and control of product quality should be used. “Orsha Linen Mill” is the largest
enterprise in the Republic of Belarus and Eastern Europe in terms of volume of flax
fiber processing. It integrates technological processes from flax fiber to finished linen
textiles. Flax fiber to the “Orsha Linen Mill” comes from more than 50 suppliers of the
Republic of Belarus and other countries. The spinning ability of flax fiber is an indicator,
which characterizes its quality and allows predicting the properties of linen yarn that
can be produced from it. The input control laboratory measures numerical values
of physical and mechanical properties of flax fiber: breaking load, flexibility, length,
color, etc. Existing methods allow to estimate spinning ability of flax by comparing
the values of physical and mechanical properties with standard values. Due to the
changing climatic conditions, cultivation of new varieties of flax, using of new types
of fertilizers, the probability distribution of the physical and mechanical properties of
flax fiber is changing and, as a result, the existing methods for estimating the ability
of spinning lose their accuracy. To improve the control efficiency and to improve

66
the quality of yarn produced at the “Orsha Linen Mill”, the authors developed and
implemented computer information system of quality control of processed flax. The
information system collects data on the physical and mechanical properties of flax
fiber and its products and provides basis for estimation of flax spinning ability by
methods of mathematical statistics.
Figure 1 shows the scheme of information system of quality control.
Fig. 1
Information system of quality control (Dyagilev 2016) is based on modern technology
of development of network applications: web-oriented languages – PHP, JavaScript,
CSS; Debian Linux server operating system; Apache web-server; MySQL database
management system. For statistical processing of data and generation of graphical
representation used functional programming language R (R Core Team 2016),
which allows to use all the variety of modern statistical methods for the analysis of
accumulated data. Using web-based technologies makes it easy to organize access
to the capabilities of the information system with various devices, such as PCs, tablets,
smartphones, etc. For example, to enhance mobility, workplaces are equipped with
portable touch-input devices, providing access to all of the information system via a
wireless Wi-Fi technology.
In Belarus, there are normative documents (STB1195 2008), according to which a
quality indicator of long scutched flax fiber (its spinning ability) is measured in units
called “nomer”. To assess the nomer following physical and mechanical properties
are investigated: breaking load, flexibility, handful length, color group, content of
shive, defects of fibers, humidity.

67
Figure 2 shows the graphical dependences of the average, minimum and

maximum values of the breaking load, handful length, flexibility, color group of long
scutched flax grown in Belarus in 2015 on nomer.

68
Fig. 2
As Figure 2 shows the average values of the breaking load, flexibility, handful length
and color group of long scutched flax fiber tend to increase alongside with increasing
nomer. Intervals between the minimum and maximum values within the same quality
indicator increase with the volume of batches (Dyagilev 2014).
Figure 3 shows the distribution of the volume of batch depending on the quality
indicator of long scutched flax fiber grown in Belarus in 2015.
TIWC 2016, 25-28 April, 2016, Poznan, Poland
Fig. 3
As Figure 3 shows there is the prevalence of nomer #11 in the total volume of batches
Fig. 3
of flaxAs
fiber. The 3
Figure share of there
shows flax fibers
is the ofprevalence
nomer #13of isnomer
less than
#11 6in
percent, flax
the total fiber of
volume of
nomer #14 and higher was not delivered by Belarusian flax plants.
batches of flax fiber. The share of flax fibers of nomer #13 is less than 6 percent, flax fiber
of nomer #14 and higher was not delivered by Belarusian flax plants.
Often, in case of complaints, it is impossible to give a clear answer why the properties
of theOften,
fiber doin not
case of complaints,
match the nomer it declared
is impossible
by the to give a clear
supplier. If theanswer
qualitywhy the
of flax
properties of the fiber do not match the nomer declared by the supplier. If the quality of flax
fiber does not match the declared nomer, the supplier can either accept the
fiber does not match the declared nomer, the supplier can either accept the instrumentally
instrumentally defined nomer or withdraw the batch of fiber to resorting. In the latter
defined nomer or withdraw the batch of fiber to resorting. In the latter case, it is necessary
case,
to it is which
know necessary to knowneed
properties which to properties needFor
be improved. to be improved.
this purpose, For the thismethod
purpose, of
the methodestimation
comparative of comparative estimation
of physical of physical
and mechanical and mechanical
properties of flax fiber, properties of
based on the
statistical
flax fiber,apparatus
based onof the survival analysis
statistical was developed.
apparatus of survival In the informational
analysis system of
was developed.
quality control, a comparative analysis module was implemented based on the developed
In the informational system of quality control, a comparative analysis module was
methodology, and the concept of individual quality functions was introduced for each of the
implemented based on the developed methodology, and the concept of individual
controlled properties. To determine the relative position of the value of the selected
quality functions was introduced for each of the controlled properties. To determine
property of the test sample to a set of values of all the examined samples the following
the relative position of the value of the selected property of the test sample to a set
function is used (Dyagilev 2015):
of values of all the examined samples the following function is used (Dyagilev 2015):
∞
1
S (x) = 1 − CDF (x) = ∫ PDF (t )dt ≈ ∑ pi = n ⋅ kxi ≥ x , (1)
x i:xi ≥ x
where x – the value of property of a single test sample;; CDF (x) – the cumulative
distribution function;; PDF (t ) – the probability density function;; pi – the probability
associated with the value that satisfies the condition xi ≥ x ;; n – the number of tested
samples;; k – the number of samples that satisfy the condition xi ≥ x .
Function (1) shows what percentage of test samples has values of selected
properties of the same or better than the value in the test sample. This function can be
Inseparable from the human environment. Hosted by the Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants (INF&MP), 69
used for those properties, which have large values more preferable than smaller ones, for Poznan, Poland, April 25th - 28th, 2016
example: breaking load, handful length, flexibility.

Function (1) shows what percentage of test samples has values of selected properties
of the same or better than the value in the test sample. This function can be used
for those properties, which have large values more preferable than smaller ones, for
example: breaking load, handful length, flexibility.
Figure 4 shows graphs of individual quality functions (1) for breaking load and
flexibility of long scutched flax fiber, which has quality indicator (nomer) equal to
#12 and grown
TIWC in 2014. Property
2016, values of
25-28 April, one ofPoznan,
2016, the batches of long scutched flax
Poland
grown in 2015 are displayed on the graphs.
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
Figure 4 shows that the value of the breaking load of test sample equals to 237 N.
According to the graph, 18.4% of the batches of flax fiber, which have instrumentally
Figure 4 shows that the value of the breaking load of test sample equals to 237 N.
confirmed
According to the quality
graph, indicator
18.4% of ofthe
#12, have a
batches of value of the
flax fiber, breaking
which have load not less than
instrumentally
confirmed quality indicator of #12, have a value of the breaking load not less than that of
that of the sample. Additionally Figure 4 shows that the value of the flexibility of test
the sample.
sampleAdditionally
equals to 43Figure 4 shows that
mm. According the graph,
to the value of the flexibility
19.8% of test of
of the batches sample
flax fiber,
equals to 43 mm. According to the graph, 19.8% of the batches of flax fiber, which have
which have instrumentally confirmed quality indicator of #12, have a value of the
instrumentally confirmed quality indicator of #12, have a value of the flexibility not less than
flexibility not less than that of the sample.
that of the sample.
For properties, which have smaller values more preferable than large ones, such as
For properties, which have smaller values more preferable than large ones, such as
content of shive, the coefficient of variation for breaking load, used cumulative distribution
content of shive, the coefficient of variation for breaking load, used cumulative
function:
distribution function:
x
1
CDF (x) = ∫ PDF (t )dt ≈ ∑ pi = ⋅ kxi ≤ x . (2)
n i:xi ≤ x
−∞
Figure 6 shows graphs of individual quality functions (2) for coefficient of variation
for breaking load and coefficient of variation for flexibility of long scutched flax fiber, which
Figure 6 shows graphs of individual quality functions (2) for coefficient of variation
has quality indicator equal to #12 and grown in 2014. Property values of one of the parties
for breaking load and coefficient of variation for flexibility of long scutched flax fiber,
of long scutched flax grown in 2015 are displayed on the graphs.
which has quality indicator equal to #12 and grown in 2014. Property values of one
of the parties of long scutched flax grown in 2015 are displayed on the graphs.

70
Fig. 6
Figure 6 shows that the value of the coefficient of variation for breaking load of test
sample is 22.6%. According to the graph, 83.4% of the batches of flax fiber, which
have instrumentally confirmed quality indicator of #12, have a value of the coefficient
of variation for breaking load not greater than that of the sample. Additionally Figure 6
shows that the value of the coefficient of variation for flexibility of test sample is 25.8%.
According to the graph, 59.4% of the batches of flax fiber, which have instrumentally
confirmed quality indicator of #12, have a value of the coefficient of variation for
flexibility not greater than that of the sample.
Figures 2-6 are made directly by the information system of quality control in the
production environment of “Orsha Linen Mill”.
Using the data accumulated in the information system of quality control of long
scutched flax fiber and using methods of computer simulation modeling, algorithms
to predict spinning capacity more accurately than methods approved by the
applicable regulatory documents were developed and implemented.
The use of statistical methods and modern information technologies allows for
prediction of spinning ability to rely on the data of flax control carding of current year
harvest as well as the previous years.
RESULTS
Information system of quality control of long scutched flax fiber is developed and
implemented in the production process of RUPTE “Orsha Linen Mill”. The information
system allows:
operatively implement quality control of flax fiber delivered to the linen mill;
prepare different kinds of statistical reports in real time mode;
predict the physical and mechanical properties of the products produced by
processing long scutched flax fiber;
operatively and argumentatively resolve disputes about the quality of the flax fiber
between suppliers and a linen mill.
CONCLUSIONS
The use of modern information technology and statistical methods can improve quality
and reduce costs in the manufacture of textile materials. In the nearest perspective,
71
all the technological transition from the production of flax fiber to manufacture of the
finished product should be controlled by a single information system of quality control
that will allow to use all available reserves to improve quality, reduce costs, increase
the speed of development and production of new assortment of textile products.
REFERENCES
STB1195. 2008. Flax fiber scutched long. Introduced 2008-04-30, Minsk: State Standard of the Republic
of Belarus.
Dyagilev, A.S., A.N. Biziuk, A.G. Kogan. 2014. Investigation of belarussian long scutched flax fiber quality
characteristics of 2013-th year crop. Vestnik of Vitebsk State Technological University, 27: 31-37.
Dyagilev, A.S., A.N. Biziuk, A.G. Kogan. 2015. Production quality control of long scutched flax. The News
of higher educational institutions. Technology of Light Industry, 2: 59-62.
Dyagilev, A.S., A.N. Biziuk, A.G. Kogan. 2015. Evaluation of long scutched flax spinning ability. Vestnik
of Vitebsk State Technological University, 28: 61-70.
Dyagilev, A.S., A.N. Biziuk, A.G. Kogan. 2015. Investigation of changes in color characteristics of flax
fiber in the carding process. Vestnik of Vitebsk State Technological University, 29: 31-42
Dyagilev, A.S., A.N. Biziuk, A.G. Kogan. 2016. Construction of information system for quality control
of long scutched flax fiber in production environment. News of the Institutions of Higher Education.
Technology of Textile Industry, 1: 51-54.
R Core Team. 2016. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for
Statistical Computing. Vienna, Austria. URL http://www.R-project.org/.

72
EFFECT OF THE EXTRACTION METHOD ON THE

PROPERTIES OF SILK FIBROIN
Ángel Daniel Ríos1,2, Catalina ÁlvarezLópez3, Luis Javier Cruz1,4, Adriana
RestrepoOsorio1
Grupo de investigación sobre Nuevos Materiales GINUMA, 2Semillero de Investigación en Textiles
1
SI Textil, 3Grupo de Investigaciones Agroindustriales GRAIN, Facultad de Ingeniería Agroindustrial,

4Facultad de Ingeniería Mecánica, 5Facultad de Ingeniería Textil.
Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, Circular 1 N° 70-01, Medellín, Colombia.
(Presenting and corresponding author E-mail: adriana.restrepo@upb.edu.co)
ABSTRACT
Silk production is carry out in Colombia by smallholder farmers and craftspeople at
semiindustrial scale as a complementary activity together with other plantations. At
present, it is production reaches 20 ton/year of cocoon and 2 ton/year of silk yarn,
which indicates that only about 10% of the total cocoon weight, is used in textile
production, generating a significant amount of waste silk fibrous waste (SFW). In this
work, a comparison of some properties of silk fibroin (SF), which is the predominant
protein on the SFW, were evaluated.
Samples of SF were obtained from SFW degummed previously by use two different
procedures: LiBr 9.3 M (SFLi) and a ternary solution (SFT) of CaCl2:H2O:EtOH (1:8:2 in
molar ratio). In both cases, the concentration and yield production of aqueous solutions
were evaluated. Finally, SF films obtained with by both methods were characterized
using TGA and FTIR techniques. The effects of the extraction process were evidenced
in the structure of SF films, in the concentration of the solutions, but not in production
yield.
Keywords: Silk fibrous waste, Silk fibroin, Dissolution.
INTRODUCTION
Silk industry generates waste over 80% of the total weight of the cocoons produced
(Viswanath y Nand 1994), These SFW may be used as raw material for the production
of silk fibroin (SF), and this protein has remarkable properties like biodegradability,
biocompatibility, controllable degradation rates, and versatility to generate different
kinds of forms that are useful in different sectors such as food packaging, biomedical
and pharmaceutical applications, among others (Cao and Wang 2009, Weska, et al.
2009, Dhandayuthapani, et al. 2011, Koh, et al. 2015, Zhang, Yan and Li 2009).
The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of the dissolution methods on some
physicochemical properties of SF films obtained; therefore were employees two
methods of production of the SF present on SFW: LiBr (SFLi) and a ternary solvent (SFT)
of CaCl2H2OEthanol. The SF solutions were dried and the concentration and yield
of production were calculated. The films obtained were characterized using two
techniques: FTIR and TGA. The results can help to identifying potential applications of
films obtained.

73

Preparation of silk fibroin (SF) solutions
The first step in the preparation of SF solution is degumming, it is necessary to eliminate
the sericin present in silk fibers. SFW were included in a solution of Na2CO3 0.5 % w/v
at boiling temperature with agitation for 30 min. SFW degummed were filtered and
rinsed with warm water and dried at 60 °C for 24 h. The sericina removal percentage
was calculated according to Equation (1). The SFW degummed were dissolved using
two procedures. The first one, consists in LiBr 9.3 M at 60 ºC for 4 h (SFLi) (Rockwood, et
al. 2011) and the second one, in a ternary solvent (SFT) CaCl2:H2O:Ethanol (1:8:2 mole
ratio) at 70 ºC for 3 h (Wang and Zhang 2012).
The dissolution process is an important item for the obtention of SF films, because it
must be controlled different variables as the temperature, solution’s concentration,
humidity of degummed SFW. These variables can affect the interactions between the
protein and the solvent; allowing best interaction, through hydrogen bonds, implies a
better solubilization of SF in it (Sah, Pramanik and Materials 2010).
After of the dissolution, SFLi and SFT solutions were filtered and dialyzed, to remove the
excess salt in the samples. The dialysis process required continuous water changes,
using an amount that representing 100 times the volume of SF solution dialyzed
(Hodgkinson, et al. 2014). The water changes was developed as methodology
proposed by Rockwood, in which the first day the water was changed with intervals
of one, two and four hours (Rockwood, et al. 2011); the following days of dialysis, the
water was changed each 12 h until conductivity was stable.
The SF aqueous solutions dialyzed were centrifugated and then filtered through nylon
membranes of 0.45 μm pore zise. After that, the solutions were dried at 35 ºC for 72 h
to obtain fibroin films and finally, the concentration of SF solution (Equation (2)) and
production yield of SF (Equation (3)), were calculated.
Characterization of SF films
Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA). SF films was evaluated in a thermogravimetric
analyzer Mettler-Toledo, in the temperature range of 30800 ºC at a rate of 10 ºC/
min in a nitrogen controlled atmosphere whit a flow of 50 ml/min. TGA permit to
obtain different values of the sample, as: extrapolated onset temperature (T onset)
calculated with the temperature at which the weight loss begins and the degradation
temperature (T max) that can be obtained with the first derivative (DTG) and the
greater peak of this; also, the residual weight was determined with the mass of the
sample in the final temperature of the process.
Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). SF samples were analyzed in a
fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (IRPrestige, Shimatzu), in the wavelength
range of 4000400 cm-1, with a resolution of 4 cm-1, in the transmittance mode. FTIR
permit to determine differents functional groups on the sample evaluated from the
wavelength of vibration of itself; these results are obtained with the peaks in the
spectra and the guidelines for the interpretation.

74
RESULTS
SF solutions. After two degumming procedures of SFW, it was removed between 68%
of the weight of the sample, which correspond to the elimination of sericin. Although
cocoons can have around 2530% sericin (Padol, Jayakumar, Mohan, & Manochaya,
2012), the SFW used in this investigation do not reach these levels, because some
of them come from fibers previously degummed. In general, the sericine’s removal
percentage in the SFW is conditioned for the solution’s concentration, heating time,
temperature, waste’s composition, and amount of organic matter (leaves, sticks or
other impurities).
Wray et al, employed the conductivity measurement for determine the final point
during dialysis process; they selected as final point for water’s conductivity 5 μS/cm
(Wray, et al. 2011). The results of the present work demonstrate that after 84 h SFLi and
SFT solutions were completely dialyzed because the conductivity of the system was
stable and had the same value of the distilled water employed in the process (3 μS/
cm), which indicates that all the salt present in the SF solutions was removed.
Obtaining of SF films. The dialyzed solutions were centrifuged and filtered to remove
all insoluble residues (Hu, Kaplan and Cebe 2007). Then SFLi and SFT solutions were
dried to obtain translucent SF films. The SFLi solution showed a concentration of
3.2±0.2% wt which corresponds to a solution with a concentration 40.8% greater
than SFT solution (1.9±0.1% wt). In the case of the SFLi, the results are agree with that
reported by Nazarov et al, who found that cocoons dissolved with LiBr, obtained SF
solutions with a concentration between 25% wt (Nazarov, Jin and Kaplan 2004); while
for the ternary solvent the concentration reported is about 4% (Lv, et al. 2004) that
is nearly double compare with the present results, which is attributable to the raw
material employed. The yield of film production was 17.3±3.3% for SFLi and 20.6±2.1%
for SFT does not represent a significant statistical differences between the methods
evaluated. These results indicate that the use of LiBr solution, allows obtaining a more
concentrated SF solution with a lower volume of solvent, which lead to lower water
and energy consumption during dialysis and drying process.
Characterization of SF films
Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA). The results of TGA revealed that SF films obtained
by both different methods have two principal events: a loss of humidity for under the
210 °C, related with linked water the FS films and volatile compounds (Motta, Fambri,
& Migliaresi, 2002). After this temperature, further degradation of films FS, associated
with the decomposition of amino acid chains and breaking peptide bonds were
observed (Nogueira et al., 2009).
The main values are reported in Table 1. The onset temperature (T° onset) is the
temperature at which begins the process of degradation, in the SFLi films T° onset
is slightly lower compared with SFT films. FS films obtained by the two methods have
similar temperatures of maximum velocity of degradation, SFLi T° max: 289.2 °C while
the SFT T° max: 291.0 °C. Other researchers reported T° max: 263 °C in the case of SFLi
films (Hu, Kaplan, & Prime, 2007) and 287 °C for SFT films (Nogueira et al, 2008). These
differences can be possible due to they used cocoons as raw material.

75
TGA results of different SF films

Method T° onset T° max Residual weight
(°C) (°C) at 800 °C (%)
SFLi 259.6 289.2 36.7%
SFT 262.5 291.0 33.1%
After total degradation at 800 ºC, remained 36.7% and 33.1% of the initial weight for
SFLi and SFT films, respectively; the residual weight is believed to correspond to the
weight of amino acid residues (Yanagi, Kondo and Hirabayashi 2000). This results are
according to other investigations in which the final weight of SF films was equivalent
to 35-40% (Ribeiro, de Moraes, et al. 2015) o near to 30 % (Nogueira, et al. 2009) of the
initial mass.
Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). This technique allows to identify
differences in the structural conformation of evaluated samples. For the present work
it was analyzed the region between 1800 and 400 cm-1, where the amide groups
are detectable in the samples (Aznar-Cervantes, et al. 2013). The results evidence
the higher peaks at wavelengths of 1631, 1514, 1234, 1057 cm-1, which are similar to
other results reported previously, silk fibroin presents absorption bands at 1631 cm-1
(Tsukada, Freddi y Crichton 1994) corresponding to the amide I group These results
are agree with reported for other researchers that showed that the absorption bands
at 1642 cm−1 (amide I), 1230 cm−1 (amide III) and 1053 cm−1 were assigned to the
helix conformation while the band at 1515 cm−1 (amide II) was belonged to the βsheet
conformation (Lv, et al. 2004).
The peak 1631 cm-1 has a strong and acute intensity in both samples, is associated
with the formation of the structure α-helix, the tension vibration of C=O, polypeptide
backbone conformation and pattern of hydrogen bonds (Aznar-Cervantes, et al.
2013, Universidad de Granada 2015). The peak near to 1514 cm-1 is related with
amide II group and the bsheet structures and it is associated to the bending vibration
of NH bond (Wang, et al. 2004, Universidad de Granada 2015), the SFLi peak has a
broader compare to the same SFT peak. The peaks found at 1230 cm-1 indicated the
presence of the amide III and a bending vibration OCN, which is characteristic of SF
composed mainly of ahelix. The peaks in 1053 cm-1 are related with structures ahelix;
in this case, the SFLi peak has a narrow peak compared with the SFT peak. In general,
SF films have presence of a-helix and b-sheet, but their proportions define the final
properties of the SF (Ribeiro, de Moraes, et al. 2015).
CONCLUSIONS
The Colombian silk fibrous waste (SFW) may be used as raw material for the production
of SF by different methods, based on the dissolution of SFW in highly concentrated salt
solutions. In the degumming process, the sericine´s removal percentage in the SFW
is conditioned for waste’s composition and amount of organic matter and was lower
compare with the sericina amount from cocoons. The silk fibroin was obtained from
SFW with two methods of extraction: SFLi and SFT; in both procedures, was evaluated
the concentration of solutions obtained, the production yield and the structure. The
results indicated that SF obtained by LiBr solution had the major concentration of SF
than SFT solution; however no significant statistical differences were found in terms of
yield production. The obtention method of SF did not have significant influence on the

76
thermal properties as onset temperature and degradation temperature of the SF films.

After total degradation at 800 ºC, the SFT has a minor residual weight than SFLi at final
of process; the content of the ashes, correspond to the weight of amino acid residues.
FTIR show the presence of differences in the structural conformation related to amino
groups in the films and conformations ahelix and bsheet; these results evidence the
effect of the dissolution method on structure of SF obtained.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors express their thanks to Centro de Investigación para el Desarrollo y la
Innovación (CIDI) of the Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, and the Departamento
Administrativo de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (Colciencias) with the scholarship
program “Jóvenes Investigadores 2014” and the project “Electrospinning of natural
biopolymers from agroindustrial wastes and their blends with other synthetic
biopolymers with medical potential applications” (Radicated 276B-09/14-18) for
financial support of this work.
REFERENCES
Aznar-Cervantes, Salvador, Daniel Vicente-Cervantes, Luis Meseguer-Olmo, José Cenis, and Abel
Lozano-Pérez. “Influence of the protocol used for fibroin extraction on the mechanical properties and
fiber sizes of electrospun silk mats.” Materials Science and Engineering C, 2013: 1945-1950.
Cao, Yang, and Bochu Wang. “Biodegradation of silk biomaterials.” International Journal of Molecular
Sciences, 2009: 1514-1524.
Dhandayuthapani, B, Y Yasuhiko, T Maekawa, and DS & Kumar. “Fabrication and characterization of
nanofibrous scaffold developed by electrospinning.” Materials Research, 2011: 317-325.
Hodgkinson, Tom, Ying Chen, Ardeshir Bayat, and Xue-Feng Yuan. “Rheology and electrospinning of
regenerated bombyx mori silk fibroin aqueous solutions.” Biomacromolecules, 2014: 1288-1298.
Hu, Xiao, David Kaplan, and Peggy Cebe. “Effect of water on the thermal properties of silk fibroin.”
Thermochimica Acta 461 (2007): 137-144.
Koh, Leng-Duei, et al. “Structures, mechanical properties and applications of silk fibroin materials.”
Progress in Polymer Science 46 (2015): 86-106.
Lv, Qiang, Chuanbao Cao, Ying Zhang, Xilan Man, and Hesun Zhu. “The preparation of insoluble
fibroin films induced by degummed fibroin or fibroin microspheres.” Journal of Materials Science:
Materials in Medicine 15, no. 11 (2004): 1193-1197.
Nazarov, Rina, Hyoung-joon Jin, and David L Kaplan. “Porous 3-D scaffolds from regenerated silk
fibroin.” Biomacromolecules, 2004: 718-726.
Nogueira, Grinia M., et al. “A New Method to Prepare Porous Silk Fibroin Membranes Suitable for
Tissue Scaffolding Applications.” Journal of Applied Polymer Science 114 (2009): 617-623.
Ribeiro, Marta, et al. “Development of silk fibroin/nanohydroxyapatite composite hydrogels for bone
tissue engineering.” European Polymer Journal, 2015: 66-77.
Ribeiro, Marta, et al. “Development of silk fibroin/nanohydroxyapatite composite hydrogels for bone
tissue engineering.” European Polymer Journal, 2015: 66-77.
Rockwood, Danielle, Rucsanda Preda, Tuna Yucel, Xiaoqin Wang, Michel Lovett, and David Kaplan.
“Materials fabrication from Bombyx mori silk fibroin.” Nature Protocols 6, no. 10 (2011): 1612-1631.
Sah, M K, K Pramanik, and A Materials. “Regenerated Silk Fibroin from B . mori Silk Cocoon for Tissue
Engineering Applications.” International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, 2010:
404-408.
Tsukada, Masuhiro, Glullano Freddi, y John S Crichton. «Structure and Compatibility of Poly (vinyl
Alcohol) -Silk Fibroin (PVA / SF) Blend Films.» Journal of Polymer Science: Part B Polymer Physics, 1994:
243-248.
Universidad de Granada. “Estructura de macromoléculas: Espectroscopía biológica de absorción.”
Obdulio López. 2015. http://www.ugr.es/~olopez/estruct_macromol/IR/FTIR.pdf (accessed January
29, 2016).

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Viswanath , P, y K Nand . «Anaerobic digestion of silk industry wastes.» Bioresource Technolog 49

(1994): 273-276 .
Wang, Hai-Yan, and Yu-Qing Zhang. “Effect of regeneration of liquid silk fibroin on its structure and
characterization.” Soft Matter, 2012: 138-145.
Wang, Mao, Hyoung-joon Jin, David L Kaplan, and Gregory C Rutledge. “Mechanical Properties of
Electrospun Silk Fibers.” Macromolecules, 2004: 6856-6864.
Weska, Raquel Farias, Wellington Carlos Vieira Jr, Grínia Michelle Nogueira, and Marisa Masumi
Beppu. “Effect of freezing methods on the properties of lyophilized porous silk fibroin membranes.”
Materials Research, 2009: 233-237.
Wray, Lindsay S., et al. “Effect of Processing on Silk-Based Biomaterials: Reproducibility and
Biocompatibility.” Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B: Applied Biomaterials, 2011: 1199-
1216.
Yanagi, Y., Y. Kondo, and K. Hirabayashi. “Deterioration of silk fabrics and their crystallinity.” Textile
Research Journal, 2000: 871-875.
Zhang, Qiang, Shuqin Yan, and Mingzhong Li. “Silk Fibroin Based Porous Materials.” Materials, 2009:
2276-2295.

78

DR S.K CHAUDHURI
Chairman, INO – The Textile Institute, New Delhi, India
Chairman, International Inspection Initiative, New Delhi, India
Email Id: sailenchaudhuri@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The leading players in the world in Pashmina fibre production are China (72%),
Mongolia (18%), and Afghanistan (7%), India and Nepal are also in the race to
become significant in Pashmina processing.
The processing of Pashmina fibres at present is still in cottage scale which needs to be
upgraded using modern machineries to bring up to the International business level.
The Pashmina fibre is the most misunderstood as it is not only limited to the fibre but
also it has become a brand which unfortunately is heavily misused.
The answer to the survival and prosperity of this wonderful fibre lies on the right
innovation at all levels from harvesting to marketing.
Though Optim fibre was tried to replace expensive Pashmina but ultimately quality
minded consumers did not accept it.
Keywords: Pashmina- Cashmere- Fibre- Unique- Identification Misuse
INTRODUCTION
Pashmina, globally more popularly known as Cashmere, is considered as the golden
fibre and is reared from special Pashmina Goats found in Ladak region of Kashmir,
India. Cashmere goats which are normally located at a height of 4000 mts from sea
level with the temperature varying between -60 to – 40 degree Celsius. The Pashmina
fibre producing Ladaki nomadic entrepreneurs at that height and at that adverse
weather condition are the poorest people in the country who are responsible for
producing (Rolls Royce) of all fibres.
The Pashmina Fibre produces the ultimate luxury accessory with unique softness, lustre
which cannot be reproduced with any other fibres. It is indeed a specialty fibre. The
history tells us that Napoleon wanted to please his wife Josephine by presenting her
with a shawl of pure Pashmina.
China is the major producer of Pashmina with more than 70% of world production,
whereas India remains at as low as 1%. Raw Pashmina is collected during spring
moulting season, when animals naturally shed their undercoat. On the basis of
weather conditions and region, the goat starts moulting over a period from February
to late May.
1.1 What exactly Pashmina is?
Cashmere Fibre is also an animal hair like Wool, Angora which is popularly known as
Pashmina. Pashmina fibre is a protein fibre with polyamide polymer made up of 20
amino acids with a-keratin arrange in helical structure like that of wool. This similarity

79
in chemical composition leads to the commercial complexities and misuses that we

face today. In the name of 100% Pashmina many times we get Merino wool/synthetic
fibre mixed in it. It is extremely difficult, maybe impossible for any chemical or physical
test to determine this mix-up. Only DNA test which is very expensive can be nearer to
the truth but not 100% right.
The Pashmina comes from Persian word ‘Pasham’ which means ‘wool’. Pashmina has
been valued for centuries throughout Asia and the Middle East, and the wonderful
qualities of pashmina have made it just as popular in the West with the name popularly
known as Cashmere.
1.2 Global Scenario
The world demand of Pashmina fibre is bigger than the world supply.
Fig 1 shows the leading Pashmina producing countries in the world and their
percentage contribution in the total production
The worldwide total production of Pashmina fibre is about 15000 – 19000 tons per
annum. China and Mongolia two together accounts for 90% of the world’s Cashmere
supply , while Italy , China, U.K and Japan are the top four importers in the world.
The India and Nepal produce only 0.3% each in the global scale. They however have
various programs supported by their own government and external bodies with a
good intention of increasing the total production of Pashmina, and the Pashmina
yield per goat which is abnormally low at present. Indian and Nepali Pashmina goats
yield only ranging from 100 grams in Chegu Goats to about 250 grams in Changthangi
Goats in Nepal. Whereas the International Standards is somewhere around 500 to 700
grams per goat per year. This gap is so big that these countries have to really work
hard to compete with their counter parts.
Properties of Pashmina Fibre
2.1 Structural Properties
The Structural properties of Pashmina are very similar to wool as it is also made up with
a- helix of protein (keratin)

80
Fig : 2
Though the basic structure of Pashmina fibre is similar to that of wool, because of its
uniform diameter and unique scale pattern. Pashmina fibre having even diameter
and relatively distant and smooth cuticle scales makes it different from wool.
Physical Properties of Pashmina Fibre
The quality of Pashmina fibre can be described best if we take into consideration
the following characteristics of the fibre: diameter, fibre length, colour, style, crimp
and yield.
Table 1: Physical Characteristics of Nepal Pashmina
Undercoat % Mean fibre length Linear Vegetable
Type of fibre Fineness density
Wt/Wt No./No. (cms) Matter (%)
Tex (Gwt/
km)
71.07 ± 0.296 ±
Fine under coat 87.18 ± 1.571 13.37 ± 0.0472 55.86 ± 0.337 0.54 ± 0.072
1.917 0.004
Mechanical Properties
The Pashmina fibre has unique scale pattern like regular, flatter and ladder type
cuticle cells compare to wool and it makes it better than wool in handle and feel.
Table 2: Mechanical Characteristics of Nepal Pashmina
Characteristics In air In water
Fine Pashmina Guard hair Fine Pashmina Guard hair
Tex 0.319 ± 0.0072 3.004 ± 0.1106 0.318 ± 0.0072 2.864 ± 0.1024
Breaking Strength 11.812 ± 0.1475 14.597 ± 0.2596 10.043 ± 0.1344 9.339 ± 0.2773
Breaking Extension 34.58 ± 0.3774 37.54 ± 0.4408 55.93 ± 0.6019 55.38 ± 0.2773

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2.4 Chemical Properties

Pashmina fibre is a protein fibre with polyamide polymer made up of 20 amino
acids with alpha- keratin arranged in helical structure like that in wool. Chemically, it
resembles very much to wool.
Table 3: Chemical Characteristics of Nepal
Pashmina
Grease content Suint content
Type of fibre
(%) (%)
Fine under
5.61 ± 0.278 6.94 ± 0.794
coat
Guard hair 2.37 ± 0.113 4.52 ± 0.427
Identification of Pashmina Fibre

To avoid any mislabeling, exact identification and description of Pashmina product
is necessary. The following methods are some of the important techniques normally
used to differentiate Pashmina from other fibres. However, none of the test methods
available is 100% sure about the test results.
The methods are:
Scanning Electron Microscopic (SEM)
DNA Sequencing
Page Method
Chemical Staining Method
Processing of Pashmina Fibre
4.1 Traditional Processing Sequence Presently in Practice for Pashmina Shawl
making
This sequence is in practice in India and Nepal which is in Cottage Scale and needs
to be upgraded and improve to have a proper business sense in the whole program.

82
Fig 3. Processing Sequence for Shawl making in Small Scale Industry
Two process are suggested which are to be taken phase wise in first phase it is
modernize to a certain extent better than traditional.
Fig 4
4.3 Processing Sequence for Medium to Large Scale Industry for Shawl Making
Fig 5

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Innovation of Pashmina Product

5.1 Innovation in Pashmina Kashmiri Shawls
Finding reveals that instead of individual innovators, communities can be best
regarded as the main agents of innovations in the Kashmiri Pashmina Shawls. We
found many such community innovations introduced by different communities at
various levels.
New combs made of steel are used instead of one made from Yak horns and wood.
Some community innovators have introduced ‘dehairing machine’ used for cleaning
the coarser hair from the Pashmina.
Different dyes introduced by different communities.
New designs, products and new marketing techniques are being adopted.
5.2 Other Innovation in Pashmina Processing
Fabrication of Innovative Charkha
Fabrication of Improvised Handloom
Fabrication of Innovative Warping System
Application of Natural Dyes on Pashmina
Application of Natural Dyes as Anti-moth Finishing Agent
5.3 Innovation in Shawls
In the present globalized market our survival and prosperity depends totally on how
innovative the manufacturers are. There is tremendous thrust in innovation in every field
such as technology, products, testing and marketing. Innovation can be equated to
invention and market adaptability. Hence market adaptability is the most important
criteria. Shawl if we go by the product definitions is a fabric made out of Australian
Marino Wool.
This fabric is generally used by the middle aged women of India & its surrounding
countries, to wrap the body to protect against cold, with very little fashion content.
This product is generally made in the northern part of India using absolutely the basic
equipment’s and machineries which surprisingly makes a product which is wonderful
in handle feel and gives a very rich look.
Pashmina is also used in the Shawl Industry as longtime practice and the product
made out of Pashmina fibre is with exceedingly nicer feel and handle which makes
the Pashmina Shawl a unique product.
However, Shawl with its little fashion content has always been considered as very
ethnic dress and having a limited market as mentioned earlier. In 1995, International
Wool Secretariat or the Wool Mark Company thought of changing the shape & size
of the shawls (2.5m x 1.37m and weight 200 gms) to give a highly fashionable look to
introduced in the International Market and specially targeting the younger generation.
The product thus, produced are called Stoles (dimensions of ladies stole are normally
2.1m x 1.0 m or 2.5m x 1.37 m for gents) , the fabric weight (GSM) is kept at 50 to 70
gms for the whole stole.

84
This was undertaken as a project along with the National Institute of Fashion Technology,
Delhi. The design created by the Institute as a part of the Student Design Competition
was a very successful event and the designs thus, created were translated into the real
Shawls. Parallely, a buyer seller meets were designed to have the in depth dialogue
between the buyer and seller in those markets which were potential for this fashion
accessory which was Stole. This meets were done in very strategic countries like Lyll
in Belgium , London , Tokyo , Dusseldorf in Germany and Paris. The meets were highly
successful and the Shawl / Stole created history by increasing the Shawl export out of
India 10 times more than earlier.
The optim fibre which has been discussed is not considered as a threat because
this technology though sounds very lucrative did not succeed. The main reason that
Pashmina being expensive fibre and consumer of this niche market will always go for
the best like Pashmina. They will never compromise with the quality. Details of Optim
fibre are given below.
Optim Fibre
CSIRO took a major innovative step with the creation of OPTIM™ - a whole new textile
fibre based on wool.
OPTIM™ processing technology re-engineers wool fibres by stretching to make them
softer, stronger and lighter than the untreated wool. Two new kinds of fibres have
been created - OPTIM™ Fine and OPTIM™ Max.
The OPTIM™ Fine manufacturing process stretches 19 micron wool fibres between 40
and 50 per cent, making, on average fibres 3 to 3.5 micrometres finer. The reduced
micron fibre is then chemically set in this finer, softer form. OPTIM™ Fine has increased
length and strength, as well as a silk-like lustre, but retains many of the desirable
properties of fine wools. Synchrotron analysis by X-ray diffraction confirmed that the
structure of the OPTIM™ Fine fibre was silk-like (mostly β-sheet structure) after treatment.
In the production of OPTIM™ Max fibres, wool sliver is stretched to give an average
fibre extension of 20-30 per cent, which is temporarily set. The stretched fibres are then
blended with normal wool and spun into yarn. During the finishing of the yarn, it is
immersed in hot water causing the OPTIM™ Max fibres to retract to their original length.
This causes the normal wool fibres to buckle and distort giving a soft, lightweight bulky
yarn for the manufacture of lightweight garments, particularly knitwear.
The technology, invented by David Phillips at CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology.
The Optim fibre as described has feel and handle very similar to Pashmina whereas it
is four times cheaper than Pashmina.
7. Prevailing Market Mechanism for Pashmina Products
There are two distinctly separate markets exits in the world of Pashmina. The medium
– low end market segments where China clearly dominates and the high end market
where European brand name holders dominate. In the middle there is a medium and
segment where China, Mongolia, India and Nepal are the major players.
Existing Market Mechanism currently prevalent in India and Nepal can be broadly
explained as:

85
there is no volume market existing,

the goods of Pashmina what we see in market are very often fake and create a
negative image in market place,
the high price of real Pashmina and the lower confidence of the customer on the
purity of Pashmina affects the market,
the most common and potential are the tourist market
High price of Pashmina Shawl limits the market to only richer class consumers.
The potential of market opportunities for Pashmina Shawls, scarfs and knitwears is
quite considerable because of the strong increase in discretionary expenditure
among the consumer here, the consumers in these markets getting richer and the
consumers today are quite demanding in quality as they also belong to the global
market mechanism.
8. Summary and Conclusions
The Pashmina stole/ shawl has a niche value in the international fashion market, as
the high end fashion accessories. It does compete with other animal hair like Merino
wool not for quality and aesthetic values but simply for price. Pashmina products
being very expensive textiles, very often becomes victim of misuse, in labelling of the
fake cheap products as Pashmina. They sold imitated wool products at low price and
consumers preferred that products without knowing the real value. So the artisans
of pashmina are not able to fetch more value by selling pure pashmina products.
Generally customers prefer to spend their money as worth as possible and also they
want quality products. However stole or shawl is not the only possible product from
pashmina fibre. To survive the pashmina industry, it is the right time to make suitable
policies for streamlining the marketing of pure pashmina products, identify suitable
technologies for better value addition and development of diversified products from
pashmina fibre. Such approaches/ policies could improve the economy of artisans
involved in the manufacturing of Pashmina products. The possible opportunities for
diversification and higher value addition of pashmina fibre are plenty.
The answer to Pashmina Fibre’s future lies solely on the innovation at every stage of
processing, modernization and making the total business internationalization fitting to
the global market. In the present globalize market our survival and prosperity depends
totally on how innovative the manufactures are.
9. Reference
1. Report on Study of Pashmina Sector in India by Dr. S.K Chaudhuri for PETS Project, ITC Geneva
2. Characterization and Evaluation of Pashmina Producing , Chanthangi goats of Ladak, Indian
Journal of Animal Sciences 81(6): 592-599, June 2011
3. Evolutionary lineage and relationship of Himalayan region goats, International Journal of Biomedical
and Life Sciences (DHR-IJBLS), Vol 5 (1)
4. Ministry of Textile, Government of India, website
5. Export Potential assessment in Nepal
6. Cashmere value chain analysis Afghanistan
7. Annual Report on Export Commercial Council for handicraft (2006-07).

86

Miguel Ángel Valera1, Ferran Martí1
1
AIMPLAS 1, Gustave Eiffel 4, Paterna, Spain
(Presenting author E-mail: mavalera@aimplas.es; Corresponding author email: fmarti@aimplas.es)
ABSTRACT
NATURTRUCK project aims to develop injected parts for trucks cabin interiors made out
of thermoplastic composites from renewable resources (at least 80wt%). The composites
are based on polylactic acid (PLA) and natural fibres, thy have improved thermal and
flame retardancy properties, and will substitute standard ABS.
Flax, kenaf and hemp fibres were compounded at 15wt% with PLA and nucleant, and
injected into test specimens for characterization. Hemp fibres were selected as the most
suitable fibres for compounding. Both, cut hemp fibres and hemp pellets were tested in
the compounding process. Hemp pellets gave the best results.
The fire resistance of the biocomposites was studied by using ammonium polyphosphate
(APP) as halogen free flame retardant. With 14wt% of APP the material achieved HB
classification according to UL94 standard. The biocomposites showed very good tensile
properties but low impact strength.
The biocomposites were annealed by using microwaves (MW) as energy source to
improve their heat deflection temperature. The crystallinity of PLA was increased from 20-
30% to > 60% and the HDT(B) from 56ºC to 140-150ºC.
Keywords: (natural fibres, polylactic acid, biocomposites, flame retardant, annealing)
INTRODUCTION
The demand of renewable materials in the automotive sector is increasing and reflecting
a real need, so it is indispensable the adaptation of the truck suppliers to this new
situation, in order to be able to offer products according to the customer’s philosophy,
mainly based on thermoplastic biocomposites. Among those, wood plastic composites
(WPC) and natural fibre composites (NFC) are the most current materials used in interior
applications in the automotive industry; e.g. in rear shelves, interior trims for doors and
trunks, and spare wheels (WPC), and in interior trims for high value doors and dashboards
(NFC). According to the latest market study of Nova-Institut (Eder 2015), the production of
WPC and NFC in 2012 in the EU was about 60,000 and 90,000 ton, and it was foreseen to
increase up to 80,000 and 120,000 ton respectively by 2020. Figures that could increase
up to 300,000 – 350,000 ton in a scenario without strong political incentives to increase the
biobased content in the automotive sector. Despite WPC and NFC parts in the automotive
sector are manly produced by compression moulding, extrusion and thermoforming, the
production of compounds or granulates for injection moulding applications has been
the one with higher market potential (Carus 2008). In the production of WPC wood fibres
or wood flour are mainly used as a fillers whereas in NFC, natural fibres (e.g. hemp, flax,
kenaf, and jute fibres) are used as reinforcing agent due to their higher tensile and flexural
properties and higher aspect ratio (Pickering 2008). Polypropylene (PP) is the mainly
polymer used as matrix material in WPC and NFC in automotive applications. However,

87
in recent years there is a trend to increase the biobased content in biocomposites using
biobased and/or biodegradable polymers (mainly polylactic acid, PLA). Following this
approach, NATURTRUCK project is developing injected parts for the interior cabin of
trucks based on Polylactic acid (PLA) and natural fibres with improved thermal and flame
retardancy properties that aim to substitute standard petrochemical based acrylonitrile-
butadiene-styrene (ABS).
An injection moulding grade PLA IngeoTM 3260HP from Natureworks (MFR = 65g/10 min
at 210°C and 2.16kg) was selected due to its low content of D-isomer (< 0.5%) required
for fast crystallization rates (Kolstad 1996). A high aspect ratio talc Luzenac HAR T84 from
Imerys Talc was used as nucleating agent to increase the crystallization rate of PLA and
therefore the heat deflection temperature (HDT) of the biocomposites. Untreated natural
fibres; kenaf, flax and hemp fibres were prepared cut to 4mm length and supplied by
the Institute of natural fibres and medicinal plants (IWNIRZ) in Poznan (Poland). Pelletized
hemp fibre pellets were supplied by the project partner BaVe Badische Faserveredelung
GmbH (BaVe) in Germany. Exolit AP 462 from Clariant, a commercial halogen free flame
retardant based on microencapsulated ammonium polyphosphate with melamine, was
used to impart flame retardant properties to PLA/natural fibre biocomposites.
The PLA/natural fibre biocomposites were prepared in AIMPLAS (Plastics Technology
Centre) using a co-rotating twin screw extruder LEISTRITZ ZSE 27 MAXX (27mm of screw
diameter and L/D=44). Previous to the compounding process the PLA was dehumidified
at 80ºC for 4 hours, whereas the fibres were dried at 90ºC overnight to reduce the moisture
content <1wt%. The compounding process was carried out at 10 kg/h, 175 rpm of screw
speed and profile temperature from 190 to 185ºC in order to avoid fibre burning. The
obtained biocomposites were injection moulded in a KRAUSS MAFFEI EX160-750 injection
moulding machine to produce test specimens for characterization purposes. Previous to
the injection moulding process the pellets were dried at least 4 h at 80º C. The samples
were injected using a profile temperatures from 150 to 190ºC, and mould temperature of
20ºC. The annealing treatment was carried out by AIMPLAS using a laboratory microwave
oven (Mw) with one magnetron (open antenna, frequency 2.45 GHz and 2kW) attached
to a robot.
The complete characterization of the biocomposites was carried out in AIMPLAS
laboratories. The tensile properties were obtained according to the UNE-EN ISO 527-2
standard, and the Charpy unnotched impact strength at 23º C according to the UNE-
EN ISO 179-1. The HDT B (0.45MPa) was carried out according to the UNE-EN ISO 75-2
standard. The melt flow index (MFI) was determined according to the standard UNE-EN
ISO1133-2 (at 190ºC and 5kg). The crystallinity was determined by DSC analysis following
the standards UNE-EN-ISO 11357-1, ISO 11357-2 and UNE-EN ISO 11357-3. The flammability
of the composites was assessed according to the UL94 standard (horizontal burning test).
RESULTS
Effect of different fibres and nucleating agent.
Untreated flax, hemp and kenaf fibres were tested as natural reinforcement in PLA
biocomposites. Based on previous experiences a 15wt% of fibres were used, higher
fibre content would result in a drastic decrease in MFI making the biocomposites not

88
suitable for injection moulding applications. In addition, talc was also included as
nucleating agent (at 5wt%), and to improve the mechanical properties and HDT of
the biocomposites. Natural fibres and talc were respectively fed through the first and
second side feeder of the extruder. During the compounding process some problems
occurred due to the low bulk density of cut natural fibres, they sometimes blocked
the entrance of the side feeder being necessary to stop, clean the hopper of the side
feeder, and re-start the process. After compounding the MFI of the biocomposites
was measured (see table 1).
Table 1. Melt flow index (190ºC and 5kg) of different PLA composites with cut natural
fibres and talc.
MFI
Sample
(g/10min)
PLA 91.0±2.9
PLA+15wt% Kenaf 40.6±0.9
PLA+15wt% Kenaf +5wt% talc 35.1±0.8
PLA+15wt% flax 40.1±1.0
PLA+15wt% flax +5wt% talc 36.1±0.7
PLA+15wt% hemp 27.2±0.6
PLA+15wt% hemp +5wt% talc 19.5±0.5
The MFI was drastically reduced by adding the fibres (from 90g/10min to 40 for kenaf
and flax, and 27g/10min for hemp). When talc was combined with natural fibres an
additional reduction in MFI was noticed. The lowest MFI value was registered for the
composite with hemp and talc (19.5 g/10min). The biocomposites were then injection
moulded into test specimens and characterized. The addition of talc allowed a
reduction in 5 to 10s in the cooling time due to its nucleating effect and therefore
higher crystallization speed (Tsuji 2006). The mechanical properties and (HDT) of the
biocomposites are showed in figure 1.
Figure 1. Mechanical properties and HDT (B) of different PLA composites with cut
natural fibres and talc.

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The biocomposites with kenaf fibres showed the best tensile properties but the lowest
impact strength, whereas flax and hemp biocomposites showed similar properties.
The tensile modulus drastically increased with the addition of natural fibres. However,
the tensile strength was slightly reduced in comparison with raw PLA. Moreover, the
impact strength was reduced by 20% (for flax and hemp fibres) to 33% (for kenaf
fibres). The HDT(B) only increased by 1-1.5ºC with the addition of fibres. This was due to
the low crystallinity of the PLA in the composite after the injection moulding of the part
(20-30%). In this case the HDT of the composites is controlled by the Tg of the amorphous
phase of the PLA (55ºC). The addition of a 5wt% of talc to PLA biocomposites resulted
in a general improvement of the mechanical properties, but not in the HDT(B).
As the HDT of the biocomposites was very low, an annealing treatment was carried
out over injected test specimens using Mw as energy source. The biocomposites were
heated up to 80ºC and then left to crystallize at room temperature. After annealing the
crystallinity of the biocomposites (Xc), and the crystallinity referred to the PLA content
(Xc PLA) were determined by DSC. The HDT (B) test was also carried out in order to
corroborate the improvement of the HDT with the increase in crystallinity (see table
2). According to the results, it was demonstrated that using Mw the crystallinity of the
biocomposites can be increased from 20% to >60%, and the HDT(B) from about 56ºC
to 140 – 150ºC.
Table 2. Crystallinity (Xc), crystallinity in PLA basis (Xc PLA) and HDT of PLA, PLA/
natural fibre composites.
Sample Xc (%) Xc PLA (%) HDT(B) (ºC)
PLA 33,5 33,5 73,4±0,6
PLA+15wt% Kenaf 62,5 73,5 149,5±2,1
PLA+15wt% Kenaf +5wt% talc 47,5 59,4 150,6±1,4
PLA+15wt% flax 52,3 61,5 137,8±2,3
PLA+15wt% flax +5wt% talc 68,5 85,6 140,8±2,5
PLA+15wt% hemp 72,1 84,8 141,6±3,4
PLA+15wt% hemp +5wt% talc 61,4 76,8 144,3±4,5
Taking into account the obtained results, flax and hemp fibres were the best candidate
fibres to continue the development within NATURTRUCK due to their balance of stiffness
to impact properties, in addition to the low availability of untreated kenaf fibres in
Europe. Among them, hemp fibres were selected after the evaluation of results of
fibre treatments performed in parallel to this work by the project partner IWNIRZ.
Effect of different format of fibres (cut fibres or pelletized fibres)
The influence of the fibre format, cut fibre (4mm length) or pelletized fibres (with 2.3wt%
of wax as binder) were determined using hemp fibres from IWNIRZ and pelletized
fibres from BAVE. In both cases the fibres were fed trough the first side feeder of the
extruder.
A clear decrease in the MFI of composites made out fibre pellets was observed
(see table 3). The differences were attributed to a longer initial fibre length and fibre

90
entanglement in the pellets compared with cut fibres, which resulted in biocomposites
with higher viscosity. Moreover, the addition of talc to the fibre biocomposites
contributed to an additional reduction of the MFI as was observed in previous tests.
Table 3. Melt flow index (190ºC and 5kg) of PLA biocomposites with cut or pelletized
hemp fibres.
Sample MFI (g/10min)
PLA+15wt% hemp 27.2±0.6
PLA+15wt% hemp + 5wt% talc 19.5±0.5
PLA+15wt% hemp pellets 14.0±0.3
PLA+15wt% hemp pellets + 5wt% talc 11.2±0.4
Concerning the mechanical properties, the tensile modulus and the tensile strength
slightly increased with the addition pellet fibres whereas the elongation at break was
similar for all compounds. In addition, the impact strength increased by 8% with fibre
pellets in comparison with cut fibres and by 15% in presence of talc. These effects
corroborated the theory of the longer fibre length in the pellets. However, the HDT(B)
was only increased by 1-1,5ºC with pellet fibres. As the mechanical properties of the
biocomposites obtained from hemp fibre pellets were superior to those from cut fibres,
and the handling and dosing of the fibres to the extruder was greatly improved by the
use of pelletized fibres, this fibre format was selected to continue the research.
Figure 5. Mechanical properties and HDT (B) of PLA composites with cut and pelletized
hemp fibres.
Effect of the feeding point of fibre pellets.
In order to optimize the compounding process the optimum feeding point of the fibres
was studied. Therefore, hemp pellets were fed in two different points of the extruder,
through the first side feeder or through the main hopper (first barrel) together with the
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PLA.
It was found that the biocomposites obtained by adding the pellets through the main
hopper showed lower MFI values (higher viscosity). See figure 6. The higher viscosity
was attributed to a better dispersion and distribution of the fibres in the polymeric
matrix due to higher residence time that helped the pellets to break in the first part of
the extruder, and the fibres to disperse in the second part of the extruder.
Table 4. Melt flow index (190ºC and 5kg) of PLA composites with pelletized hemp at
different feeding points
Sample MFI (g/10min)
PLA+15wt% hemp pellets (side feeder 1) 14.0±0.3
PLA+15wt% hemp pellets + 5wt% talc (side feeder 1) 11.2±0.4
PLA+15wt% hemp pellets (first barrel) 12.3±0.4
PLA+15wt% hemp pellets + 5wt% talc (first barrel) 10.7±0.4
The introduction of the fibre pellets through the main hopper resulted in an improvement
of the tensile and impact strength of the composites (6% and 15% respectively). See
figure 7. As was expected, the addition of talc resulted in an additional improvement
of mechanical properties in all compounds. However the HDT values were similar
for all composites as they depend on the crystallinity of the PLA and not on the fibre
content or fibre dispersion. Summarizing, the incorporation of natural fibres in the
compounding process was optimized within NATURTRUCK project.
Figure 7. Mechanical properties and HDT (B) of PLA/pelletized hemp fibres.

Effect of flame retardants
Ammonium polyphosphate was used to impart flame resistance to the biocomposites.
Different formulations were produced by partially replacing the PLA by APP from

92
12wt% to 20wt% in steps of 2 wt%. As expected, the MFI was progressively reduced
with the addition of APP from 11 to 6g/10min.The tensile modulus increased with the
addition of APP, and the tensile strength was reduced at first (for 12wt% of APP), and
then slightly increased up to 18wt% of APP. In contrast, the impact resistance was
reduced from 16 to 13 kJ/m2 (see figure 8). The FR did not affect the HDT B, with was
maintained about 57ºC in all cases. The obtained compounds were also injected into
UL-94 test specimens (1.6 mm thickness x 12.7 mm width).
Figure 8. Mechanical properties of hemp biocomposites with different content of FR

(APP).
The results of the UL94 horizontal burning test are shown in table 2.
Table 2. UL94 HB results for PLA + Hemp (15wt%) + Talc (5wt%) composites with different
content of APP.
Sample Speed of flame spread (mm/min) Classif.
PLA+HEMP(15%)+TALC(5%) 70 ± 4 HB
+FR(12%) 27 ± 14 HB
+FR(14%) 22 ± 5 HB
+FR(16%) 16 ± 9 HB
+FR(18%) 6 HB
+FR(20%) - HB
The addition of FR resulted in a reduction of the speed of flame spread (horizontal

burning test) from 70 to 0 mm/min. Nevertheless, all samples received the HB
classification “self extinguishing” as in all cases the speed of flame spread was <
75mm/min. According to the results, the formulation with 14wt% of APP was selected
for further developments. In one hand, lower APP content (12wt%) resulted in higher
speed of flame spread and higher dispersion results. In the other hand, higher APP
content had negative effect in the MFI and impact strength of the biocomposites.
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Finally, the selected PLA biocomposite with 15wt% of hemp fibres (pellets), 5wt% of
talc and 14wt% of APP was annealed in order to improve its crystallinity and HDT.
After the annealing treatment, the Xc PLA was increased from 23% to 74% and the
HDT (B) from 57ºC to 136ºC. Therefore, fire and temperature resistant PLA/hemp fibre
biocomposites were obtained for applications in the automotive sector.
CONCLUSIONS
PLA/natural fibre (flax, kenaf and hemp) biocomposites with very good tensile
properties (stiff and resistant materials), but low impact properties (brittle materials)
were produced. The addition of talc as nucleating agent contributed to a general
improvement of the mechanical properties of the biocomposites. Among them, those
produced using hemp fibre pellets showed improved properties in comparison with
cut hemp fibres. Moreover, the handling of natural fibres was enhanced by using
pelletized fibres. The best point to introduce the fibre pellets in the compounding
process is the main hopper (the same point where the polymer is fed). The initial
HDT(B) of the biocomposites was very low (56-57ºC). In order to improve the HDT
and therefore the maximum temperature of use it was necessary to crystallize the
biocomposites. The annealing treatment can be carried out by using microwaves
as energy source to heat up the parts. After annealing the crystallinity of the PLA was
increased from <30% to >60%, and consequently the HDT(B) of the biocomposites
was improved from 57ºC up to 140 - 150ºC.
Future work: the main objective or future tasks within NATURTRUCK project is to improve
the impact resistance of the biocomposites by the addition of bioplasticizer and/or
impact modifier while maintaining HDT (B) > 100ºC after the annealing treatment. The
study of the annealing treatment using infra-red radiation as heating source, and the
complete characterization of the annealed biocomposites.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
NATURTRUCK project (www.naturtruck.eu) has received funding from the European
Union’s Seventh Framework Programme for research, technological development
and demonstration (GA 605658).
AIMPLAS also like to show our gratitude to the project partners IWNIRZ and BaVe for
their support in the fibre supply (cut and pellets) for this investigation, and also to the
rest of NATURTRUCK project partners; Volvo, CTAG, Bulma Tecnología, Químicas del
Vinalopó, Polycom, Plascam, and Re8.
REFERENCES
Eder, A. 2015. Status and Future Markets for Biobased Composites in Europe until 2020. Proceedings of
Sixth WPC & NFC Conference, Cologne.
Carus, M., Gahle, C. Injection moulding with natural fibres. 2008. Volume 52, Issue 4, 18–22, 24–25
Pickering, K.L. 2008. Properties and Performance of Natural-Fibre Composites. Woodhead Publishing.
Kolstad, J.J. 1996. Crystallization kinetics of poly(L-lactide-co-meso-lactide, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 62, 1079.
Tsuji, H., Takai, H., Fukuda, N, Takikawa, H. 2006. Non-isothermal crystallization behavior of poly(L-lactic
acid) in the presence of various additives”, Macromol. Mater. Eng. 291, pp. 325–335.

94
PRELIMINARY PROCESSES OF BAST FIBRES FOR

COMPOSITES REINFORCEMENT APPLICATION
Małgorzata Zimniewska, Wanda Konczewcz
Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants, Wojska Polskiego 71B, 60-630 Poznan, Poland
(Presenting author E-mail: wanda.konczewicz@iwnirz.pl; Corresponding author email: gosiaz@iwnirz.pl)
ABSTRACT
The paper covered pre-treated preparation of the bast fibres to spend requirements
to be reinforcement for composites. In this aim, the study was focus on to produce
high aspect ratio fibres (flax, hemp and kenaf) with minimally degraded properties
and low colour.
Fibrous plants such as: flax (variety Modran) and hemp (variety Białobrzeskie) are
extracted by osmotic degumming method. The kenaf fibres come from the dew
retted fibrous plant.
The results of the study, compared with the results of traditional dew retting, indicate
that application of osmotic degumming method resulted in better fibres bundles
divided onto elementary fibres. Thanks to this, the linear mass of flax and hemp fibres
was lower in comparison to traditional ones. The aspect ratio was higher for osmotic
degummed fibres. The colour of flax fibres after osmotic degumming is significantly
lighter in comparison to dew retted fibres.
The fibres was examined by SEM to evaluate the level of destruction of the fibre
surface structure. Also, the changes in the surface of the fibres was analyzed by FTIR
and thermal stability of fibres by TGA.
This study was done within NATURTRUCK project (FP7/2007-2013, grant agreement n°
605658)
Keywords: pre-treated preparation for composites, osmotic degumming of fibrous
plants, aspect ratio, SEM, TGA, FTIR
INTRODUCTION
The bast fibres due to their inherent properties find wide applications in many branches
of industry e.g. textile, construction, medical, paper and automotive industries.
The application of flax fibre in the clothing industry, which takes advantage of the
fibre positive effect on human physiology (Zimniewska 2003, 2010) and in technical
sectors as reinforcements for structural composites (Zimniewska 2012, Carus 2006,
Kozlowski 2004, Jacob 2008, Coroller 2013) both require high quality of the material,
what ensures production of final products of new competitive properties. The quality
of the fibre extracted from fibrous plants depends on a method of obtaining the fibre,
a number of elementary fibres in a stalk, its distribution structure and binding fibres in
a bundle.
Extraction of fibres from plants involves degumming of fibrous straw in water
environment in biological, chemical or physical processes (Shekhar Sharma 1992,
Konczewicz 2012a,b, Allam 2005). The use of degumming process based on physical
95
phenomena, especially on osmosis, allows for obtaining fibre characterizing by high

quality, uniformity and lower linear density in comparison to traditional retting methods
(Kozłowski 2006, Konczewicz 2011, 2012c,2014).
The paper covered description of research on bast fibres pre-treatment with
application of osmotic degumming to prepare them to main modification FR and
silanization to spend requirements to be reinforcement for composites. In this aim, the
study was focus on to produce fibres (flax, hemp and kenaf) characterized by good
quality, high aspect ratio and light colour. In the study we used a laboratory device
for osmotical degumming of fibres from straw of bast plants, which device operates
in a periodical mode.
Materials
Flax and hemp fibres extracted from fibrous plants with use of dew retting and osmotic
degumming method were an objective of the study. The kenaf fibres, come from the
retted fibrous plant.
Methodology
Figure 1. Apparatus to
osmotic degumming in
periodic mode
We used batches of flax straw of 14 kg and of hemp straw of 20 kg. The degumming
was run at: water temperature of 30oC, time of the process: 72 h for flax and 144 h for
hemp, flow rate at 30 dm3/min, pH of the technological liquid at 7 +/- 0,5. After the
process the degummed straw was rinsed hydrodynamically with cold water. Then the
excess water was removed by wringing. The degummed straw was dried in a dryer
for 48 hours at +/- 60oC.
Mechanical processing of the flax and hemp straw was run with the use of:
laboratory braking machine – because of the stalk thickness only hemp straw was
broken,
laboratory turbine.
After osmotic degumming the following percentage of fibres content in the straw of
fibrous plants was obtained.
Analytical Methods
The quality of the obtained fibre was evaluated according to relevant valid standards
regarding: colour assessment, metrological assessment (linear mass, breaking
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tenacity, aspect ratio), microscopic evaluation, chemical composition (determination

of wax, fat, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and pectin content) and thermogravimetry
coupled with Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy (TG-FTIR) technique.
RESULTS
After osmotic degumming the following percentage of fibres content in the straw of
fibrous plants was obtained:
Total fibres content - flax 21.34%, hemp 25.17%
Long fibres content - flax 11.24%, hemp 14.76%.
Colour of the fibres
The real views of fibres extracted by osmotic method from straw are presented in
Table 1. The obtained fibre was compared with the dew retted fibre.
Table 1. Views of dew retted and osmotic degummed flax. hemp and kenaf fibres.
Dew retted flax long fibres Flax long fibres after osmotic
degumming
Dew retted hemp long fibres Hemp long fibres after osmotic
degumming
Dew retted kenaf fibres
The osmotically degummed flax and hemp fibres are characterised by light colour in
comparison with fibres obtained with the use of the traditional dew retting method.
The colour difference between dew retted and osmotically degummed fibres was
evaluated according to an adapted method: ISO 105-A02 with the use of Grey
Scale. The differences were evaluated on at least level “1” and it is the biggest colour
difference available to determine with the use of Grey Scale.
Metrological evaluation of fibre
Evaluation of fibres feature coming from dew retting and osmotic degumming were
conducted based on relevant standards, Table 2.

97
Table 2. Features of flax. hemp and kenaf fibres after dew retting and osmotic
degumming.
Average
SD of diameter SD of
Linear Tenacity SD of SD of Aspect
Fibre linear of divided aspect
mass of fibres tenacity diameter ratio
description mass “bundle” ratio
of fibres
tex tex cN/tex cN/tex µm µm - -
Dew retted
1.2 0.05 49.57 4.95 98.40 30.34 40.65 19.26
flax fibres
Osmotic
degummed 0.8 0.04 43.18 5.45 67.16 38.96 59.56 48.06
flax fibres
Dew retted
2.8 0.18 52.19 2.88 110.47 43.29 36.21 20.72
hemp fibres
Osmotic
degummed 1.9 0.08 43.20 7.95 90.88 48.90 44.01 35.20
hemp fibres
Kenaf 2.6 0.11 41.58 5.03 103.28 24.63 38.73 10.89
Applied method of fibres extraction, e.g. osmotic degumming resulted in better

division of fibre bundles into elementary fibres, what is shown in Table 2. Thanks to this,
the linear mass of flax and hemp fibres are lower in comparison to traditional ones.
The aspect ratio is higher for osmotic degummed fibres. The colour of flax fibres after
osmotic degumming is significantly lighter in comparison to dew retted fibres.
Chemical evaluation of fibre
The main fibre component in fibrous plants is cellulose. The substances that occur
along cellulose are waxes and fats, hemicellulose, lignin and pectins. The percentage
share of specific compounds are presented in the Table 3.
Table 3. Chemical evaluation of retted kenaf fibre. dew retted and osmotic
degummed flax and hemp fibre
Waxes and Cellulose Hemicellulose
Fibres Lignin content Pectin content -Cellulose Content
Fats content Content content
description
(%) SD (%) SD (%) SD (%) SD (%) SD (%) SD
Dew retted flax
1.53 0.06 7.42 0.12 1.63 0.22 72.76 0.54 - - 19.08 0.03
fibres
Osmotic
degummed flax 1.10 0.16 3.69 0.52 0.92 0.14 79.75 0.72 - - 14.39 0.07
fibres
Dew retted
1.84 0.38 8.15 0.63 1.81 0.01 72.85 2.89 - - 20.46 0.08
hemp fibres
Osmotic
degummed 0.25 0.08 4.25 0.03 1.07 0.17 71.26 0.45 - - 15.99 0.13
hemp fibres
Kenaf 0.12 0.02 10.04 0.02 0.62 0.05 - - 63.61 0.07 32.93 0.07
The study showed that the osmotic degumming process, as compared with dew
retted fibres, resulted in reduction of the presence of the substances accompanying
cellulose.
Microscopic analysis of fibre
The photos of longitudinal and cross section view of dew retted and osmotic
98
degummed flax. hemp and kenaf fibre is shown in table 4.

The studies of the morphological structure of the dew-retted and osmotic degummed
fibres indicate clearly considerable changes in the degree of elementarizing of fibres
in the bundles of technical fibres. For the osmotic degumming changes in shape and
size of cross-sections of elementary fibres were observed.
For all tested fibre the fibre surface is smooth and undamaged.
Table 4. Longitudinal and Cross section view of retted kenaf fibre. dew retted and
osmotic degummed flax and hemp fibre magnification x500.
Longitudinal Cross section view Longitudinal Cross section view
view of flax fibres magnification x500 view of flax fibres magnification x500
magnification x500 magnification x500
Dew retted flax fibres Osmotic degummed flax fibres
Dew retted hemp fibres Osmotic degummed hemp fibres
Kenaf fibres
TGA – FTIR analysis of fibre

Thermogravimetric study (TGA) - was performed in TA Instruments, Alalyser Q50. A
tested sample (about 20 mg) was subjected to heating within the temperature range
30 to 650oC and heating rate of 15°C/min in nitrogen atmosphere at constant gas
flow rate of 90 mL/min. Figure 2 shows comparison of their thermogravimetric curves
TGA/DTG for the tested fibres. Table 5 shows thermal properties of flax, hemp and
kenaf fibres.

99
Figure 2. Curves TGA_DTG of retted kenaf fibre, dew retted and osmotic degummed
flax and hemp fibre
Table 5. Thermal properties of retted kenaf fibre, dew retted and osmotically
degummed flax and hemp fibre
Fibre Tonset Mass DTG % residues at
description o
C loss % peak oC 600oC
Dew-retted flax fibre 344.72 62.06 368.40 19.45
Osmotic degummed flax fibre 348.40 65.08 369.49 17.12
Dew-retted hemp fibre 351.27 63.39 372.95 17.44
Osmotic degummed hemp fibre 345.31 61.38 365.92 20.20
Retted kenaf fibre 355.11 63.59 374.32 14.07
The released gases were immediately analysed with the use of Fourier transform
infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) (iZ10 model from TA Instruments). The spectrum of the
released gases contained 32 scans per second at resolution of 4 cm-1 within the
range from 600 to 4000 cm-1. The FTIR spectra for the gaseous products of thermal
decomposition of flax, hemp and kenaf are showed in Figure 3.
a b
c d
Figure 3. The FTIR spectra for the gaseous products of thermal decomposition of: a)
dew retted flax fibre, b) flax fibre after osmotic degumming, c) dew retted hemp, d)
hemp after osmotic degumming e) dew retted kenaf.
For all tested samples, thermal degradation occurred in the temperature range
between 30 and 600oC.

100
The highest thermal stability i.e. 374.32oC was observed for long dew retted kenaf and
the lowest (365.92oC) for hemp after osmotic degumming.
However, the highest percentage of residues at 600oC was observed for osmotically
degummed hemp, i.e. 20.20% and the lowest for dew retted kenaf – 14.07%.
The FTIR tests of the gases released during thermal degradation of the tested fibres
allowed for determination of the following compounds: water, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, acetic acid, formic acid and formaldehyde. The list of the compounds
and their functional groups is given in Table 6.
Table 6. The list of detected and identified compounds and their functional groups
released during thermal decomposition of retted kenaf fibre, dew retted and
osmotic degummed flax and hemp fibre.
Compound Molecular Functional
Wave number. cm-1
identified formula group
OH 3737
CO2 2355; 2311; 671
CO 2182
OH 3590
Water. H2O
C=O 1795; 1770
Carbon dioxide CO2
C-O 1177
Carbon monoxide CO
-CH3 2976
Acetic Acid CH3COOH
OH 3590
Formic Acid CHOOH
C=O 1795; 1770
Formaldehyde CHOH
C-O 1121; 1067
-CH 2910
C-HO 2810; 2728
C=O 1770; 1746
The analysis of DTG curves and FTIR spectra showed that the decomposition process
proceeds in four stages (Benítez-Guerrero 2014, Poletto 2014):
1st stage – temperature at about 100oC, mass loss is about 3.0-4.6% Water evaporation
occurs at this stage.
2nd stage - temperature at about 185 - 300oC, the mass loss at 5.1-12.0% The
composition of kenaf leads mostly to formation of acetic acid, then carbon dioxide
and water. However, for flax and hemp fibres the decomposition produces mostly
carbon dioxide and water.
3rd stage - temperature at about 370oC, mass loss is the highest and reaches
temperature at about 61.3-65.0%. At this stage cellulose degradation occurs. The
kenaf decomposition leads to production of formaldehyde and formic acid, carbon
dioxide and water, whereas for flax and hemp it leads to production of carbon dioxide,
formaldehyde, acetic and formic acids and water. The intensity of the released gases
decreases depending on the fibre type: dew retted hemp ® flax after osmosis ® dew
retted flax ® hemp after osmosis.
4th stage - temperature at about 250-600oC, mass loss at 4.6-7.4% The decomposition
process is attributed to slow degradation of lignin.
All the stages concern the main components of fibre i.e. cellulose, hemicellulose and

101
lignin, what is linked with the share of these compounds determined in the chemical
analysis (Table 3).
CONCLUSIONS
The objectives of the work have been development of processes for flax. hemp and
kenaf fibres to make their properties suitable for using them to reinforce composites.
Osmotic degumming applied for bast fibre extraction improves significantly fibre
quality in terms of colour and aspect ratio. The diameter and linear mass of fibres
extracted from straw with the osmotic degumming method were lower in comparison
with traditionally extracted fibres, what resulted in higher aspect ratio. It means that
osmotically degummed fibre bundles were better divided into elementary fibres and
they can be distributed in PLA matrices in a more uniform way.
The fibre thermal decomposition process could be divided into fourth stages:
moisture evaporation, hemicellulose decomposition, cellulose degradation and
lignin degradation.
The main gaseous products from fibre decomposition included CO2, CO, H2O and
some organic compounds as Acetic Acid, Formic Acid and Formaldehyde.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was done within NATURTRUCK project (FP7/2007-2013, grant agreement n°
605658).
REFERENCES
Zimniewska, M., R. Kozlowski. 2003. Natural and man-made fibres and their role in creation of
physiological state of human body. Molecular Crystals and Liquid Crystals, 418: 841-858.
Zimniewska M., I. Krucinska. 2010. The effect of raw material composition of clothes on selected
physiological parameters of human organism. Journal of The Textile Institute, 101(2): 154-164.
Zimniewska M, J. Myalski, M. Koziol, J. Mankowski, E. Bogacz. 2012. Natural fibre textile structures
suitable for composite materials. Journal of Natural Fibres, 9(4): 229-239.
Carus M, S. Ortmann, Ch. Gahle, C. Pendarovski. 2006 Use of natural fibres in composites for the
German automotive production from 1999 till 2005. In Nova-Institut, Hurth.
Kozlowski R, M. Wladyka-Przybylak, M. Helwig, K. Kurzydlowski. 2004. Composites based on lignocellulosic
raw materials. Molecular Crystal and Liquid Crystal, 415-418: 301-321.
Jacob J., RD. Anandjiwala. 2008. Recent Developments in Chemical Modification and Characterization
of Natural Fibre-Reinforced Composites. POLYM. COMPOS, 29: 187–207.
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R M Laing1, C A Wilson, A Liu, L A Dunn
1
all University of Otago, P O Box 56 Dunedin, New Zealand
(Presenting author E-mail: raechel.laing@otago.ac.nz; Corresponding author email: raechel.laing@
otago.ac.nz)
ABSTRACT
The character of a textile-skin interface is critical to end-users. In the case of textiles
manufactured from wool fibre or where wool fibre dominated the fibre content,
most research conducted during the latter part of the 20th century and the first part
of the 21st century focussed on handle, that is, how fabrics feel to the touch, not in
terms of estimating suitability for the manufacture of woven fabric (using instrumental
measurements to determine tailorability), but how the textile in a next-to-skin garment
might feel. Is it prickly? Understanding the cause, along with developments in
processing (at fibre, yarn, fabric, and/or finishing stages) have lead to prickliness
being largely overcome. However, other questions about wool textile-skin contact are
being explored. Is there evidence of a health effect to the skin derived from wearing
wool?
Well-recognised indicators of skin health (e.g. transepidermal water loss, stratum
corneum hydration, pH) were used to determine whether any effects on skin health
were detectable following the wearing of wool fabric directly against the skin. Each
participant was considered his/her own control and percentage change calculated
using the initial skin barrier status as baseline.
Some evidence of positive effects was identified and these effects are discussed.
Keywords: apparel fabric, skin health, wool, foot, forearm
INTRODUCTION
The character of a textile-skin interface is critical to end-users as this determines
product acceptability and commercial consequences, as well as health-related
parameters. Consider i fabric and garment surfaces, ii the human skin, then iii the
skin/fabric interface:
I Properties of fabric surfaces have been reasonably well understood since the latter
part of the 20th century, particularly in the case of textiles manufactured from wool
fibre, or where wool fibre dominated the fibre content. Most research conducted
during this period and the first part of the 21st century focussed on handle, initially on
how the fabrics feel to the touch and usefulness in estimating suitability of woven fabric
for garment manufacture (Carr, Posey et al. 1988; Bueno and Renner 2001), then how
the textile in a next-to-skin garment might feel to the touch. In the case of wool fibre/
fabric, understanding the cause of prickliness and overcoming this in processing (at
fibre, yarn, fabric, and/or finishing stages) have been largely resolved (Garnsworthy,
Gully et al. 1988; Matsudaira 1990; Matsudaira 1990; Naylor 1992; Naylor, Veitch et al.
1992; Naylor 1997; McGregor, Naebe et al. 2013; Naebe, McGregor et al. 2015) and
extended to apparel systems, particularly those worn next to the skin.

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II Properties of human skin have been well documented. These are understood to be
influenced by body site (Elsner, Wilhelm et al. 1990), a person’s age (Potts, Buras et al.
1984), age/gender and ethnic origin (Man, Xin et al. 2009), environmental parameters
(Cravello and Ferri 2008), presence of emollients (Nacht, Close et al. 1981), and various
time-dependent changes (Yosipovitch, Xiong et al. 1998). Attempts have been made
to simulate human skin for a range of purposes (Dąbrowska, Rotaru et al. 2015),
including standardising and simplifying measurement of the textile-skin interface.
III The textile-skin interface has attracted attention also since the latter part of the 20th
century, with different parameters investigated: for example, dermatitis (Hatch and
Maibach 1985; Hatch and Maibach 1995), the presence and effects of chemical
substances (Hatch and Maibach 1986; Raheel 1991; Associazione Tessile e Salute-
Health and Textile Association 2013), effects of friction between skin and textile (Wang,
Liu et al. 2010) and resultant blisters (Sulzberger, Cortese et al. 1966; Van Amber, Lowe
et al. 2015), and the presence and effects of microorganisms on development and
retention of body odour (McQueen, Laing et al. 2007; McQueen, Laing et al. 2008).
There is evidence of some skin properties changing during periods of continuous
textile contact (Li, Holcombe et al. 1992) and an investigation on the foot conducted
by the authors has been published (Laing, Wilson et al. 2015), short sections of which
are included for convenience.
However, the question remains, what do we know about the wool textile-skin contact?
Is there evidence of a health effect to the skin derived from wearing a wool next-to-
skin garment? This latter question was addressed in two human trials, one focussed on
the foot, the other on the forearm.
Indicators of skin health
Well-recognised indicators of skin health were used to determine whether any
effects on skin health were detectable following wool fabric being placed directly
against the skin. Stratum corneum hydration (SC hydration) was measured using a
Corneometer CM8251, transepidermal water loss (TEWL) using a Tewameter TM 3002,
and skin surface acidity (pH) using the Skin-pH-Meter® PH 9053. Skin temperature
(foot only) was taken with a non-contact (laser) thermometer4.
Both trials were carried out in Dunedin, New Zealand. Ethical approval was obtained
prior to beginning each study in accordance with the University of Otago requirements
in place at the time (University of Otago 2015). A period of acclimatisation/ rest was
provided prior to measurements being taken (20±2°C, 65±4% R.H.) (International
Organization for Standardization 2005). Measurements were taken by a small team
of trained measurers in the foot study, and taken at the same site and by the same
person in the forearm study.
Determination of fabric and garment properties
All fabrics and garments were pre-treated with the six cleaning cycles known to
1 CK electronic, Germany; ±3% accuracy
2 CK electronic, Germany, ±1.0 g/m2/h at ≤30% R.H. accuracy
3 CK electronic, Germany, ±0.1 pH accuracy
4 Raytek, Raynger ST60 ProPlus standard, accuracy of ±1%

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Comfort and safety
be required for fabric structural stability (Gore, Laing et al. 2006), then conditioned
and tested under standard atmospheres for conditioning and testing (International
Organization for Standardization 2005). Structural and selected performance
properties were determined following standard test procedures: mass per unit area5
and moisture regain calculated from oven dry mass (British Standards Institution 1998),
thickness6 (International Organization for Standardization 1996), and the number of
stiches per unit length in wale and course directions counted using a fabric pick and
an illuminating magnifying glass at five locations.
Analysis
Fabric structural properties were described (mean, standard deviation, coefficient
of variation). With respect to skin indicators, each participant was considered his/her
own control, with change from an initial status (baseline) reported as a percentage.
Any differences among the treatments (type of fibre in the sock study, covered or not
covered in the forearm study) were detected through linear mixed model analysis
(foot study), and a repeated measures analysis of variance (forearm study) (SPSS Inc.
2015).
Study 1 - Skin of the foot
Participants and experimental design
A longitudinal controlled parallel design wear trial (sixteen adult males) was carried
out over eight weeks: four sock types differing in fibre/yarn (100% acrylic, 100% wool
(24.5μm), 100% cotton, 100% wool (20.5μm)) were manufactured such that only the
fibre type differed. Fabric structural properties and selected performance properties
were measured on fabrics of the same fibre/structure as the socks.
Results
Detailed results have been provided elsewhere (Laing, Wilson et al. 2015), and are
not repeated here. Suffice to say that effects on the skin were evident. Variability
in effects among the participants was apparent: improvement in skin health at the
heel in particular, was observed. Wool socks were associated with more cases of
improved skin health (e.g. reduced transepidermal water loss and increased stratum
corneum hydration). Results from these two indicators of skin health considered
together provided stronger evidence of effects than one alone.
Study 2 - Skin of the forearm
Participants and experimental design
A longitudinal three-week wear trial (four females of New Zealand European descent,
aged 20-51years) was conducted to determine the effect of exposure to a wool textile
on skin health at the volar forearm. Participants wore an experimental garment for
a minimum of eight hours each night while resting and sleeping. Participants were
randomly assigned one arm to be covered with a long sleeve. Randomising took
account of motoric dominance and other possible differences between left and right
arms, and order in which the left and right arms were to be measured. Application
of any emollient to the body site in question prior to and during the study was not
5 Sartorius 1712 balance
6 SDL Atlas MO34A digital thickness gauge
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Comfort and safety
permitted. An average daily temperature of 19˚C and average low of 5˚C at night
(Accu Weather Inc 2015) was recorded during the study period, with October the
least humid month in Dunedin (typically 65% R.H.). Being evening, most of the wear
period would have been inside a domestic residence.
Experimental garments were commercial long-sleeved, v-neck upper body garment,
and designed to be close-fitting and worn as a next-to-skin garment. Fabric structure
(single jersey, 150g/m2, 20.5±1.67 wales and 16.4±0.6 courses per 10mm, 0.70±0mm
thick, and 13.0±0.1% regain) and fibre type (18.9μm wool, labelled as 96% merino
wool/ 4% Lycra®) were identical for all garments. Each garment was sized to the
participant dimensions using standard commercial sizing, and while the garments
did differ in size, they were approximately 130g. Modifications to the garments were
made such that each retained one long sleeve to which an elastic thumb loop was
attached at the wrist hem, and one shorter sleeve cut and finished so that it ended
at the elbow. The garment was worn in direct contact with the skin with lower body
garments worn as per the participant’s choice.
All measurements were taken at the mid-point between the fold of the wrist and
superior boundary of the cubital fossa in a standard conditioned room which was used
for both an initial acclimatisation period (20 minutes) and the measurement session.
The environment (20±2˚C, 52±14% R.H.) was similar to the range recommended by
Berardesca (Berardesca 1997), and Pinnagoda (Pinnagoda, Tupker et al. 1990).
Participants reported for their session on the 7th, 14th and 21st days of the test period.
At this time they were acclimatised, measured, and received a clean garment to
wear over the following 7 days.
Results
Data from three participants for the 21-day period, and four participants for the 14-
day period were analysed separately (one participant was unable to complete the
21 days part of the trial). Results from the two approaches were similar. The mean
percentage change from baseline of all skin parameters at days 7 and 14 are
illustrated in Figure 1. Transepidermal water loss changed over time (F1,3=41.98, p≤0.01,
h2p=0.93), the mean percentage change in decreasing at day 14 after a slight initial
positive change at day 7. No difference between covered and uncovered arms
was observed (F1,3=0.52, p=NS, h2p=0.15). Differences in stratum corneum hydration
were also identified (F1,19=62.78, p≤0.001, h2p=0.77), the mean percentage change
(covered and uncovered) being negative on day 7, but had increased by day 14,
slightly different between uncovered and covered. In general, whether the arm was
covered or not had an effect (F1,19=22.10, p≤0.001, h2p=0.54), with an overall decrease
in stratum corneum hydration of covered arms (-6.83% change from baseline) and
a comparatively large increase on uncovered arms (13.19% change from baseline).
Differences between covered and uncovered arms over the course of the trial were
also identified, although small (F1,19=3.35, p≤0.001, h2p=0.15), with change to the
covered arm consistently less than change to the uncovered one. Skin surface pH
typically decreased during the course of the trial, that is slowly becoming more acidic
(F1,19=22.19, p≤0.001, h2p=0.54).
DISCUSSION

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Comfort and safety
Three points warrant comment: 1 fabric properties, 2 experimental design, protocol,

and method of analysis, and 3 effects of skin being covered or not, and whether
occluded.
1 Fabric in the forearm study was predominantly wool, very thin, with high regain,
made in a garment typically worn next to the skin. This type of product is a fast growing,
highly competitive market segment, therefore effects on skin health are of interest.
The sock market is also competitive.
2 All aspects of experimental design in both studies were carefully managed. In the
forearm study, this included participant recruitment (no impaired barrier function or
prior history of skin disorder), experimental garments (fibre content, fabric structure,
product design, fit, pre-treatment, cleaning throughout the trial). That most previous
textile skin
a
45
30
% change from baseline
15
0 Covered
Uncovered
-15
-30
-45
Baseline Day 7 Day 14
45
30
% change from basline
15
0 Covered
Uncovered
-15
-30
-45
b
c
45
30
% change from baseline
15
0 Covered
Uncovered
-15
-30
-45
Figure 1
Changes in skin health properties over time (mean % change from baseline)
a TEWL b SC hydration c pH
(all participants) (error bars: standard deviation)

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health studies have involved small, occluded patch samples prompted our choice
of more realistic conditions, garments rather than sleeves or patches, and socks.
Participant routines undoubtedly differed, but as each participant was considered
his/her own control, differences observed could be accounted for. Protocols
were also carefully managed (time, acclimatisation). Selection of an appropriate
analytical test due to missing data and small sample in the forearm trial required
careful consideration. While a mixed model may have allowed missing data and
that on transepidermal water loss, stratum corneum hydration, and pH to be analysed
together, the design of such a mixed model for a very small sample size carried its
own difficulties.
3 Time-dependent changes to skin indicators in the forearm trial were observed for
all skin parameters: lowered transepidermal water loss, increased stratum corneum
hydration, and a slightly more acidic skin surface pH. Changes to forearm skin over
time were considered favourable and indicative of an improvement to skin barrier
function (Laing, et al. 2015; Lambers, et al. 2006; Proksch, Brandner and Jensen 2008).
However, given that changes to transepidermal water loss and pH consequential to
being covered or uncovered were not significant, it is reasonable to consider external
or random factors had a more dominant effect.
When data on the covered and uncovered arm were compared at each time point,
transepidermal water loss appeared largely unchanged. Stratum corneum hydration
of arms exposed to the wool fabric was consistently lower than arms left exposed to
the ambient or other environment: this result does not suggest an occlusive effect of
the garment, rather it suggests moisture from the skin was being absorbed into and
released from the garment. Although previous research indicated hygroscopic fabrics
might absorb and hold moisture next to the skin thereby increasing stratum corneum
hydration (Yao, Li, et al. 2011; Yao, Tokura, et al. 2007), this did not seem to be the case
in the forearm study. Had occlusion been evident, a greater transepidermal water
loss and higher (more alkaline) skin surface pH would have been expected on the
arm covered with wool (Kleesz, Darlenski and Fluhr 2012). These changes cannot be
viewed as necessarily negative since the combined changes of both skin parameters
do not match the distinctive elevated transepidermal water loss and lowered stratum
corneum hydration of a compromised skin barrier (Proksch, Brandner and Jensen
2008).
CONCLUSIONS
Stratum corneum hydration is normally determined by the magnitude of the water
gradient across the skin (Sparr, Millecamps et al. 2012), which follows a sharp decline
from the internal epidermis to external layers of the stratum corneum (and thence
the ambient environment). Hydration and permeability of the stratum corneum can
be altered by water activity when its outer surface is occluded and, to an extent, by
the environmental R.H. (Sparr, Millecamps et al. 2012). Two studies at the foot and
forearm were conducted to better understand the effects of prolonged contact with
the skin of wool textiles. Desirable effects were noted at the heel after exposure to
two wool fabrics. In this instance, the heel could be considered almost occluded,
thereby affecting water activity at the outer stratum corneum, and was held in close
contact with the textile. A second study at the forearm questioned whether skin health

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Comfort and safety
changes might simply be related to textile contact rather than to any particular fibre
and/or textile type; lower stratum corneum hydration was observed for skin covered
with wool than the uncovered skin. To further understand effects of prolonged textile
exposure on skin health, comparisons using different fibres and fabric structures are
recommended, to include the uncovered skin.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge contributions to various parts of this work,
particularly the willingness of study participants in both studies. Dr Rebecca van Amber
and Dr Lei Yao provided technical support for the sock study, with some funding from
The Wool Industry Research Ltd (Grant OU 2012_16). Materials for the forearm study
were provided by The New Zealand Merino Company Ltd. The work and conclusions
are those of the authors. No research materials related to the paper are publically
available: any enquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
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A PORTABLE TESTER FOR EVALUATION OFTHERMOPHYSIOLOGICAL COMFORT OF CAR SEATS IN REAL CONDITIONS OF THEIR USE
A PORTABLE TESTER FOR EVALUATION

OFTHERMOPHYSIOLOGICAL COMFORT OF
CAR SEATS IN REAL CONDITIONS OF THEIR USE
Lubos Hes, Antonin Havelka
Technical University of Liberec, Faculty of textiles, Liberec, Czech Republic
(Presenting author E-mail: lubos.hes@gmail.com, Corresponding author email: Antonin.havelka@tul.
cz)
ABSTRACT
Standard testers of thermophysiological comfort of fabrics require flat samples of
special dimensions and limited thickness. Water vapour can pass through these
samples from the porous bottom surface of the tester to the upper surface of the tested
fabric only. The bottom surface of these testers must be covered by semipermeable
membranes, to keep the tested fabrics dry. Thus, car seats cannot be tested in real
conditions of their use, as in seats water vapour always passes from the human body
downward into the fabric system. This problem causes the large bottom plate, which
cannot keep the liquid behind the membrane in the inverse position.
A new SITCOM tester of thermophysiological comfort of car seats, described in the
paper, exhibits small shaped measuring head covered by semipermeable foil, which
stops the penetration of liquid water even in the inverted position. Thus, the measuring
head contacts directly the car seat surfaces in real conditions of their use and the
water vapour from the simulated skin can pass down into the seat. The instrument
then records evaporation (cooling) heat flow resulting from water vapour evaporation
from the simulated driver´s body into the car seat in a real vehicle. For dry SITCOM
system heated 10°C above the seat temperature, similarly thermal heat flow between
the simulated body and the seat is recorded.
The paper contains first (preliminary) experimental values of heat flow achieved at
testing of car seats within 30 and 60 seconds.
Keywords: Thermophysiological comfort, car seats, real conditions, measurement
INTRODUCTION
Complex sitting comfort of car seats consists of psychological, sensorial (mainly
mechanical) and thermophysiological components of comfort of the car passengers.
This paper focuses on thermophysiological comfort of car seats, which involves thermal
and water vapour resistance levels of car seats. Due to the growing importancy of
automotive industry, in last decades the comfort of car seats became systematically
analysed by many respected scientists (Umbach, 2000).
Standard testers of thermophysiological comfort of textile and similar fabrics called
Skin models require flat form of samples of special dimensions and limited thickness.
Water vapour can pass through the samples from the porous bottom surface of the
tester to the upper surface of the tested fabric only. This bottom surface of the tester

112
Comfort and safety
must be covered by the semipermeable fabric, in order to keep the tested fabric dry.
Thus, the car seat samples cannot be tested in the real conditions of its use, as in any
seat the water vapour always passes from the human body downward into the fabric
TIWC 2016,
system creating the car25-28seat. This April, 2016,
problem Poznan,
causes Poland
the large bottom porous plate,
source of water vapour in the tester, which cannot keep the liquid moisture behind
the semipermeable membrane in the inverse position. Thus, by means of these testers
upper surface of the tested fabric only. This bottom surface of the tester must be covered
it issemipermeable
by the possible to determine
fabric, in thermal
order to and
keep evaporation resistance
the tested fabric of individual
dry. Thus, fabrics
the car seat
creating the car seats in laboratory conditions only, not the complex system of the car
samples cannot be tested in the real conditions of its use, as in any seat the water vapour
always
seat passes from the human body downward into the fabric system creating the car
fabrics.
seat. This problem causes the large bottom porous plate, source of water vapour in the
The new SITCOM tester, like the other Skin models, also measures the amount of heat of
tester, which cannot keep the liquid moisture behind the semipermeable membrane in the
transformation of liquid water into water vapour which then passes through the fabric
inverse position. Thus, by means of these testers it is possible to determine thermal and
covering the thermal model of human skin. The porous sweating surface (measuring
evaporation resistance of individual fabrics creating the car seats in laboratory conditions
only, not the complex system of the car seat fabrics.
head) of this thermal model simulates cooling of a human by perspiration. However,

relative small measuring head of special uneven shape of the SITCOM tester covered
The new SITCOM tester, like the other Skin models, also measures the amount of heat of
by semi-permeable
transformation foil into
of liquid water prevents
water the penetration
vapour of passes
which then the liquid waterthe
through even in the
fabric
inverted position. Thus, the measuring head keeps in direct contact with the surface
covering the thermal model of human skin. The porous sweating surface (measuring head)
of thermal
of this the studied model car seat, in cooling
simulates its real condition
of a human of by
theperspiration.
use, and the water vapour
However, relative from
small the measuring
simulated head
skinof can
special
passuneven
down shape
into the of seat.
the SITCOM tester covered
The instrument then will by record
semi- the
permeable
evaporationfoil prevents
(cooling) the penetration of the liquid
heat flow resulting from water
watereven in the evaporation
vapour inverted position.
from the
Thus, the measuring head keeps in direct contact with the surface of the studied car seat,
seated part of the driver ´s body into the car seat, which can be situated in a real
in its vehicle.
real condition
Here, the of the use, and the
temperature of water vapour from
the simulated skin the
andsimulated
that of the skin can
car pass will
surface
down into the seat. The instrument then will record the evaporation (cooling) heat flow
be the same, and the driving force will be only the difference between the saturated
resulting from water vapour evaporation from the seated part of the driver ´s body into the
water
car seat, vapour
which can pressure inside
be situated the
in a Czech
real commercial
vehicle. Permetest Skin
Here, the temperature model
of the and inside
simulated
the car
skin and that seat. When
of the the Skinwill
car surface model of the
be the Permetest
same, system
and the is force
driving heated will 10 Deg.
be only Cthe
above
the seat
difference temperature
between and nowater
the saturated moisture is involved,
vapour pressure then the thermal
inside the Czech heat flow between
commercial
Permetest Skin model
the simulated body and
andinside
the the
seatcar seat. When the Skin model of the Permetest
is recorded.
system is heated 10 Deg. C above the seat temperature and no moisture is involved, then
Both results should be sufficient for design of car seats with optimum thermophysiological
the thermal heat flow between the simulated body and the seat is recorded.
comfort. It should be noted, that in both cases, the car seat is simplified /considered
Both results should be sufficient for design of car seats with optimum thermophysiological
a semi-infinitive body, where no evaporation and thermal resistance are defined. The
comfort.
onlyIt possible
should parameters
be noted, that
arein (cooling)
both cases,
heatthe
flowcar seat is from
resulting simplified /considered
evaporation a
(simulated
semi-infinitive body, where no evaporation and thermal resistance are
sweating) and thermal heat flow characterizing the thermal insulation of the car seat. defined. The only
possible parameters are (cooling) heat flow resulting from evaporation (simulated
In the paper, first practical values of the evaporation and thermal heat flow courses
sweating) and thermal heat flow characterizing the thermal insulation of the car seat. In the
achieved at the testing of selected car seats are presented and discussed.
paper, first practical values of the evaporation and thermal heat flow courses achieved at
the testing of selected car seats are presented and discussed.
THEORETICAL
As already mentioned, water vapour transfer into large car seat can be considered
THEORETICAL
as water vapour diffusion into a semi-infinitive body. For simplicity, this semi-infinite
body will
As already be created
mentioned, water of porous vapour solid transfer which into does large notcar absorb seat can water. be Here, considered water vapour as
water vapour diffusion into a semi-infinitive body. For simplicity, this semi-infinite body will
will diffuse into binary mixture water – vapour + air presented in the pores only, under
be created
isothermalof porous
and isobaric solid which conditions. does not absorb water.
According to the Here,
1st Fick water law, vapour
the driving will diffuse force will
into binary mixture water – vapour + air presented in the pores only, under isothermal and
be the gradient of water vapour concentration or (in our case) gradient of water
isobaric conditions. According to the 1st Fick law, the driving force will be the gradient of
vapour partial pressure pwv, and the proportional factor will be the coefficient Dp of
water vapour concentration or (in our case) gradient of water vapour partial pressure pwv,
water vapour diffusion into the humid air in the channels, characterized by the
and the proportional factor will be the coefficient Dp of water vapour diffusion into the
effective length of channels
humid air in the channels, characterized by the effective length of channels

L = h.ξ, (1)

where h is the thickness of elementary layer inside the semi-infinite Thebody characterized
90th Textile Institute World Conference:
also by the surface porosity ε – see the Fig. 1. Inseparable from the human environment. Hosted by the Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants (INF&MP), 113
Comfort and safety
where h is the thickness of elementary layer inside the semi-infinite body characterized
TIWC 2016,
also by the surface 25-28 April, 2016, Poznan, Poland
TIWCporosity
2016,ε – see the
25-28 Fig. 1.
April, 2016, Poznan, Poland
surface porosity ε
surface porosity ε
surface porosity ε
surface porosity ε
surface porosity ε
L L
L
L
LLL
LL
LLL
LL
L L
L
L
L
LL
LLL
Fig. 1 Diffusion model of a fabric with longitudinal pores
Lfabricsconsisting
Fig. 1 Diffusion modelFig. 1 Diffusion model of a fabric with longitudinal pores
of a fabric with longitudinal pores
Fig. 1 Diffusion model of a fabric with longitudinal pores
In Infabrics Fig. 1 Diffusion model of a fabric with longitudinal pores
of longitudinal
consisting of longitudinal continuing
continuing pores
pores (channels),
(channels), wherewhere the mass
the solid solid presents
mass
In fabrics consisting of longitudinal continuing pores (channels), where the solid mass
presents
In barrier
a fabrics a forbarrier
consisting for the
the moisture moisture
of transfer,
longitudinal thetransfer,
continuing
diffusion the diffusion
pores (channels),
coefficient coefficient
D of waterwhere Dvapour
p,a of the
water
into vapour
solid
air mass
will be
In fabrics a consisting
presents barrier for of longitudinal
the moisture continuing
transfer, the pores
diffusion (channels),
coefficient
p,a
where
Dp,a of the solid
water mass
vapour
reduced by the fabric surface porosity ε< 1 and increased
into air will be reduced by the fabric surface porosity ε< 1 and increased channels length
presents a barrier for the moisture transfer, the diffusion coefficient Dp,a of water vapour channels length (given by the
presents factor a barrier ξ>1).for the the
moisture transfer, the diffusion
tortuosity Thus, effective water coefficient Dp,a Dof of water vapour
(given by the tortuosity factor ξ>1). Thus, the vapour
effective
into air will be reduced by the fabric surface porosity ε< 1 and increased channels length diffusion
water vapour coefficient diffusion p,f
fabrics
coefficient can
(given
be veryby by
low, the tortuosity
according factor ξ>1). Thus, the effective water vapour diffusion coefficient
Dp,f tortuosity tofactor
the next expression:
of fabrics can be very low, according to the next expression:
(given the ξ>1). Thus, the effective water vapour diffusion coefficient
(given
D by the tortuosity factor ξ>1). Thus, the effective water vapour diffusion coefficient
p,f of fabrics can be very low, according to the next expression:
Dp,f of fabrics can be very low, according to the next expression:
The diffusion propagation within a fabric, both perpendicularly to its surface and also
Dp,f of fabrics can be very low, according to the next expression:
Dp,f = ε Dp,a /ξ (2)
D p,f = ε Dp,a /ξ (2)
D p,f = ε D p,a /ξ (2)
Dp,f = ε Dp,a /ξ
The diffusion propagation within a fabric, both perpendicularly to its surface and also along (2)

along its surface, expressed in terms of changing
The diffusion propagation within a fabric, both perpendicularly to its surface and also along water vapour concentration or

its surface, expressed in terms of changing water vapour concentration or partial pressure
The diffusion propagation within a fabric, both perpendicularly to its surface and also along
partial pressure pwv can be by then characterised by differential
the classical partialof differential
pwvThe diffusion propagation within a fabric, both perpendicularly to its surface and also along
can be then characterised the classical partial equation diffusion
p can be then characterised by the classical partial differential equation of diffusion
equation
wv
processes (2 ofnd diffusion
Fick´s law): processes (2 nd
Fick´s law):
p can be then
nd characterised by the classical partial differential equation of diffusion
processes (2 nd Fick´s law):
wv
pwv can be then characterised by the classical partial differential equation of diffusion
processes (2nd Fick´s law):
processes (2
(∂pwv Fick´s law):
/ ∂τ) = ε ξ-1 -1 Dp,a ( ∂ 2p2wv / ∂x2) 2

(3) (∂p wv / ∂τ) = ε ξ -1 D p,a ( ∂ p wv / ∂x 2)
(3) (∂pwv / ∂τ) = ε ξ-1 Dp,a ( ∂ 22pwv / ∂x2)

(3) (∂pwv / ∂τ) = ε ξ Dp,a ( ∂ pwv / ∂x )
Here,
(3) the effective water vapour diffusion coefficient D [m 2/sec] is for most of
Here, the effective water vapour diffusion coefficient D
p,f [m /sec] is for most of polymers
2 p,f

polymers and textile fabrics moisture dependent
and textile fabrics moisture dependent due to swelling. The solution of equation of this kind due
p,f [m to
2/sec] is for most of polymers
swelling. The solution of
Here, the effective water vapour diffusion coefficient Dp,f [m22/sec] is for most of polymers
and textile fabrics moisture dependent due to swelling. The solution of equation of this kind
equation
for D of this kind for D = const is generally known.
p,a = const is generally known. For short time of water vapour diffusion, then we can
p,f [m
For /sec] is for most of polymers
short time of water vapour
for D p,a
p,a = const is generally known. For short time of water vapour diffusion, then we can
convert
for Dp,a any
diffusion, =any textile
then wefabric or a car
can convert any seat
textileto a semi-infinite
fabric or a carbody,
const is generally known. For short time of water vapour diffusion, then we can
seat towhere a semi-infinitethe 1st order body,
convert
for D = textile fabric or a car seat to a semi-infinite
const is generally known. For short time of water vapour diffusion, then we can
boundary condition (sudden exposition of saturated water vapour) is applied. In this case,
p,a body, where the 1st order
where
convert the
any 1st order
textile boundary
fabric or a car condition
seat to (sudden
a semi-infinite exposition body, of saturated
where the 1st water
order
convert any textile fabric or a car seat to a semi-infinite body, where the 1st order
the water vapour propagation in the x direction, expressed in water vapour partial pressure
vapour) is applied. In this case, the water vapour
the water vapour propagation in the x direction, expressed in water vapour partial pressure propagation in the x direction,
water vapour partial pressure p ,is given by the equation
expressed in water vapour wv
water vapour partial pressure p partial pressure water vapour partial pressure pwv,is given
wv,is given by the equation
water vapour partial pressure p ,is given by the equation
by the equation
water vapour partial pressure p wv
Pwv = erfc (x ξ / 2 ε Dp,a1/21/2 τwv1/2,is given by the equation
) (4)
Pwv = erfc (x ξ / 2 ε Dp,a 1/2τ 1/2) (4)
Pwv = erfc (x ξ / 2 ε Dp,a1/2τ 1/2 ) (4)
Here, the P Pwvwv= means the relative water vapour partial pressure, given by the relationship
erfc (x ξ / 2 ε Dp,a τ ) 1/2 (4)
Here, the P
Here, wv means the relative water vapour partial pressure, given by the relationship
Here, the P
the Pwvwvmeans
Here, the P
means the relative water vapour partial pressure, given by the relationship
the relative water vapour partial pressure, given by the relationship
wv means the relative water vapour partial pressure, given by the relationship
Pwv = pwv sat - pwv (x,τ) / (pwv,sat - pwv x,0)
However, Pfor pwv evaluation
wv = the sat - pwv (x,τ) of / the
(pwv,sat - pwvof x,0)
quality the studied car seats, we need to know the
However, for the evaluation
amount of the the transfered water vapour mass m* of the quality of the studied 2 car
-1 seats, we need to know the
However, for the evaluation of the quality of the studied [kg/m scar ]. To cope with this task, the
seats, we need to know the
2s-1]. To cope with this task, the
amount of the the transfered water vapour mass m*
However, for the evaluation of the quality of the
Fick´s law modified for the water vapour partial pressure should be introduced as follows [kg/m
studied
car
2s-1 seats, we need to know the
amount of the the transfered water vapour mass m*
Fick´s law modified for the water vapour partial pressure should be introduced as follows [kg/m ]. To cope with this task, the
2s-1]. To cope with this task, the
amount of the the transfered water vapour mass m* [kg/m The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:
Fick´s law modified for the water vapour partial pressure should be introduced as follows
3 114
Fick´s law modified for the water vapour partial pressure should be introduced as follows Poznan, Poland, April 25th - 28th, 2016
3
3

Comfort and safety

However, for the evaluation of the quality of the studied car seats, we need to know the
amount of the the transfered water vapour mass m* [kg/m2s-1]. To cope with this task,
TIWC 2016, 25-28 April,
(here, the same diffusion coefficient D 2016, Poznan, Poland
p,a occurs, as in the second Fick´s law for transient
the Fick´s law modified for the water vapour partial pressure should be introduced as
mass transfer by diffusion):
follows
(here, the same diffusion coefficient Dp,a occurs, as in the second Fick´s law for
(here, the same diffusion coefficient Dp,a occurs, as in the second Fick´s law for transient
transient
m*mass
= - εtransfer by diffusion):
ξ-1 Dp,a (∂pwv/∂x) (5)
mass transfer by diffusion):
In the next step, this 1st Fick´s st
diffusion law will be applied to the Eq. (2). From applying
In the next step, this 1
this relation -1
m* = - εinξ equationDp,a (∂pwv(2) Fick´s diffusion law will be applied to the Eq. (2). From applying
/∂x)follows: (5)
this relation in equation (2) follows:

In the next step, this 1 st
Fick´s diffusion law will be applied to the Eq. (2). From applying
-1 - -
m* = (ε ξ D )1/2Δpwv π 1/2 τ 1/2
this relation in equation (2) follows:
p,a (6)

The
The first
first
m* = (εterm
term ξ-1 in
Dp,a in
this
)1/2this equation
equation
Δp wv π
fully
-1/2 -1/2
τfully characterises
characterises the the porous, porous, liquid liquid moisture moisture non non ––
(6)
absorbing fabric ability to absorb the water vapour from a wet surface which contacts the
absorbing fabric ability to absorb the water vapour from a wet surface which contacts
The fabric through semipermeable membrane. Then the water
first term in this equation fully characterises the the porous, vapour liquid absorptivity B
moisture non [m3– s1/2]
the fabric through semipermeable membrane. Then water vapour absorptivity B
is defined by the relation:
absorbing fabric ability to absorb the water vapour from a wet surface which contacts the
[m
s ] is defined by the relation:
3 1/2
fabric through semipermeable membrane. Then the water
-1 1/2
vapour absorptivity B [m3s1/2]
B = (ε ξ D
is defined by the relation: p,a ) (7)

When the transferred mass is multiplied by the heat of water evaporation L [J/kg], then we
B = (ε ξ-1 Dp,a)1/2 (7)
get the expression for the cooling heat flow:
When the transferred mass is multiplied by the heat of water evaporation L [J/kg],

When the transferred mass is multiplied by the heat of water evaporation L [J/kg], then we
then weqget the expression = L for the (ε cooling ξ-1 heat flow: Dp,a)1/2 Δpwv π -1/2 τ -1/2
get the expression for the cooling heat flow:
evap
(8)
This Eq. (8) describes the time course of the water vapour v mass flow, similarly as it
qevap = L (ε ξ-1 Dp,a)1/2 Δpwv π -1/2 τ -1/2
This Eq. (8) describes the time course of the water vapour v mass flow, similarly as it
(8)
happens with heat flow q [W/m2] when a human skin (hand) suddenly touches a cooler
fabric. Then the heat flow course q has the form showed in the Fig. 1:
This Eq. (8) with describes the time course of the awater vapour
happens heat flow q [W/m 2] when human skin v (hand)mass suddenly
flow, similarly as it a
touches
happens with heat flow q [W/m ] when a human skin (hand) suddenly touches a cooler
2
cooler fabric. Then the heat flow course q has the form showed in the Fig. 1:
fabric. Then the heat flow course q has the form showed in the Fig. 1:

Fig. Fig. 2 Time course of heat flow q in a human skin after its sudden contact with a fabric
2 Time course of heat flow q in a human skin after its sudden contact with a fabric
The
The respected Prof.
respected Prof. Kawabata proposed
Kawabata proposed the
the use
use ofof the
the qqmaxvalue
value
asas
thethe parameter
parameter
Fig. 2 Time course of heat flow q in a human skin after its sudden contact with a fabric
characterizing the warm-cool feeling of fabrics. As the time course of heat flow and water
max
characterizing the warm-cool feeling of fabrics. As the time course of heat flow and
The vapour mass flow are governed by formally similar equations, can be similar principle used
respected
water vapourProf.
massKawabata
flow are proposed
governedthe by use of the
formally qmax equations,
similar value as the
can parameter
be similar
for the evaluation of water vapour absorptivity B of car seats in our case ( Hes,1998)
characterizing the warm-cool feeling of fabrics. As the time course of heat flow and water .
principle
used for the evaluation of water vapour absorptivity B of car seats in our
vapour mass flow are governed by formally similar equations, can be similar principle used
Unfortunately, the mass flow peak level may last too short time to be recorded. That is why
case (Hes,1998).
for the evaluation of water vapour absorptivity B of car seats in our case (
we propose Hes,1998)
to measure the heat flow level after certain time (30 sec .
or 60 sec) after
Unfortunately, the mass flow peak level may last too short time to be recorded. That
insertion of the measuring head on the seat car surface. The original idea of measurement
Unfortunately, the mass flow peak level may last too short time to be recorded. That is why
isof the steady state level of the evaporation heat flow was found functionless: after enough
why we propose to measure the heat flow level after certain time (30 sec or 60
we propose to measure the heat flow level after certain time (30 sec or 60 sec) after
insertion of the measuring head on the seat car surface. The original idea of measurement 4

of the steady state level of the evaporation heat flow was found functionless: after enough The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:
4
Comfort and safety
sec) after insertionTIWC 2016,

of the 25-28head
measuring April,
on2016,
the seatPoznan, Poland
car surface. The original idea
of measurement of the steady state level of the evaporation heat flow was found
functionless: after enough time, the water vapour concentration or partial pressure in
time, the water vapour concentration or partial pressure in a closed or large system, which
ain reality presents the design of common car seats, became saturated, and the mass flow
closed or large system, which in reality presents the design of common car seats,
stops, as follows from the Eq. 8.
became saturated, and the mass flow stops, as follows from the Eq. 8.
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
The steady state mass transfer and evaporation flow through a fabric in a skin model
byThe steady state mass transfer and evaporation flow through a fabric in a skin model by
diffusion and convection is proportional to the driving force, which is the difference
in partial and
diffusion convection
pressures is proportional
of water vapour on to the
bothdriving
sides force,
of thewhich is the
fabric, anddifference
indirectlyin
partial pressures of water vapour on both sides of the fabric, and indirectly proportional to
proportional to the evaporation resistance Revap,f
the evaporation resistance Revap,f of the fabric
of the fabric and the evaporation
and the evaporation resistance of the
resistance of the adheredevap,bl
adhered boundary layer R boundary layer Revap,bl, as follows:
, as follows:

m* = Δpwv / (Revap,f + Revap,bl) qevap = Δpwv L /(Revap,f + Revap,bl) (9)
Here, the water vapour partial pressures strongly depend on the air temperature, and the
Here, the water vapour partial pressures strongly depend on the air temperature, and
difference in partial pressures also depends on the place of measurement and local
the difference in partial pressures also depends on the place of measurement and
conditions. For right evaluation of thermophysiological comfort of car seats, it is necessary
local conditions. For right evaluation of thermophysiological comfort of car seats, it
to establish standard testing conditions. One of the possibilities is to determine the steady
isstate
necessary to establish
evaporation standard
flow through testing
special conditions.
hydrophobic Oneand
fabric, of the possibilities
to declare is to de-
the measured
value as the reference 100% value. Then, the cooling flow levels q
termine the steady state evaporation flow through special hydrophobic evap measured on the
fabric, and
to declare the measured value as the reference 100% value. Then, the coolingrelative
studied car seats, are presented in the relative scale 0 -100%. The determined flow
values are then independent on the actual climatic conditions in the testing laboratory or
levels qevap measured on the studied car seats, are presented in the relative scale 0
even in the evaluated car.
-100%. The determined relative values are then independent on the actual climatic
conditions in the testing
The calibration laboratory
unit which serves or for even in the evaluated
the determination car.
of the 100% reference value is
presented on the Fig. 2. The copper plate in the bottom of the unit, which must be placed
The calibration unit which serves for the determination of the 100% reference value
on the measured fabric (car seat surface), records the fabric surface temperature, which is
isnecessary
presentedto onestablish
the Fig. the
2. The copper plate
isothermal testing inconditions.
the bottomIn ofthis
thefigure,
unit, which must be
the measuring
placed on the measured fabric (car seat surface), records the fabric surface tempe-
head of ther SITCOM tester is now inserted in the unit for the calibration procedure.
rature, which is necessary to establish the isothermal testing conditions. In this figure,
the measuring head of ther SITCOM tester is now inserted in the unit for the calibration
procedure.
Fig. 3 Portable measuring head of the SITCOM tester inserted in the calibration unit
covered by the polypropylene reference fabric (Ret 9,2 m2Pa/W) and the electronic unit
Fig. 3 Portable measuring head of the SITCOM tester inserted in the calibration unit co-
vered by the polypropylene reference fabric (Ret 9,2 m2Pa/W) and the electronic unit
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND THEIR EVALUATION
The 90th Textile Institute World Conference: 5
116
Comfort and safety
3 different car seat cover materials were tested. Details about these materials cannot
be presented due to the know-how of the car seats manufacturer. During the test,
these fabrics were placed on massive porous polyurethane block.
Tab. 1 Levels of the relative dynamic cooling flow [%] determined by the SITCOM
tester as the time function (the100% cooling flow corresponds to the evaporation re-
sistance Ret = 9.2 m2Pa/W)
Fabric Knitted seat cover Leather seat cover Velvet seat cover
Sample 30 sec- 60 sec- 30 sec- 60 sec- 30 sec- 60 sec-
No. onds onds onds onds onds onds
1 11.2 4.6 3.2 -0.9 12.3 7.9
2 10.9 6.4 7.2 0.7 13.8 6.9
3 10.7 6.2 5.1 -0.3 12.5 7.0
4 11.3 6.2 4.1 -0.2 11.1 7.6
5 11.6 6.0 2.2 -0.1 10.9 5.2
6 11.0 5.9 3.1 -0.1 13.4 6.8
Considering the partly imperfect thermal contact of the measuring head with the
tested fabric, the results of measurement on 6 different places of the tested car seat
are quite consistent. Following the previous theory (Eq. 8), with increasing time the
mass transfer decreases. In a real large car seat with impermeable bottom layer,
after long time the transfer process will stop, due to full saturation of the fabric with
moisture. This effect happened here already with the finished leather seat cover
with limited thickness, characterized by lower sorption capacity (see the medium
column in the Tab.1). However, microporous structure of leather generated the heat
of condensation of vapour into liquid water, which is very high (approx. 2 500 000 J/
kg condensed water vapour), which resulted in negative signal (cooling effect is here
polarized as the positive one, heating is indicated as the negative signal). From the
Tab. 1 follows, that in the average, the velvet car seat cover absorbed more water
vapour then the knitted one.
CONCLUSIONS
From the study follows, that the novel SITCOM tester of thermophysiological comfort
of car seats, described in the paper, is able to record satisfactorily the cooling heat
flow given by water vapour evaporation from the simulated driver´s body into the
car seat in a real vehicle, under real conditions of the driver or passenger seated in
the car. During the test the measuring head contacts directly the car seat surface
and water vapour passes downwards, it means in the inverted position, in which the
commercial testing instruments mostly evaluate thermal comfort of car seats. The
submitted experimental results are preliminary only and serve for the verification of
the presented theoretical considerations.
REFERENCES
Umbach, K. H. 2000. Physiological comfort of seats in cars. Kettenwirk - Praxis, 1: 34-40
Hes, L. 1998. A new method of indirect measurement of moisture absorbtivity of textile fabrics, in:
Internat. conf. on Engineered Fabrics (Ed. I. Porat), UMIST, Manchester.

117
Comfort and safety
RESEARCH ON HEAVY METALS MIGRATION FROM TEXTILES IN THE ASPECT OF THE SAFETY ASSESSMENT OF PRODUCTS
RESEARCH ON HEAVY METALS MIGRATION

FROM TEXTILES IN THE ASPECT OF THE SAFETY
ASSESSMENT OF PRODUCTS
Renata Salerno-Kochan
Cracow University of Economics, Faculty of Commodity Science, Cracow, Sienkiewicza 4, Polanad
salernor@uek.krakow.pl
ABSTRACT
Heavy metals represent a major problem in textile industry. Due to their known negative
impact on human health their use in textile manufacturing has been regulated in the
EU by law. In accordance with requirements the use in textile processes substances
that may contain such metals as: nickel, cadmium, lead, chromium etc. is banned. It
can be understood that, in case of their detection in textiles the product is qualified as
not in compliance with safety requirements. Such approach seems to be questionable.
The aim of the research is to find out if the so-called heavy metals may pose a real
risk to human body as a result of their migration from textiles to the various extract
solutions.
The samples of textile materials were subjected to mineralization as well as to
extraction at distillate water, physiological saline or hydrochloric acid. The content of
heavy metals in the mineralized samples and extracts was determined by the use of
Flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (FAAS) technique. The experiment has shown
a high amount of such heavy metals as cooper, lead, chromium and cadmium in
mineralised samples, but very low content in extracts. The results of the study could
suggest that the requirements defined in legal regulation are rather strict.
Keywords: safety of textiles, heavy metals, Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy,
requirements
INTRODUCTION
The safety of consumer products is one of the most important goals of EU policy
and is realized by introducing various legal or facultative requirements that relate to
chemical or physical risks that products may pose to human health or life. A serious
problem in safety assessment of products is created by chemical risks estimation and
results from unequivocally and sometimes questionably defined requirements. Some
doubts relate for example to the so-called heavy metals that in accordance with the
Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006(called as REACH regulation) should not be used as
substances, continuances of preparations or colorants in textiles. These requirements
are the basis for the withdrawal from the market products, in which the presence of
even small amounts of these metals was found.
However, another approach can be observed when analysing the requirements
for textile products contained in the Oeko-tex and Eco-label ecological criteria, or
requirements related to the safety assessment of toys, including textile ones (Johnson
2012). They allow for the presence of heavy metals in textiles, and what is more they

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refer not only to total metal content in a material, but specify limits values for element
migration from a product into the acid sweat solution (ecological requirements) or
hydrochloric acid solution (toys). These values vary depending on element under
consideration and the intended use a product (Table 1). Also requirements set forth
on other consumer products, including drinking water (Council Directive 98/93/EC;
Ordinance of the Ministry of Health of 13 November 2015, item 1989), or food products
(Commission Regulation (EU) 2015/186) are less restrictive in comparison to legal
requirements related to the textile products.
Table 1. Limits for heavy metals defined by legal and other requirements
Regulation Regulation on the
(EC) No Eco-label Oeko-Tex® PN-EN 71-3+A1 quality of water
Lp. Heavy metal 1907/2006
Textiles Toys Water
Limit values for extractable Limit values for extractable

metals, mg/kg metals, mg/kg
With no direct contact with skin

Limit values, Limit values for Maximum
Direct contact with skin
Decoration materials
mg/kg extractable metals for concentration,
Other products
Baby products
Baby dry, brittle, powder-

products like materials, mg/kg μg/l
1. 1 Nickel (Ni) 1 1 1 4 4 4 75 20
2. 2 Cadmium (Cd) 0.1 0.1 0,1* 1.3 5

should not
be used as
3. 3 Lead (Pb) substances, 0.2 1.0 0.2** 1.0** 1.0** 1.0** 13.5 10
continuances
of
preparations
4. 4 Mercury (Hg) or colorants 0.02 0.02 0.02 7.5 1
5. 5 Arsenic (As) 0.2 1 0.2 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.8 10
Chromium (Cr) 1 1-2 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 37.5 50

6. 6
including Cr(VI) - below detection limit 0.02
-
7. 9 Copper (Cu) 25 50 25 50 50 50 622,5 2000
Source: own work.

Despite of known toxicity of heavy metals and some of their compounds to human
health (Contemporary toxicology 2006) there are no conclusive evidence for real
hazard they may pose to the user due to releasing from a textile and migration into
the human body through sweat, saliva, air or in another way. It is known that heavy
metals are often use as metal complex dyes, dye stripping agents, oxidizing agents,
fastness improvers or finishers (flame retardants, water repents, anti-fungal and odour-
preventive agents). The presence of heavy metals in products may result also from
environmental pollution and therefore their presence in textiles is highly probable.
The presence of heavy metals in textiles is an important and interesting scientific

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problem both from environmental reasons, as a source of water and soil contamination
with finishing agents used in the textile manufacturing process, as well as from their
known toxic effects on human metabolism, nervous system, internal organs and the
skin (Zeiner, Rezic, and Steffan 2007; Shekhawat, Chatterjee, and Joshi  2015). In the
scientific literature there is a number of articles related to test methods employed for
heavy metals in textiles (Pranaityte, Padarauskas, and Naujalis2008; Salerno-Kochan
2011; Tonetti, and Innocenti 2015; Sungur, and Gülmez  2015), or an effect of the textile
finishing processes on the content of harmful substances in a product (Rybicki et al.
2004).
The aim of this research is to find out if the so-called heavy metals may pose a real risk
to human body as a result of their migration from textiles to the three extract solutions:
water, physiological saline and hydrochloric acid. The use of water as an extract was
to simulate the contact of wet materials with the human skin. When using clothes or
other textile products it does happen that textile is wetted more or less occasionally.
Thus, it is necessary to investigate if such event could lead to migration of harmful
metals from wetted textile to the human body through contact with the skin. The use
of hydrochloric acid was to determine a possibility of migration of trace elements in
gastric acid that may be important in the context of children’s products (e.g. toys)
that may be swallowed. In turn the use of sodium hydroxide extract was to simulate
conditions where a material is exposed to human sweat that is composed mainly of
this compound.
Samples
Experiments were carried out on 3 textile materials of the following intended use and
raw material composition:
SAMPLE A: clothing woven fabric made of polyamide (PA), navy blue colour;
SAMPLE B: furniture fabric made of polyester fibres and coated by polyvinyl chloride
(PET & PVC), red colour;
SAMPLE C: furniture fabric made of polyamide fibres and coated by polyvinyl chloride
(64%) and polyurethane (34%) (PA &PVC+PU).
Sample preparation
The following sample preparation method were employed:
mineralization in a microwave oven,
extraction with distilled water,
extraction with 0.9% NaCl solution (physiological saline),
extraction with HCl solution at concentration of 0.07 mol/L.
The samples designed for mineralization were disintegrated by grinding and held a
temperature of 60°C for 1 hour. Afterwards a 1g sample was placed in a Teflon vessel
and 6ml of 70% nitric (V) acid was added. Then the samples were mineralized in
the WX-6000 microwave oven. After mineralization and cooling dihydrogen peroxide
was added, and then after nitric oxides volatilised, water solutions of samples were
prepared and subject to FAAS analysis (PN-EN 14084:2004).
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The samples designed for extraction were prepared according to the procedure
specified in PN-EN 71-3+A1:2014-12. This consisted in placing 1 g of ground material
in 50 ml of extracting solution and solution incubation at 37 ± 2°C for 2 hours, while
during the first hour the mixing at 150 rpm was applied. The next step was to separate
solids from the solution by using a membrane filter and FAAS analysis.
Analytical methods
The mineralized samples and extracts were analysed by using Flame Atomic
Absorption Spectroscopy (FAAS) for the presence such elements as nickel, copper,
lead, cadmium and chrome. Only extracts from samples where metals were found in
its mineralizates were subject to FAAS analysis for the presence of these elements on
the Thermo Scientific iCE 3000 spectrophotometer.
To verify the toxicity effect of extracts on living organisms the bioindicative method,
proposed by author in other work, was applied (Salerno-Kochan 2012). Due to the
negative effect of HCl and NaCl solutions on test organism the observations were
performed in water extracts (Salerno-Kochan 2011). Changes in test organisms’ behavior
were analyzed based on microscopic observations, turbidimetric measurements of
direct readings of solution absorbance, as well as based on analytical measurements
of absorbance in the presence of almarBlue® cell viability reagent added after 6
and 24 hours incubation of Tetrahymena pyriformis in the extracts. The measure of the
extracts’ toxicity was the decrease in the proliferation rate of Tetrahymena pyriformis
culture.
Heavy metals contents (mg/kg) after
Sample Metal water extraction in extraction in
mineralisation
extraction HCl NaCl
Cu 335.0577 nd 1.7147 0.0469
Pb nd - - -
A
Cr 285.665 0.1037 0.0496 0.1113
Cd 0.507 nd nd nd
Cu 6.000 nd nd nd
Pb 6466.907 0.0594 0.4991 0.1228
B
Cr 1042.199 0.0171 0.0090 0.0101
Cd nd - - -
Cu 2.7755 - - -
Pb nd - - -
C
Cr nd - - -
Cd 10537.26 nd 0.0275 0.0151

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RESULTS
The results of analyses are presented in Table 2.
Table 1. Heavy metal contents in analysed textiles
nd – not detected
Source: own research.
The results (Table 2) indicate the presence of significant amounts of heavy metals
such as copper, chrome, lead and cadmium in materials under investigation. The
highest concentrations of harmful elements were found in coated textiles (SAMPLE
B and C), and most likely this result from dyes contained in PVC coating of these
textiles. In the light of the above one can conclude that these textiles do not meet
the requirements for safety in use specified in the REACH regulation and should be
withdrawn from the market.
When viewing the results of textile extract analysis a significantly lower concentration
of undesired elements in all extraction solutions was found. For example, despite of a
significant cadmium content in SAMPLE C subjected to mineralization (10,537 mg/kg)
the content of this element in extracts was 0.0275 mg/kg and 0.0151 in HCl and NaCl
extracts, respectively, i.e. 0.00026% and 0.00014% with reference to the cadmium
concentration in the mineralized sample. Based on the obtained results one should
conclude the copper compound contained in SAMPLE A that probably is a constituent
of textile dye, has the highest migration capability. Compared to the content of this
element in the mineralized sample its presence in HCl extract was at the level of 0.5%
of copper content in the mineralized sample. Also chromium shows a high migration
capability and it easily extracts into aqueous environment and NaCl solution.
When considering the kind of extracting solution it has been observed that there is
different migration capability of heavy metals from a textile product into extracting
solutions (water, physiological saline and hydrogen chloride). Except for chromium,
all determined elements showed the highest susceptibility to extraction into hydrogen
chloride solution. This was observed especially for copper in SAMPLE A, and also for
lead in SAMPLE C, for which migration into hydrogen chloride was about 4 times higher
than for other solvents used in this study. However, the lowest amounts of harmful
elements were extracted into water.
When analysing the results for extracts in the context of environmental requirements
for textiles one should conclude that the amount of heavy metals detected in each
of the applied extraction medium, including highly reactive hydrogen chloride,
reached a value substantially below the specified requirements limits, even in the
case of cadmium or lead, for which the limits are defined at a very low level, as shown
in Figure 1.

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Figure 1. The heavy metal contents in extracts in relations to ecological requirements

Source: own research.
The experiment performed by the use of bioindicative method showed surprisingly

that the negative impact of analysed water extracts on test organism had only the
extract of the SAMPLE C, in which there were not detected any amounts of heavy
metals as a result of their migration into the water. The inhibition rate of Tetrahymena
pyriformis culture growth in this extract, computed for both the turbidimetric and
colorimetric measurements reached 100%, while in the extracts of the SAMPLE A and
B there were not observed any inhibition in test organism growth (inhibition rate was
equal 0%). Such strong impact of water extract of the SAMPLE C on test organism
could be the result of the presence of other hazardous substances in the extracts that
were beyond this research subject. To detect them another analytical method, as gas
chromatography should be applied that may give the answer if the reason of test
organism dead are azo dyes, for example.
CONCLUSIONS
Heavy metals can migrate from a textile product into the human skin and body when
using through liquids that contact both the product and the human skin, including
water, sweat or gastric acids. The capability of metal migration from a product varies
depending on element and extracting medium. Based on the obtained test results
it has been found that despite of the presence of heavy metals in large amounts in
materials, only of very small part of them migrate into such solutions as water, HCl and
NaCl, i.e. solutions that may participate in transferring harmful substances contained
in textile products into the human skin or body.
Among extraction solutions under examination hydrogen chloride being a gastric
acid constituent shows the highest heavy metal extraction capability. Thus, it is
possible to assume that after unintentional swallowing a material containing harmful
substances (e.g. textile toy) by a child, migration of harmful substances into human
internal organs may occur due to action on gastric acid. On the other hand, it should
be noted that there are rather trace amounts of extracted compounds and they
should pose no significant hazard to human health.
The researches have shown the usefulness of the bioindicative method for safety

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assessment of textiles.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This publication was financed with subsidies for maintaining the research capacity
granted to the Commodity Science Faculty of The Cracow University of Economics.
The author would like to express her gratitude to Dr. J. Piwowarczyk, MSc. W. Żuk and
MSc. K. Halaburda for their help.
REFERENCES
Commission Decision of 5 June 2014 establishing the ecological criteria for the award of the EU
Ecolabel for textile products. OJ L174/45 13.06.2014.
Commission Regulation (EU) 2015/186 of 6 February 2015 amending Annex I to Directive 2002/32/EC
of the European Parliament and of the Council as regards maximum levels for arsenic, fluorine, lead,
mercury, endosulfan and Ambrosia seeds, OJ L 31/11 of 07.2.2015.
Contemporary toxicology. 2006. Eds. W. Senczuk. PZWL. Warszawa (in polish).
Council Directive 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the quality of water intended for human
consumption, OJ L 330 of 05.12.1998.
Hazardous chemicals in textiles – report of a government assignment. 2013. Swedish Chemicals
Agency, Report No. 3/13.
Johnson D.W. 2012. Review of Metals in the Toy Safety Standard, Status Report for Consumer Product
Safety Commission, USA.
PN-EN 14084:2004 Foodstuffs - Determination of trace elements - Determination of lead, cadmium,
zinc, copper and iron by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) after microwave digestion.
PN-EN 71-3+A1: 2014-12. Safety of toys - Part 3: Migration of certain elements.
Pranaityte B., Padarauskas A., Naujalis E. 2008. Determination of metals in textiles by ICP-MS following
extraction with synthetic gastric juice, Chemija, 19(3-4): 43-47.
Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December
2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH),
establishing a European Chemicals Agency, amending Directive 1999/45/EC and repealing Council
Regulation (EEC) No 793/93 and Commission Regulation (EC) No 1488/94 as well as Council Directive
76/769/EEC and Commission Directives 91/155/EEC, 93/67/EEC, 93/105/EC and 2000/21/EC, OJ L 396
30.12.2006
Regulation of the Minister of Health of 13 November 2015 on the quality of water intended for human
consumption (in polish), Dz.U. 2015 poz. 1989: 17.
Rybicki, E., T. Świętych, E. Leśniewska, and J. Albińska. 2004. Changes in Hazardous Substances in
Cotton after Mechanical and Chemical Treatments of Textiles, Fibres & Texiles in Eastern Europe,
2(46): 67-73.
Salerno-Kochan R. 2011. New elements of the safety assessment of textiles (in polish), Cracow University
of Economics, Monograph, 202, Kraków.
Salerno-Kochan R. 2012. New approach to the safety evaluation of textile goods. Part I. Bioindicative
measuring method for formaldehyde content in textiles. Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe, 20,2(91):
96-101.
Shekhawat, K., S. Chatterjee, and B. Joshi . 2015. Chromium toxicity and its health hazards, International
Journal of Advanced Research, 3(7): 167-172.
Sungur F., and F. Gülmez. 2015. Determination of metal contents of various fibers used in textile industry
by MP-AES, Journal of Spectroscopy, http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/640271.
Test criteria. Limit values and fastness. 2015. https://www.oeko-tex.com/en/manufacturers/ test_
criteria/limit_values/limit_values.html.
Tonetti C., and R. Innocenti 2009. Determination of heavy metals in textile materials by Atomic
Absorption Spectrometry: Verification of the test method, AUTEX Research Journal 9(2): 66-70.
Zeiner, M., I Rezić, and I. Steffan. 2007. Analytical methods for the determination of heavy metals in
the textile industry, 56: 587-595.

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SMOOTHNESS AND ROUGHNESS: CHARACTERISTICS OF FABRIC-TO-FABRIC SELF-FRICTION PROPERTIES
SMOOTHNESS AND ROUGHNESS:

CHARACTERISTICS OF FABRIC-TO-FABRIC SELF-
FRICTION PROPERTIES
Ningtao Mao, Yiyi Wang, Jianguo Qu
1
Performance textiles and clothing research group, School of Design, University of Leeds
University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
(Corresponding author, Email: n.mao@leeds.ac.uk)
ABSTRACT
Smoothness and roughness of fabric materials are important fabric tactile properties
for engineering design of many textile products including medical textiles, hygiene
and healthcare products, sportswear, underwear, lingerie and other consumer
products having special requirements in sensitive surface tactile properties. They are
assessed by human fingers and hands in subjective evaluations to form personal
perceptions of the fabrics, and they are usually characterised by using the friction
coefficient and surface roughness profile during human skin (or artificial human skin/
finger/probes) sliding against fabric surfaces in haptic science.
In this paper, the friction coefficient and its spectrum during a fabric surface sliding
against the fabric surface itself in a fabric self-friction process are used to characterise
the fabric smoothness and roughness. The dynamic friction coefficients and its
frequency analysis of its variations of three different fabric materials are assessed
against their surface morphological profile. The application of such characteristics
of fabric-to-fabric frictional properties in the engineering design of fabric surface
structures and their uses in the objective evaluation of fabric hand and discrimination
of fabric are also discussed.
Keywords: Smoothness, roughness, fabric-to-fabric friction, coefficient of friction,
frequency analysis, LUFHES.
INTRODUCTION
Fabric roughness and smoothness have different meanings in physics. Physically,
any surface is generally composed of three components, form, waviness, and
roughness, in accordance with wavelength or frequency of surface particles. They
are corresponding to the low, medium and in local relative height differences
respectively (Militky & Bajzik, 2004). The term roughness refers to height differences of
high frequency range of variations on the surface of an object, and it is frequently
measured using a profilomete and quantified by the deviations in the direction
of the normal vector of a real surface from its ideal form (Whitehouse, 2012) and
characterised by roughness heights and roughness width.
Similarly, fabric smoothness (or fabric slipperiness) refers to the fabric surface resistance
to a sliding tangential force applied, it is measured by using either static/dynamic
fabric coefficient of friction or friction force applied onto the fabric. The magnitude
of the friction force is usually more or less proportional to the normal contact force

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perpendicular to the fabric surface and might also vary with the speed of movement.
Tactual perception of fabric roughness and smoothness
Tactual perceptions of fabric smoothness and roughness are the sensations of two
different fabric surface properties. Human sensation of hand touch on a fabric is
perceived in the conscious mind through four sensory mechanoreceptors in the skin,
namely Meissner corpuscles (FA I), Pacinian corpuscles (FA II), Merkel cell neurite
complexes (SA1), and Ruffini end-organs (SA2). The electrical signals produced from
the physical deformation (e.g., indentation and stretch) of the soft and flexible skin in
the hand caused by mechanical energy applied (e.g., intensity of contact force and
speed of motion) (Gardner and Esther P, 2010) is detected to provide information to
the brain about the size, shape, form, weight, pressure, motion, vibration and hand
posture of objects. These information received by human brain allow us to perceive
whether objects appear hard or soft in form, smooth or rough in texture, heavy or light
in weight, and whether these sensations produce pain or pleasure in human mind
(Johnson and Hsiao, 1992).
Fabric roughness is a multidimensional sensation related to the surface texture, i.e.,
the dimensions and spatial variations of surface particles/protrudes. It is determined
by different physical parameters such as amplitude of the surface profile (Miyaoka,
Mano & Ohka,1999), spacing of the surface features (Taylor & Lederman, 1975) and
friction between skin and surface (Tiest, 2010), coefficient of friction (Ekman et al,1965),
fingertip force and average rate of change of the tangential touching force (Smith
et al, 2002).
Roughness perception varies depending on whether the touch evaluation is carried
out statically or dynamically. Usually a rough surface produces an uneven pressure
distribution on the skin when it is touched statically, and generates vibrations when
stroked dynamically (Tiest, 2010). Katz (1925) found that the vibration sense was much
more important than pressure sensation for roughness perception. More precisely, it
was found in duplex theory (Hollins & Risner, 2000) that the perceived roughness is
more readily related to dynamic vibrations on finger skin for fine surface (particles
smaller than 100um) while the perceived roughness is more readily related to the
particle spatial dimensions for coarse surface (particle size larger than 100 um). This
means that either static or dynamic evaluation method is sufficient for discriminating
in perception the coarser surface textures having particle sizes greater than 100 um,
and that dynamic evaluation method is necessary for discriminating the perception
of fine surface textures having particle sizes smaller than 100um. This is attributed to
the capability of Pacinian receptors which rendered less sensitive through adaptation
with a 100 Hz-300Hz vibration. For finer textures having spatial period less than 200
um), perceived roughness is associated with the amplitude of the vibrations (Hollins
& Bensmaïa, 2007).
The perception of roughness and fabric surface textures are correlated based on the
‘‘duplex model of tactile roughness perception’’ (Hollins et al, 1998, Hollins & Risner,
2000). These works distinguish between the perception of fine textures (spatial period
is smaller than 100 mm), highlighted by vibrations, and the coarse ones (spatial period
is bigger than 200 mm), characterized by a ‘‘single spatial intensive code’’, mediated
by SA I afferents (Hollins et al, 2000).

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Employing the methods of combining finger friction measurements with sensory

evaluation, Childs and Henson (2007) found that both the sliding friction coefficient
and the roughness (peak separation) could partially be related to the perceived
feelings of smoothness and roughness. Liu et al (2008) found that both measured
surface roughness and friction of different car interior materials could be correlated
with the touch-feel perception of ‘‘rough’’ and ‘‘slippery’’ respectively.
In contrary to the fabric roughness as a surface texture property, fabric smoothness
is related to fabric surface slipperiness as a frictional property7. In perception, fabric
smoothness is perceived in human mind as a sensation of the resistance to the sliding
movement of human skin surface (e.g. a hand or a finger) over a fabric surface. It is
found that the relative movement between the two surfaces is essential for obtaining
perception of slipperiness (Grierson & Carnahan, 2006). It is found that subjective
perception of slipperiness is highly correlation (correlation coefficient of 0.85) to
the coefficients of friction of a number of smooth surfaces (Smith & Scott,1996), the
discrimination threshold for slipperiness perception were found ranging between
18% and 27% for coefficients of friction between 0.8 and 0.2 (Provancher & Sylvester,
2009). However, friction is an unclearly defined interaction between two surfaces
and confusing conclusions are frequently reported due to the fact that roughness
perception, rather than slipperiness, is frequently links with frictions properties (Ekman
et al,1965). In a research of touch feel of the surface some rigid materials, while
roughness perception is highly correlated with the particle sizes, the perceived feel
of slipperiness may not be dominated by the friction term. Interestingly, it is also noted
that people is able to determine slipperiness statically (Grierson & Carnahan, 2006)
when they perform an action to pick up the object (Johansson & Westling, 1984;
Cadoret & Smith,1996).
Both of fabric smoothness and roughness are frequently evaluated subjectively by
human evaluators, objectively by measuring surface friction properties in haptic
devices, and by combining these two methods together (Liu et al, 2008; Childs and
Henson, 2007; Chen et al, 2009) when stroking finger (Derler, 2007; Darden and Schwartz,
2009) or a forearm (Gerhardt et al, 2008; Gerhardt et al, 2009) over the fabric surface.
However, the measurement of friction effect varies with different methods and can be
affected by many factors such as humidity, normal force and speed of movement. It
was found that measured friction coefficients between the fingertip and fabrics were
not correlated well with the tactile descriptors using by human evaluators in some
researches.
The coefficient of friction of objects including fabrics are affected by the surface
roughness. Studies have shown that the amplitude of probe surface roughness has
a dominant influence on the coefficient of friction between dry fingertip skin and
surfaces of smaller roughness (e.g., Ra =0.03 –11.5 um , Rz = 0.05–45 um or Rq = 0.004–2
um) (Masen, 2011; Hendriks & Franklin , 2010); the smaller the amplitude of the probe
surface roughness, the higher the coefficient of friction (Masen, 2011; Hendriks &
Franklin, 2010; Skedung et al, 2010; Derler et al, 2009). For example, friction coefficients
of dry finger skin against a glass of smaller roughness (Rz = 0.05 um) is 2.18 ± 1.09 (range:
0.39–5), whereas friction coefficients on a rough glass surface (Rz = 45 um) is about
0.53 ± 0.22 (0.03–1.42) (Derler et al, 2009), the differences can be as large as a factor
5–10 times at low Ra roughness values less than 1 um (Hendriks and Franklin, 2010).
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Such differences have also been observed in the surface having relative fine textures
such as papers (in comparison with uncoated fabrics), it was found that coated
(smoother) papers shows higher friction coefficients than uncoated (rougher) papers,
and that both roughness and finger friction are related to perceived coarseness, and
perceived coarseness increases with the increase of rough texture (Skedung et al,
2011).
In contrary, the coefficient of friction increases with the increase of surface roughness
for very rough surfaces (Rq = 90 um) (Tomlinson et al, 2009), this is attributed to the
effect of friction ridges and ploughing (Derler et al, 2009; Tomlinson et al, 2009).
The friction theory of Moore for elastomers (Moore, 1972)) predicts that the friction
coefficient of compliant materials on rough surfaces increases with the surface
roughness amplitude. This theory may therefore be applicable to both the places
where there are interactions between surface asperities and skin ridges (on the
fingers, palm or feet) and the situations where skin in contact with rough surfaces
(Ra=3–10 um) (Hendriks & Franklin, 2010). Textiles are considered as soft materials with
rough surfaces and have complex material behaviour (Pan, et al, 2007). Skin–fabric
friction depends on the textile microstructures such as fibre materials, yarn design/
morphology, fabric construction, surface structure, hairiness and finishing (Gerhardt,
2009; Gerhardt, 2008; Comaish & Bottoms,1971; Zhang & Mak, 1999). It was found that
there were considerable differences in friction between fabrics made of natural (wool,
cotton) and synthetic (polyamide) yarns. Fine loops or crimps of natural fibres might
increase frictional resistance to reciprocating motions, leading to greater coefficient
of friction and energy dissipation per unit sliding distance (Gerhardt, 2008).
In recent years, the influences of the vibrations induced by frictions between the
human skin and the fabric surface on the discrimination of roughness and smoothness
perceptions have attracted a lot of attention. When the vibrations generated by
frictions between the human skin and the fabric surface in the process of a human
finger sliding over a fabric surface, the static and dynamic stress state of the skin are
transduced into electrical impulses to activate the four sensory mechanoreceptors
located in the skin to allow the brain to perceive tactile information about the fabric
surface roughness and smoothness. It is noticed that friction induced vibration to finger
skin is one of the key parameters for the perception of fabric roughness. There are two
different mechanisms of fabric roughness perception in relation to both roughness
wavelength and vibration spectra identified: when the wavelength of the surface
roughness is smaller or comparable to that of the fingerprint one, the fabric surface
roughness is perceived as a result of the vibrations induced by the finger sliding. When
roughness wavelength is much larger than that of the fingerprint one, it is perceived
as a quasi-static pressure distribution on the fingertip surface (Fagiani, 2011).
As a summary of about discussions, the perception of fabric smoothness can be
determined by fabric dynamic coefficient of friction and is heavily affected by fabric
surface roughness or texture amplitude; and the perception of fabric roughness is
determined by amplitude of the surface profile and spacing of the surface features,
and is affected by the vibration induced by friction with human fingers. That is, the
perception of fabric roughness and smoothness affect each other in the complex
subjective evaluation process. However, the sensitivity, humidity contents, physical

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profile and friction properties of human fingers are hugely different from individuals,
the perception of fabric roughness and smoothness from subjective assessment is
bound to vary widely. In addition, using friction between fabric and hard metal probes
might never simulate the real friction-vibration interactions between flexible fabric
and viscoelastic human fingers. Therefore, for the purpose of objectively evaluate the
fabric smoothness and roughness, it is desirable to develop a method for measuring
fabric friction-vibration properties to mimic finger-fabric friction-vibration interactions.
It is known that fabric-to-fabric self-friction is usually a friction of two surfaces having
a mixture of rough and fine textures, and the two surfaces are identical and made
of flexible polymer fibres. The fabric-to-fabric self-friction will produce detectable
vibrations but such properties is currently hardly studied, their characteristics of the
friction and vibration processes are still not clear. Therefore, it is a method of great
potential to be developed as an objective methods for objectively evaluating fabric
roughness and smoothness.
In this paper, the characteristics of the fabric-to-fabric self-friction properties of a thin
rip-stop fabric are measured in Leeds University Fabric Handle Evaluation System
(LUFHES) (Mao & Taylor, 2012). Its fabric smoothness from coefficient of friction and
roughness from vibration induced by friction are compared with fabric roughness
obtained from Kawabata Evaluation System.
FABRIC MATERIALS
A ripstop woven fabric consisting of low twisted, continuous filament yarns is studied.
Its surface structure and cross-sections in ward direction are shown in Figure 1. A unit
structure of this ripstop fabric is marked there in a rectangle in Figure 1.
(b) Cross-section of R area in warp direction
(a) Ripstop fabric surface structure (c) Cross-section of F area in warp direction
Figure 1 Ripstop fabric structure
There are two areas along warp direction in the unit area, ripstop strip (R) and flat strip
(F). Ripstop strip (R) contains 3 warp yarns and 15 weft yarns. Each warp yarn in R area
contains 5 loops, the warp yarn in one loop has a 2/1 weave structure. Flat strip (F)
contains two loops in weft direction, each loop has three warp yarns. F area contains
two structures in warp direction, shown as F1 and F2 in Figure 1. F1 contains 3 weft
yarns and F2 contains 12 weft yarns. F1 forms the ripstop strip along weft direction. In
the F1 area warp yarn has a 2/1 weave structure, which is the same with the ripstop
(R) strip. F2 area contains 4 loops in the warp direction, warp yarn in each loop has a

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Comfort and safety
1/2 weave structure.

Fabric-to-fabric self-friction test in LUFHES
The LUFHES friction test unit shown in Figure 1 contains two parts, the surface of upper
sample holder is covered by a strip of fabric, and is wrapped by a fabric cylinder
made from a piece of identical fabric having longer fabric length, the lower end
of the fabric cylinder is fixed onto the lower sample holder during the LUFHS friction
test process. A elastic band of known fabric properties and length is employed to
provide pressure onto the fabric cylinder on the upper sample holder. During LUFHES
friction test, the upper sample holder inside the fabric cylinder is moved upwards at
a speed of 1mm/s for 20mm and produced a relative movement in relation to the
fabric cylinder to produce fabric-to-fabric friction. The fabric coefficient of friction is
obtained from the drag force of upper sample holder and the normal pressure force
from the elastic band.
Figure 2 Model of LUFHES friction test

KES-F surface test process
In the KES-F roughness test, as shown in Figure 3, a single wire sensor touches fabric
with a constant normal forces, 10g. Fabric moves at a speed of 1mm/s and relative
movement take place between fabric and sensor. The vertical movements of
contactor caused by the fluctuations on fabric surface are detected by the sensor
and recorded for the analysis of roughness. The process of KES-F roughness test
contains two rounds. Fabric moves forwards for 30mm in the first round, and then
moves backwards to the start point in the second round. Therefore, two groups of
data are obtained of the same fabric area in one test.

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Figure 3 Sensors used in KES-F to test fabric surface properties: Roughness test probe
RESULTS
Roughness from KES test
The roughness results of round 2 test from KES test and its FFT analysis are shown in
Figure 4 below.
(a)
Figure 4 KES-F roughness test results with wavelengths less than 5mm. (a) Round 2
roughness (b) FFT analysis of round 2

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Comfort and safety
(a)
Figure 5 LUFHES friction test: (a) dynamic coefficient of friction curves; (b) FFT analysis
Table 8 Comparison of wavelengths in LUFHES and KES-F roughness test
Wavelength Wavelength obtained in FFT analysis of Wavelength obtained in FFT analysis of KES-F
groups (mm) LUFHES friction test (mm) Roughness test (mm)
Test 1 Test 2 Round 1 Round 2
0.3-0.4 0.36, 0.39 0.35, 0.39 0.38 0.39
0.4-0.5 0.40, 0.45, 0.40, 0.47 0.42, 0.45, 0.48 0.42, 0.46
0.5-0.6 0.52, 0.57 0.59 0.52, 0.55 0.53, 0.57
0.6-0.7 / 0.65 0.64 0.63, 0.69
0.7-0.8 0.72, 0.77 0.70, 0.76 0.7, 0.75 0.79
0.8-0.9 0.88 0.82 0.86 0.89
0.9-1.0 0.91 / 0.91 /
1.0-2.0 1.02, 1.29, 1.61 1.00, 1.18, 1.46, 1.72 1.04, 1.31, 1.67 1.01, 1.21, 1.31, 1.59
>2.0 2.15, 3.22, 4.84 2.37 2.01, 2.31, 3.01, 6.02 2.01, 2.74, 3.77
CONCLUSIONS
It is shown from the comparison of FFT analysis of LUFHES fabric-to-fabric self-friction test

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and KES-F roughness test that both LUFHES and KES-F test cannot obtain wavelengths
less than 300um, therefore the fine texture structure of the fabric surface could not
be obtained. However, almost all of the wavelengths obtained from KES roughness
test could be found corresponding ones in LUFHES results. With the consideration of
the fact that wavelength from KES-F roughness tester is obtained from fabric texture
profile and the wavelength from LUFHES is from the variance of the amplitude of the
vibration induced from fabric friction process, the highly agreement of the FFT spectra
analysis is an indication that LUFHES fabric-to-fabric self-friction test is a promising testing
method for objectively assess the perception of fabric roughness and smoothness.
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COMFORT PROPERTIES FOR DIFFERENT TEXTILE

SETS USING A THERMAL MANIKIN
Isaura Carvalho1, Miguel Carvalho2, Liliana Fontes2, Teresa Martins1
1
University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
2
University of Minho, Azurém, Guimarães, Portugal
(Presenting author E-mail: migcar@det.uminho.pt; Corresponding author E-mail: isa.c.carvalho@
gmail.com)
ABSTRACT
Textile and environmental ergonomics research have been fundamental to increase
knowledge and to allow the development of specific materials, with characteristics
that enable them to create effective barriers between the human body and the
environment.
Thermal manikins are important tools whose use over the years have allowed for
rigorous and safe thermal testing of clothing, thus enhancing our understanding of the
thermal properties of the tested materials. Moreover, these manikins allow researchers
to study body temperature characteristics in neutral or cold environmental conditions,
at low levels of activity.
For the person undergoing surgery, the operating room presents itself as an extreme
thermal exposure context. Therefore, it is important to care for the patient’s thermal
body protection
With this in mind, different textile sets, intented to be used in the operating room, were
designed and tested on a thermal manikin.
Keywords: Thermal manikin, Thermal insulation, Thermal comfort, Perioperative
warming
INTRODUCTION
Human life depends on the body’s ability to maintain its own internal temperature at
around 37 ºC. Clothing has always been used as an aid to this internal mechanism,
since it reduces the amount of heat leaving the body to the environment, and thus
helps keep body temperature within vital parameters.
Textile and environmental ergonomics research has been fundamental to increase
knowledge and allow for the development of materials with specific purposes.
Thermal manikins were created originally to test uniforms and clothing for the US Army’s
use (Holmér, 2004). They are important tools that have been applied to research in
these and many other areas.
Their use over the years has allowed for the rigorous and safe thermal testing of
clothing, and thus has increased understanding of the thermal properties of different
tested materials. Moreover, they also provide information about the mechanisms
of heat transfer between the human body and the environment (Holmér, 2004 and
Abreu, 2008).

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Comfort and safety
With the configuration of an adult human body and divided into thermally independent
segments, these models can be constructed in different materials, but they are all
able to reproduce in the laboratory some physiological processes of interaction
between the human body and the environment. They also accurately simulate the
human reaction to the thermal environment (Holmér, 2004, Abreu, 2008 and Pamuk,
Abreu & Öndoğan, 2008). Due to their characteristics, for example, thermal manikins
allow researchers to study the body temperature characteristics in neutral or cold
conditions, at low levels of activity (Holmér, 2004).
Due to their homeothermic ability, humans are able to protect themselves from
environmental hostility through internal mechanisms activated by cold or heat.
These mechanisms involve biochemical reactions – to promote a rewarding
thermoregulation - and behaviors that stimulate the actions of self-protection, such as
a search for food or shelter.
In thermally adverse situations or with body fragility, as is the case of the person in a
diseased condition, both mechanisms are impaired and the person runs the risk of
becoming hypothermic.
Preventing hypothermia and promoting the comfort of the person with surgical
needs is one of the priorities of health professionals in the perioperative setting,
because they understand the fragile condition of the patient, and the severity of the
environmental conditions. Before surgery, the individual condition of patients is poor
due to biochemical changes caused by anxiety, fasting, and limited clothing. These
elements, associated with the low room temperature and the large air movement
caused by air conditioning inside the operating theater, increase the temperature
drop and the thermal discomfort sensation.
In order to improve the thermal body protection of the upper body of persons
undergoing surgery in the lower body, different textile sets were developed and
tested using a thermal manikin.
All tests were performed in the Textile Engineering Laboratory at the University of Minho
in Portugal.
Materials
Eight sets comprised of three textile layers each were tested. The outer and intermediate
layer were the same in all sets, varying only the inner layer, with the goal of improving
users’ comfort, as this will be the layer in contact with the patient’s skin.
The composition, structure, and weight of both intermediate and outer layers are
presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Textile composition, structure, and weight in the intermediate and outer layers.
Sample Structure Composition Weight (g/m2)
Intermediate layer Non woven 100% Poliester 35.28
Outer layer Warp Knitting with PU coating 80% Poliester / 20% poliurethane 300.07
The inner layers varied in each set using both woven and knitting textile structures, as
shown in Table 2.

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Comfort and safety
Sample Structure Composition Weight (g/m2)

1 Woven – plain 52% Cotton / 48% Poliamide 145,89
3 Satin 5 52% Cotton / 48% Poliamide 151,08
4 Satin 5 100% Poliamide 127,54
5 Woven – plain 100% Cotton 116,20
6 Jersey 71% Polipropilene / 34% Poliamide / 5% Elasthane 217,66
8 Woven – plain 100% Poliamide 164,73
Table 2 – Textile composition, structure, and weight of the inner layers.

Equipment
All tests were conducted in an adiabatic chamber under controlled environmental
conditions.
The thermal manikin used in this research, known as “Maria”, has the height and
configuration of an adult woman, with the body divided into 20 independent thermal
segments, where the dry heat transfer takes place in one direction, from the inside of
the manikin to the environment. This electric model is heated throughout its surface
to achieve a constant temperature, which can be adjusted to desired values, and to
ensure a distribution of temperature across its surface similar to the human body. The
power required to maintain constant temperature is measured and then correlated
with the thermal comfort (Holmér, 2004).
Method
Tests were conducted according to ISO 15831, and were carried out once the
temperature of all manikin segments stablilized at 33 ⁰C. The average room temperature
was 22 ⁰C, the relative humidity approximately 42%, and air velocity below 0.15 m/s.
These parameters were monitored continuously throughout the test.
The manikin was placed lying down on a bed, static, thus simulating the position of a
person on the operating table.
The textile sets were subjected to 3 tests for periods of 20 minutes each, and were
placed on top of the manikin´s upper body, thus simulating a patient undergoing
surgery in the lower body.
At the end of each evaluation results were automatically recorded and stored.
The thermal insulation of the tested materials can be calculated in two ways: by
adding the area weighted local thermal insulation at the different body segments
of the manikin - serial method - or by using the heat flow from the manikin´s body
- parallel method (ISO 15831, 2004, Pamuk, Abreu & Öndoğan, 2008, Kuklane, Gao,
Wang & Holmér 2012).

137
The thermal insulation of the tested materials can be calculated in two ways: by a
Comfort and safety area weighted local thermal insulation at the different body segments of the man
serial method - or by using the heat flow from the manikin´s body - parallel metho
15831, 2004, Pamuk, Abreu & Öndoğan, 2008, Kuklane, Gao, Wang & Holmér 2
Serial model — Surface area
Serial weighted
model thermal
— Surface insulationthermal insulation
area weighted

The total thermal insulation, It, or the resultant total thermal insulation, Itr, is calculated
The total thermal insulation, It, or the resultant total thermal insulation, Itr, is cal
on the test results gained with the manikin respectively either stationary or moving its
the test results gained with the manikin respectively either stationary or movin
legs and arms, using Equation:
and arms, using Equation:

# (Tsi − Ta ) x ai &
It or Itr = ∑ ft x % TIWC
(ºKm 2
2016, 25-28 April, 2016, Pozna
/W)
i
TIWC
$ H2016,
ci ' 25-28 April, 2016, Poznan, Poland
(

ai
ai where fi =
where fi = A
A
Parallel model — Surface area averaged thermal insulation
Parallel model — Surface area averaged thermal insulation
Parallel model — Surface
area averaged thermal insulation
The total thermal insulation, It, or the resultant total thermal insu
The total thermal insulation, It, or the resultant total thermal insulation, Itr, is ca
The total thermal insulation, It, or thethe resultant total thermal
test results insulation,
gained with Itr, is calculated
the manikin respectively either sta
the test results
on the test results gained with the manikin gained with the
respectively
and arms, using equation: manikin
either respectively
stationary either
or movingstationary
its or mov
and arms, using equation:
legs and arms, using equation:

" (Tsi − Ta ) x A %
" (Tsi −ITt aor ItrA=% $
) x ' (ºKm2/W)
It or Itr = $ '& (ºKm
#
2
Hc
/W) &
# Hc

where
where
Ts = ∑ fi x Tsi (ºC)
Ts = ∑ fi x Tsi (ºC) i
i
Hc = ∑ Hci (W)
Hc = ∑ Hci (W) i
i

It - total thermal insulation of the clothing ensemble with the ma
It - total thermal insulation of the clothing ensemble with the manikin stationar
metre kelvins per watt;;
metre kelvins per watt;;
Tsi - local surface temperature of section i of the manikin, in deg
Tsi - local surface temperature of section i of the manikin, in degrees Celsius;;
It - total thermal insulation of the clothing ensemble with the manikin stationary, in
Ta - air temperature in degrees Celsius;;
Ta - air temperature in degrees Celsius;;
square metre kelvins per watt; ai - surface area of section i of the manikin, in square metres;;
ai - surface area of section i of the manikin, in square metres;;
Hci - local heat loss from section i of the manikin, in watts;;
Tsi - local surface temperature of section i of the manikin, in degrees Celsius;
Hci - local heat loss from section i of the manikin, in watts;;
A - total body surface area of the nude manikin, in square metre
Ta - air temperature inA - total body surface area of the nude manikin, in square metres;;
degrees Celsius; Hc – heat loss from total surface area of the manikin´s body;;
Hc – heat loss from total surface area of the manikin´s body;;
fi - area factor of section i of the nude manikin
ai - surface area of section i of the manikin, in square metres;
(Pamuk, Abreu & Öndoğan, 2008).
(Pamuk, Abreu & Öndoğan, 2008).
Hci - local heat loss from section i of the manikin, in watts;
In this study, we used both methods.
A - total body surfaceIn this study, we used both methods.
area of the nude manikin, in square metres;

surface area
Hc – heat loss from total In order to assess the thermal properties of the materials, prev
of the manikin´s body;
In order to assess the thermal properties of the materials, previous tests were
all the samples: outer layer, intermediate layer, and the six poten
all the samples: outer layer, intermediate layer, and the six potential inner layer
Air permeability, tested in outer and intermediate layers, refers
Air permeability, tested in outer and intermediate layers, refers to the ability o
(Pamuk, Abreu & Öndoğan, 2008). be traversed by air and is determined by measuring the s
be traversed by air and is determined
perpendicularly through a test by measuring
specimen under the speed of air
specified cond flo
In this study, we used perpendicularly through a test specimen under specified conditions. This me
both methods.material’s ability to allow air to pass through its pores or interst
material’s ability to allow air to pass through its pores or interstices (Soutinho,
evaluation of materials,
this property was undertaken
In order to assess the thermal properties of the previous tests wereaccording made to the N
evaluation of this property
pressure of layer, was
100 Pa undertaken
and a according
test surface to the
area NP EN ISO
2 92
of 20 cm . The
with all the samples: outer layer, intermediate
pressure of 100 and the six potential
Pa and a test surface area of 20 cm . The equipment us inner2 layers.
Textest FX 3300 Air Permeability Tester.
Textest FX 3300 Air Permeability Tester.
Air permeability, tested in outer andThermal intermediate layers, refers
conductivity was tested to the in abilityinner of layers
a fabric using the A
Thermal conductivity was tested in inner layers
makes an objective assessment of the hot / cold sensation. Th using the Alambeta appar
makes an objective assessment of the hot / cold sensation. This feeling is im
only in the moment one touches a fabric, but when wearing
only in the moment
footwear, one and
touches
during a periodic
fabric, but
Textilewhen
Institute Worldwearing
contact of (INF&MP),
the inner any parts
piece of
of
138 wt
The 90th Conference:
Inseparable from the human environment. Hosted by the Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants
footwear, and (Soutinho, 2006).
during periodic contact of the Poznan, inner
Poland, Aprilparts of the garment
25th - 28th, 2016
(Soutinho, 2006).
Comfort and safety
to be traversed by air and is determined by measuring the speed of air flow passing
perpendicularly through a test specimen under specified conditions. This measures
the material’s ability to allow air to pass through its pores or interstices (Soutinho, 2006).
The evaluation of this property was undertaken according to the NP EN ISO 9237,
using a pressure of 100 Pa and a test surface area of 20 cm2. The equipment used
was the Textest FX 3300 Air Permeability Tester.
Thermal conductivity was tested in inner layers using the Alambeta apparatus, which
makes an objective assessment of the hot / cold sensation. This feeling is important,
not only in the moment one touches a fabric, but when wearing any piece of clothing
or footwear, and during periodic contact of the inner parts of the garment with the
skin (Soutinho, 2006).
RESULTS
The results for air permeability of the outer and intermediate layers are presented in
Figure 1.
Figure 1 – Air Permeability of outer and intermediate layers

The air permeability of the outer layer is very low, whereas that of the intermediate
layer is very high.
The thermal conductivity of the inner layers is presented in Figure 2.
Figure 2 – Thermal conductivity of the inner layers

Thermal conductivity is highest for sample type 6, which indicates that this sample
conducts more heat than the others.
Table 3 shows the results for thermal resistance (R) for all tested sets using both
methods of calculation.
Table 3 - Thermal Resistance (R)

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Comfort and safety
R (m²K/W)
Type SERIAL PARALLEL
1 0,409 0,213
2 0,441 0,219
3 0,416 0,213
4 0,494 0,235
5 0,369 0,201
6 0,546 0,242
7 0,445 0,22
8 0,384 0,205
Table 4 shows the results for the thermal insulation (clo) for all tested sets using both
calculation methods.
Table 4 – Thermal Insulation (Clo)
Clo
Type SERIAL PARALLEL
1 2,639 1,374
2 2,845 1,412
3 2,684 1,374
4 3,187 1,516
5 2,38 1,296
6 3,522 1,561
7 2,935 1,419
8 2,477 1,322
These results show that the set type 6 reveals higher thermal resistance and insulation,
using both models, serial and parallel.
DISCUSSION
The results show that the set type 6 is the one with higher thermal resistance and
greater insulating ability.
Both the intermediate layer and the outer layer were the same in all sets, whereas the
inner layer was different in each set. These data make it clear that the inner layer was
the determining factor for increasing the thermal insulation of the whole set.
Preliminary tests of thermal conductivity of the inner layers showed better results for
layer number 6, which indicates that this may be an important feature of the inner
layer performance.
The high results of air permeability of the intermediate layer and the low values of the
outer layer show the importance of thermal comfort and the thermal insulation of the
system we intend to build.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of this study showed that, to improve the thermal body protection of the
upper body of persons undergoing surgery in the lower body, the best performance
in terms of their thermal insulation and thermal comfort capabilities was obtained with
the 3 layers set produced with the inner layer number 6 (jersey knitting material with
71% Polipropilene, 34% Poliamide and 5% Elasthane). This indicates that its use may
be more suitable and provide more effective thermal protection in patients during

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Comfort and safety
the perioperative period.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work is financed by FEDER funds through the Competitive Factors Operational
Program (COMPETE) and by national funds through FCT - Portuguese Foundation
for Science and Technology under the project UID/CTM/000264 and BD SFRH/
BD/79762/2011.
REFERENCES
Holmér, I. 2004. Thermal manikin history and applications. European Journal of Applied Physiology,
92(6): 614-618.
Abreu, M. J. 2008. An investigation of the thermal comfort behaviour for active
Wear using a thermal manikin. 7th International Thermal Manikin and Modelling Meeting - University
of Coimbra.
Pamuk, O; Abreu, M.J.; Öndoğan, Z. 2008. An investigation on the comfort properties for different
disposable surgical gowns by using thermal manikin. TEKSTIL ve KONFEKSIYON, 3: 236-239.
ISO 15831. 2004. Clothing - Physiological Effects - Measurement of Thermal Insulation by Means of a
Thermal Manikin, ISO, Geneva, Switzerland.
Kuklane, K.; Gao, C.; Wang, F.; Holmér, I. 2012. Parallel and Serial Methods of Calculating Thermal
Insulation in European Manikin Standards. International Journal of Occupational Safety and
Ergonomics, Vol. 18(2): 171-179.
Soutinho, HFC. 2006. Design Funcional de Vestuário Interior. Master Thesis presented to the Minho
University. Braga.

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Comfort and safety
EVALUATION OF THERMOPHYSIOLOGICAL COMFORT PROPERTIES OF THE DESIGNED T-SHIRTS WITH WEAR TRIALS
EVALUATION OF THERMOPHYSIOLOGICAL
COMFORT PROPERTIES OF THE DESIGNED
T-SHIRTS WITH WEAR TRIALS
Eren Öner1, Ayşe Okur2
1
Usak University, Department of Textile Engineering, Bir Eylul Campus, Usak, Turkiye
2
Dokuz Eylül University, Department of Textile Engineering, Tınaztepe Campus, Buca, İzmir, Turkiye
(Presenting and Corresponding author E-mail: eren.oner@usak.edu.tr)
ABSTRACT
In this study, it is aimed to evaluate thermophysiological comfort properties of T-shirts,
which are designed for active sports in hot environment and produced taking into
account fibre types and fabric structures which were shown to be advantageous in the
previous studies. Considering the results of the previous studies, such advantageous
raw material and fabric types in terms of thermophysiological comfort are brought
together and functional T-shirt designs for women and men are made by benefiting
from the information about the thermophysiology of the human body. Among the
performed functional designs, T-shirt designs for men in particular are chosen and
manufactured for this study. The thermophysiological comfort properties of the
produced T-shirts are tested through wear trials by participation of human subjects
under laboratory conditions where temperature and relative humidity are kept under
control according to the pre-determined test procedures. The results of the study
indicated that functional T-shirts produced from viscose and polyester (FVP) could
be suitable for low activity levels in warm environment conditions. For high physical
activity levels in hot weather, functional T-shirts produced from Tencel LF and cotton/
Coolmax (FTC) would be advantageous in removing liquid sweat from the human
body.
Keywords: Sportswear, T-shirt, clothing comfort, thermal comfort, functional clothing
design, wear trial.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, consumer demand for sportswear and casual wear, which can also
be used in daily light activities, have increased rapidly for such reasons as giving
more importance to do outside sports activities, increasing indoor and outdoor sports
facilities, rising of people’s awareness about healthy living and giving priority to
exercises in free time. Particularly, in sport activities with variable, heavy and strenuous
conditions the clothing comfort is much more important. According to place of use,
while sportswear should protect user against environmental conditions such as wind,
sunlight, rain and snow, at the same time, it should balance high heat resulting from
the rise in metabolic activity and allow the transfer of liquid and vapour occurring in
the body with sweat. In order to regulate this complex relationship among the human
body, clothing and environment during sports activities, many research studies about
raw material, fabric structure, finishing treatment, clothing design and garment
system are carried out. Several studies have focused on the effect of fibre type on

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Comfort and safety
thermal comfort properties of fabrics (Kothari 2006; Stankovic et al. 2008; Bivainytė
et al. 2012; Jhanji et al. 2015). The fabric construction as well as the fibre nature also
influence the thermal comfort and some researchers took them into consideration
together (Majumdar et al. 2010; An et al. 2013; Van Amber et al. 2015). Apart from
those studies, it is critical to understand the relationships between thermophysiological
comfort properties and garment design, cut and fit parameters. For this purpose some
researchers have studied the sportswear design factors (Chen et al. 2004; Ho et al. 2011;
Ke et al. 2013). Clothing comfort is also affected by psychological and physiological
responses in garments next to skin (Li, 2001). Only objective measurements are not
enough to explain wearer’s comfort. Furthermore, wear trials to determine sensations
of people are often utilized by researchers (Li 1997; Yoo and Kim 2012; Chen et al.
2015). The purpose of the present study is therefore to find out the effects of the fibre
types, fabric structure, and garment design on the thermophysiological comfort
properties by analysing the physiological data (the sweat amount accumulated in
the clothing, the microclimate temperature and humidity within the garment), and
perceptual data (perceived thermal and moisture sensation) obtained during wear
trials.
In this study, particularly, the fabric structures with tuck stitches (First knitting type) which
showed high breathability and with float stitches (Second knitting type) which showed
high wicking ability and moisture management properties (according to the results
of Öner and Okur 2013) were selected for this study. The fibre types were determined
as viscose, Tencel LF, cotton/Coolmax, and polyester which were found to have
outstanding thermal comfort performance according to Öner et al. (2013). Besides, in
Öner and Okur (2015) study, four women and five men functional T-shirt designs were
determined by benefiting from the information about the thermophysiology of the
human body and the published results of the measured fabrics. One of the functional
men T-shirt designs was chosen among the proposed designs for this study, and it
is illustrated in the Figure 1. Thus T-shirts evaluated in this study were planned from
a group of raw materials and fabric structures experimented. The mentioned raw
materials and fabric structures could be seen in the studies (Öner et al. 2013; Öner
and Okur, 2013; Öner, 2015) in detail.

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Comfort and safety
Figure 1. The functional T-shirt design selected

That T-shirt was designed to have air channels which are knitted fabric structures with
tuck stitches and sweat-absorbing surfaces which are knitted fabric structures with
float stitches. In order to improve ventilate cooling, the T-shirt design has tuck structure
fabrics at the back and underarm areas. With the use of float structure fabrics in the
other parts of the T-shirts, sweat can be transported from the body to the environment
easily. According to the Öner and Okur (2015) results, polyester or cotton/Coolmax
fabrics with float structure, which showed good liquid moisture transfer properties, and
viscose or Tencel LF fabrics with tuck structure, which had high air permeability and
low water vapour resistance, were used in the related parts of the T-shirt. Considering
the easily producible and economic product, alternative functional T-shirt design
consisting of viscose fabric instead of Tencel LF and also polyester fabric as an
alternative to Cotton/Coolmax was suggested. Besides, in order to observe the effects
of tuck and float structures separately, T-shirts, which consist of only these structures, in
classic designs were planned to be produced. The experimental set is shown in the
Table 1.
Table 1. The properties of the T-shirts used in the study
Sample
T-shirt Type Raw Material
Code
CTT Conventional Design with Tuck Structure Tencel LF
CTC Conventional Design with Tuck Structure Cotton/Coolmax
CFT Conventional Design with Float Structure Tencel LF
CFC Conventional Design with Float Structure Cotton/Coolmax
Tuck Structure-Tencel LF/
FTC Functional Design
Float Structure-Cotton/Coolmax
Tuck Structure-Viscose/
FVP Functional Design
Float Structure-Polyester
Five male volunteers among the students of Textile Engineering Department were
selected as the subjects for the wear trials. The age average of the subjects was
22.6±0.5, the height average was 177.4±4.8 cm, and the weight average was 74.4±4.5
kg. Body size of each subject was taken individually, and private T-shirts for each subject
were produced. During wear trials, subjects used the same tracksuit, underpants, and
socks in each trial. The wear trials were conducted in laboratory conditions where
temperature and relative humidity were kept under control. The temperature and
relative humidity of the laboratory were set as 24±0.5ºC and 60%±5 respectively. Six
types of T-shirts were tested in a random order by repeating three times. Between
repetitions, T-shirts were washed and dried. The test protocol used in the study was
designed as similar to the some previous studies (Fan and Tsang 2008; Jun et al. 2010;
Kaplan and Okur 2012; Atasagun et al. 2015). The test protocol used in this study for
the wear trials is presented in the Table 2.
The 5-point-Likert scales were used in order to determine the subjects’ hotness,
dampness, and overall comfort sensations after each different activity level mentioned
in the test protocol. The scales used in the study are given in the Figure 2. Additionally,
it was asked to the subjects to evaluate the T-shirts at the end of the activities with

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Comfort and safety
different comfort descriptors (e.g., prickly, clingy, itchy, heavy) by the help of another
Likert scale between 1 (‘I do not feel at all’) and 5 (‘I feel completely’). All definitions
used for the scales were explained to the subjects at the beginning of the wear trials.
Table 2. The test protocol used in the study
1. Washing all garments used in wear trials according to ISO 6330 [13].
2. Measuring the dry weights of the T-shirts.
3. Sitting minimum 10 minutes in laboratory for acclimatization of subjects.
4. Dressing test garments and putting on sensors and other equipment for physiological
measurements (Beginning).
5. Spending 15-minutes-free time by sitting with test garments. (Reading, listening to music, etc.)
(Mild activity).
6. Walking at the speed of 6 km/h on a treadmill for 15 minutes (Moderate activity).
7. Running at the speed of 9 km/h on a treadmill for 15 minutes (High activity).
8. Resting for 10 minutes (End of the activity).
9. Taking off test garments and measuring the wet weights of the T-shirts.
Figure 2. The Hotness (a), dampness (b) and overall comfort (c) scales used in the
study
During wear trials, the subjects’ mean skin temperatures and microclimate relative
humidity (from chest and scapula) were measured at 30-second-intervals by an
I-Button One Wire Viewer Datalogger device. The subjects’ pulse rates were recorded
in every 5-second- by a Polar s810i. The percentage of sweat accumulated in each
T-shirt was calculated by weighing them at the beginning and the end of wear trials.
The results of physiological measurement and subjects’ assessments during the wear
trials were evaluated by different statistical methods in SPSS 19.0. The 95% confidence
level was taken into account while evaluating the results of all performed statistical
tests. While the data obtained from the objective measurements were evaluated by
one-way analysis of variance, the accordance among the responses of the subjects
at different times was tested by Friedman test.
RESULTS
The subjects’ pulse rates, mean skin temperature and microclimate relative humidity
(from chest and scapula) were measured for different activity levels during the wear
trials. The pulse rates were not showed statistically significant difference according
to the T-shirt types, whereas the mean skin temperatures and microclimate relative
humidity have shown statistically significant difference for all activities (p<0.05). The
pulse rates of the subjects for mild, moderate, high, and end of the activities showed
a change between 80.5-84.9, 109.9-114.0, 161.4-163.2, and 102.5-106.2, respectively.

145
Comfort and safety
TIWCCOMFORT
EVALUATION OF THERMOPHYSIOLOGICAL 2016, 25-28
PROPERTIES April,T-SHIRTS
OF THE DESIGNED 2016, Poznan,
WITH WEAR TRIALS Poland
subjects for TIWC

The subject’s mild, 2016, 25-28
chestmoderate,
and scapula April,
and end 2016,
high, temperatures of the Poznan,
areactivities Poland
shown inshowed
the a change
Figure between
3. The subjects’
80.5-84.9, 109.9-114.0, 161.4-163.2, and 102.5-106.2, respectively.
scapula temperature has been higher than the chest temperature, in general. The
meanfor
subjects skinmild,
temperature
moderate, ofhigh,
the subjects
and end has increased
of the activities depending on the increase
showed a change between of
The subject’s chest and scapula temperatures are shown in the Figure 3. The subjects’
80.5-84.9, 109.9-114.0, 161.4-163.2, and 102.5-106.2, respectively.
the activity level. Examining
scapula temperature has been the microclimate
higher temperatures
than the chest temperature, ofin chest, which
general. have
The mean
been measured by
skin temperature of the sensors, it
subjects has been found that the measured
has increased depending on the increase of values for functional
the activity
The subject’s chest and scapula temperatures are shown in the Figure 3. The subjects’
T-shirts produced
level. temperature
Examining the from Tencel
microclimate LF and cotton/Coolmax (FTC) worn by subjects have
scapula has been higher temperatures
than the chest of temperature,
chest, which in
have been The
general. measured
mean by
sensors, it has been found that the measured values for functional T-shirts produced from
been lower than others
skin temperature of the from moderate
subjects activity to the end of activity. The microclimate
has increased depending on the increase of the activity
Tencel LF and cotton/Coolmax (FTC) worn by subjects have been lower than others from
temperatures
level. of scapula
Examining the havetemperatures
microclimate taken valuesof that are generally
chest, which have close tomeasured
been each other by for
moderate activity
all T-shirts worn. to the end of activity. The microclimate temperatures
sensors, it has been found that the measured values for functional T-shirts produced from of scapula have
taken values that are generally close to each other for all T-shirts worn.
Tencel LF and cotton/Coolmax (FTC) worn by subjects have been lower than others from
moderate activity to the end of activity. The microclimate temperatures of scapula have
taken values that are generally close to each other for all T-shirts worn.

Figure 3. The measured chest and scapula temperatures of the subjects

The
Figurechest and
3. The scapula microclimate
measured chest and scapularelative temperatures
humidity of the subjects
of the are given in the
subjects
Figure 3. The measured chest and scapula temperatures of the subjects
Figure 4. The measured microclimate relative humidity values for functional T-shirts
The chest and scapula microclimate relative humidity of the subjects are given in the
produced from Tencel LF and cotton/Coolmax (FTC) have prominently decreased from the
The chest 4.and
Figure Thescapula
measuredmicroclimate
microclimate
high activity to the end of activity.
relative humidity
relative of the values
humidity subjects
forare given in T-shirts
functional the
Figure 4. The measured microclimate relative humidity values for functional T-shirts
produced from Tencel LF and cotton/Coolmax (FTC) have prominently decreased
produced from Tencel LF and cotton/Coolmax (FTC) have prominently decreased from the
from the high activity to the end of activity.
high activity to the end of activity.

Figure 4. The measured chest and scapula microclimate relative humidity of the subjects

The wet and dry weights of the T-shirts were measured before and after the wear trials
Figure 4. The measured chest and scapula microclimate relative humidity of the subjects
and the percentage of sweat accumulation was calculated. These values are presented in
Figure 4. The measured chest and scapula microclimate relative humidity of the
the Figure 5. According to these values each of the T-shirts accumulated lower amount of
subjects
sweat in their structure than various studies (e.g., Yoo and Kim 2012;; Atasagun et
and the percentage of sweat accumulation was calculated. These values are presented in
al.2015).
the Figure 5. According to these values each of the T-shirts accumulated lower amount of
sweat in their structure than various studies (e.g., Yoo and Kim 2012;; Atasagun et
al.2015).
5

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference: 5
146
Comfort and safety
and the percentage of sweat accumulation was calculated. These values are
presented in the Figure 5. According to these values each of the T-shirts accumulated
lower amount of sweat in their structure than various studies (e.g., Yoo and Kim 2012;
Atasagun et al.2015).
Figure 5. The calculated percentage of sweat accumulation

The assessment results of the sensations of hotness, dampness,
The assessment results of the sensations of hotness, dampness, and overall comfort have and overall comfort
been
have been shown shown in the Figure 6. The back temperature values hastrends
in the Figure 6. The back temperature values has similar similar with the with
trends
results of the subjective evaluations, the subjects have given similar hotness ratings for all
the results of theThe
T-shirts. subjective evaluations,
T-shirts produced the subjects
from Tencel have given(FTC)
LF and cotton/Coolmax similar hotness
have ratings
had the
The assessment results of the sensations of hotness, dampness, and overall comfort have
for all T-shirts.
been lowest
shown The
wetness T-shirts
in the Figure produced
ratings from
6. the
The from
moderate
back Tencel
activity LFto
temperature and cotton/Coolmax
the end
values has of activity.
similar It was
trends (FTC) the have
taken
with
attention that the overall comfort level is high for all T-shirts.
hadresults of the subjective evaluations, the subjects have given similar hotness ratings for all
the lowest wetness ratings from the moderate activity to the end of activity. It was This condition could be
related to the use of the T-shirts produced from advantageous fabrics selected from the
T-shirts.
taken attention The T-shirts
that theproduced overall from
comfort Tencel
levelLF and
is high cotton/Coolmax
for all T-shirts.
previous experiments. When compared to the results of functional T-shirts considered as
(FTC)
Thishave had the
condition could
lowest
be related wetness
to the to
alternatives ratings
useeach from
ofother, the
the T-shirts moderate
produced
while functional activity from
T-shirts to the end of
advantageous
produced activity.
from viscose and It was
fabrics taken
selected
polyester
attention that the had
overall comfort level is high for at
all beginning
T-shirts. This condition could be
the(FVP)
fromrelated previoushave
to the use of the
higher
experiments. overall
T-shirts Whencomfort
produced
ratings
compared to the and mild
results of activity
functional levels, T-shirts
functional T-shirts produced from Tencel from advantageous
LF and cotton/Coolmax fabrics
(FTC) selected
have had from the
higher
considered as alternatives to each other, while functional T-shirts produced from
previous experiments. When compared to the results of functional T-shirts considered as
overall comfort ratings from moderate activity to end of activity.
alternatives
viscose to each other,
and polyester (FVP)while
havefunctional
had higher T-shirts
overallproduced
comfort from ratings
viscose at and polyester and
beginning
(FVP) have had higher overall comfort ratings
mild activity levels, functional T-shirts produced from Tencel LF and cotton/Coolmax at beginning and mild activity levels,
functional T-shirts produced from Tencel LF and cotton/Coolmax (FTC) have had higher
(FTC) have had higher overall comfort ratings from moderate activity to end of activity.
overall comfort ratings from moderate activity to end of activity.

Figure 6. The assessment results of hotness, dampness and overall comfort sensations
After the activities ended, the subjects were required to evaluate T-shirts with comfort
descriptors by means of a 5-point-scale from different viewpoint. It is clear from the Figure
7 that the T-shirts have not those negative features in terms of hand because of the low
scores between 1.00 and 2.33.

Figure 6. The assessment results of hotness, dampness and overall comfort sensations 6

Figure 6. The assessment results of hotness, dampness and overall comfort sensations
descriptors by means of a 5-point-scale from different viewpoint. It is clear from the Figure
7 that the T-shirts have not those negative features in terms of hand because of the low
scores between 1.00 and 2.33. Inseparable from the human environment. Hosted by the Institute of Natural
Fibres and Medicinal Plants (INF&MP), 147
6

Comfort and safety

148
Comfort and safety
descriptors by means of a 5-point-scale from different viewpoint. It is clear from the
Figure 7 that the T-shirts have not those negative features in terms of hand because of
TIWC
the low 2016,
scores 25-28
between 1.00 April, 2016, Poznan, Poland
and 2.33.

Figure 7. The results of subjective assessments for different comfort descriptors
Figure 7. The results of subjective assessments for different comfort descriptors

CONCLUSIONS
CONCLUSIONS
According to results of the wear trials, it was taken attention that all T-shirt types have
According to results of the wear trials, it was taken attention that all T-shirt types have
generally good comfort levels. This positive outcome could be related to the use of the T-
generally good comfort levels. This positive outcome could be related to the use of
shirts which produced from advantageous fabrics selected from the previous experiments.
When each
theof T-shirt
T-shirts performance
which produced is evaluated, conventional fabrics
from advantageous design selected
with tuck from
structure
the previous
manufactured from cotton/Coolmax
experiments. When each (CTC) of T-shirt has the lowest scapula
performance microclimate
is evaluated, relative design
conventional
humidity and sweat accumulated amount. Yet, the conventional design with tuck structure
with tuck structure manufactured from cotton/Coolmax (CTC) has the lowest scapula
manufactured from Tencel LF (CTT) has high overall comfort scores in beginning and mild
microclimate relative humidity and sweat accumulated amount. Yet, the conventional
activity. Then, the functional T-shirts manufactured from viscose and polyester (FVP) have
design with tuck structure manufactured from Tencel LF (CTT) has high overall comfort
good comfort level when liquid sweat was not occurred, on the other hand, functional T-
scores in beginning and mild activity. Then, the functional T-shirts manufactured from
shirts produced from Tencel LF and cotton/Coolmax (FTC) have superior wetness comfort
viscose and polyester (FVP) have good comfort level when liquid sweat was not
performance and low temperature values in high activities. In short, it could be concluded
occurred, on the other hand, functional T-shirts produced from Tencel LF and cotton/
that the functional T-shirts produced from viscose and polyester (FVP) can be suitable for
low activity levels (FTC)
Coolmax in warm
haveenvironment
superior wetness conditions. For high
comfort physical activity
performance and lowin temperature
hot
weather, the functional T-shirts produced from Tencel LF and cotton/Coolmax (FTC) would
values in high activities. In short, it could be concluded that the functional T-shirts
be advantageous in removing liquid sweat from body.
produced from viscose and polyester (FVP) can be suitable for low activity levels in
warm environment conditions. For high physical activity in hot weather, the functional
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Van Amber, R. R., Wilson, C. A., Laing, R. M., Lowe, B. J., and Niven, B. E. 2015. Thermal and moisture
transfer properties of sock fabrics differing in fiber type, yarn, and fabric structure. Textile Research
Journal, 85 (12): 1269–1280.
Yoo, S. and Kim, E. (2012). Wear trial assessment of layer structure effects on vapor permeability and
condensation in a cold weather clothing ensemble. Textile Research Journal, 82 (11): 1079-1091.

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COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF HIGH

PERFORMANCE THERMAL INSULATION
MATERIALS
Mohanapriya Venkataraman, Rajesh Mishra, Jiri Militky, Veerakumar
Arumugam
Department of Material Engineering, Faculty of Textiles, Technical University of Liberec
Abstract
Man invented textiles to protect himself from extreme climatic conditions. They
have to provide a combination of thermal insulation and physiological comfort. The
mixture of fibers, air and moisture define the thermal properties of textiles. In subzero
temperatures, the middle layer of the multilayer clothing contributes highly to protect
the human body. For accurate evaluation of heat transmission properties, objective
measurement techniques are a necessity in textiles. The aim of the study is to do
comparative study of Insulation materials coated with aerogel against other available
insulation materials and also test the efficacy of the custom built instrument. 50:50 ratio
compositions of six polyester/polyethylene non-woven fabrics treated with aerogel
were used as samples. An instrument was fabricated to measure the steady-state
thermophysical properties (thermal insulation properties) at sub zero temperatures.
The results from the instrument were correlated with the results from alambeta and
thermal conductivity analyzer. Good correlation was observed between experimental
data and theoretically calculated data. The results were statistically analyzed and
showed that compared to other fabrics, temperatures did not have much effect on the
thermal conductivity of aerogel treated nonwoven fabrics. The aerogel-based fabric
samples were found to have considerably high thermal resistance even at extreme
temperatures. Differences in thermal behavior of aerogel treated samples were due
to variation in thickness. The custom built instruments were found to be effective for
measuring the heat transport properties of fabrics. The conclusions provided insight in
fabricating new custom equipments and exploring alternative techniques for thermal
measurements.
Keywords: Thermal Insulation, Thermal Measurement, Heat Transfer, Aerogel
INTRODUCTION
Textiles perform the important function of protecting humans from extreme climatic
conditions. They have to provide a combination of thermal insulation and physiological
comfort. Heat insulation is an essential parameter for providing comfort to the person
wearing the apparel. The mixture of fibers, air and moisture define the thermal
properties of textiles. Different combinations of fabrics, coatings and treatments are
tried for various applications. In multi layered clothing, nonwoven is used extensively
as thermal insulating layer [1]. The physical and structural parameters of fibrous
structures influence thermal insulation properties greatly [2]. In subzero temperatures,
the middle layer of the multilayer clothing contributes highly to protect the human
body. Heat exchange is highest at areas where skin comes into contact with the

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fabric. [1].
Silica aerogel is a low-density, highly porous material, known for its super-insulating
characteristics. Chemically, silica aerogel is silicon dioxide (SiO2), an inorganic material
manufactured from silica sand [3]. Heat transfer phenomenon in silica aerogel is
associated with its complex nanoporous structure [4, 5].
Heat transfer occurs through conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction in
textiles is due to fiber-to-fiber attachment [6]. The total thermal conduction of a fabric
is due to the heterogenous system of air and fabric [7]. . The thermal properties are
measured using devices fabricated on the principles of thermodynamic systems.
Standard measurement methods and techniques for evaluating thermal properties
textiles need to be compared for further refinements of methods and instruments.
Fohr et al. aimed at studying the effect of weather conditions and human activities
on the wearers selection of clothing [8]. Their model considers the occurrence of
condensation or evaporation in accordance with the environmental conditions and
their variations.
Conventional steady state techniques have been found to be inadequate in fabrics
due to the multiphase phenomenon makes the heat equalizing process slow and
unstable. Since 1987, the applications of unsteady transient methods to fibrous
materials were explored [9, 10]. Traditional steady-state methods are inconvenient
due to the time required to obtain a measurement and their restricted size of testing
samples. There are a number of techniques to measure thermal conductivity with
each of them suitable for limited range of materials, depending on the thermal prop-
erties and the temperature of the medium. The thermal properties of a fabric will
determine not only its warmth in wear but also how warm or cool the fabric feels
when first handled. Some of the heat transport measuring instruments are Togme-
ter (BS 4745, 1971) [11], Guarded hot plate (ASTM D 1518-85, 1990) [12], Alambeta in-
strument (SENSORA, 1990) [13] and Thermal conductivity analyzer (TCi). Studies of
aerogel incorporated insulation materials of different thickness is already available
[14]. Studies of the thermal properties of polyester/polyethylene non-woven blankets
impregnated with aerogel of varying thicknesses at different temperatures were
conducted [15]. Thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity have been found to
be inversely proportional to the mass density which is attributed to the fiber volume
fraction of the fabric structure and mainly aerogel particles present in the composite.
[15].
In this study, alambeta and thermal conductivity analyzer was used to measure
different types of insulation materials and were correlated. The aim of the study is
to do comparative study of insulation materials treated with aerogel against other
available insulation materials. Since, the study is also important to test the fabrics for
subzero temperatures, a custom built instrument [15] was used and the results were
analyzed. A comparison of existing measurement techniques would provide insight in
fabricating new custom equipments and exploring alternative techniques.
Materials
For this research, various samples were used as given in Table. 1. 50:50 ratio compositions

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of six polyester/polyethylene non-woven fabrics treated with aerogel were used.

Sample H1 is Needle punched struto nonwoven structure having One layer of PP
web (Top layer) + One layer of Spunbond PP web having melt blown polyamide
nanofibres on both sides (Middle layer)+One layer of PP web (Bottom layer). Sample
H2 is Needle punched struto nonwoven structure having One layer of PP web (Top
layer)+ Two layers of Spunbond PP web having meltblown polyamide nanofibres on
both sides (Middle layer)+One layer of PP web (Bottom layer). The struto nonwoven
fabrics are with different compositions. Sample M1 is from Elastic Gros Braun patent
no. M123A2046 and Sample M2 is from POLARTEC with 100% polyester and 100
gsm alpha insulation. The type of aerogel used was hydrophobic amorphous silica
aerogel which is most suitable for application in textile material which provides the
superinsulating properties, as given in Table.2, of silica aerogel in a flexible form. It is
excellent for ambient and sub-ambient insulating applications. The aerogel particles
were added during thermal bonding of the non-woven web. The samples were
chosen in different thicknesses widely used in most textile insulating applications.
Table 1. Sample description
Thickness Weight Density
Samples No. Description
(mm) (g/m2) (kg/m3)
S1 3.424 272.56 79.66
S2 6.212 499.46 80.42
S3 Aerogel treated 6.608 440.7 66.73
S4 nonwoven fabrics 8.06 535.1 66.39
S5 11.12 733.7 65.99
S6 13.8 942.7 68.33
Needle punched
H1 9.336 402 43.06
struto nonwoven structure
Needle punched
H2 8.048 407.5 50.64
struto nonwoven structure
M1 Elastic Gros Braun patent no. M123A2046 1.848 101.8 55.20
M2 POLARTEC with 100% polyester 1.522 104.1 68.384
Table 2. Properties of amorphous silica aerogel.

S. No. Properties Value range
1 Particle size range 0.1–0.7mm
2 Pore diameter ~20 nm
3 Particle density 120–140 kg/m3
4 Surface chemistry Fully hydrophobic
5 Thermal conductivity 0.012W/mK at 25oC
Density is the factor of Mass and Volume. To obtain an indication of the effect of
areal density on thermal properties, fabrics with comparable densities in different
thicknesses and their corresponding weights were measured. The density difference
in aerogel treated samples may be attributed to the fabric structure and also in
aerogel treated nonwoven fabrics the percentage of aerogel particles present in the
fiber. Density [kg/m3] is calculated as ratio of areal mass (G [g/m2]) and thickness (h
[mm]). Approximate volume porosity of all aerogel treated samples was around 93
%. Since the fabric samples were created from multilayer nonwoven structures and it
is complicated to calculate mean fiber density [15].
Fabric density (kg/m3) is calculated as ratio of areal mass (G (g/m2)) and thickness
(h(mm)).

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(1)
Methods
Microscopic analysis
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and confocal microscope
The non-woven fabric samples were characterized using SEM (VEGA TESCAN Inc.
USA) at 30 kV and confocal microscope (OLYMPUS Confocal Scanning IR Laser
Microscope, LEXT LS3000-IR). SEM provides detailed high resolution images of the
samples by a focused electron beam across the surface and detecting secondary or
backscattered electron signal. It provides images with magnifications up to ~X50, 000
allowing sub micron-scale features to be seen i.e. well beyond the range of optical
microscopes. It is useful for characterization of particulates and defects in the material
and examination of grain structure and segregation effects in the fabric structure.
Air Permeability Measuring Instrument
The principle of FX 3300 air permeability instrument depends on the measurement of
air flow passing through the fabric at a certain pressure gradient Δp. In this instrument
any part of the fabric can be placed between the sensing circular clamps (discs)
without the garment destruction. As the fabric is fixed firmly on its circumference (to
prevent the air from escaping), the fabric dimensions does not play any role. There is
also enough space between the clamps and the instrument frame, which allows the
measurement on large samples [14].
Measurement of Thermal Properties
There is a wide variety of methods and techniques to measure thermal conductivity,
each suitable for a limited range of materials, depending on the thermal properties
and the temperature of the medium. The testing methods for determination of
thermal properties of any material can be divided into steady-state and transient-
state methods. The main difference between these two methods is that steady-state
requires the specimen to reach a stable test temperature and hence time consuming.
Transient-state methods perform a measurement during the process of heating up or
cooling down and can be done quickly.
ALAMBETA instrument
Alambeta simulates the dry human skin and its principle depends in mathematical
processing of time course of heat flow passing through the tested fabric due to different
temperatures of bottom measuring plate (22°C) and measuring head (32°C). When
the specimen is inserted, the measuring head drops down, touches the fabrics and
the heat flow levels are processed in the computer and thermo-physical properties of
the measured specimen are evaluated. It enables the measurement of the following
thermal parameters: thermal conductivity, thermal absorbtivity, thermal resistance
and sample thickness. The measurement lasts for several minutes only. Thus, reliable
measurements on wet fabrics are possible, since the sample moisture during the
measurement keeps almost constant [14].
C-Therm thermal conductivity analyzer (TCi)
The principle of the apparatus (TCi) is based on conductors in series with respect to

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the direction of heat flow. The ratio of the temperature drop across the conductors
is equal to the ratio of their thermal resistance. Thus, if the temperature drop across
a material of known thermal resistance (standard resistance) and across a test
specimen in series is measured, the thermal resistance of the test specimen can be
evaluated.
Figure 1. C-Therm (TCi) thermal conductivity analyzer [15].

The TCi (Figure 1) developed by C-Therm Company, measures the thermal conductivity
of a small sample using the modified transient plane source (MTPS) method. The
TCi consists of a sensor, power control device and computer software as shown in
Figure 1. A spiral-type heating source is located at the centre of the sensor where
heat is generated. The generated heat enters the material through the sensor during
which a voltage drop occurs rapidly at the heating source. The C-Therm Tci thermal
conductivity analyzer allows determining accurate values for thermal conductivity
and thermal effusivity of aerogel-treated nonwoven material at subzero temperatures
without extensive sample preparation or damage to the sample. This highly accurate
technique is based on the transient plane source (TPS) method. The primary difference
between the traditional and modified TPS (MTPS) techniques is that the modified
method offers a single-side interface compared to the double-sided interface
requirements of the traditional version. The MTPS technique has many advantages
in comparison to other available testing methods, e.g. guarded hot plate, hot wire,
or hot probe. The noninvasive nature of the C-Therm TCi’s MTPS sensors allows testing
of materials of any size in situ or in laboratories without destruction of the specimen.
Moreover, testing can be done in seconds with consistent and accurate results. The
C-Therm TCi consists of a sensor, power control device, and computer software as
shown in Figure 1. A spiral-type heating source is located at the center of the sensor
where heat is generated. The generated heat enters the material through the sensor
during which a voltage drop occurs rapidly at the heating source. The thermal
conductivity is calculated through the voltage drop data. The standard test method
EN 61326-2-4:2006 was used for this purpose [15].
Custom built instrument
The newly fabricated instrument works according to transmission of heat in the steady-
state condition as described in BS 4745:1971. Single-plate heating method was used as
reference to fabricate this instrument. In single-plate method (Figure 3), the specimen
under test is placed on the heated lower plate covered with 100% cotton as an outer
fabric, since the issue of thermal contact is also very important. Fixed pressure (10 g/
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cm2) was applied on the test specimen during the measurement which ensures good
contact without deformation of textile structure. The surface temperature of the outer
fabric is measured using the infrared thermometer.
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of custom-built instrument for measuring thermal

properties [15].
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of the newly fabricated instrument (single-plate method)

[15].
The instrument was used to determine the temperatures at various positions on
the aerogel-treated fabric. From these measurements, the thermal conductivity
and thermal resistance were calculated. The sample was placed in a climatized
temperature system (chamber) which operates with the temperature range from
(−70°C to + 180°C). The instrument measures the heat transport through textile material.
The test specimen was placed on the cylindrical hot plate which is connected to the
digital thermostat water bath where the skin temperature is maintained at ~33°C as
shown in Figure 2. The test specimen was placed on the hot plate and the outer fabric
(100% plain woven cotton fabric) was placed over the test specimen applying 10 g
weight on each side. Two thermocouples and heat flow sensors were used to measure
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temperature variations. First one (T1) is fixed on the surface of the test specimen which
touches the hot plate and the second one (T2) is fixed on the surface which is covered
by the outer fabric. The hot plate was adjusted to constant skin temperature and
the climatic temperature system was adjusted to a controlled constant differential
temperature. The heat flow sensors act on both the surfaces of the fabric. With the
help of thermocouples, the temperature difference between the upper surface and
the inner side of the test specimen can be measured. The Infrared thermometer
was used to measure the temperature variations on the surface of the outer fabric.
The fundamental measuring principle implies the measuring and processing of
the heat flows with dependence to time. The instrument measures parameters: (1)
Temperature on the surface of the test specimen which is in contact with the skin (T1),
(2) Temperature on the surface of the fabric which is in contact with the outer fabric
(T2), (3) Temperature inside the climatic temperature chamber which is set as the
environmental temperature from (+25°C to −25°C) (T3) and (4) Temperature on the
surface of the outer fabric which is sensed by infrared thermometer (T4) [15].
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
Experimentation using various techniques for measurement of thermal conduction,
thermal resistance, thermal convection, air permeability and microscopic analysis
were carried out for all the fabric samples. Before conducting the measurements,
all samples were conditioned at standard atmospheric conditions (20±2oC, 65%±2%
RH) for 24 hours. The averages of 10 measurements for each sample were taken,
and mean values of the thermal properties were calculated. The tested data were
statistically analyzed using data analysis software ORIGIN LAB (origin pro 8).
Microscopic analysis
The aerogel deposition in the fabric between the fibers was observed. Figure 5(a) and
(b) shows the images taken from confocal microscope. The aerogel particles present
between the fibers can be seen clearly from the images. The inter-fiber spaces are
clearly visible in Figure 5(a). The micro spacing between fibers is filled with aerogel
particles. Figure 5(b) shows a higher magnification of the same sample. It can be seen
that the aerogel is covering surface of individual fibers and is uniformly distributed in
the structure. SEM images are shown in Figure 4. The aerogel deposition on the fibers
can be clearly observed. These images provide a more clear understanding of the
deposition of silica aerogel particles on the fiber surface. Fiber arrangement plays a
vital role in deciding the density and thus the porosity of nonwoven fabrics.
Figure 4. SEM images of nonwoven fabrics treated with aerogel

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Figure 5. Images taken on confocal microscope for aerogel-treated nonwoven fabric.

Air Permeability
Air permeability is the measure of airflow passed through a given area of a fabric. This
parameter influences the thermal comfort properties of fabrics to a large extent. It is
generally accepted that the air permeability of a fabric depends on its air porosity,
which in turn influences its openness. With more porosity, more permeable fabric is
obtained [16]. Statistical analysis results showed that the there was a significance
on the air permeability values of the tested nonwoven fabrics (p=0.005). Figure 6
shows the air permeability with respect to different pressure levels of the fabrics. The
result indicates that air permeability is directly proportional to the pressure level. On
comparison of ten fabrics, the air permeability is higher in the case of sample M1 &
M2. It may be due to the fact that air permeability is related to porous structure of
the fabric and is directly proportional to percentage of porosity of the fabric. It was
also noticed that when the pressure level increased, the flow rate also increased.
Irrespective of different pressure levels, the air permeability was low for samples S1 to
H2. It may be attributed to the layered structure and high porosity.
Figure 6. Air permeability with respect to different pressure levels of the fabrics
Comparison of Alambeta and TCi
Thermal conductivity
Thermal conduction is the transfer of heat from one part of a body to another with which
it is in contact. Thermal conductivity (λ) is defined as the ability of material to transmit heat
and it is measured in watts per square meter of surface area for a temperature gradient

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of 1 K per unit thickness of 1 m. The thermal conductivity is not always constant. The main
factors affecting the thermal conductivity are the density of material, moisture content in
the material and ambient temperature. With increasing density, moisture and tempera-
ture of surrounding, the thermal conductivity increases too. Important role is played by the
inner structure of materials. Materials with very small amounts of solid matter and large
proportion of voids have the lowest thermal conductivities. The thermal conductivity of
air is constant at a certain temperature; heat transfer in a fabric may be subject to some
variations depending on the different thermal conductivities of the component fibers. The
volumetric proportion of fibers in a fabric is represented by the fabric density, which relates
to the volumetric proportion of air trapped in the fabric (or fabric porosity). For nonwoven
fabrics, the density is the primary factor contributing to the heat transfer through fabrics.
Figure 7 shows the comparison between thermal conductivity calculated for constituent
fibrous material from Alambeta & TCi. The thermal conductivity of nonwoven fabrics
depends on many factors including environmental temperature, thermal conductivity
of the solid polymer materials and fabric dimensional and structural parameters such as
fabric density, fabric porosity, and fiber arrangement. The analysis of variance (ANOVA)
results shows that the fabric density affects the thermal conductivity values of the aerogel
treated nonwoven fabric (p=0.005).
0.054
Thermal conductivity (W.m-1.K -1)
200 Pa (Alambeta)
200 Pa (TCi)
1000 Pa (TCi)
2000 Pa (TCi)
0.048
0.042
0.036
0.030
0.024
42 49 56 63 70 77 84
Fabric density (kg/m3)
Figure 7. Thermal conductivity (Alambeta & TCi))

Thermal resistance
Thermal resistance is a function of the thickness and thermal conductivity of a fabric,
and is a very important parameter from the view point of thermal insulation, and
is proportional to the fabric structure also. The original thickness measurements
for the fabrics were under relaxed conditions. Figure 8 indicates that the thermal
resistances of sample S1, S2, H1, H2, M1 & M2 lower than the samples S4, S5 and S6.
It was observed that samples with higher thickness had higher thermal resistance
irrespective of different pressures. Due to increase in thickness, there is an increase in
thermal insulation and the decrease of heat losses are due to the space insulated by
the fabric. This may be attributed to aerogel particles present in the fabric. From the
figure 8, it is seen that there is no much difference in thermal resistance with different
pressure levels. In the ideal case when all samples (S1 to S6) have same thermal
conductivity, line in Figure 8 should have intercept equal to 0 and slope equal to 1/
thermal conductivity. It is interesting that line calculated by least squares is following
this assumption and approximately all the tested samples have the similar thermal
conductivity. The statistical analysis shows that the fabric thickness has a highly

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significant influence on the thermal resistance (p= 0.004).

Thermal resistance (m2.K .W-1) x 10-3
200 Pa (Alambeta)
375 200 Pa (TCi)
1000 Pa (TCi)
2000 Pa (TCi)
300
225
150
75
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Thickness (mm)
Figure 8 Thermal resistance (Alambeta & TCi))

Correlation of TCi and Alambeta at room temperature
The TCi and alambeta instrument were correlated based on the results of thermal
conductivity and thermal resistance measured at room temperatures. Results of
thermal conductivity of the instruments were found better correlation (R2 > 0.62) as
shown in Figure 9 (R-squared is a statistical measure of how close the data are to
the fitted regression line). Due to the dominance of low conductivities of enclosed
air in the porous structure of the samples, fabric conductivity is mostly constant for
fabrics of various thicknesses. Therefore, heat insulation is proportional to the thickness
of the fabric. The total thermal resistance to transfer of heat from the body to the
surrounding has three effective components namely, resistance to heat transfer from
the material surface to surrounding, thermal resistance of clothing material itself and
thermal resistance of the air trapped inside the fabric. The correlation of the two
instruments for thermal resistance is shown in Figure 10. The thermal resistance of both
instruments correlates well with the value of around R2 > 0.93. The correlation proves
that the two instruments are suitable for measuring the thermal properties only at
room temperatures.

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Figure 9. Correlation of Thermal Conductivity
Figure 10. Correlation of Thermal Resistance

Relationship between heat flow & temperature gradient: Fourier’s law
An empirical relationship between the conduction rate in a material and the
temperature gradient in the direction of energy flow was first formulated by Fourier
in 1822 [17] who concluded that “the heat flux resulting from thermal conduction
is proportional to the magnitude of the temperature gradient and opposite to it in
sign”. For a unidirectional conduction process, this observation may be expressed in
Equation (4):
(4)
The rate of heat flow is proportional to the difference in temperature between two
bodies. A fabric sample of thickness x with temperature difference dT experiences
heat flow q, where λ is a proportionality constant called the thermal conductivity (W/
mK).
Determining thermal conductivity in steady state
Thermal conductivity in steady state was calculated from Equation (2):
(2)
where q is the quantity of heat passing through a unit area of the sample in unit time
[W/m2]; d is the distance between two sides of the sample [m]; T1 is the temperature
on warmer side of the sample [K]; T2 is the temperature on the colder side of the
sample [K] [15].
The quantity of transferred heat q is given in Equation (3):
(3)
where Q is the quantity of heat passing through a base area of the sample [W]. A
base area of the sample [m2].
The quantity of heat transfer was calculated from the product of voltage (volts) and
ampere (amps). The product of voltage and ampere was converted to watts. This
product was taken as the heat flow ‘Q’ given in Equation (4):
(4)

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Based on the empirical relation expressed in Equation (4), thermal conductivity, λ was
calculated from Equation (2) and thermal resistance was calculated from Equation
(5):
R (5)
where h = thickness of the material and λ = thermal conductivity.
For the thermal conductivity, heat flux was calculated based on the transformation of
electrical energy to heat energy using the Equation (4) [15].
Effect of temperature on thermal conductivity and resistance
The temperature variations at each point varied for the test specimens with the change
in climatic chamber temperature (environmental temperature). The temperature of
materials is determined with thermal energy in the form of kinetic energy of disordered
molecular movement [15]. Temperature gradient is an important factor for calculating
the thermal conductivity of the test specimens. This difference in temperature
gradient may be attributed to the different type of non-woven fabric. Aerogel is the
main component in the non-woven fabric structure blocking air pockets inside its
highly porous structure which provides thermal insulation and thereby considered
to be beneficial for such applications. Thermal conductivity at different exposure
temperatures (+25°C to −25°C) through experiments are plotted in Figure 13. From the
figure, it is found that the fabric temperature variations increase rapidly during initial
stage of the exposure. This may be because of the temperature difference between
the fabric sample and the exposed air is high in the early stage of the exposure
process. As the temperature stabilizes, the variations decreased. It can be observed
that the temperature difference between the inner surface and outer surface of test
specimen increased as the sample thickness increased. A bulkier sample with lower
density and more air pores inside proved to be more efficient in insulating the flow
of heat from the hot plate to outer environment. It means that a human body can
maintain the skin temperature for a longer time with insulating material of higher
thickness having higher porosity [15].
Thermal conductivity (W.m-1.K -1)
0.054 S1
S2
0.048 S3
S4
S5
0.042 S6
H1
0.036 H2
0.030
0.024
0.018
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Temperature (oC)
Figure 11. Thermal conductivity (Newly fabricated Instrument)

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Thermal conductivity increases with fabric density and also for constant thickness of
fabric; and below density of 60 kg/m3, increase in fabric thickness causes increased
thermal insulation and reduction in fabric temperature variations (up to an optimum
level). The increase in weight-to-thickness ratio causes increase in effective thermal
conductivity due to increase in fiber-to-fiber contact and packing density. It causes
increase in tortuosity i.e. mean free path for photons to be travelled and so less heat flows
through the channels in nonwoven fabric [15]. Regardless of the shape of the material,
aerogel-treated non-woven fabric acts as an insulating layer with a conductivity that
is constant. From Figure 13, it can be seen that the thermal conductivity of the samples
didn’t show significant difference with respect to environmental temperature. Due to
the open pore structure and irregular pore network of the aerogel present in fabric
structure, solid thermal conductivity is reduced and gaseous thermal conductivity
is also reduced. This reduction is due to the Knudsen effect, where the excited gas
molecules that are entering the open pore structure of the silica aerogel collide with
the surface of the aerogel and transfer their energy to the surface. This reduces the
gaseous movement, thus limiting the silica aerogel’s gaseous thermal conductivity. It
is also found that gaseous thermal conductivity can be reduced by 33% by placing
the aerogel under vacuum. Sample 1 showed lower conductivity compared to other
samples due to a relatively higher percentage of aerogel content. Aerogel treated
samples performed better in thermal insulation as compared to other samples at
extreme temperatures [15].
Determination of thermal resistance at various temperatures
Thermal resistance, (resistance to heat flow) is inversely proportional to thermal
conductivity, λ. Since λ is roughly constant for given material composition, thermal
resistance is approximately proportional to the fabric thickness. It is therefore the
thickness of the garment that determines its thermal resistance and gives the wearer
protection against cold. Heat loss is determined by insulation thickness and the skin
coverage. Winter clothing tends to cover a larger proportion of the body than summer
wear. Figure 14 demonstrates how the environmental temperature affects the result in
an almost linear relation between fabric thickness (expressed as volume of insulation
material per unit of fabric area) and insulation. Uniform distribution of heat provides
the best insulation in the extreme cold conditions. Thermal insulation increases with
thickness due to increased quantity of enclosed air, whereas if thickness is maintained
constant, then thermal insulation decreases with increase in weight as quantity of
enclosed air is reduced. The thermal insulation value of porous, low-density non-
woven fabric is affected by compression and hence the layered structure of aerogel
treated non-woven fabric gives better insulation because of good compression
recoverability [15]. It can be observed that samples S2, S3, S4, S5 & S6 have higher
resistance when compared to sample S1, H1 & H2. Thus, it can be stated that
thickness and aerogel present had more profound effect on insulation compared to
the material composition. One interesting observation is that the thermal resistance
is higher at lower temperatures, in spite of having almost similar conductivity at all
temperatures (Figure 13). This is mainly attributed to the nature of nanopores of air
in the structure which are capable of higher insulation at much higher temperature
gradient. However, after certain level of stabilization, their heat insulation capacity
goes down and the resistance is also visibly lower [15].

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0.186
Thermal resistance (m2.K .W-1)
S1
0.183 S2
S3
0.180 S4
S5
0.177 S6
H1
0.174 H2
0.171
0.168
0.165
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25

Temperature (oC)
Figure 12. Thermal resistance (Newly fabricated instrument)

It was examined by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with 95% confidence
level. A significant difference (p<0.05) has been observed. The analysis of variance
(ANOVA) result reported as an F-statistic and its associated degrees of freedom with
significance limit (p value). Here, the ANOVA F-statistic is a ratio of variation between
groups and variation within group. A large F is evidence against H0 (null hypothesis),
since it indicates that there is more difference between groups than within groups.
ANOVA was done to analyze the results with 95% confidence level. A significant
difference (p<0.05) has been observed in the thermal resistance and conductivity
properties of the nonwoven fabrics with different thicknesses.
Correlation between experimental and theoretical data
The correlations between experimental and theoretical data are show in the figures
15 to 20. Theoretically calculated data was correlated with the measured data of
three instruments namely., alambeta, TCi and custom built instrument. The theoretical
data were calculated as per the formulae given below:
The thermal conductivity of parallel arrangement λhP (higher limit) is equal to
(6)
For serial arrangements is thermal conductivity λhS (lower limit) defined as
(7)
Actual composition of a fibers and air phases can be presented by linear combination
of parallel and series structures [18]. The compromise is to compute the mean thermal
conductivity of hollow fiber λh as arithmetic mean between upper and lower limit.
(8)
Table 3. Calculated and experimental data

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Experimental Calcu- Experimental

Fabric Calculat- (Thermal conductivity) lated (Thermal resistance)
Sample
density λhp λhs ed, λh Cus- Thermal
no. Alam- Alambe- Custom
(kg/m3) -1 -1
W.m .K TCi tom resis- TCi
beta tance ta built
built
S1 79.66 0.0394 0.0255 0.0324 0.0340 0.0251 0.0207 0.1053 0.1006 0.1368 0.1687
S2 80.42 0.0396 0.0256 0.0325 0.0333 0.0276 0.0364 0.1907 0.1868 0.2252 0.1702
S3 66.73 0.0370 0.0253 0.0311 0.0335 0.0274 0.0386 0.2122 0.1972 0.2410 0.1810
S4 66.39 0.0369 0.0253 0.0311 0.0414 0.0315 0.0469 0.2591 0.1948 0.2611 0.2219
S5 65.99 0.0368 0.0253 0.0310 0.0396 0.0336 0.0459 0.3580 0.2805 0.3278 0.2886
S6 68.33 0.0373 0.0253 0.0313 0.0407 0.0368 0.0416 0.4408 0.3387 0.3753 0.3291
H1 43.06 0.0358 0.0255 0.0306 0.0440 0.0312 0.0458 0.3047 0.2122 0.1824 0.1672
H2 50.64 0.0372 0.0256 0.0313 0.0434 0.0326 0.0479 0.2563 0.1854 0.1686 0.1678
M1 55.20 0.0320 0.0251 0.0285 0.0420 0.0328 0.0324 0.0647 0.0430 0.0558 0.0557
M2 68.39 0.0339 0.0253 0.0296 0.0430 0.0359 0.0322 0.0514 0.0360 0.0433 0.0563
The parallel/series structure gives a firsthand prediction and would give reasonable
prediction accuracy for practical application due to its simplicity. The theoretically
calculated and experimental data are shown in table 3.
TCi
Alambeta
0.048 Custom built
0.042
E xperimental data
0.036
0.030
0.024
0.018
0.029 0.030 0.031 0.032
Theoretical data
Figure 13. Thermal conductivity (Experimental data Vs Theoretical data)
0.42
TCi
Alambeta
0.35 Custom built
E xperimental data
0.28
0.21
0.14
0.07
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Theoretical data

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Figure 14 Thermal resistance (Experimental data Vs Theoretical data)

From the figure 13 and 14, it can be seen that the correlation between the calculated
and experimental data of thermal conductivity was around R2 = 0.54 and thermal
resistance was around R2 = 0.95 for all instruments. Since the correlation between the
theoretical calculation and the experimental data are good, we can conclude that
the data generated from the experiments are theoretically compatible.
CONCLUSION
The objective of this study was to study thermodynamical properties of different
insulation materials at room temperature. Alambeta and TCi experiments confirmed
that the thermal conductivity of fibrous materials was significant. Thermal resistance
(Rct) of the fabric, which depends on the boundary layer of air, was found to be
directly proportionate to fabric thickness. On comparison of various samples, the
one with aerogel treatment were found to have higher thermal resistance (Rct). With
increase in percentage of nanoporosity, the air permeability also increased due to
the aerogel based structure. Irrespective of various pressure levels the air permeability
of the aerogel treated nonwoven and needle punched nonwoven fabrics were
insignificant. In the case of cold weather clothing, higher thermal resistance is extremely
important. The custom built instruments were found to be effective as it measured the
steady-state thermophysical properties (thermal insulation properties), even at sub
zero temperatures. A comparative analysis was done for the thermal properties at
different subzero temperatures. The findings showed that the temperatures did not
have much effect on the thermal conductivity for aerogel treated nonwoven fabrics.
The aerogel-based fabric samples were found to have considerably low thermal
conductivity and high thermal resistance even at extreme temperatures. This can be
attributed to the fabric density and the effect of aerogel present in the structures and
have a significant effect on thermal properties of aerogel-treated nonwoven fabrics.
Differences in thermal behavior of aerogel treated samples were due to variation
in thickness. The data generated from the experiments were correlated against
theoretically calculated data and were found to be in good correlation.

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REFERENCES
Matusiak M. 2006. Investigation of the thermal insulation properties of multilayer textiles. Fibre Text East
Eur 2006; 56: 98–102.
Frydrych I, Dziworska G and Bilska J. 2002. Comparative analysis of the thermal insulationproperties of
fabrics made of natural and man-made cellulose fibres. Fibre Text East Eur 2002; 39: 40–44.
Hunt AJ, Jantzen CA and Cao W. 1991. Aerogel – a high performance insulating material at 0.1 bar.
In: Graves RS, Wysocki DC (eds) Insulation materials: testing and applications, II. Philadelphia: PA:
American Society for Testing and Materials, 455.
Kistler SS. 1931. Coherent expanded-aerogels. Journal of Physical Chemistry-US; 36: 52–64.
Xie T, He YL and Hu ZJ. Theoretical study on thermal conductivities of silica aerogel composite
insulating material. Int J Heat Mass Tran 2013; 58: 540–552.
Martin, J. R., & Lamb, G. E. R. (1987). Measurement of thermal conductivity of nonwovens using a
dynamic method. Textile Research Journal, 57, 721–727.
Mao, N., & Russell, S. J. (2007). The thermal insulation properties of spacer fabrics with a mechanically
integrated wool fiber surface. Textile Research Journal, 77, 914–922.
Fohr J. P, D. Couton and G. Treguier, Dynamic Heat and Water Transfer Through Layered Fabrics,
Textile Research Journal, 2002, 72(1): 1-12.
Martin, J.R., & Lamb, G. E. R, Measurement of thermal conductivity of nonwovens using a dynamic
method. Textile Research Journal, 1987 57: p. 721–727.
Schneider AM and Hoschke BN., Heat transfer through moist fabrics. Textile Research Journal, 1992,
62: 61-66.
B.S, Method for determination of thermal resistance of textiles, in BS 4745. 1971, British Standards
Institution: London.
ASTM, Standard test method for thermal transmittance of textile materials, in ASTM D 1518-85. 1990:
West Conshohocken, PA.
SENSORA, Instruction manuals of alambeta, permetest instruments, SENSORA, Editor. 1990, SENSORA,
Liberec Registered Company: Liberec.
Mohanapriya Venkataraman, Rajesh Mishra, Jiri Militky, and Lubos Hes, Aerogel Based Nanoporous
Fibrous Materials for Thermal Insulation, Fibers and Polymers 2014, Vol.15, No.7, 1444-1449.
Mohanapriya Venkataraman, Rajesh Mishra, Jakub Wiener, Jiri Militky, T.M. Kotresh & Miroslav
Vaclavik, Novel techniques to analyse thermal performance of aerogel-treated blankets under
extreme temperatures, The Journal of The Textile Institute, 2014 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00405000.20
14.939808.
M. Reim, G. Reichenauer, W. Körner, J. Manara, M. A. Schuster, S. Korder, A. Beck, and J. Fricke, J. Non-
Cryst.Solids, 350, 358 (2004).
Fourier, J. (1995). The analytical theory of heat. New York, NY: Dover.
Al Sulaiman F A et al, Numerical prediction of thermal conductivity of fibres, Heat Mass Transfer 42, p
449 – 456 (2006).

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STUDY OF ELECTRO-THERMAL PROPERTIES OF

PYRROLE POLYMERISED KNITTED FABRICS
Syed Talha Ali Hamdani1,2, Anura Fernando1, Prasad Potluri1
1
School of Materials, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
2
Department of Weaving, National Textile University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
(Presenting author E-mail: hamdani.talha@ntu.edu.pk; Corresponding author email: hamdani.talha@
ntu.edu.pk)
ABSTRACT
Pyrrole is one of the most stable synthetic metals to date. It can be easily polymerized
on the surface of textile substrates. The purpose of the current research is to provide
a new material that could help to develop heating fabrics with improved textile
properties. This paper presents the results of research work carried out to investigate
the heating properties of nylon knitted fabrics impregnated with a polymerized solution
of polypyrrole. The temperature measurement was carried out using an infrared
temperature sensor (Calex pyro-usb-cf and Micro-epsilon Tim160) with emissivity value
of 0.95. The heat generated by the polypyrrole impregnated fabric was observed
under varying power levels and terminal separation distances in order to understand
the relationships between the length of the polypyrole electro-conductive fabric and
the level of heat generated. In order to understand the effect of polymerization on
textile properties of the nylon knitted fabric, a SiroFAST comparison was made for
the fabric before and after polymerization. It was concluded that the polypyrrole
could be very suitable for wearable heating fabrics due to the improved mechanical
properties afforded by the polymerization process.
Keywords: pyrrole, heating fabrics, knitting
INTRODUCTION
An electro-textile heat generating fabric is a flexible structure that can produce
heat due to electrical current running through it. These electro-textile fabrics may be
manufactured through knitting or weaving. Many authors (Anthony 1999, Gluckstien
1966, Hansen 2001, Alonzo 2010, Hearst 1970, Richardson 2009, Stephen P. Szczesuil
1994, Marick 1942, Siple 1953), have carried out a great deal of research for the
development of textile based heating elements. They are used in automobile industry
for heating seats and in various other medical applications such as electrotherapy
treatment (Oh, Park, and Kim 2003), and medical blankets for maintaining a patient’s
body temperature (Lee, Park, and Lim 2003, Kim, Oh, and Bahk 2004). These materials
are also used in personal heating garments and electro-textile bandages to keep
the body warm in very cold environments or for the application of heat (Farid et al.
2004). Heating elements are also used for de-icing purposes in aircraft wings. In all
the above applications where the main aim is providing a heating effect, pyrrole
polymerised fabric structures can be employed.
Generally electro-textile heating fabrics are available in the market under various
brand names and designs. Each one of these heating products is specially designed

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for a specific end use. Some of the main heated clothing suppliers are; Outlast, EXO2,
Gerbing’s heated clothing, BikeTek, KEIS, and KLAN. According to Wang et al. (2010)
heating fabric can be categorised into four different types depending upon their
methods of manufacturing; (1) electrically heated, (2) phase change material based,
(3) chemically heated and (4) fluid/air flow heated fabric. However, still the heating
technologies used in these applications are lagging behind in terms of comfort for
next to body applications.
There is evidence of heating textiles being produced using a multitude of materials
and techniques. In previous work (Hamdani, Potluri, and Fernando 2013, 2014),
research in to the production and characterisation of knitted heating fabrics based
on silver coated polymeric yarn and stainless steel yarn was presented. Through such
materials and methods, it is possible to generate a reasonable amount of heat under
laboratory conditions at a low dc supply voltage (3-9 volts). In these cases the silver and
stainless steel yarn used proved to be suitable candidates for heat generating textiles.
However the use of such yarn material, even in the form of fabric patches, change
the mechanical properties of fabric structures such as drapability, stretch, bending
and fabric handle. Another downside to using such metallic yarns in fabric is that they
are sensitive to corrosive liquids, gases and mechanical friction in production and
washing/tumble drying. One of the goals of the experiments conducted in the current
research was to find a material that can function as a coating for yarn or fabric, which
can generate sufficient heat without compromising the mechanical and handling
properties. With this intention, in the current research, polypyrrole, which is one of the
foremost polymers used for electro-conductive applications, was investigated as a
replacement for electro-conductive metallic yarn in electrically heated fabric.
The main advantages of using pyrrole is that it can easily assume the shape of the
substrate being heated and can be deposited onto a substrate as a thin layer of
polymer. The moulding or deposition of pyrrole can be achieved using a conventional
process under controlled pressure and temperature. In the manufacturing process,
the pressure in the range of 50 to 150 bar is applied at a temperature range of 150-
300oC (Munstedt et al. 1986). Rather than coating the yarn before fabric manufacture,
the approach adopted here is to impregnate the polypyrrole into the fabric, in order
to ensure efficient coating of the fibres in the fabric structure. In this research in to the
creation of polypyrrole impregnated heating fabrics, the previous work conducted
by Jolly, R., et al. (1994) in the area of polypyyrole’s use as a heating polymer for
constructing heating panels suitable for indoor applications was a helpful guide.
In order to work with fabrics that are free from impurities as far as possible; scoured and
bleached knitted fabric made of nylon 6,6 yarn was used as the textile substrate for the
current research. The pyrrole reagent grade 98% (CAS No. 109-97-7), p-toluenesulfonic
acid monohydrate reagent-plus 98.5% (CAS No. 6192-52-5) and Iron (III) chloride
hexahydrate reagent grade 98% (CAS No. 10025-77-1) that was used in creating the
polypyrrole coated fabric, were procured from Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC.
The polymerisation of pyrrole on the surface of nylon 6,6 fabric was carried out
according to the method published by Gregory et al. 22. The only exception to
the procedure was that the fabric was soaked with pyrrole before dipping into the

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polymerisation solution of the dopant (p-toluenesulfonic acid) and the oxidising agent
(Iron (III) chloride hexahydrate).
RESULTS
In preliminary experiments one inch wide strips of samples were employed to
generate heat with the applied voltage of 3-9 volts. However this setting did not result
in the satisfactory generation of heat. Therefore further tests were carried out with an
increased applied voltage of 18 volts. The samples were connected to the power
supply by using thin metal strips and crocodile clips. A pair of metal strips made of
copper was placed on either side (face and back) of the fabric and crocodile clips
were used to hold the pair of strips firmly. The average clamp pressure on the fabric
was measured to be 34mmHg. The terminal separation distance of 1cm to 5cm were
set for the tests in order to find out its effect on the generation of heat.
It can be seen from Figure 1 that the temperature of the samples increases as the
terminal separation decreases. The reason for this is that since a smaller length has a
lower resistance, according to Joule’s heating principle, a higher heat is generated
due to the larger amount of current passing through the fabric surface.
As can be observed in Figure 1, the supply of electrical power to the polypyrrole heating
element causes rapid increase in temperature. As common to positive temperature
coefficient polymers, the polypyrrole coated fabric too can be observed to reach
a self-limiting temperature with time. Depending on the environment, the required
self-limiting temperature can be achieved by changing the distance between the
terminals.
Figure 5: Temperature profiles of polypyrrole coated fabric for the area from 5x1cm2
to 5x5cm2
Generally the comfortable core temperature for a human body is around 37℃.
However the heating garments must be capable of generating more heat than the
normal body requirement as some of the heat will be lost to the environment through
the clothing insulation. For example, a temperature of 50℃ can be achieved using 6
cm2 of polypyrrole coated fabric at a potential difference of 18volts. However if the
fabric is used in other applications where higher temperatures are required, then the
required temperature would have to be achieved by increasing the voltage supplied

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per unit area. Here a temperature control system can also be used to regulate the
temperature for the polypyrrole fabrics at a desired level. As can be observed from
Figure 5, using these polypyrrole heating elements, a temperature of over 114℃ can
be achieved for a terminal separation of 1cm in less than 3 minutes. The maximum
temperature achieved and their time constant for different terminal separation
distances are provided in Table 1.
Table 1: Steady state temperature and time constant of polypyrrole heating elements
at 9V.
Terminal separation Temperature Time constant
[cm] [°C] [sec]

1 105 54
2 65 92
3 55 121
4 49 187
5 45 302
During the investigation of heating properties, it was found that the heat generation
is also affected by the contact resistance between the polypyrole fabric and the
crocodile clips used at the terminals. Investigation of the thermal image given in
the Figure 6(a) confirms that heat generation is increased due to lower contact
resistance by the application of pressure at the terminals. The heat distribution over
the surface of the fabric was also studied using a thermal imager. It was found that
the heat gradually decreases from the terminals towards the centre of the fabric as
can be seen in the Figure 6(b).
Effect of contact pressure 3d thermal chart of heat distribution

Figure 1: Thermal images of polypyrrole coated fabric
Table 2 presents the SiroFAST fabric quality tests carried out on the polypyrrole coated
fabric. It can be deduced that the coating of polypyrrole improves the textile properties
of the fabric. Due to coating of polypyrrole the potential problems in the areas of
sizing, pleating-puckering and laying-up of the fabric were removed. It can be said
that the polypyrrole coated fabric can be tailored into a garment without any fear of
problems due to fabric handling. The problems highlighted by the SiroFAST chart for
the fabric after polymerisation are high extensibility and low bending rigidity, which
were there to begin with. Because knitted fabrics generally have a high percentage
of extension this problem cannot be avoided. However the problem that arises due
to high extension is only related to the fabric design and since in technical textiles

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the functional properties are more important than the design, this problem can be
ignored. It was also observed that the bending rigidity of the fabric was also improved
by coating polypyrrole. However it was still not in a safe range due to which problems
may be faced during cutting operations. The problem of low bending rigidity can be
removed by coating a thicker layer of polypyrrole.
Table 2: Comparison of textile properties before and after polymerisation.
Before polymerisation After polymerisation
Characteristics
Warp Weft Warp Weft
Relaxation shrinkage 4.10% 2.10% 0% 2.10%
Hygral Expansion 6.40% 6.40% 4.30% 4.30%
Formability 0.31 mm2 0.29 mm2 0.59 mm2 70 mm2
Extensibility 30.10% 26.10% 29% 26.50%
Bending Rigidity 1.6 μN.m 1.7 μN.m 3.6 μN.m 4.30 μN.m
Shear Rigidity 15.1 N/m 57.7 N/m
Thickness 0.93 mm 1.11 mm
Surface thickness 0.20 mm 0.24 mm
Weight 132 g/m2 154 g/m2
CONCLUSIONS
Heating elements coated by polypyrrole have significant advantages over heating
elements made of conducting yarn in terms of manufacturing process and textile
properties. The coating of polypyrrole on to the surface of textile fabric can be carried
out on an industrial scale. It was concluded that the coating of this particular heating
material on to a textile substrate does not degrade the original properties of textile
substrate. The stretching of polypyrrole coated fabric increases the distance between
the electro-conducting particles due to which electro-conductivity is decreased. A
greater amount of heat was observed near the terminal points of electrical power
supplied. This was observed due to the decrease in contact resistance as a result of
applied pressure. The polypyrrole is very suitable for wearable heating fabrics due to
the improved mechanical properties afforded by the polymerisation process. Currently
the scientific community is paying much interest towards employing polypyrrole in
applications other than as heating fabric.
REFERENCES
Alonzo, Robert J. 2010. “Electrical Codes, Standards, Recommended Practices and Regulations - An
Examination of Relevant Safety Considerations.” In: Elsevier. http://www.knovel.com/web/portal/
browse/display?_EXT_KNOVEL_DISPLAY_bookid=3700.
Anthony, Arnold;. 1999. Personal Heat Control. In U.S Patent number 5970718: Kool Limited (Surrey, GB).
Farid, Mohammed M., Amar M. Khudhair, Siddique Ali K. Razack, and Said Al-Hallaj. 2004. “A review on
phase change energy storage: materials and applications.” Energy Conversion and Management
1597-1615.
Gluckstien, M. E. 1966. Warming Suit. In U.S Patent number 3229681.
Hamdani, Syed, Prasad Potluri, and Anura Fernando. 2013. “Thermo-Mechanical Behavior of Textile
Heating Fabric Based on Silver Coated Polymeric Yarn.” Materials no. 6 (3):1072-1089.

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Hamdani, Syed, Prasad Potluri, and Anura Fernando. 2014. Thermo-mechanical behaviour of stainless
steel knitted structures. Paper read at 1st NED International Textile Conference, at NED university of
Engg. & Tech.
Hansen, Jr.; Howard O. Orlando, FL. 2001. Pocket use hand warmer. In U.S Patent number 6320161.
Hearst, Peter J. 1970. Chemical Heat Source For Divers. In U.S Patent number 3536059.
Jolly, R., C. Petrescu, J.C. Thieblemont, J.C. Marechal, and F.D. Menneteau. 1994. “Heating Panels for
Accomodation Obtained from Textiles Made Electrically Conductive by Polypyrrole Deposit.” Journal
of Industrial Textiles no. 23 (3):228-236. doi: 10.1177/152808379402300304.
Kim, Seong Hun, Kyung Wha Oh, and Jae Hyon Bahk. 2004. “Electrochemically synthesized polypyrrole
and Cu-plated nylon/spandex for electrotherapeutic pad electrode.” Journal of Applied Polymer
Science no. 91 (6):4064-4071. doi: 10.1002/app.13625.
Lee, J. Y., D. W. Park, and J. O. Lim. 2003. “Polypyrrole-coated woven fabric as a flexible surface-
heating element.” Macromolecular Research no. 11 (6):481-487.
Marick, L. 1942. Electrically heated wearing apparel.
Munstedt, Helmut, Helmut Gebhard, Herbert Naarmann, and Johannes Schlag. 1986. Pyrrole polymers
as electrical heating elements. Basf Aktiengesellschaft.
Oh, Kyung Wha, Hyun Jin Park, and Seong Hun Kim. 2003. “Stretchable conductive fabric for
electrotherapy.” Journal of Applied Polymer Science no. 88 (5):1225-1229. doi: 10.1002/app.11783.
Richardson, Lloyd. 2009. Force Ventilated And Heated Garment. In U.S Patent Publication.
Siple, P.A. 1953. Body Warmer.
Stephen P. Szczesuil, Rizalah Masadi. 1994. Body Heating And Cooling Garment. In U.S Patent number
5320164: The United States of America as represented by the Secretary of the Army.
Wang, F., C. Gao, K. Kuklane, and I. Holmar. 2010. “A review of technology of personal heating
garments.” International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics no. 16 (3):387-404.

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DETERMINATION OF SURFACE PROPERTIES

OF KNITTED FABRICS BY IMAGE ANALYSIS
METHOD
Gonca Balci Kilic1, Ayşe Okur1
1
Dokuz Eylul University, Department of Textile Engineering, Izmir, Turkey
(E-mail: gonca.balci@deu.edu.tr, ayse.okur@deu.edu.tr)
ABSTRACT
Fabric surface properties take important role on determination of performance
properties of fabrics such as abrasion resistance and pilling besides fabric handle
and clothing comfort. Fabric surface properties are related both yarn and fabric
properties. They are affected by surface, structural and bulk properties of yarns and
structural, frictional and roughness properties of fabrics. In this study, it was aimed to
analyse surface properties of single jersey and interlock fabrics which were produced
by natural, regenerated and synthetic yarns produced systematically. For this purpose,
abrasion, pilling, frictional and roughness properties of fabrics were investigated.
Within the context of the study, abrasion, frictional and pilling properties of fabrics
were measured by objective test methods and fabric roughness properties were
analysed by image analysis method. A new parameter called “Real Contact Area
(RCA)” was described by image analysis method to determine fabric roughness.
Statistical analysis showed that there is a high correlation between the new parameter
obtained by image analysis method and fabric friction and abrasion resistance at 0.05
significance level. In addition, surface properties of yarns such as friction, hairiness,
roughness etc. were investigated to analyse the effects of yarn surface profile on
fabric surface properties.
Keywords: ring yarns, open-end rotor yarns, yarn friction, fabric friction, fabric surface
properties
INTRODUCTION
Surface properties of yarns and fabrics are very important, due to the fact that the fabrics
contact to human skin when they are used as garment. Moreover, the development
of various methods and devices for objective measurements of these properties and
the determination of the relationships between fabric surface properties and fabric
handle or comfort perception have also great significance.
Fabric surface properties that directly affect the sensorial comfort are among the most
important parameters when purchasing a garment or fabric. Surface characteristics
of fabrics are mostly depended on both fabric structural properties and fibre and
yarn characteristics.The studies on fabric surface properties show that the effect of
raw material, fabric structural properties and test parameters are mostly investigated
(Ajayi, 1992a; Kenins, 1994; Ajayi and Elder, 1994; Rankumar et al., 2000; Okur, 2002;
Rankumar and et al., 2003a, 2003b; Maatoug et al., 2012; Akgun, 2014; Becerir et al.,
2015). In addition, many of the studies consider the fabric surface properties as the
component of fabric handle (Ajayi and Elder, 1997; Behera, 1997; Bertaux et al, 2007;

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Semmani et al., 2009; Du and Zu, 2009). In recent years, image analysis methods have
been used to determine different properties of yarns and fabrics. Prediction of the
yarn diameter, yarn packing density and yarn unevenness, calculation of the fabric
cover factor and fabric drapeness, determination of the fabric defects and pilling
resistance are some examples for these studies (His et al., 2000; Kang et al., 2001;
Jensen, 2002; Carvalho et al., 2010, Turan and Okur, 2012; Kilic et al., 2014). Image
analysis method has also been used in several studies which are performed to
determine fabric surface properties objectively (Xu et al., 2000; Ravandi and Ghane,
2000; Semmani et al., 2011; Moezzi et al., 2015). Ajayi and Elder (1994) compared
about relationship between yarn-to-yarn and fabric-to fabric friction. They concluded
that the coefficient of friction of fabrics are greater than that of their component yarns
and yarns with higher frictional properties yield fabrics whose frictional properties
are also higher. In another study, Ajayi and Elder (1997) examined the relationships
between fabric friction, handle and compression. The results shows that the higher
fabric compression cause larger difference between static- and kinetic- friction
forces. Xu, Cuminato and Keyes (1998) has been developed a new profilometer for
assessing fabric smoothness appearance by using laser triangulation and image
processing techniques. They found that there was a high correlation between results
of subjective (trial) tests and parameters obtained from new profilometer. Ravandi
and Ghane (2000) analysed fundamental factors affecting fabric surface protrusion.
The results indicate that the protruding yarn density is strongly influenced by the
associated yarn-yarn interaction at the crossing points and yarn spacing. They found
that there is high correlation between the normal load, yarn spacing and protruding
yarn density. Rankumar, Leaf and Harlock (2000) examined the influence of structural
variables on the frictional properties of 1x1 rib-knitted cotton fabrics. The results
indicate that both the loop length and the yarn linear density influence the fabric-
on-fabric frictional properties and they defined a new frictional constant (K). In the
study, they was established an empirical relationship between the frictional constant
(K) and the structural variables. Bertaux, Lewandowski and Derler (2007) investigated
the relationship between friction and the tactile properties of woven and knitted
fabrics and they found high correlations between frictions and tactile properties for
knitted fabrics. They emphasized that other parameters such as hairiness, bending,
unit weight and thickness play an important role in these relations. Semmani, Hasani,
Behtaj and Ghorbani (2011) focused on measuring the roughness of weft knitted
fabrics using a non-contact method. The results obtained from the image analysis
were compared with SMD values measured by the Kawabata method. They found
a good and negative correlation between fabric roughness values measured by the
two different methods. Maatoug, Sahnoun ve Sakli (2012), developed a new device
named “Textile Surface Tester” to determine fabric surface roughness on knitted
fabrics. In the study, effects of normal load, yarn linear density, loop length and fabric
face on roughness was investigated. Regression models showed that 90% of variation
in fabric roughness could be explained by fabric structural parameters and test
conditions. Moezzi, Ghane ve Shahsavari (2015), analyzed the effect of unevenness
of weft yarns on asperities on surface of woven fabrics by image analysis method.
Results showed that increasing amount of irregularity and +50% thick places cause
an increase on count of asperities on fabric surface. In addition, relationship between
the parameter APS (Angular Power Spectrum) defined by image analysis method
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and +50% thick places was found fairly strong.

In this study, it was aimed to analyse surface properties of single jersey and interlock
fabrics which were produced by natural, regenerated and synthetic yarns produced
systematically and surface properties of fabrics were measured by objective test
methods and analysed by image analysis method.
In the study, fabrics produced by the yarns made of fibres with same fineness and
length were statistically analysed for making more accurate comparison. Regenerated
(Modal and Tencel) and synthetic (polyester and acrylic) yarns have same fineness
(1.3 dtex) and cut length (38 mm). All yarns were produced systematically in ring
spinning system and the yarns have 20 tex linear density. Cotton fibre properties are
given in Table 1. The fibres of all yarns were passed through same production steps to
analyze the effect of raw material accurately. The cotton fibres were passed through
the combing process.
Table 1. Properties of cotton fibres
Fibre fineness (micronaire) 3.6
Fibre length (mm) 29.5
Tenacity (cN/tex) 29.0
Elongation (%) 4.85
Uniformity (%) 82.5
Maturity 0.88
SFI (%) 8.50
Knitted fabrics were produced by the above mentioned yarns with the same machine
settings and same loop length for both single jersey and interlock structures. Fabrics
produced 100% cotton yarns were only used as reference. Structural properties of
fabrics are given in Table 3.
Table 2. Structural properties of fabrics
Wale Course per Loop
Unit Weight Thickness
No Raw Material Knitting type per cm cm length
(g/m2) (mm)
(wpc) (cpc) (mm)
1 Single jersey 13,7 18,7 2,68 144,48 0,60
100% Cotton
2 İnterlock 11,6 15,1 3,20 225,30 1,24
3 Single jersey 14,2 18,2 2,64 140,37 0,54
100% Polyester
4 İnterlock 12,5 15,0 1,69 251,42 1,35
5 Single jersey 13,2 19,5 2,63 140,40 0,53
100% Acrylic
6 İnterlock 11,3 15,1 3,30 240,34 1,11
7 Single jersey 13,4 17,0 2,76 127,11 0,48
100% Modal
8 İnterlock 11,6 14,8 3,22 230,46 1,04
9 Single jersey 12,8 19,2 2,65 136,56 0,53
100% Tencel
10 İnterlock 11,9 14,5 1,69 232,06 1,14
For the measurements of fabric-to-fabric and fabric-to-material (gazelle skin) friction,

a friction attachment which is adaptable to a tensile tester was used. Normal load
was selected 1.2 g/cm2 and kinetic and static friction coefficients (µk and µs) were
calculated by using frictional forces. Abrasion resistance and pilling tendency tests
were performed using James H. Heal Nu-Martindale Abrasion and Pilling Tester. The
weight losses (% and mg) and changes of thickness (% and mm) of the samples

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Comfort and safety
were calculated at the end of 15.000 cycles to measure the abrasion resistance of the
fabrics. Pilling tendencies of fabrics were determined in accordance with ISO 12945:2-
2002. In this method, ratings for samples tested were determined by comparing
standard photographs. “5” rating shows that there is no visible change on the surface
of the fabric and “1” rating indicates intensive pilling on the whole surface of the
fabric.
In the scope of the study, image analysis method was used in order to examine
roughness and surface properties of the fabrics. The digital images of fabrics were
obtained by using a camera integrated to a microscope (Olympus BX43) without a
light source, as shown in Fig. 1(a). A ×10 magnifying lens was used to analyse surface
properties of fabrics. In the second step, the images were obtained with fixed light
source [Fig. 1(b)]. The images obtained from second step were improved and analysed
by a computer system and Matlab software which has image processing instruments.
The images were cropped and converted into grey level image [Fig. 1(c)]. Then, the
grey level image was converted into binary image in the image analysis program
using the Matlab image processing toolbox [Fig. 1(d)]. The aim of this process was to
determine asperities of the fabric surface. The asperities cause roughness and they
occur ‘real contact area’. The real contact area in the fabric was determined by using
a suitable threshold value. The value of the pixels higher than the defined threshold
value was converted into white pixels and lower ones were converted into black
pixels by using Otsu method. In binary image, white pixels represented real contact
points, and black pixels represented non-contact points. Finally, the real contact area
was calculated using the ratio of total white pixels represented asperities to the total
area of image. Due to the area of all images are equal to each other, this ratio directly
gives information about “Real Contact Area (RCA)” (Balci Kilic, 2016).
Figure 1. Image analysis steps

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Comfort and safety
RESULTS
Fabric-to-fabric static friction coefficients range from 1.03 to 1.49, while values of fabric-
to-fabric kinetic friction coefficients range from 0.60 to 1.05 for the single-jersey and
interlock knitted fabrics produced by ring spun yarns made of same linear density
(1.3 dtex) and same fibre length (38 mm). In Figure 2, values and 95% confidence
interval plots of fabric-to-fabric friction coefficients are given for both wale and course
directions.
Figure 2. Coefficients of fabric-to-fabric friction and 95% confidence interval

The static friction force and coefficient are momentary concepts appeared at the
beginning of the movement. Moreover, the kinetic friction force and coefficient
come up while the object is in motion and become important while the surfaces
moving on each other. Results showed that the effect of raw material is statistically
significant (p<0.05). 100% polyester fabrics have the highest fabric-to-fabric kinetic
friction coefficients, while 100% Modal has the lowest. Values of fabric-to-fabric static
friction coefficients range from 1.09 to 1.23 and values of fabric-to-fabric kinetic friction
coefficients range from 0.67 to 0.72 for 100% cotton fabrics. Results are parallel for both
fabric directions. In addition, it is remarkable that values of kinetic friction coefficients
for the fabrics with same raw materials but different knit structures are very close to
each other.
Figure 3. Coefficients of fabric-to-skin friction and 95% confidence interval

Values of fabric-to-material static friction coefficients of polyester, acrylic, Tencel and
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Comfort and safety
Modal fabrics range from 0.17 to 0.28, while values of fabric-to-material kinetic friction
coefficients range from 0.08 to 0.15 (Figure 3). Values of static and kinetic friction
coefficients for 100% cotton fabrics are 0.19-0.21 and 0.10-0.12 respectively. The
reason for getting lower fabric-to-material friction coefficients than fabric-to-fabric
friction coefficients could be the fairly low roughness value of the skin surface used
as material. Literature shows that rubber, polymeric materials, wood etc. are used as
material in fabric-to-material friction test and results vary in a large scale (Yoon et al.,
1984; Kothari et al. 1991; Ajayi, 1992b; Kenins 1994; Kothari and Gangal, 1994; Das et
all., 2005). Moreover, results show that 100% acrylic fabrics have the highest kinetic
friction coefficient while 100% Modal have the lowest for both directions (wale and
course) and both structure (single-jersey and interlock).
Figure 4. Weight loss (mg) and thickness change (mm) values and 95% confidence
interval
Figure 4 shows that differences between weight loss values of knitted fabrics made of
different raw materials are statistically significant (p<0.05). 100% Tencel fabrics have
the highest weight loss values, while 100% polyester have the lowest for both knit
structures. Possible reason for this situation could be the higher tenacity of polyester
fibres. Moreover, the more hairy structure of Tencel yarns could be the reason of
higher weight loss of fabrics made of these yarns. Change in fabric thickness after
abrasion test is the highest for 100% Tencel and the lowest for 100% polyester for both
single-jersey and interlock fabrics. Moreover, differences between change in fabric
thickness values (mm and %) are also statistically significant (p<0.05).
Pilling is an important problem which causes bad appearance in fabric surface.
Pilling that present on the fabric surface are formed by a scrubbing action on loose
fibres As obtained in Table 3 the pilling tendency ratings of 100% cotton fabrics are
the highest. Furthermore, it is seen that pilling ratings of the fabrics produced by yarns
made of fibres with same linear density and length are very close to each other.

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Comfort and safety
Table 3. Pilling ratings of the fabrics

No Raw Material Knitting type Pilling ratings
1 Single jersey 1
100% Cotton
2 İnterlock 1
3 Single jersey 2
100% Polyester
4 İnterlock 2
5 Single jersey 2-3
100% Acrylic
6 İnterlock 1-2
7 Single jersey 2-3
100% Modal
8 İnterlock 1-2
9 Single jersey 2
100% Tencel
10 İnterlock 1
In the study, the term “Real Contact Area (RCA)” was defined by analysis of fabric
surface images and suggested to determine the fabric surface roughness value
objectively. The results showed that differences between the RCA values of the fabrics
are statistically significant. The RCA values are the highest for 100% Tencel fabrics and
the lowest for 100% polyester fabrics for both knit structures. Figure 6 illustrates the
relationships between the newly defined RCA parameter and other fabric surface
properties.
Figure 5. Relationships between RCA and other fabric surface properties.

Figure 5 shows that there is a high positive correlation between the image analyses
based RCA value and weight loss value in mg after 15.000 turns abrasion test (r=0.923).
Figure 5 also shows that relationships between the RCA value and fabric-to-fabric
friction coefficients for both wale and course directions are negatively correlated. The
reasonable explanation for this situation is the fact smoother the fabric surface, higher
the RCA value. In other words, increasing RCA value causes decrease in stick-slip

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Comfort and safety
motion. Increasing real contact area will also cause a decrease in unit normal load
(gf/mm2) and in coefficient of friction.
It is also the relationships between yarn surface profile and fabric surface properties
are investigated in the study. Coefficient of yarn friction (yarn-to-yarn, yarn-to-metal
and yarn-to-ceramic), hairiness (S1+2, S3) and roughness (CV of fine structure –CV FS
%) mean values of 1.3 dtex-38 mm polyester, acrylic, Tencel and Modal ring yarns are
shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Friction coefficient, hairiness and roughness values of the yarns
RAW MATERIAL
PARAMETERS
Polyester Acrylic Tencel Modal
µyarn-to-yarn(a) 0.3394 0.2420 0.2421 0.2495
µyarn-to-metal(a) 0.2012 0.2700 0.2348 0.2724
µyarn-to-ceramic(a) 0.2671 0.2855 0.2715 0.2866
S1+2 (count/100 m) (b) 18716.5 19326.3 22968.3 21277.8
S3 (count/100m) (c) 2393.4 2995.8 3358.7 3201.8
CV FS (%)(d) 7.85 7.21 7.69 8.11
(a) Yarn friction tests were performed by Lawson Hemphill CTT with 5 cN input tension
and Capstan method was used for all surfaces.
(b) S1+2: Number of protruding fibres shorter than 3 mm along 100 m yarn length.
(c) S3: Number of protruding fibres longer than 3 mm along 100 m yarn length.
(d) CV FS (%): The term obtained by Uster Tester defining the surface roughness of the
yarn.
It is seen that there is a high positive correlation between yarn-to-yarn friction and
fabric-to-fabric friction for both directions (r=0.840 for wale direction and r=0.900 for
course direction). Furthermore, there is no statistically significant relationship between
fabric-to-material and yarn-to-yarn or yarn-to-material friction. This could be the result
of using different material surfaces for yarn and fabric friction tests. Tencel yarns have
the highest hairiness values (S1+2 and S3) and as a result of this fact, single-jersey and
interlock fabrics produced by Tencel yarns have fairly high loss in weight values after
abrasion tests. Correlation coefficients (r) between loss in weight (mg and %) and
yarn hairiness (S1+2 and S3) values are higher than 0.85. If the yarn roughness values
are analysed, it is seen that 100% acrylic yarns have the lowest values. Fabrics made
of 100% acrylic yarns have the highest fabric-to-skin friction for both knit structures.
Decreasing yarn roughness causes increasing asperity amount and decreasing real
contact area on fabric surface.
CONCLUSIONS
In this study, surface properties of cotton, Modal, Tencel, polyester and acrylic of single
jersey and interlock fabrics analysed. Abrasion resistance, fabric-to-fabric and fabric-
to-skin friction and pilling tendency of fabrics were measured. 100% polyester fabrics
have the highest fabric-to-fabric friction, 100% acrylic fabrics have the highest fabric-
to-skin friction and 100% Tencel fabrics have the highest values of weight in loss (mg
and %) and pilling tendency among the fabrics produced by yarns made of same

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Comfort and safety
fibre linear density (1.3 dtex) and fibre length (38 mm).
It is seen that there is a high positive correlation between yarn-to-yarn friction and
fabric-to-fabric friction for both direction. Furthermore, there is a positive correlation
between abrasion resistance and yarn hairiness (S1+2 and S3) values.
Furthermore, fabric roughness properties were analysed by image analysis method
and new parameter called “Real Contact Area (RCA)” was described to determine
fabric roughness. Statistical analysis showed that there is a high correlation between
the new parameter obtained by image analysis method and fabric friction and
abrasion resistance at 0.05 significance level. Because of this, it is supposed that
determination of fabric surface roughness will be possible through the newly suggested
RCA parameter objectively. Image analysis based new parameter will also save time,
cost and labour when compared to traditional methods.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks to TÜBİTAK (2211 National Doctorate Scholarship Program) for contributions to
the study.
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Protective and barrier textiles Modelling
MODELING OF PROTECTIVE AND COMFORT-RELATED PROPERTIES OF THE THERMOREGULATIVE UNDERWEAR FOR MINE RESCUERS
MODELING OF PROTECTIVE AND

COMFORT-RELATED PROPERTIES OF THE
THERMOREGULATIVE UNDERWEAR FOR MINE
RESCUERS
Bartkowiak Grażyna1, Dąbrowska Anna1 Kurczewska Agnieszka,
1
Central Institute for Labour Protection – National Research Institute, Wierzbowa 48, 90-133 Lodz,
Poland
(Presenting author E-mail: andab@ciop.lodz.pl; Corresponding author email: grbar@ciop.lodz.pl)
ABSTRACT
Due to the risk of explosion and fire, mine rescuers during their actions have to use
protective clothing that is characterized by non-flammability, electrostatic properties,
as well as high mechanical performance. Another issue relates to thermal stress and
a risk of overheating that results from a high level of environmental temperature and
physical load related to rescuer’s equipment.
For this purpose, in a framework of the research project, a special underwear with
phase change materials (PCMs) intended for mine rescuers has been developed.
A particular attention has been paid to an appropriate selection of raw material
composition, knitted fabric structure, as well as implementation of PCMs. PCMs in a
form of macrocapsules have been packed and deployed at specific locations in
the underwear. Type and composition of PCMs have been chosen on a basis of their
phase change temperature and analysis of the conditions in which rescue actions
are conducted.
The results of modeling of protective and comfort-related properties of the underwear
with PCMs intended for mine rescuers will be presented in this paper. In particular,
results of laboratory tests of the selected knitted fabrics and PCMs, as well as results of
modeling of the underwear construction will be provided.
Keywords: protective clothing, phase change materials, thermal comfort
INTRODUCTION
A characteristic feature of rescue operations in coal mines is the presence of concurrent
risks of explosion and climatic hazards as well as very large energy expenditure
caused by the additional burden carried by the rescuers. Out of 13 analyzed rescue
actions in Polish mining industry, in 9 cases there was simultaneous occurrence of
explosive and climatic hazard zones overlapping with the excavation areas of 200
m to 900 m length. Most frequently, the rescue work is performed in the atmosphere
characterized by the following parameters: dry temperature Ts = (30 ÷ 35) °C, relative
humidity (70 ÷ 85)%, air flow velocity v = (0 ÷ 5) m/s, but there are also actions carried
out in extremely difficult microclimatic conditions. With large amounts of methane
burning and the presence of smoky air, it was found that the dry temperature was
Ts = (35 ÷ 45) °C, relative humidity (70 ÷ 97)% and the air flow velocity v = (0.5 ÷ 2.5)
m/s, and after a coal dust explosion in a not aired section of the excavation, the said

184
air parameters reached the following values: Ts = (32 ÷ 39) °C, relative humidity (70 ÷
97)%, air speed v = 0,0 m/s.
The threat of methane explosions, incineration gases and coal dust was the most
common cause of fatal accidents among mine rescuers in Poland (40% of the
total number of cases). The main cause of the rescuers’ deaths were thermal burns
affecting large areas of the body and the respiratory tract. The second leading cause
of fatal accidents during the rescue operations were difficult microclimatic conditions
that caused overheating of the rescuers’ organisms death due to heatstroke (26% of
the total number of deaths).
The basic equipment of a mine rescuer consisting of a complete garment (6 kg),
respiratory protections (15 kg), a lamp and indispensable rescue equipment causes
an additional burden of 25 kg on the average. If it is necessary to transport the
casualties on stretchers (the task that was performed by the rescuers in 8 out of 13
analyzed operations), the average additional load was 45-50 kg per person. Rescuers
performing their work with extra load secrete significant amounts of sweat (according
to the tests carried out in 2000 in a CSRG SA climatic chamber, such amounts exceed
1200 g/h). Comparing the range of temperatures and relative humidity in the areas
posing combined risks of explosion and difficult climatic conditions, the conclusion is
that the drainage and evaporation of sweat is the most effective way of cooling the
rescuers’ organisms. Under such environmental and working conditions, high vapor
permeability is a desired property of garments. However, as very high values of relative
air humidity (above 95%) were also found in some cases and in such conditions
evaporation of sweat is very limited, it is necessary to use cooling elements combined
with strict observation of the permissible limits of safe working time. Such conditions
and risks require the use of garments including additional cooling elements, the design
of which should not eliminate the possibility to drain and evaporate sweat, because it
ensures an effective heat dissipation process in extremely high temperatures.
Accordingly, within the framework of a strategic research project “Improving safety in
mines” conducted in Poland, it was undertaken to develop model sets of underwear
and protective clothing for mine rescuers to ensure the safety of their operations
and the possibility to remove excess heat through the application of phase change
materials (PCM).
The purpose of this publication is to present the results of work carried out under the
aforementioned project, related to modeling underwear containing PCM with the
function of microclimate thermoregulation designed for mine rescuers.
Because of the need to protect mine rescuers against the risks that occur during rescue
operations, primarily explosions and flame, the protective clothing and underwear set
should be consistent with the requirements of Council Directive 89/686/EEC concerning
personal protective equipment and the harmonized standards corresponding to the
identified risks, such as EN ISO 11612:2008 and EN 1149-5:2008. Due to the harsh climatic
conditions during the rescue actions and the consequent possibility of overheating, it
was assumed that a situation making it necessary to unfasten or take off the protective
clothing (outer garments). In addition, due to climatic risks, the protective clothing

185
should have the best possible comfort-related properties, and the underwear should
assist the thermophysiological functions of the rescuer’s body (Koradecka, 2008).
In order to develop underwear with undergarment microclimate thermoregulatory
function, the research works were focused primarily on the following aspects:
- selection of a knitted fabric, ensuring the required protective and comfort-
related properties,
- selection of a PCM to be used in the underwear as cooling elements, taking
into consideration the conditions in which rescue operations in the mining industry are
conducted,
- arrangement of the PCM elements in the underwear to make it compatible
with other equipment used by mine rescuers.
To select knitted fabric suitable for underwear intended for mine rescuers, 12 knitted
fabric variants, differing in terms of raw material composition and resulting physical,
comfort-related, utility and safety properties, were identified. These fabrics were
subjected to laboratory tests assessing their protective properties and performance
in accordance with the schedule presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Program of laboratory testing of knitted fabrics
# Parameter Test method
Limited flame spread before and after the maintenance
1 EN ISO 15025:2002
cycles (code A1 and A2) [s]
Charge decay half time t50 [s], Charge shield efficiency
2 EN 1149-3:2004
S, after the maintenance cycles [-]
Resistance to radiant heat after the maintenance
3 EN ISO 6942:2002
cycles (code C) [s]
Heat resistance at a temperature of (180 ± 5) °C after
4 ISO 17493:2000
the maintenance cycles [%]
5 Water vapor resistance [m2Pa/W] EN 31092:1993
6 Water vapor permeability index EN 31092:1993
8 Dimensional change after 5 washing cycles [%] EN ISO 5077:2008
9 Burst strength [kPa] EN ISO 11612:2008
10 pH of aqueous extract EN ISO 3071:2006
11 Carcinogenic amines content [ppm] EN 14362-1:2012
Tests assessing comfort-related properties, i.e. thermal resistance and water vapor
resistance were also carried out on the knitted fabrics using a “skin model” (EN
31092:1993); air permeability (EN ISO 9237:1998) and hygroscopic properties (PN-P-
04635:1980) were tested as well.
In addition, in a cooperation with the Textile Research Institute in Lodz, water sorption
studies were carried out on the selected knitted fabrics. The measurements were
performed using the equipment for testing surface liquid absorbency according to the
test procedure IW No. 14/1 developed in the Laboratory of Raw Materials and Textiles.
Distilled water and sample load of 0.5 kPa was used to carry out the measurements.
The measuring procedure involves recording the amount of liquid absorbed by the

186
textile surface as a function of time. The following parameters are determined:

• sorption value, Smax – the amount of liquid at the saturation point, absorbed
per a surface area unit, µl/cm2,
• maximum sorption rate, Vmax – liquid sorption rate at the extreme point of the
sorption curve, µl/cm2s,
• delay time – the time interval from the moment of sample contact with the wet
surface to the beginning of liquid absorption by the product, s,
• total sorption time, tmax – the time interval from the moment of sample contact
with the wet surface until completion of the sorption process, s.
Phase change materials available on the market are, among others, in the forms
of powder, microcapsules introduced into the structure of the fibers, microcapsules
printed on textile fabrics, macrocapsules and inlays (cuboids). In view of the aim to
provide very good ergonomic properties of the underwear, it was finally decided to
choose the PCM in the form of macrocapsules offered by Microtek Laboratories, which,
when introduced into the underwear, ensure high shaping potential of the product,
as well as owing to free spaces between the macrocapsules - air permeability and
possibility of sweat evaporation.
As suggested by the results of previous studies, during rescue operations, with such
a high thermal stress on the rescuers and due to the ambient temperature close to
skin temperature there is a small temperature gradient between the rescuer’s body
and the environment. Accordingly, the required melting point of the PCM used in
underwear intended for mine rescuers can be determined approximately based
on changes in skin temperature and should be ca. 36 °C; however, in order to
ensure prolonged effect of PCM, it is desirable that PCMs with two different melting
temperatures should be applied in the underwear. Therefore, two variants of PCM
microcapsules - MacroPCM 32 and MacroPCM 37 were selected for implementation
of the project.
The PCM macrocapsules were subjected to laboratory tests using a differential scanning
calorimeter (DSC) to determine the thermal effect accompanying the PCM phase
change. The study was conducted at the Lodz University of Technology Department of
Synthetic Fibers. Enthalpy studies were performed on Perkin - Elmer DSC-6 equipment (US
Instrument Division Norwalk, CT) under dry nitrogen atmosphere (20 ml/min flow rate).
The powdered product samples were heated in sealed aluminum containers from the
baseline temperature of -5 °C to the final temperature of 50 °C, at a constant rate of
5 °C/min, then after the temperature reached 50 °C, the samples were cooled also at
the set rate of 5 °C/min. In order to obtain a chart illustrating the changes taking place
in the sample, the power consumption of the heater as a function of temperature
is measured. The graph obtained as a result of the measurements is quantifiable,
since the surface areas of the observed peaks are a measure of the thermal effects
associated with a particular conversion.
PCM should be placed in the underwear for mine rescuers so that they cover the body
areas, which are most exposed to heating, i.e. the chest and back. However, in order
to ensure compatibility of the developed underwear design with other equipment
used by mine rescuers, and in particular with respiratory protection equipment, an

187
analysis of the sites compressed by the straps of the individual protective devices
used by the rescuers was carried out. This analysis helped identify areas free from
compression, where the cooling elements in the form of phase change materials can
be used. The results of the analysis are shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. View of T-shirts with marked areas of oppression by the equipment worn by
rescue workers - in blue and areas free from oppression, in which the cooling elements
can be introduced - in red
In order to introduce PCM macrocapsules in T-shirts, inlays in the form of bags with
channels to be filled with the macrocapsules were designed. Based on modeling
which took into account different variants of length and number of channels in the
bag, as well as their degree of filling with macrocapsules, bags consisting of four
channels of approx. 20 mm width, separated from each other by a seam of approx. 6
mm width, with the total weight of the introduced PCM of approx. 30 g per bag, were
finally selected.
RESULTS
On the basis of the performed laboratory tests, the selected knitted fabrics were
assessed and finally the knit marked with A2 symbol, with fiber composition of 90%
Lenzing FR, 8% p-aramid and 2% anti-static fibers, surface mass of 193.5 g/m2 and
thickness of 0.78 mm when new was selected because of compliance with the
assumed requirements and satisfactory comfort-related properties (low thermal
resistance and water vapor resistance, high air permeability and high sweat sorption
rate and value, which should allow rapid elimination of sweat from the mine rescuer’s
skin).
The assessment of conformity of the selected knit with the requirements concerning
protective and functional properties is presented in Table 2.

188
Table 2. Assessment of compliance of knitted fabric A2 after 50 maintenance cycles
Table 2. Assessment of compliance of knitted fabric A2 after 50 maintenance cycles with
with the relevant requirements
the relevant requirements

Compliance
# Parameter Required value Test result with
requirements
No sample burns to the top No holes appear
or to the side edges, no on any sample.
Limited flame spread
holes appear on any sample, No flaming or
before and after the Compliant –
no flaming or molten debris molten debris
1 maintenance cycles code A1 and
mean burning time Further burning
(code A1 and A2) A2
≤ 2 time 0 s
[s]
mean glow time Further glow time
≤ 2 0 s
Charge decay half time
t50 [s], t 50 < 4
t 50 < 0.01
2 Charge screening Compliant
S = 0.666
efficiency S, S > 0.2
[-]
Resistance to radiant
at least class C1 Compliant –
3 heat (code C) t24 = 11.9
RHTI24 min 7.0 max < 20.0 class C1
[s]
Heat resistance at a
no ignition or melting, longitudinal -0.5
4 temperature of Compliant
0 shrinkage not exceeding 5% transverse -1.0
(180 + 5) C [%]
Water vapor resistance
5 ≤ 5 2.89 Compliant
[m2 Pa/W]
Water vapor
6 ≥ 0.15 1.06 Compliant
permeability index
Dimensional change
warp ≤ 5 longitudinal -0.7
8 after 5 washing cycles Compliant
weft ≤ 5 transverse -4.7
[%]
Burst strength
9 ≥ 200 425 Compliant
[kPa]
10 Aqueous extract pH 3.5 – 9.5 7.4 Compliant
Carcinogenic amines no presence
11 undetectable Compliant
content [ppm] detected

On the basis of the results concerning comfort-related properties, it can be concluded that
2
Onknitted fabric A2 has low thermal resistance of 0.024 m
the basis of the results concerning comfort-related properties, K/W and water vapor resistance of
it can be concluded
2
4.53 m Pa/W, and high air permeability reaching 1966.67 mm/s, which is favorable for
that knitted fabric A2 has low thermal resistance of 0.024 m2K/W and water vapor
modifying the undergarment microclimate conditions. Knit A2 is also characterized by a
resistance ofhygroscopic
good level 4.53 m2Pa/W, and high– air
properties permeability
17.79%. reaching
The sorption 1966.67
studies mm/s,that
showed whichthe
isaverage
favorable for modifying
sorption value for the
the undergarment microclimate
knit was 34.8 µl/cm 2 conditions.
with mean maximum Knit A2 israte
sorption alsoof
characterized by a good level hygroscopic properties – 17.79%. The sorption studies
2.98 µl/cm2s, 0.0 s delay time and a total sorption time of 116.0 s. The above results are
showed thatand
very good theconfirm
average sorption
that valuefabric
this knitted for the will knit was
have a 34.8 µl/cm2
positive withon mean
impact sweat
elimination from the mine rescuer’s body surface. The sorption curve obtained for knitted
maximum sorption rate of 2.98 µl/cm2s, 0.0 s delay time and a total sorption time of
fabric A2 is presented in Fig. 3.
116.0 s. The above results are very good and confirm that this knitted fabric will have
a positive impact on sweat elimination from the mine rescuer’s body surface. The
sorption curve obtained for knitted fabric A2 is presented in Fig. 3.
6

189
Fig. 3. Sorption curve for knitted fabric A2

Research works on the implementation of PCM in the underwear structure were also
focused on appropriate selection of the composition of phase change materials of
the two selected variants - MPCM 32 and MPCM 37. Based on results of investigations
of the selected types of PCM using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), it was
found that in the case of MPCM 32 macrocapsules the melting process takes place
in the temperature range of approx. (25 ÷ 32) °C, the peak can be observed at a
temperature of approx. 30 °C, and the enthalpy reaches approx. 83.6 J/g. In the case
of MPCM 37 macrocapsules, the melting process takes place in the temperature
range of approx. (33 ÷ 44) °C, the maximum occurs at approx. 39 °C, and the enthalpy
reaches approx. 175.1 J/g. On the basis of the above findings, it was decided that
a combination of the selected PCM macrocapsules in 50/50 proportion would be
the most appropriate as it could be expected to provide a wide range of operating
temperatures of the cooling elements and consequently to help reduce the risk of
melting before the start of the rescue action and to prolong the thermoregulation
effect. Therefore, it was decided that MPCM 32 and MPCM 37 macrocapsules would
be placed alternately to the channels in the bags localized in selected places in the
t-shirts constituting the mine rescuers’ underwear.
CONCLUSIONS
To summarize the above, it can be concluded that the fabric selected for design
and construction of a preliminary model of underwear for mine rescuers meets the
requirements of Directive 89/686/EEC and the corresponding harmonized standards: EN
ISO 11612:2008 and EN 1149-5:2008. The obtained results of laboratory tests for performance
and comfort-related properties also confirm the validity of the choice of that knitted fabric
for application in the underwear for mine rescuers in the context of the thermal stress
associated with rescue operations under hot microclimate conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The paper presents results of the project no. 11 entitled “Development of the protective
clothing for mine rescuers” carried out in a framework of strategic research project
entitled “Improving work safety in mines” funded by the National Centre for Research
and Development.
Consortium: CIOP-PIB, CSRG S.A., ZOSPRP WUS.
190
REFERENCES
Koradecka, D. 2008. Occupational safety and health (in Polish). CIOP-PIB, Warsaw, Poland.
Council Directive 89/686/EEC of 21 December 1989 on the approximation of the laws of the Member
States relating to personal protective equipment
EN 1149-3:2004 Protective clothing. Electrostatic properties. Test methods for measurement of charge
decay
EN 1149-5:2008 Protective clothing. Electrostatic properties. Material performance and design
requirements
EN 14362-1:2012 Textiles. Methods for determination of certain aromatic amines derived from azo
colorants. Detection of the use of certain azo colorants accessible with and without extracting the
fibres
EN 31092:1993 Textiles. Physiological effects. Measurement of thermal and water-vapour resistance
under steady-state conditions (sweating guarded-hotplate test)
EN ISO 3071:2006 Textiles - Determination of pH of aqueous extract
EN ISO 5077:2008 Textiles - Determination of dimensional change in washing and drying
EN ISO 6942:2002 Protective clothing -- Protection against heat and fire -- Method of test: Evaluation of
materials and material assemblies when exposed to a source of radiant heat
EN ISO 9237:1995 Textiles - Determination of permeability of fabrics to air
EN ISO 11612:2008 Protective clothing -- Clothing to protect against heat and flame
EN ISO 15025:2002 Protective clothing. Protection against heat and flame. Method of test for limited
flame spread
ISO 17493:2000 Clothing and equipment for protection against heat — Test method for convective
heat resistance using a hot air circulating oven
PN-80/P-04635:1980. Testing methods of textiles. Determination of moisture absorption

191
ASSESSMENT OF TEXTILE MATERIALS USED IN GLOVES FOR WORKING IN COLD THERMAL ENVIRONMENTS TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THEIR PROTECTIVE AND USAGE PARAMETERS
ASSESSMENT OF TEXTILE MATERIALS USED IN

GLOVES FOR WORKING IN COLD THERMAL
ENVIRONMENTS TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THEIR
PROTECTIVE AND USAGE PARAMETERS
Emilia Irzmańska1, Paulina Chęsy1*, Paulina Wójcik1, Ryszard
Lewandowski2, Katarzyna Zdrenka2, Sławomir Dereszkiewicz2
Central Institute for Labour Protection – National Research Institute, Department of Personal
1
Protective Equipment, Laboratory of Hand and Foot Protection, Wierzbowa 48, 90-133 Łódź, Poland
2
REK-SWED Sp. z o.o., Blękwit 61, 77-400 Złotów, Poland
Corresponding author email: emirz@ciop.lodz.pl
ABSTRACT
Cold working environment means that air temperature is ≤10°C. In the workplace
(indoors as well as outdoors), where cooling of the distal parts of the body is observed,
protective gloves and footwear with insulating properties are used. In order to ensure
an adequate level of protection, these gloves and footwear must be made of textile
materials with appropriate protective and usage properties.
The main aim of this study was to evaluate several textile materials used for the
construction of commercially available protective gloves and liners for footwear, on
the basis of theirs protective and usage parameters.
Subsequently, the results served to develop assemblies of materials which are
characterized by very good mechanical properties: resistance to abrasion, puncture,
blade cut and tear, also hygienic properties: e.g., absorption of water vapor, and
usage properties: rigidity of flexion, cold insulation, thickness.
A series of laboratory experiments showed that the tested assemblies of textile
materials have optimum properties from the point of view of application as liners in
footwear and gloves. On this basis, the data for construction of gloves and liners were
elaborated in the project, which is financially supported by the National Centre for
Research and Development (2015-2018; Applied Research Programme; COLDPRO).
Keywords: cold working environment, protective gloves,
INTRODUCTION
Cold working environment is defined as the ambient conditions where the air
temperature is equal to or less than 10°C. In people who work at low temperatures,
reduced mobility of hands has been observed. In practice, in order to minimize
the negative effects of low temperatures on workers, personal protective equipment
including gloves is used. In workplaces where there is a risk of hypothermia, hand
protections with insulating properties are used.
Protective gloves are most frequently made of textile materials systems, which may
include waterproof leather or PVC-coated material, nitrile rubber or polyurethane.
Increased thermal insulation is achieved by applying additional inlays/lining with
insulating properties. When selecting the type of materials for construction of gloves,

192
it is important to ensure that the employees should have the appropriate mobility
and ability to perform routine manual tasks. Proper selection of gloves for specific
working conditions also requires knowledge of exposure conditions, including the
type of manual activities (the kind of items, surfaces that the employees’ hands
come in contact with). In the case of cooling of the hands due to low temperature,
the worker’s dexterity is reduced (Holmer 1993). Direct contact of the fingers with a
cold surface causes a thermal shock greater than the exposure to cold atmosphere
(Holmer 1993). The heat loss due to hand contact with the metal surface is larger than
that occurring in contact with e.g. a wooden surface under similar conditions (Holmer
1993, Gagge et al. 1941). Hand hypothermia reduces the precision and speed of the
performed professional activities (Makowiec-Dąbrowska 1999).
The paper presents selected results of laboratory tests performed on commercially
available materials used in the construction of gloves designed to protect against the
cold. The selection of commercial materials was based on years of experience of the
Rek-Swed Sp. z o. o. company team, dealing, among others, with producing gloves
for protection against the cold. It was assumed that each of the assessed materials
should have good protective properties indicated by their hygienic, mechanical,
insulation and ergonomic parameters (the last ones pertaining mainly to the material
flexibility).
Research material
In table 1, the studied materials are characterized.
Table 1. Characteristics of the materials used in the study.
Thickness
Symbol Material composition Material type, weave/construction
[mm]
60% polyamide,
A 0.77 Leatherette fabric
40% polyurethane
Two-layer composite:
B polyester 1.98 - double layer jacquard knit
- plush (row) knitted fabric
Two-layer composite
84% polyester
- left-right knit fabric plated with elastomeric
16% elastomer
C 1.62 yarn
94% polyester, - double layer row knit fabric after scratching
6% elastomer process
50% polyamide,
D 2.65 Plush row knitted fabric
50% polyurethane
E 50% polyester, 50% wool 8.46 Fleece knitted fabric
F 100% polyacrylonitrile 1.90 Plated left-right knit fabric
Outer layer:100%
Polyester Three-layer composite
G Membrane: 100% PTFE 3.01 Outer layer: knitted fabric, Middle layer:
Inside layer:100% membrane, Inside layer: knitted fabric
Polyester
H polyester 6.44 Non-woven
I 50% wool, 50% polyester 3.49 Plush row knitted fabric
J 100% polyester 5.24 Plush row knitted fabric
K 100 % natural leather 0.76 Sheepskin
Laboratory tests
193
The following tests of protective and usage parameters were carried out:
1) Mechanical according to EN 388:2003 standard
a) abrasion resistance – the test involved subjecting the samples to a predetermined
number of abrasion cycles until the complete breakthrough of the sample. The
lowest number of abrasion cycles obtained with the tested samples was regarded
as the result of the determination of abrasion resistance; the lowest resistance
was classified as performance level 1, whereas the highest resistance corresponded
to performance level 4.
b) cut resistance – the test involved determination of the index, based on the number
of cycles that caused cutting the standard sample and the test sample. The index
value, characterizing the material resistance to cutting, classifies the material
to the appropriate performance level, where 1 indicates the lowest level of protection,
and 5 – the highest one.
c) tear resistance – the test involved recording the force which caused tearing
the samples at a predetermined velocity of movement of the clamps, until complete
separation of the sample fragments. The parameter was assessed on the basis of the
obtained force value, and an appropriate performance level was attributed, where
1 indicates the lowest parameter values and 4 – the highest, i.e. the best ones.
d) puncture resistance – the test involved determination of the maximal force causing
complete piercing of the material with the pin. The performance level was based on
the obtained force value, with level 1 corresponding to the lowest protection and 4
to the highest.
2) Hygienic according to EN 24920:1992 standard – the test involved spraying the sample
with water at a volume of 250 ml for 30 sec. The organoleptically determined degree
of dampness was based on the descriptive and photographic scale that describes
the extent of wetting. Grade 5 means no wetting of the sample surface (hydrophobic
surface) and grade 1 represents complete wetting of the entire examined area
(hydrophilic surface).
3) Insulation (thermal resistance under dry conditions) – according to EN 31092:1993/
A1:2012 standard – the test involved placing a sample on a hotplate “skin model”
apparatus, where under the established equilibrium conditions the thermal
resistance of the material is determined. The classification of the material insulation
properties was based on the test results. Class 1 represents the lowest and class 3
the highest value of the parameter, indicating the best insulating properties of the
material.
4) Ergonomic (flexural rigidity) according to PN-73/P-04631 standard – the test involved
determination of the overhang length of the material sample taking unidirectional
force into account. The parameter specifying the longitudinal and transverse flexural
modulus was determined. The results were compared in a comparator system, i.e. the
smaller the value of the flexural modulus, the more flexible the material is.
Workplace studies

194
The study was conducted in six companies with different profiles. The sample consisted
of 107 subjects working in low temperature conditions.
One of the aims of research at the worksites was to develop data on climatic
parameters of the working environment and the types, shape and temperature of
objects handled by the employees during routine manual work.
RESULTS
Laboratory tests
Based on the results of laboratory tests for resistance to abrasion (Fig. 1) different
materials were found to reach performance levels from 3 to 1. The highest performance
level – 3 was observed for leatherette fabric and natural leather (material A, K). Lower
level - the second level of resistance to abrasion was demonstrated by knitted fabrics
(knit E, fleece knit G and plush knit I). The jacquard knit combined with plush (material
B), row knit (material C) and plush knit (material D, J) were characterized by the lowest
level of performance.
Figure 1. Abrasion resistance test results [number of cycles]

Based on the results of laboratory tests for resistance to cut (Fig. 2) it was found that
different materials reached low - second and first level of performance. Among the
tested materials, knitted fabrics (fleece E and knit composite G) were most resistant to
intersection. The other materials: natural and artificial leather (A, K), combined knitted
fabrics (B, C), plush knits (D, I), left-right knit (F), and non-woven fabric (H) demonstrated
the lower, first level of performance.
Figure 2. Cut resistance test results [index I]

The results of laboratory tests for tear strength of the materials (Fig. 3) demonstrated

195
that different materials reached performance levels from 4 to 1. Among the tested
materials the material most resistant to tearing was plush knit fabric (material J). The
third level of performance was obtained for knitted fabrics (jacquard combined with
plush B, left-right knit F, plush I). The second level of performance was achieved by
leatherette (material A), knitted fabrics (combined knit C, plush D, fleece E, knit G).
The lowest level of tear resistance was demonstrated by natural leather (material K).
Figure 3. Tear resistance test results [N]

The results of laboratory tests for resistance to puncture (Fig. 4) showed that the
lowest - first level of performance characterized leather materials (natural leather
K, leatherette A), and knitted fabrics (G, C, B, I, D, E). In contrast, among the tested
materials, the first performance level was not obtained for non-woven fabric (material
H), left-right plated knit (material F) and plush row knit (material J).
Figure 4. Puncture resistance test results [N]

Based on the results of laboratory tests for resistance of materials to wetting of the
surface (Fig. 5) it was found that the best result (degree 4) indicating a lack of wetting
was obtained for natural leather (material K). The third degree of moistening was
achieved by leatherette (material A), double layer knitted fabric (material C) and
plush fabrics (material I, J). The second degree of wetting characterized knitted
fabrics (G, combined fabric B, fleece E, left-right plated F), and non-woven fabric (H).

196
Figure 5. The results of resistance testing wetting of the surface [degree of dampness]
Laboratory tests of thermal resistance of materials (Fig. 6) demonstrated that fleece
knit (material E) is characterized by the highest thermal resistance. The third class of
insulation The non-woven material (material H) and plush fabric (material J) had the
third class of insulation, whereas knitted fabrics (combined B, fleece E left-right plated
F, knit G) had the second one. The lowest class of insulation characterized leathers
(artificial A, natural K).
Figure 6. The results of thermal resistance [m2K/W]

Based on the results of laboratory tests for flexural rigidity of materials (Figure 7), it
can be stated that high flexural modulus characterizes artificial and natural leather
(material A, K), and the lowest, providing for maximum flexibility – knitted fabrics
(material F, C, D).
Figure 7. Longitudinal and transverse flexural modulus results of the materials [kPa]
197
Results of workplace studies

The research was conducted, among others, in the groups of workers employed in
the sectors where it is required to perform tasks in areas in which cold environmental
conditions are deliberately kept (e.g. work in cold storage areas, cooling tunnels in food
processing plants). The collected results demonstrate that most employees have contact
with cold and frosted objects, spherical, cubic and cylindrical in shape (Table 2).
Table 2. The survey results analyzed in terms of exposure to low temperature, the
type of objects and their surfaces handled by the manual workers while wearing
protective gloves
Object
Worksite temperature
Workplace type Object shape Surface type temperature
[°C]
[°C]
Warehouse staff +6 cubic, cylindrical frosted (0) – (+6)
Production hall spherical,
- 10 frozen (–15) - (–10)
staff cylindrical
Loading
department +6 cubic frozen (-10) – (0)
staff
Machine
+9 spherical slippery (0 ; +6)
operators
Control and
measurement (0;+10) cylindrical dry (+5;+10)
staff
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of surveys carried out at the worksites and the results of laboratory
tests, it was found that, for different groups of professional activities, different designs of
protective gloves made of materials as well as their systems with varied mechanical,
hygienic, insulation and ergonomic properties should be provided. The reported
research is a pilot part of the ongoing work on the PBS ColdPro project. However,
preliminary results of research allow to conclude that the use of different types of
protective gloves in various conditions of exposure to the cold and depending on the
shape and type of surface of the objects handled during routine manual work may
be justified.
In conclusion, it was found that:
For warehouse workers under exposure to cold at + 6 [° C], doing manual work
associated with handling objects cubic (complex) or cylindrical in shape with frosted
surfaces of (0) - (6) [° C] temperature, the suggested gloves should be constructed of
materials which are characterized by appropriate abrasion resistance properties (high
or medium performance level , e.g. 3 or 2), hygienic ones concerning the wettability
(grade 4, 3 or 2), insulation (average - thermal resistance class 2) and ergonomics
(low flexural modulus) - e.g. three-layer composite consisting of a knitted fabric and
a membrane (material G), plush row knit fabric (material I), or sheepskin (material K).
Production hall staff who work under exposure to cold at -10 [°C] level, wherein
the handled objects are spherical and cylindrical, frozen with surface temperature

198
(-10) - (0) [°C], the suggested gloves should have the structures comprising materials
characterized by properties in terms of resistance to abrasion (2nd or 1st performance
level), hygiene with respect to wettability (grade 3 or 2), insulation (high or medium
level – class 3 or 2 of thermal resistance) and ergonomics (low flexural modulus) – e.g
.: double layer composite of knitted jacquard, double layer interlocked knit and plush
knit (material B), fleece knit (material E), plush row knit (material J).
For loading and unloading work carried out at + 6 [° C], manual work associated
with handling cubic objects, frozen with surface temperature of (-10) - (0) [° C], the
suggested gloves should have the structures comprising materials characterized by
abrasion resistance properties (high or medium level of performance, e.g. 3 or 2),
hygiene in terms of wettability (grade 3 or 2), insulation (high or medium level – class 3
or 2 of thermal resistance) and ergonomics (low flexural modulus), e.g. plush row knit
(material I), fleece knit (material E), three-layer composite consisting of knitted fabrics
and a membrane (material G).
Workers involved in operation of machines in rooms where the temperature is + 9
[°C], where the handled objects are spherical, slippery elements of (0) - (+6) [oC]
surface temperature, the suggested gloves should consist of materials characterized
by properties in terms of abrasion resistance (2nd or 1st performance level), hygiene
- degree of wettability (grade 2 or 1), insulation (average – class 2 thermal resistance)
and ergonomics (low flexural modulus) – e.g.: a two-layer composite consisting of left-
right knit plated with elastomeric thread and double-layer row knit after the process of
scratching (material C), plush row knit (material D), three-layer composite consisting
of knitted fabrics and a membrane (material G).
For work related to control and measurements under exposure to cold temperature
(0) - (+10) [° C], during manual work associated with handling objects cylindrical
shape (complex) in shape, with dry surfaces of (+5) - (10) [° C] temperature, the
suggested gloves should be made of materials which are characterized by properties
in terms of abrasion resistance (performance level 2 or 1), hygiene with respect to the
degree of wettability (low level - 1), insulation (medium or low level - 2nd or 1st class of
thermal resistance) and high ergonomics (low flexural modulus). In the case of work
related to control and measurements, where high mobility of the workers is required,
it is particularly important to use flexible and elastic materials, which do not impair
the performance of the fingers, e.g.: plush row knit fabric (material D, I), three-layer
composite consisting of knitted fabrics and a membrane (material G).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The paper is based on the results of COLDPRO project: ‘The use of
active ecological mineral compounds in the production of cold-
protective gloves and footwear’ funded in the years 2015-2018 by
the National Centre for Research and Development.
REFERENCES
Gagge, A. P., Burton, A. C. and H. C. Bazett. 1941. A practical system of units for the description of the
heat exchange of man with his environment. Science, 94: 428-430.
Makowiec-Dąbrowska, T. 1999. Wpływ warunków środowiska pracy na zdolność do pracy. In Higiena
Pracy, ed. J.A. Indulski, Vol. 1, Oficyna Wydawnicza IMP, Łódź.
Holmer, I. 1993. Work in the cold. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health,
65: 147 – 155.

199
Development of high-performance knitted structures for stab and puncture protection
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-PERFORMANCE
KNITTED STRUCTURES FOR STAB AND
PUNCTURE PROTECTION
Dionísio Silveira1; Raquel Carvalho1; Raul Fagueiro1; Noel Ferreira2; Carlos
Ferreira2; Filipa Monteiro2
1Centre for Textile Science and Technology, University of Minho, Guimarães, Portugal
2
A. Ferreira e Filhos S.A., Vizela, Portugal
(Presenting author E-mail: dionisiosilveira@fibrenamics.com; Corresponding author email:
rfangueiro@civil.uminho.pt)
ABSTRACT
The number of violent situations against security agents using stab and puncture
elements, like knives and needles, are increasing daily all over the world. Materials
normally used in the equipment for personnel protection are usually based high
performance fibres like, fiberglass, carbon or ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene
blended with conventional fibres like polyester, cotton or polyamide to provide the
required comfort and flexibility.
The aim of this study is to develop advanced knitted fabrics for stab and puncture
protection to be used as protective clothing for police agents, body-guards, etc.
Different knitted fabrics have been produced in an electronic flat knitting machine
based jersey and interlock patterns, using variations on normal and tuck loops in
the coursewise and walewise directions. Fabrics have been produced with different
materials including ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene, para-aramid, high
tenacity polyester, high tenacity polypropylene and high tenacity polyamide. In order
to study the performance of each structure in combination with the different materials,
samples were tested under shear and puncture, according to EN 388.
It was proved that due to the tuck stitches, crepe and moss structures improved stab
and puncture performances in comparison with jersey structures. The conical puncture
resistance was mainly attributed to the structure (high friction between the yarns
and within the yarns due to the dense structure) and the knife puncture resistance
was mainly attributed to the strength of the yarns. Based on the experimental results
and according to EN 388 test classification, moss tuck stitch structure produced with
ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene presents the highest conical puncture
resistance, level 4. Crepe structure produced with para-aramid presents the highest
knife puncture resistance. It is suggested the use of single layer moss tuck stitch fabric
produced with ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene as protective clothing.
Keywords: stab, puncture, protection, tuck stitch, ultra-high molecular weight
polyethylene (UHMW-PE)
INTRODUCTION
Stabbing is the most common method of committing homicide in the UK and for
the majority of countries where access to firearms is restricted. Sharp implements are

200
used in stabbing attacks with the intent to cause injury and death. Weapons which
are frequently used in such attacks include kitchen knives, utility knives, sheath knives,
penknives, scissors, samurai swords, bayonets, screwdrivers and glass bottles [1]. The
number of deaths that result from stabs is high, partly because many of the major
organs of the body and major blood vessels are relatively close to the skin and easily
penetrated. There is a real need for the development of flexible materials that are
able to protect against stabbing as well as puncture attacks without compromising
the comfort of the wearer. Protective clothing made from textile materials giving
flexibility, light-weight, comfort and invisibility has become the key development
aspect in the field of protective armor in recent years. Materials normally used in
the equipment for personnel protection are usually based high performance fibers
like glass, carbon or ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMW-PE) blended
with conventional fibers like polyester, cotton or polyamide to provide the required
comfort and flexibility [2]. Ideally, such garments should be flexible, pliable, soft and
cut/abrasion resistant. Unfortunately, any improvement in the cut and/or abrasion
resistance has usually been at the sacrifice of the other properties. In addition, if
puncture resistance is needed, multiple layers of woven fabric are typically required,
particularly made from high strength performance yarns, such as aramid [3]. Often,
in knit fabrics, puncture resistance has been extremely difficult, if not impossible, to
achieve due to knit stitches often being able to have mobility thus “robbing” yarn
from adjacent stitches to open a hole in the fabric, without cutting or tearing the yarns
[4]. Knitted fabric was seldom commended to be used as stab-resistant materials. But
studies have also pointed out that the protective material based on knitted structure
had the features of low weight, better designability, fulfilling wide-area protection,
etc. [5]. Flambard and Polo reported that the multi-layer knitted fabric could absorb
penetration energy, and possessed a fairly well shearing resistance, of which stitches
locked the knife to stop penetrating before the fabric was destroyed completely [6].
Yao Xiaolin and Qiu Guanxiong [7] claimed that weft-knitted structure could resist
stronger penetration force through the deformation of weft loops and self-locking,
anyhow, it was self-evident that fabric had a larger deformation, and a deeper
penetration. Li Lijuan et al. [8] investigated the structure and property of stab resistant
warp-knitted single-face fabric. The study found that the underloop structure peculiar
to warp-knitted fabric could stabilize the stitch, and added the yarn’s agglomeration
around knife edge, which had an obvious advantage in penetration force and yarn
strength efficiency. The above studies revealed that the textile structure mainly suffered
shearing and tensile action when the knife penetrated into the fabric. High-strength
and good shearing-resistant fibers combining with tight textile structure contributed
to a good stab resistance. Besides, the fabric distortion could absorb the penetration
energy which could improve the stab.
The aim of this study is to develop single-layer weft knitted fabrics for stab and puncture
protection to be used as protective clothing for police agents, body-guards, etc.
Different knitted fabrics have been produced in an electronic flat knitting machine:
single jersey, crepe, and moss tuck stitch, using variations on normal and tuck loops in
the coursewise and walewise directions. The selection of these structures was justified
by their distinct deformation geometry. Previous studies showed that low deformation
structures could absorb penetration energy easily, which could improve the stab

201
resistance [6,7,8]. These two technological parameters are indicated in the literature
as among the most important factors of influence for the knitted fabrics.
Herein, it will be shown how the structure has a clear influence on elongation due to
the specific geometry of each structure (jersey, crepe and moss) and how it improves
stab resistance performance.
Fabrics have been produced with different materials including ultra-high molecular
weight polyethylene (UHMW-PE), para-aramid (p-AR), high tenacity polyester (PES HT),
high tenacity polypropylene (PP HT) and high tenacity polyamide (PA HT). In order to
study the performance of each structure in combination with the different materials,
samples were tested under shear and puncture, according to EN 388.
Yarns
High tenacity polyester (PES HT), high tenacity polyamide (PA HT), high tenacity
polypropylene (PP HT), ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMW-PE), and
para-aramid were used to compare the stab and puncture resistance performances
of different weft knitted fabrics. Five specimens of each yarn were tested according
to NP EN 2060, ASTM 3108, ASTM 3412 and NP EN 2062, to determine their yarn linear
density, coefficient of friction and tensile properties. The yarn testing results are
summarized in table 1.
Table 1. Yarn testing results
Yarn Linear Coefficient Tenacity Breaking Initial Displacement at Breaking
material Density of Friction (N/Tex) Extension Modulus maximum force Load (N)
(Tex) (µ) (%) (GPa) (mm)
PA HT 47 [0.43-0.70] 0.70 16.15 47.3 80.72 67.5

(± 1.7%) (± 4%) (± 5%) (± 5%) (± 5%) (± 4%)
PES HT 55 [0.45-0.70] 0.53 12.6 50.2 63.00 29.54

(± 1.6%) (± 2%) (± 6%) (± 7%) (± 6%) (± 2%)
PP HT 110 [0.35-0.55] 0.64 19.56 11.8 97.81 71.68

(± 0.7%) (± 5%) (± 9%) (± 17%) (± 9%) (± 5%)
UHMW-PE 176 [0.31-0.37] 2.70 8.56 45.3 43.01 476.01

(± 0.9%) (± 7%) (± 36%) (± 38%) (± 35%) (± 7%)
p-AR 173 [0.25-0.35] 1.65 4.37 47.7 21.83 285.64

(± 0.4%) (± 3%) (± 4%) (± 31%) (± 4%) (± 3%)
Knitted fabrics
Three different structures of weft knitted fabrics were produced for this research
(figure1) on a CMS 320 TC Stoll electronic flat knitting machine, with similar
adjustment parameters namely cams settings, yarn feeding tension and fabric
take down. In single jersey structure just normal loops on a single needle bed are
used; in the crepe structure normal and tuck loops are combined in a single needle
bed; in the moss tuck stitch structure the front and back needle beds are utilized to
combine tuck and normal loops. Table 2 shows the physical characteristics of the
weft knitted fabrics produced.

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Structure 3
Structure 1 Single jersey Structure 2 Crepe
Moss Tuck Stitch
Figure 1. Knitted fabric patterns

Table 2. Characteristics of the weft knitted fabrics
Loop Length
Aerial Density Tightness
Structure Yarns mass (g/ (i)/100 wales (cm)
m2) factor
Normal Tuck wales/cm courses/cm
185,44 0,66 5 7
PES HT 11,24
(± 7%) (± 2%) (± 10%) (± 12%)
160,19 0,71 6 7
PA HT 9,72
(± 8%) (± 0%) (± 0%) (± 6%)
Structure 1 429,42 0,70 7
PP HT 5 (± 10%) 14,16
Jersey (± 5%) (± 0%) (± 8%)
519,08 0,88 4 5
UHMW-PE 15,01
(± 7%) (± 4%) (± 0%) (± 10%)
437,75 0,93 4 6
p-AR 14,16
(± 4%) (± 4%) (± 11%) (± 8%)
287,75 0,44 8 16
PES HT 16,86
(± 8%) (± 9%) (± 7%) (± 4%)
245,83 0,46 7 15
PA HT 14,87
(± 24%) (± 9%) (± 6%) (± 3%)
Structure 2 527,75 0,56 7 14
PP HT 18,8
Crepe (± 8%) (± 3%) (± 0%) (± 3%)
664,33 0,7 6 10
UHMW-PE 18,87
(± 2%) (± 1%) (± 0%) (± 4%)
729,92 0,7 7 12
p-AR 18,71
(± 14%) (± 1%) (± 0%) (± 7%)
532,33 0,47 0,47 8 8
PES HT 15,73
(± 4%) (± 2) (± 3%) (± 5%) (± 5%)
426,75 0,50 0,51 9 10
PA HT 13,61
(± 8%) (± 1%) (± 1%) (± 0%) (± 5%)
Structure 3
852,75 0,62 0,60 7 8
Moss Tuck PP HT 17,15
(± 2%) (± 1%) (± 2%) (± 0%) (± 0%)
Stitch
1762,67 0,68 0,82 6 8
UHMW-PE 17,65
(± 5%) (± 0%) (± 1%) (± 0%) (± 0%)
1196,83 0,62 0,75 7 13
p-AR 19,18
(± 4%) (± 2%) (± 3%) (± 0%) (± 4%)

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Stab and Puncture

The puncture resistance using conical and knife probes was evaluated using a
Hounsfield H 100 KS universal equipment (Figure 2a), with a cross-head speed of 100
mm/min and with 20 mm distance between the probe and the specimen, according
to EN388 standard. The probe (Figure 2b) and 2c)) is pushed through the material at a
fixed speed and the force required to penetrate through the material is measured. The
maximum load, extension and energy of penetration were measured and averaged
for five samples. Load-displacement curves were established and the deformation of
the knitted fabrics in the penetration area analyzed.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2. (a) Puncture testing set-up, (b) conical probe, (c) knife probe
RESULTS
Puncture with a conical probe
Puncture with a conical probe occurs in four different stages: (i) contact pressure of
the tip of the conical probe against a fabric; (ii) slippage of the tip into both within
yarns and between yarns, resulting in puncture; (iii) friction of the fabric against the
conical section of the point; and (iv) slippage of the conical section through the fabric
[9]. Resistance to conical probe puncture is however a much more complex problem
as it also requires full consideration of the tightness of the fabric and of the profile of
the puncture element. A dense structure is beneficial in resisting the conical puncture
probe [10]. A high density fabric restricts the mobility of the yarns, which induces the
increase of the inter-yarn friction and due to the friction within and between the yarns
that increases the absorption energy. When the conical probe cannot perforate
the fabric, the yarns are easily deformed through slipping over each other in the
walewise and coursewise directions to allow absorbing more energy and increasing
the resisting force for probe penetration, leading to a higher puncture resistance.
As can be seen in Table 3, structure 1 (single jersey) presents higher energy absorption
than structure 2 (crepe) except for UHMW-PE. These results may be explained based
on the lower elongation of the crepe structure (structure 2) compared to the jersey
structure (structure 1). The single layer structure 2 during the resisting force for probe
penetration absorbs less energy and it might be due to the tuck stitches within the
structures that are at higher stress and that makes the yarns to reach faster the breaking
point. As for structure 3 there is an increase in the absorption energy when compared
to structure 2 and to structure 1. Structure 3 when stretched causes the face loop
courses to cover the reverse loop courses, making the fabric twice as thick as single
jersey [9] which facilitates energy dissipation from the conical probe impactor. The
other variable influencing the puncture resistance with the conical probe but to a
lesser degree is the mechanical properties of the yarn. The most prominent energy
absorption changes were recorded for samples UHMW-PE structure 3, UHMW-PE

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structure 2 and UHMW-PE structure 1. Energy absorption for fabric UHMW-PE structure 3
increased in the order of 344% when compared to UHMW-PE structure 2, and structure
2 increased in order of 10% when compared to UHMW-PE structure 1, emphasising
the influence of the structure on the stab resistance. Of all the samples, UHMW-PE
structure 3 presents the highest energy absorption capacity.
Table 3. Puncture testing results
Puncture Displacement at Maximum
Structure Yarns Energy (J)
Probes max. load (mm) Load (N)
PES HT 10,180 132,82 0,3321
PA HT 14,928 131,25 0,3957
Structure 1
Jersey
PP HT 13,932 398,46 0,8632
UHMW-PE 13,956 314 0,3741
p-AR 16,080 581,72 1,3400
PES HT 11,500 172,4 0,2501
PA HT 18,610 95,71 0,2990
Conical Structure 2
Crepe PP HT 13,800 364,8 0,3648
Probe
UHMW-PE 14,082 124,802 0,4111
p-AR 15,630 255,54 0,5740
PES HT 11,500 254,4 0,4281
Structure 3 PA HT 15,280 211,36 0,7102
Moss Tuck PP HT 12,920 536,3 0,5363
Stitch
UHMW-PE 13,152 579,16 1,8201
p-AR 11,862 338,64 0,7646
Puncture with a knife probe

During knife probe puncture through a fabric, fibre in contact with the knife edge
has high stress and tends to be stretched, and the yarns will move in weft and warp
directions, allowing the edge of the knife to pass through. The fabric will be deformed
under the build-up force, and the edge of the knife will start to cut the yarn. The
resistance to puncture of a knife depends on the material, the cross-section of the
yarns, their strength and the support points in the base fabric [11]. Although a tight
structure with higher density is helpful to resist puncture, the little slippage space may
be a disadvantage for yarns, because they are easily cut directly by the blade of the
knife [12].
In general, the energy absorption increases from structure 1 to structure 2 and from
structure 2 to structure 3 samples, as can be seen in table 4. The moss fabrics present
the best knife puncture resistance, followed by the crepe fabrics. These might be
explained by the tightness factor showed by crepe structures (table 2), and the
influence of the tuck stitches. Anyhow p-AR structure 2 sample showed the highest knife
puncture resistance. Structure 3, being a more compact structure, it was expected to
present the highest knife puncture resistance, however its tight structure with higher
density might explain these failure result.

205
Table 4. Puncture testing results

Puncture Displacement at Maximum
Structure Yarns Energy (J)
Probes max. load (mm) Load (N)
PES HT 8,908 11,47 0,0198
PA HT 8,938 13,26 0,0238
Structure 1
Jersey PP HT 8,308 36,462 0,0658
UHMW-PE 17,202 56,806 0,3468
Para-aramid 15,968 70,17 0,2642
PES HT 12,330 17,675 0,0542
PA HT 21,010 23,98 0,0902
Knife Structure 2
PP HT 26,130 58,5 0,4121
Probe “Crepe”
UHMW-PE 14,398 2,25 0,0084
Para-aramid 21,060 111,086 0,5035
PES HT 7,980 42,65 0,1257
Structure 3 PA HT 16,020 43,62 0,1480
“Moss Tuck PP HT 21,480 85,1 0,4820
Stitch”
UHMW-PE 6,882 48,146 0,1048
Para-aramid 17,444 89,216 0,3862
Therefore the results confirm the literature review as the conical puncture resistance
of a fabric is mainly attributed to the friction between the yarns and within the yarns,
and the knife puncture resistance of a fabric is mainly attributed to the strength of the
yarns [12].
CONCLUSIONS
The effect of the weft knitted structure on the fabric stab and puncture resistance has
not been investigated enough. Most work has focused particularly on multi-layered
weft knitted fabrics [4,13]. The present study took into consideration the stab and
puncture resistance behaviour of single-layer weft knitted fabrics (jersey, crepe and
moss), produced with five types of high performance yarns (PES HT, PA HT, PP HT,
UHMW-PE, and p-AR) in order to investigate the effect of the fabric structure on the
mechanical protective performances. It was proved that due to the tuck stitches,
crepe and moss structures improved puncture performances in comparison with
jersey structures. The conical puncture resistance of a single-layer knitted fabric was
mainly attributed to the structure (high friction between the yarns and within the yarns
due to the dense structure), the knife puncture resistance was mainly attributed to the
strength of the yarns.
Based on the experimental results and on the EN 388 test classification, UHMW-PE
moss tuck stitch structure present the highest conical puncture resistance - level 4.
p-AR crepe structure presents the highest knife puncture resistance.
According to the results it is suggested the use of UHMW-PE single layer moss tuck stitch
structure as protective clothing. Thermo- physiological comfort properties, such as air
permeability, water vapour permeability, thermal resistance, wick ability, absorbency,
drying rate are being assessed on the UHMW-PE single-layer moss tuck stitch in order
to study the relationship between comfort and protection.

206
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was carried out under the project nº 2014/38320 “CEP- Multifunctional clothing
development incorporating: Comfort / Ergonomics / protection” headed by AFF – A.
Ferreira e Filhos S.A. (Portugal), co-funded by the European Regional Development
Funds FEDER through COMPETE Operational Programme Competitiveness Factor.
REFERENCES
[1] Hainsworth S.V., R.J. Delaney and G.N. Rutty. 2008. How sharp is sharp? Towards
quantification of the sharpness and penetration ability of kitchen knives used in
stabbings. Int J Legal Med, 122(4):281-291.
[2] Dolez, P. I, and T. Vu-Khanh. 2009. Recent developments and needs in materials
used for personal protective equipment and their testing. International Journal of
Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 15(4), 347–362.
[3] U.S. Appl. No12/538,218, Nov 18, 2014, Garcia, et al.
[4] Xuhong, M., K. Xiangyong, and J. Gaoming. 2013. The experimental research on
stab resistance of warp-knitted spacer fabric. Journal of Industrial Textiles, 43 (2), 281-
301.
[5] Flambard, X., and J. Polo. 2004. Stab resistance of multi-layers knitted structures
(comparison between Para-Aramid and PBO Fibers). J Adv Mater, 36(1), 30–35.
[6] Xiaolin, Y., O. Guanxiong, and J. Yaming. 2006. Research on the stab resistant
mechanism of the weft knitted fabrics, PhD Thesis, TianJin Polytechnic University, China.
[7] Lijuan,L., J. Gaoming, and X. Miao. 2011. Structure and properties of stab resistant
warp knitted fabric. J Text Res 2011, 32(4), 48–51.
[8] Spencer, D.J. 2001. Knitting Technology: A Comprehensive Handbook and Practical
Guide, Third Edition, Woodhead Publishing Limited; Published in North America by
Technomic Pub. Co., Cambridge, England; Lancaster, Pa.
[9] Triki, E., P. Nguyen-Tri, C. Gauvin, M. Azaiez, and T. Vu-Khanh. 2015. Combined
puncture/cutting of elastomer membranes by pointed blades: Charaterization of
mechanisms. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 132(26).
[10] Miao, X., G. Jiang, X. Kong, and S. Zhao. 2014. Experimental Investigation on the
Stab Resistance of Warp Knitted Fabrics. FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe, 22. 5(107),
65-70.
[11] El Messiry, M. 2014. Investigation of Puncture Behaviour of Flexible Silk Fabric
Composites for Soft Body Armour. FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe, 22, 5(107), 71-76.
[12] Gong, X., Y. Xu, W. Zhu, S. Xuan, W. Jiang, and W. Jiang. 2014. Study of the knife
stab and puncture-resistant performance for shear thickening fluid enhanced fabric.
Journal of Composite Materials, 48(6), 641–657.
[13] Alpyildiz, T., M. Rochery, A. Kurbak, and X. Flambard. 2011. Stab and cut resistance
of knitted structures: a comparative study. Textile Research Journal, 81 (2), 205-214.

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ASSESSMENT OF TEXTILE MATERIALS USED IN PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT GIVING THE PROTECTION AGAINST CHEMICALS - THE COMPARISON OF STANDARDS
ASSESSMENT OF TEXTILE MATERIALS USED IN

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT GIVING
THE PROTECTION AGAINST CHEMICALS - THE
COMPARISON OF STANDARDS
Chęsy Paulina
Protective Equipment, Laboratory of Hand and Foot Protection, Wierzbowa 48, 90-133 Łódź, Poland
(Presenting author E-mail: pache@ciop.lodz.pl)
ABSTRACT
The textile materials which are used for the construction of personal protective
equipment have to possess appropriate properties, depending on their purpose. One
of the areas, where they are very necessary, is a work with chemicals. In the industries,
where chemicals are used, workers usually wear protective clothing, gloves and
footwear simultaneously. The most suitable textile materials for this application are natural
or synthetic rubbers, because of being hermetic and resistant to permeation by
chemicals.
Until May 2015, each personal protective equipment type (clothing, gloves and
footwear) had its own standards for the assessment of the resistance to chemicals
permeation through textile materials. Nowadays, the textile materials forming personal
protective equipment and used as a protection against chemicals, can be tested
according to a new standard.
The main aim of this study was to compare the results, which were obtained
from the measurements performed according to the former standards and the new
methodology.
The research results allow to estimate the difference between standards in relation
to the resistance of textile materials against chemicals and the conclusion is very
valuable from the point of view of their application in the workplace.
Keywords: natural rubber, synthetic rubber, permeation, protective clothing, protective
gloves, protective footwear
INTRODUCTION
Textile materials are used in various areas of life. They are used, among others things,
for the construction of personal protective equipment such as protective clothing,
gloves and footwear. Therefore, they should provide adequate protection, which is
determined by the nature of hazard. One of the most important risk factors are toxic,
harmful and dangerous chemical substances and their mixtures. Most frequently,
they can be encountered during production of adhesives, paints, plastics, plasters,
detergents, pharmaceutical products, in the storages and production halls as
well as laboratories, etc. To ensure an appropriate level of protection, protective
textiles should act as a barrier to direct occupational contact with chemicals. This is
important because occupational exposure to chemical agents can be the reason for

208
inflammatory conditions of the skin, respiratory failure, disorders of psychoneurological

diseases and cancer. Therefore, textile materials used for the applications mentioned
above, should meet the requirements in the terms of barrier properties. In this respect,
fabrics with natural or synthetic rubber and plastics are very effective and desired.
The effectiveness of the materials mentioned above is proved by tests performed
under laboratory conditions on new, unused products according to the normalized
research method. This research method, is based on an assumption that a liquid
chemical substance or mixture transport through protective materials occurs at
a molecular level during the process called permeation is adopted. The process
involves three steps (Fig. 1):
• absorption of molecules of the chemical into the outer surface of a material;
• diffusion of the absorbed molecules in the materials;
• desorption of the molecules from the inside surface of the material.
Fig. 1. A schematic diagram illustrating the idea of the permeation process [own
design]
The effectiveness of protective materials in terms of resistance to permeation by
chemicals is determined based on the so-called normalized breakthrough times
(NBT) (the time elapsed between the first contact of a tested compound with the
outer surface of a protective material, and the emergence of this compound on the
internal side of the protective material, with the permeation rate equals to 1µg• cm-
2• min-1).
Previously, the research methodologies were separate for protective clothing, gloves
and footwear. That is why, the activities to develop a unified method have been
conducted in Europe for some years now, under the guidance of Joint Working
Group (Test methods for permeation of chemicals through materials for protective
footwear, gloves and clothing) which was created in 2011 as an initiative of CEN/TC
161 - Foot and leg protectors and CEN/TC 162 - Protective clothing including hand
and arm protection and lifejackets. The result of that work was the preparation of
amended European standard EN 16523-1:2015 (Determination of material resistance
to permeation by chemicals – Part 1: Permeation by liquid chemical under conditions
of continuous contact), which is currently obligatory in Poland as PN-EN 16523-1:2015-
05. The most meaningful change concerns the construction of a permeation cell,
which is the crucial element of the measuring system.

209
The main aims of the research were as follows:

• verification of the impact of the construction of a new permeation cell on the
results of laboratory tests;
• validation of the method.
The selected results for protective gloves and footwear in terms of resistance to
permeation by propan-2-ol are presented. The basic selection criteria were based on
the common usage of the chemical as a disinfectant (Mäkelä, et al. 2003) and as a
cleaner (concentration at least 99.9%), e.g. during cartridges refilling. This compound
has the excellent ability to remove fat, grease or other impurities. It is an irritant, causing
the skin to dry and permeating through the skin to the systemic circulation on direct
contact (Jensen, 1981).
The research materials included samples of coated polymeric materials used for
construction of protective gloves and footwear. Laboratory tests were performed for
materials made of acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber, commonly known as nitrile (average
thickness 0.18 ± 0.04 mm) and polyethylene-co-vinyl acetate, commonly known as
EVA foam (average thickness 3.70 ± 0.13 mm) (Fig. 1). The tested liquid compound
was propan-2-ol (purity GC ≥99,8%, Merck KGaA). The laboratory tests were carried
out using a gas chromatograph connected with a flame-ionization detector (GC-
FID, ATI Unicam 610 Series) (Fig. 2). Two permeation cells of different construction in
accordance to EN 374-3:2003 (Fig. 3a) and EN 16523-1:2015 (Fig. 3b) were used during
the research.
(a) protective glove (b) protective footwear
(c) sample of protective glove (d) sample of protective footwear

Fig.1. Photographs of a protective glove (a), protective footwear (b) and their samples
(c,d).

210
Fig. 2. Measuring system equipped with a permeation cell (LABC.de) and a gas
chromatograph with flame-ionization detector (ATI Unicam 610 Series).
(a) EN 374-3:2003 (b) EN 16523-1:2015
Fig. 3. Permeation cell acc. to EN 374-3:2003 (a) and EN 16523-1:2015 (b).
The first step involved calibration of the analytical method using the calibration curve.
Next, the tests were performed for three different volumes of the tested chemical
substance (15, 25, 45 mL) according to EN 16523-1:2015 (in terms of permeation cell).
The results were compared with the results obtained for the method according to
EN 374-3:2003. In each series, the measurements were performed for three samples
of materials originating from the same production batch. The verification of the
significance of differences in the obtained results was carried out using an analysis of
variance (ANOVA) and post-hoc test (Tukey test).

211
RESULTS
Calibration of the analytical method
Linear range of the method comprises concentrations from 0 to 0.230 µg• cm-3
(correlation coefficient:R2=0.998, calibration function: , LOD:
0.005 µg• cm-3; LOQ: 0.008 µg• cm-3 and sensitivity: 290.4 (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Calibration curve for propan-2-ol in GC-FID analysis.

Research results
In tables 1 and 2, the research results for different variants of the study are presented.
Moreover, they are ilustrated in the graphs in the form of means and standard
deviations (Figs. 5 and 6).
Table 1. Results for acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber.
standard performance
mean min max
deviation level*
EN 374-3 99 3.2 95 101 3
EN 16523-1:2015;
112 10.6 100 120 3
15 mL
EN 16523-1:2015;
87 5.0 82 92 3
25 mL
EN 16523-1:2015;
103 12.9 88 112 3
45 mL
*3rd performance level (60-120 min)

212
Fig. 5. Results for acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber.

Table 2. Results for EVA foam.
standard performance
mean min max
deviation level
EN 374-3 480 0 480 480 2
EN 16523-1:2015;
477 5.8 470 480 2
15 mL
EN 16523-1:2015;
471 15.6 453 480 2
25 mL
EN 16523-1:2015;
480 0 480 480 2
45 mL
*2nd performance level (241-480min)
Fig. 6. Results for EVA foam.

On the basis of analysis of variance (ANOVA) and post-hoc test (Tukey test), in the
case of acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber, no statistical difference between the means,
excluding the results obtained with 15 mL and 25 mL of propan-2-ol was observed
(Table 3). For EVA foam, there was no statistical difference between the means (Table

213
4).
Table 3. Results of ANOVA and Tukey HSD for acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber.
EN 16523-1:2015; EN 16523-1:2015; EN 16523-1:2015;
EN 374-3
15 mL 25 mL 45 mL
EN 374-3 - 0.321 0.445 0.943
EN 16523-1:2015;
0.321 - 0.037* 0.592
15 mL
EN 16523-1:2015;
0.445 0.037* - 0.225
25 mL
EN 16523-1:2015;
0.943 0.592 0.225 -
45 mL
*statistically significant p<0.05

Table 4. Results of ANOVA and Tukey HSD for EVA foam.
EN 16523-1:2015; EN 16523-1:2015; EN 16523-1:2015;
EN 374-3
15 mL 25 mL 45 mL
EN 374-3 - 0.959 0.573 1.000
EN 16523-1:2015;
0.959 - 0.837 0.959
15 mL
EN 16523-1:2015;
0.573 0.837 - 0.573
25 mL
EN 16523-1:2015;
1.000 0.959 0.573 -
45 mL
CONCLUSIONS
• Based on the laboratory tests, the materials made of acrylonitrile-butadiene
rubber achieve the 3rd performance level (the normalized breakthrough time in
the range of 60 <NBT <120), the materials made of EVA foam accomplish the 2nd
performance level (the normalized breakthrough time in the range of 241 <NBT
<480), irrespective of either the applied permeation cell, or the amount of chemical
substance;
• The introduction of the new permeation cell has not affected assessment of
the performance level of the tested materials in terms of resistance to penetration by
chemicals, and the results obtained with both methods are comparable.
• The tested materials could be used for construction of protective gloves and
footwear dedicated to working under exposure to propan-2-ol, because they meet
the requirements.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The publication has been based on the results of Phase III of the National Programme
“Safety and working conditions improvement”, funded in the years 2014-2016 in the
area of tasks related to services for the State by the Ministry of Labour and Social Policy.

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The Programme coordinator: Central Institute for Labour Protection – National

Research Institute
REFERENCES
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Contact Dermatitis, 7: 148–50.
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Surgical Gloves: Comparison of the Standard Methods ASTM F739 and EN 374. Ann. Occup. Hyg.,
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215
The study of textile thermal insulation

A. Puszkarz, I. Krucińska
Lodz University of Technology, Department of Material and Commodity Sciences and
Textile Metrology,
116 Zeromskiego Street, 90-924 Lodz, Poland
Presenting author email: adam.puszkarz@p.lodz.pl;
Corresponding author email:adam.puszkarz@p.lodz.pl
ABSTRACT
The article concerns the wide-spread problem of thermal comfort. In this paper,
investigations into textiles and thermal insulation problems are presented. The main
aim of this article is presentation of features of selected CAD software and finite
volume method as an effective tool to simulation the thermal properties of textiles.
The software enables precise (in micro scale) designing of 3-D models of textiles as
well as projecting and performing of thermal phenomena occurring in the materials
under defined environmental conditions. Advantages and limitations of this tool are
based on common types of textiles: knitted fabrics and woven fabrics.
Keywords: knitted fabric, woven fabric, simulation, heat transport phenomena,
thermal insulation, modelling, finite volume method
INTRODUCTION
Thermal comfort issue is the result of many parameters related to the human body,
climatic conditions, environment and clothing. Clothing is a barrier that protects the
body from the negative impact of external factors, and the impact of clothing on
the process of heat transfer between the human body and the environment largely
depends on the construction of the material i.e., the amount and configuration of the
separate layers of clothing, as well as the thermal insulation properties of the material
from which the garment is produced. Thermal properties are basic characteristics
that should be taken into account for any potential clothing user. Therefore, the
heat transfer between the user and the environment should be equable to warrant
comfortable conditions and prevent either hypothermia or hyperthermia.
3-D modelling of textiles is an instrument which promotes enhanced understanding of
the influence of morphology on physical properties. In addition, it can yield information
on the critical factors of materials that make up a particular type of textile. Thermal
features are basic characteristics to consider with respect to the potential use of
clothing.
In recent years, designing textile models to better understand the influence of
morphology on thermal and mechanical properties has been the goal of many
studies. With increasing computing power, accurate models that better design the
construction of real materials and their physical properties can be developed.
R. Degrave et al. [1] showed an experimental set-up based on classical 1-D flow
experiments in order to obtain data on fluid flow through the photocatalytic
textile and proposed a numerical model at the optical fiber scale using COMSOL
216
Multiphysics to perform numerical simulations in a geometrical domain consisting of

a Representative Volume Element (RVE) of the photocatalytic textile with periodic
boundary conditions. A good fit was found between the permeability of the fabric
given by the numerical model and that obtained from experimental measurements,
which was also in agreement with the value calculated from an experimental
determination of the fabric porosity using a permeability model for fibrous media. Q.
Zhang et al. [2] concentrated on the numerical study of heat and moisture transfer in
clothing assemblies, which is described by a multi-component and multiphase air–
vapor–heat flow with a moving interface. In the work, a splitting semi-implicit finite
volume method was applied for a system of nonlinear parabolic equations, and an
implicit Euler scheme was used for the interface equation.
X.D. Hang et al. [3] showed a numerical studies of heat and moisture transfer in three-
dimensional clothing assemblies. Based on a multi-component and multiphase flow
model, the study included heat/moisture convection and conduction/diffusion, as well
as phase change (in the form of condensation/evaporation and vapor absorption
by fiber). Y. Wang et al. [4] studied a three-dimensional transient CFD simulation of
heat and mass transfer in the flame manikin test of thermal protective clothing. The
grid model used in that study, which was simulated from the Donghua Flame Manikin,
had real dimensions that accurately formed the shape of a typical Chinese man. The
solver and physical models were defined in the FLUENT system, and the CFD simulation
of a naked flame manikin test was accomplished. Temperature and velocity fields on
the manikin surface and of the chamber during the four-second flash fire combustion
were obtained, providing acceptable predictions of the average heat flux distribution.
In this paper, investigations into textiles and thermal insulation problems are showed.
The main goal of this article is exhibition of characteristics of Solidworks software as an
effective instrument to 3-D designing textile models and investigating of them thermal
properties. In the article presented examples of textiles made models designed to
show the ability to precisely mapping the structure of real materials as well as selected
simulations showing the possibility of calculating their thermal parameters.
Model designing
Solidworks software enables accurate design of complex, three-dimensional objects
and to simulate phenomena belonging to different fields of physics, such as kinematics,
dynamics and thermodynamics. Modeling of physical phenomena based on the finite
element method (advanced method of solving differential equations, which is based
on the division of areas into finite elements for which the solution is approximated
by specific functions; the actual calculations are carried out only for nodes of this
division). The design stage models of textiles was made in the basic software module
- SolidWorks Standard, and to perform simulation of energy transport module was
used SolidWorks Flow Simulation. Both geometrical models of single layers of fabric
and knitwear take into account their thickness, weave, yarn length and material they
were made.
For example, model of single layer polypropylene knitted fabric (presented in Figure 1)
do not take into account the elasticity of the yarn, or friction between the abutting

217
systems: weft and warp. Single fibers have been homogenized, so that the models
are not included such factors as the number, length or twist.
Figure 1: Three-dimensional model of monolayer polypropylene knitted fabric [5]

and aramid fabric designed on the basis of SEM and OM images respectively
These SEM images were imported into SolidWorks software to sketch the stitch in two
planes: a projection on the horizontal plane and a variable plane of cross-sectional
shape.
Figure 2: Stages of designing of 3-D of single stitch of cotton knitted fabric [7]
On Figure 2 stages of designing of 3-D of single stitch of cotton knitted fabric were
presented. Unlike the previous two models it takes into account the individual fibers.
The first stage of model construction was to create a two-dimensional sketch of axis of a
single stitch on the plane using NURBS-curves. The shape of the curve was determined
by average sizes of the stitch of real material: The next step was to construct a sketch
describing the profile of the stitch in a plane perpendicular to the previous one. Using
the projection operation of the first sketch to the profile a three dimensional axis of
the mesh was obtained. The next step of the design was preparation of yarn cross-
sectional sketch The final shape of the stitch was obtained by means of Swept Boss/
Base operation performed on objects created in the last two steps. The advantages of
the applied procedure include shape approximate to the real stitch shape, average
diameter of yarn and fiber, cross section of yarn and fiber, fiber number in single stitch
and average knitted fabric thickness.
Equations describing the simulation of heat transfer
Flow Simulation solves the Navier-Stokes equations, which are formulations using mass,
momentum and energy conservation laws for fluid flows. The equations are
supplemented by fluid state equations defining the nature of the fluid and by empirical
dependencies of fluid density, viscosity and thermal conductivity on temperature [6].
The system of Navier-Stokes equations is supplemented by definitions of thermophysical
properties and state equations for the fluids. Flow Simulation models gas and liquid
flows with density, viscosity, thermal conductivity, specific heats, and species diffusivities
as functions of pressure, temperature and species concentrations in fluid mixtures.
Equilibrium volume condensation of water from steam can also be taken into account

218
when simulating steam

TIWC flows. 25-28 April, 2016, Poznan, Poland
2016,
Textiles is a complex structure of fibers and void spaces between fibers filled by fluid,
such as air or liquid. Heat is transported through the textile structure through both
monofilaments (solid body) and fluids (fluid media), with simultaneous exchange between
Textiles is a complex structure of fibers and void spaces between fibers filled by fluid,
these environments. Heat transfer in fluids is expressed by the following conservation
such as air or liquid. Heat is transported through the textile structure through both
equation:
monofilaments (solid body) and fluids (fluid media), with simultaneous exchange between
these environments.
∂ ⎡ ⎛ u 2 ⎞⎤ Heat ∂ ⎡ transfer
⎛ u 2 ⎞⎤in fluids
∂ is expressed by the following conservation
∂p ∂u
⎢ ρ ⎜⎜ h + ⎟⎟⎥ + ⎢ ρui ⎜⎜ h + ⎟⎟⎥ =
equation:
∂t ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ ∂xi ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ ∂xi
[ ( ∂t ∂xj
) ]
u j τ ij + τ ijR + qi + − τ ijR i + ρε + Siui + QH ; (1)
∂ ⎡ ⎛ porous u ⎞⎤ gravity

2
∂ ⎡ ⎛ rotationu ⎞⎤ ∂
2
∂p ∂u
ρ ⎜
where Si = ⎜Si
⎢
∂t ⎣ ⎝
h + ⎟
+
⎟ ⎥ +
Si
2 ⎠⎦ ∂xi ⎣ ⎝ porous
⎟⎟⎥ =
2 ⎠⎦ ∂xi
[ ( ∂t ∂xj
) ]
u j τ ij + τ ijR + qi + − τ ijR i + ρε + Siui + QH ; (1)
⎢ ρ+uSi ⎜⎜i h + is the mass-distributed external force per unit mass due
gravity
to porous media resistance (Si ), buoyancy (Si =-ρgi) and the coordinate system
rotation
rotation (Si porous ). The subscripts are used to denote summation over the three coordinate
where Si = Si
directions. + Sigravity + Sirotation is the mass-distributed external force per unit mass due
to porous media resistance (Siporous), buoyancy (Sigravity=-ρgi) and the coordinate system
The heat flux density is defined by the following equation:
rotation (Sirotation). The subscripts are used to denote summation over the three coordinate
directions. ⎛ µ µ ⎞ ∂h
qi = ⎜⎜ + t ⎟⎟ ; i = 1, 2, 3;
The heat flux density is defined by the following equation: (2)
⎝ Pr σ c ⎠ ∂xi
where
⎛ µ µt ⎞ ∂h 2
qi = ⎜⎜ + C ⎟⎟µ ρk ; i = 1, 2, 3; (2)
⎝ Prµt =σ c ⎠ ∂xi . (3)
where ε

The constant C is determined according
C ρk 2 equal to C =0.09, whereas σ =0.9. The
µ µt = to µ[6] as
. c (3) µ
equations describe both laminar and turbulent flows. Moreover, transitions from one case
ε
to another and back are possible. The parameters k and µt are zero for pure laminar flows.
The
The constant C is determined
phenomenon according
of anisotropic
µ to [6] as equal
heat conductivity to Cmedia
in solid =0.09, whereas by The
σc=0.9.
is described the µ
equations describe both laminar and turbulent flows. Moreover, transitions from one case
following correlation:
to another and back are possible. The parameters k and µt are zero for pure laminar flows.
The phenomenon of anisotropic heat
∂(ρe )
conductivity
∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞
in solid media is described by the
following correlation: = ⎜⎜ λi ⎟⎟ + QH ; (4)
∂t ∂xi ⎝ ∂xi ⎠
∂(ρe ) ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞
⎟⎟ + QH ;
where e=cT. It is assumed that the heat conductivity tensor is diagonal to the considered
= ⎜⎜ λi (4)
coordinate system and that the heat transport ∂ t ∂ x i ⎝ ∂ x i ⎠ within polypropylene is direction-
independent, i.e., we introduce an isotropic medium and can denote λ1=λ2=λ3=λ. The
where
energy e=cT . It is assumed that the heat conductivity tensor is diagonal to the considered
exchange between the fluid and solid media is calculated via the heat flux in the
coordinate system
direction normal to and
the that the heat
solid/fluid interface, transport taking within
into polypropylene
account the solid is direction-
surface
independent, i.e., we introduce an isotropic medium and can denote λ1=λ2=λ3=λ. The
temperature and the fluid boundary layer characteristics, if necessary.
energy exchange between the fluid and solid media is calculated via the heat flux in the
direction normal to the solid/fluid interface, taking into account the solid surface
temperature and the fluid boundary layer characteristics, if necessary.
Flow Simulation enables the simulation of thermal radiation based on a so-called
discrete transfer model. Its main idea can be described as followed: the radiation leaving
the surface element in a certain range of solid angles can be approximated by a single ray.
Flow
The Simulation
Flow Simulation
radiation enables
heat enables thethe
is transferred simulation
along a ofseries
simulation of thermal
thermal radiation
of rays radiation
emanating based
based from on aa so-called
on the so-called
radiative
discrete
discrete transfer model. Its main idea can be described
transfer model. Its main idea can be described as followed: the radiation leaving
surfaces only. Rays are then traced as they traverse through fluid and transparent solid as followed: the radiation
the surface element in a certain range of solid angles can be approximated by a single ray.
leaving the surface
bodies until element
it hits another in a certain
radiative surface. range This ofapproach,
solid angles usually cancalled be approximated"ray tracing,"
The
a radiation
single ray.heat The is transferred
heatalong a series along of rays
allows "exchange factors" to be calculated as fractions of the total radiation energy emitted
by radiation is transferred a seriesemanating of raysfrom emanating the radiative from
surfaces
the only.
from radiative
one of the Rays are
radiative
surfaces then
only. traced
surfaces
Rays are as
that they
then traverse
is intercepted
traced as they through
by other fluid
traverse and
radiative transparent
through surfaces fluid solid
(this
and
bodies
quantity until
is it
a hits another
discrete analog radiative
of view surface.
factors). This If
transparent solid bodies until it hits another radiative surface. This approach, usually approach,
"exchange usually
factors" called
between "ray tracing,"
radiative
allows "exchange factors" to be calculated as fractions of the total radiation energy emitted
surface mesh elements are calculated at the initial stage of the solver, then it allows a
from one of the radiative surfaces that is intercepted by other radiative surfaces (this
quantity is a discrete analog of view Inseparable factors). If "exchange factors"
Natural Fibres andbetween radiative
4
from the human environment. Hosted by the Institute of Medicinal Plants (INF&MP), 219

surface mesh elements are calculated at the initial stage of the solver, then it allows a Poznan, Poland, April 25th - 28th, 2016
called “ray tracing,” allows “exchange factors” to be calculated as fractions of the

total radiation energy emitted from one of the radiative surfaces that is intercepted
by other radiative surfaces (this quantity is a discrete analog of view factors). If
“exchange factors” TIWCbetween
2016, 25-28radiative April,
surface2016,
meshPoznan,
elementsPoland
are calculated at the
initial stage of the solver, then it allows a matrix of coefficients to form for a system of
linear equations which can be solved on each iteration. The surfaces that lose the
matrix of coefficients to form for a system of linear equations which can be solved on each
heat by radiation can emit, absorb and reflect solar or thermal radiation. The thermal
iteration. The surfaces that lose the heat by radiation can emit, absorb and reflect solar or
thermal radiation.
radiation determined The thermal
by the radiation
surface or determined
radiationby the surface
source or radiation
is expressed as asource
sum of is
expressed radiation
material as a sum of material
(described byradiation (described
the surface by the
emissivity andsurface emissivity
a prescribed and of
area a
prescribed area of radiation) and incoming radiative transfer. This
radiation) and incoming radiative transfer. This problem is defined by the following problem is defined by
the following equation [6]:
equation [6]:

QTout = ε ⋅ σ ⋅ T 4 ⋅ A+ (1 − ε ) ⋅ QTin . (5)
The main result of the radiation heat transfer calculation is the solid’s surface or internal
The main result of the radiation heat transfer calculation is the solid’s surface or internal
temperature. However, these temperatures are also affected by heat conduction in solids
temperature. However, these temperatures are also affected by heat conduction
and solid/fluid heat transfer. To see the results of radiation heat transfer calculation only,
the solids
in user can
andview the leaving
solid/fluid heatradiant over
flux To
transfer. seethe
the selected
results radiative surfaces
of radiation heatat transfer
surface
plots. Users can also see the maximum, minimum, and average
calculation only, the user can view the leaving radiant flux over the selected radiative values of these
parameters.
surfaces at surface plots. Users can also see the maximum, minimum, and average

values of these parameters.
RESULTS
RESULTS
SolidWorks Flow Simulation module allows for modeling of the following five physical
SolidWorks Flow Simulation module allows for modeling of the following five physical
phenomena: (1) heat conduction in a solid material (i.e., fibers of textiles), (2)
phenomena: (1) heat conduction in a solid material (i.e., fibers of textiles), (2) convection
and (3) radiation heat transfer from solid surfaces, (4) gravitational effects influencing air
convection and (3) radiation heat transfer from solid surfaces, (4) gravitational effects
molecule transport within void spaces, and (5) laminar and turbulent fluid flow within void
influencing air molecule transport within void spaces, and (5) laminar and turbulent
spaces.
fluid flow The
withinmodule
void spaces.simultaneously
The module calculates the parameters
simultaneously calculates of the all selected
parameters
of all selected thermodynamic processes within the assumed structural domainvolume
thermodynamic processes within the assumed structural domain using the finite using
method. On the basis of output results, the software creates three-dimensional color
the finite volume method. On the basis of output results, the software creates three-
visualizations in the form of so called cut plots (plots of cross sections of selected objects).
dimensional color visualizations
For the mentioned inmonolayer
3-D model of the form ofpolypropylene
so called cut plots (plots
knitted of cross
fabric placed sections
in air-
of selected objects). Forairthe
conditioned chamber (T mentioned
=25°C, p air
3-D model
=1013.25 hPa, φof
air
monolayer polypropylene knitted
=60 %) on heating plate of constant
fabric placed
temperature in air-conditioned
30 °C, chamber
the distribution (Tair=25°C, pair=1013.25
of heat conductivity hPa, fair=60
and heat radiation (as the %) on
most
heating plate of constant temperature 30 °C, the distribution of heat conductivity and
effective method of heat loss) as well as the distribution of temperature and air density can
be visualized within the entire computational domain (Figure 3).
heat radiation (as the most effective method of heat loss) as well as the distribution

of temperature and air density can be visualized within the entire computational
domain (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Distributions of the (a) temperature, (b) heat flux, and (c) leaving radiant flux in the knitted fabric, and two cut plots
illustrating the (d) temperature distributions and (e) density of air contained in the computational domain [5]

220
Figure 3. Distributions of the (a) temperature, (b) heat flux, and (c) leaving
radiant flux in the knitted fabric, and two cut plots illustrating the (d) temperature
distributions and (e) density of air contained in the computational domain [5]
CONCLUSIONS
The results of simulations carried out on 3D models of textiles, which selected examples
presented in this work have been published in previous articles [5,7] have been
compared and verified by experiment involving real materials. Simulation outcomes
could be showed that applied software can be an effective tool to complement
experimentation on real materials and can be used to predict thermal properties of
newly designed textiles.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
[1] R. Degrave. J. Moreau. A. Cockx. P. Schmitz. 2015. Multiscale analysis and modeling of fluid
flow within a photocatalytic textile. Chemical Engineering Science; 130: 264–274
[2] Q. Zhang W. Sun. 2011. A numerical study of air–vapor–heat transport through t e x t i l e
materials with a moving interface. Journal of Computational and Applied Mathematics; 236: 819–
833
[3] X.D. Hang. W. Sun. C. Yeb. 2012. Finite volume solution of heat and moisture transfer
through three-dimensional textile materials. Computers & Fluids; 57: 25–39
[4] Y. Wang Z. Wang. X. Zhang. M. Wang J. Li. 2015. CFD simulation of naked flame manikin
tests of fire proof garment. Fire Safety Journal; 711: 87–193
[5] A.K. Puszkarz, R. Korycki, I. Krucinska. Simulations of heat transport phenomena in a three-
dimensional model of knitted fabric. AUTEX Research Journal, DOI: 10.1515/aut-2015-0042 © AUTEX
[6] SolidWorks Flow Simulation - Technical Reference 2014.
[7] A.K. Puszkarz, I. Krucinska. The study of knitted fabric thermal insulation using
thermography and finite volume method. Textile Research Journal (article in press)

221
The application of SEM and WAXS techniques for characterisation superabsorbent polymers (SAPs) additives for nonwovens structures
THE APPLICATION OF SEM AND WAXS

TECHNIQUES FOR CHARACTERISATION
SUPERABSORBENT POLYMERS (SAPS)
ADDITIVES FOR NONWOVENS STRUCTURES
Michał Puchalski1, Michał Chrzanowski1, Agnieszka Komisarczyk1, Izabella
Krucińska1, Małgorzata Okrasa2, Agnieszka Brochocka2 and Katarzyna
Majchrzycka2
1
Lodz University of Technology, Department of Material and Commodity Sciences and Textile
Metrology Centre of Advanced Technologies of Human-Friendly Textiles ‘Pro Humano tex’,
Zeromskiego 116, 90-924 Lodz, Poland
2
Department of Personal Protective Equipment, Central Institute for Labour Protection - National
Research Institute, Wierzbowa 48, 90-133 Lodz, Poland
(michal.puchalski@p.lodz.pl)
ABSTRACT
The fibrous materials containing superabsorbent polymers (SAPs) are used in many
areas of life, such as hygienic materials, or special mats for technical application.
This materials mainly could be obtained in the form of nonwoven or multilayer fibrous
composites. Functional properties of these composites depend on the structure and
properties of SAPs, and thus that the characterisation of superabsorbent polymers
is important from technological and practical point of view. In this presentation the
authors show the results of experimental works focused on the characterisation of
SAP additives dedicated to modification of melt-blow nonwoven fabrics. The analysis
of shape, diameter and supermolecular structure of SAPs by use of Wide-Angle X-ray
Diffraction (WAXD) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) will be presented.
Keywords: superabsorbent polymers, SEM, WAXD, nonwoven, filtering materials
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the subject of modification of fibrous structures by addition micro-
and nanomaterials is very popular, mainly in the context of the development of novel
materials with unique properties. The addition of micro- or nanoadditives into structure
of fibrous materials provides unique properties of materials including increased water
and moisture sorption (Irzmańska 2012, Irzmańska 2015), improved filtration efficiency
of airborne pollutants (Brochocka 2013, Brochocka 2014), high tenacity, and sensory
properties to the chemical vapours (Krucińska 2013). Among the popular additives
carbon nanomaterials, metal nanoparticles, activated carbon, ceramics biocides
and superabsorbent polymers could be listed (Dutkiewicz 2001, Czaplicki 2006,
Brochocka 2009).
Superabsorbent polymers (SAPs) are characterised by extremely efficient absorption
and retention of large amounts of liquid in relation to their own mass. Such polymers
are classified as hydrogels when cross-linked, absorb aqueous solutions through
hydrogen bonding with water molecules. In deionized and distilled water, SAPs could

222
absorb up to 500 times of the liquid relative to the initial weight (from 30 to 60 times its
own volume). The lower sorption is observed in saline solution because the presence of
cations in the solution impedes the polymer’s ability to bond with the water molecules
(Kabiri 2003).
Modern SAPs are mainly materials such as: polyacrylamide copolymer, ethylene
maleic anhydride copolymer, cross-linked carboxymethyl cellulose, polyvinyl alcohol
copolymers, cross-linked polyethylene oxide, and starch grafted copolymer of
polyacrylonitrile. SAPs could be made by using one of three primary methods: gel
polymerization, suspension polymerization or solution polymerization (Buchholz 1997).
Superabsorbent polymers are in the form of powders with millimetre or micrometre
gradation thus their addition inside nonwoven structure may require additional
processing , for example grinding.
In this presentation the authors show the results of preliminary studies focused on
preparation and characterisation of superabsorbent polymers additives dedicated
to ensure sorptive properties of multifunctional melt-blown composites for human
protection in heavy working conditions. The advances analytical techniques such as:
Wide-Angle X-ray Diffraction and Scanning Electron Microscopy were used for the
estimation of, supramolecular structure and size distribution of SAP grains.
Materials and preparation
In the presented studies two SAPs were processed and tested. First of them was a
sodium polyacrylate (SAP1), and the second one was a poly(acrylamide-co-acrylic
acid) potassium salt (SAP2). Both of them were purchased from Sigma Aldrich Co.
LLC.
The grinding process was realised with use of Planetary Micro Mill PULVERISETTE 7
Premium line from Fritsch GmbH (Germany). SAPs were grinded in two variant of the
process:
• VAR1 – milling by the use mill ball ZrO2 with diameter 20 mm for 20 minutes;
• VAR2 – milling by the use mill ball ZrO2 with diameter 20 mm and additionally
in the next step by the use mill ball ZrO2 with diameter 5 mm for 20 minutes.
WAXD method
WAXD diffraction patterns were obtained with Cu Kα (λ=0.154 nm) X-ray source by use
of X’Pert Pro X-ray diffractometer from PANalytical (Nederland) operating at 40 kV and
30 mA. Prior to measurements SAPs were grinded to obtain powders using one of the
procedures described above.
SEM/EDX method
The chemical and morphological analysis of SAPs were carried out by means
of scanning electron microscope (SEM) Nova NanoSEM 230 from FEI company
(Nederland). The samples were prepared by fixing the SAPs to holder by use of
conducting carbon adhesive tape.
RESULTS

223
WAXD results
In figure 1 the comparison of both SAPs diffraction patterns are presented. It is
clearly seen that poly(acrylamide-co-acrylic acid) potassium salt is characterised
by amorphous structure. In the case of sodium polyacrylate low intensive crystalline
peaks which are typical for structure of semicrystalline materials, are observed. The
presented results show difference in supermolecular structure between studied
SAPs. Poly(acrylamide-co-acrylic acid) potassium salt is typical amorphous material
whereas sodium polyacrylate is semicrystalline material.
8000
Intensity (counts)
(a)
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
2Theta (°)
6000
Intensity (counts)
(b)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
2Theta (°)
Figure 1. X-ray diffraction patterns obtained before and after milling SAP1 (a) and
SAP2 (b).

224
It is worth noting, that the X-ray diffraction patters before and after grinding are similar
(Figure 1) which indicate that milling process did not change the supermolecular
structure of the studied materials. The lack of changes in the structure of superabsorbent
polymer is important from the point of view of maintaining the sorptive properties on
the appropriate level.
SEM results
In figure 2 an example of SEM image of SAPs grains are presented. As can be seen
a shape of grains is inhomogenous. Therefore, for a correct analysis of the grain size
distribution, the measurements of size were performed for four diagonals of every
measured grain, as is shown in the figure 2. The obtained measurements for 750
grains allow the estimation of size distribution. In table 1 mean values and standard
deviations are presented.
Figure 2. An example image of SAP grains and demonstration of size measurement

method.
Table 1. The result of estimation of size distribution values of SAPs after grinding.
Sample Mean value, μm Standard deviation, μm
SAP1 VAR1 16,70 14,20
SAP1 VAR2 7,16 8,82
SAP2 VAR1 78,77 69,18
SAP2 VAR2 56,39 51,24
According to the results presented in Table 1, the selected grinding conditions strongly
influence the morfology of SAP1 which is probably due to the semicrystalline structure.
Crystalline materials are more brittle than amorphous ones and as it can be seen,
easier to grind. The size distribution is very important from the point of view of the
future application.

225
SUMMARY
Carried out research made it possible to demonstrate the importance of Wide-angle
X-ray Diffraction (WAXD) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) in characterization
of superabrorbent polymers introduced to the multifunctional nonwoven composites
for the construction of personal protective equipment. Additionally, the influence of
grinding conditions on the size distribution of SAPs was studied. The semicrystalline
sodium polyacrylate proved to be more susceptible to the planetary mill and it was
possible to obtain smaller grains. Moreover it was shown that grinding of SAP into
smaller particles increases the active surface of the polymer which affects the sorption
properties.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The paper is based on the results of TechKom project: ‘Technology for the production
of multifunctional composites for human protection in heavy working conditions’
funded in the years 2015-2018 by National Centre for Research and Development.
Project coordinator: Central Institute for Labour Protection – National Research Institute.
REFERENCES
Brochocka, A., and K. Majchrzycka. 2009. Technology for the Production of Bioactive Melt-Blown
Filtration Materials Applied to Respiratory Protective Devices. Fibres and Textiles in Eastern Europe 17
(5): 92–8.
Brochocka, A., K. Majchrzycka, and K. Makowski. 2013. Modified melt-blown nonwovens for respiratory
protective devices against nanoparticles. Fibres and Textiles in Eastern Europe, 21(4):106-11.
Brochocka, A. 2014. Development of method introduction of modifiers in the form of superabsorbent
to the melt-blown technology Przegląd Włókienniczy - Włókno, Odzież, Skóra, 12, 21-5.
Buchholz F.L, Graham A.T. 1997. Modern Superabsorbent Polymer Technology. New York: John Wiley
& Sons
Czaplicki, A. 2006. New method and equipment for manufacturing new adsorptive materials with
active carbon content. Fibres and Textiles in Eastern Europe, 14(4): 75-8.
Dutkiewicz, J., L. Yong, L. Werner, Q. Jian, S. Tong, Z. Xiaomin. 2001. Fibrous materials Patent no. WO
2001/047568 A1.
Irzmańska, E., A. Brochocka, and K. Majchrzycka. 2012. Textile composite materials with bioactive
melt-blown nonwovens for protective footwear. Fibres and Textiles in Eastern Europe, 20(6A):119-25.
Irzmańska, E., and A. Brochocka. 2015. Modified polymer materials for use in selected personal
protective equipment. AUTEX Research Journal, DOI:10.1515/aut-2015-0040
Kabiri K., 2003. Synthesis of fast-swelling superabsorbent hydrogels: effect of crosslinker type and
concentration on porosity and absorption rate. European Polymer Journal 39: 1341–1348.
Krucińska I., B. Surma, M. Chrzanowski, E. Skrzetuska and M. Puchalski. 2013. Application of melt-blown
technology in the manufacturing of a solvent vapour-sensitive, non-woven fabric composed of
poly(lactic acid) loaded with multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Textile Research Journal, 83: 859-870.

226
IMPACT PROTECTION FOR FUNCTIONAL

APPAREL
David J. Tyler
Manchester Metropolitan University, Department of Apparel, Manchester, U.K.
(Presenting and corresponding author E-mail: d.tyler@mmu.ac.uk
ABSTRACT
Whilst good impact protection using materials of 5-10 mm thickness can be achieved,
the thickness of the resulting assemblage often creates difficulties of appearance,
stiffness and loss of comfort. This creates problems for product developers and users.
In the quest for efficient impact protection using thinner materials, research has been
directed to understanding the mechanisms that provide protection. This has led to the
adoption of a biomimetic approach, with consideration being given to composite
materials. The research reported concerns the ability of composites to enhance
impact protection without being bulky.
The materials under investigation in this research are primarily commercially available
in a variety of thicknesses and densities. The composites have been formed using
double-sided adhesive tape. The testing work is undertaken using a customised rig
that allows the forces and timescales of impacts to be recorded.
The performances of the composites are compared with the test results of a variety of
alternative materials, and conclusions are drawn about the mechanisms of achieving
enhanced protection. Design principles are identified to assist the designers and
product developers of functional apparel.
Keywords: Impact protection, functional apparel, biomimetics, clothing comfort
INTRODUCTION
The research reported in this paper is concerned with materials and garments that can
reduce injuries associated with impacts due to collisions, falls and violent behaviour. To
demonstrate the relevance of this topic, attention is drawn to data analysed by Safe
Kids Worldwide (Healy 2013; Ferguson et al. 2013). Their report relates to a database in
the U.S. known as the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System. They found that in
2012, 1.35 million young people (aged 6-19) were seen in emergency rooms for sports-
related injuries. Findings for the previous year were very similar. High on the list of
problems were sprains and strains, fractures, contusions, abrasions and concussions
and the estimated cost of these injuries was more than $935 million per year.
Alongside these data for young people can be placed statistics for adult team sports
injuries, many of which are caused by high-energy impacts. Significant problems
are experienced in contact sports such as rugby, soccer, American football, boxing,
ice hockey, field hockey, cycling, skiing, snowboarding and baseball. These sports
bring to the fore the competitive instincts of players, and injuries are inevitable when
individuals are operating at the limits of their physical performance.
It is widely recognised that the severity of injuries can be reduced with appropriate

227
training and also by the use of appropriate protective clothing. Some materials are
able to lessen the effects of an impact by absorbing energy or dissipating the force
so that the peak forces experienced are reduced. High performance materials are
embedded in the garment in locations likely to experience impacts. These materials
need to be soft, thin, flexible and durable. Further discussion of these issues is provided
by Venkatraman and Tyler (2015).
Some users have expressed concerns about the way protection is incorporated in
the products. For example, garments may have pads inserted into fabric pouches
which can move during an impact and are unlikely to remain in position and protect
the wearer during a slip or fall or collision. Some garments possess bulky pads, which
inhibit the breathability, restrict the free movement of the athlete and affect aesthetic
appearance. Other garments appear to have “protection” tacked on, with very little
input from designers or product developers. To address these concerns, research
has been undertaken to understand the mechanisms of impact protection and to
develop design principles for product development.
A range of impact-resistant materials were obtained for comparative evaluation.
These included some of the branded materials used in competitive sportswear
together with leather (as a natural benchmarking material) and a polyvinylnitrile
thermoset polymer.
Material Notes
D3O Dilatant material
Deflexion S-range Three-dimensional spacer fabric with silicone
Deflexion TP-range Dilatant material
EVA foam Ethyl vinyl acetate foam
Leather Natural benchmarking material
Poron XRD Open-cell urethane foam
PVN Polyvinylnitrile thermoset polymer
These materials were obtained in different thicknesses, ranging from 2mm to over
15 mm.
There are numerous testing scenarios for determining impact resistance. Of these,
two standard methods were considered of greatest relevance to apparel-related
work. These are: Industrial bump caps (BS EN 812:1997/A1, 2001) and Specification
for head protectors for cricketers (BS 7928, 1998). Both involve a striker falling on a
surface, with the protective product experiencing the impact. The research reported
here focuses on material properties affecting peak forces and impact durations. The
experimental equipment detects the forces experienced by a transducer attached
to an anvil located under the protective material. A similar method is specified by the
International Rugby Board. Their hammer and anvil test involves a flat striking surface
(weighing 5kg) falling on to a protective pad which rests on a steel anvil (Pain et al.
2008).
The purpose-built impact attenuation equipment used in this research has a striker,

228
a steel ball, falling on to a flat anvil on which the protective material is placed. The
pressure sensors are located below the sample material and the forces transmitted
through the material by the impactor are recorded in the form of a load-versus-time
data set. By varying the diameter of the ball, different impact profiles can be created.
The mass and height of fall parameters determine the impact energy. For research
purposes, impacts of 5, 10 and 15 Joules are used. An illustration of the test equipment
is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Impact attenuation test rig

Impact forces are experienced by the test material, and the forces reaching the
support plate are recorded using a load washer. A typical data set is plotted in Figure
2. With some samples, the ball bounces a few times before coming to rest, but in
other cases, often with thicker materials, there is no bounce. From traces like this, the
durations of impacts on different thicknesses of materials can be measured.
14
12
10
8
Force (kN)
-2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (ms)
Figure 2. Impact forces experienced with protection provided by 3 mm Poron XRD.

The experimental results reported here give the mean obtained from 5 measurements,

229
with standard deviations being, typically, less than 5% of the means.

RESULTS and DISCUSSION
A selection of commercial materials was tested to compare their abilities to protect
against impact. In addition, unfinished leather was tested to provide benchmark
values. The rationale is that leather has been used in garments to provide wearers
with enhanced protection. Figure 3 presents peak force variations for a range of
materials with different thicknesses. Thinner materials experienced higher peak forces.
As thicknesses increase, the commercial products designed to absorb energy when
impacted reduced peak forces more effectively than the leather sample.
Figure 3. Findings from Impact Attenuation Tests

The EVA foam samples were taken from commercial garments designed for rugby
players. Neither the 5 mm (used for arm protection) nor the 10 mm (used for shoulder
protection) sample compared favourably with leather. The maximum thickness for
shoulder protection permitted by the International Rugby Board is 10 mm. In general,
the branded commercial materials performed better than leather, although clear
differences between them are apparent below thicknesses of 5 mm.
Above peak forces of 12 kN, damage was caused by the impacting sphere, resulting
in a hole through the material.
Whilst energy absorption by the protective material must be a factor, other mechanisms
have been identified during this research. Figure 4 presents data plots for 5 Joule
impacts on different thicknesses of poronXrd. The vertical axis records the measured
force in kN, and the horizontal axis records time in tenths of a millisecond. The impact
durations are in the range 2 ms to 10 ms.

230
Figure 4. Variation of impact duration with thickness of material (poronXrd)

These test results to show a broadening of the impact force traces resulting from the
increasing thickness of a protective material. If energy absorption were the dominant
factor, it is expected that the peak forces would reduce with relatively little change in
the impact timescale. On the other hand, when the impacting event is experienced
over a longer timescale, the material acts as a cushion and, as a consequence, the
peak forces must reduce.
A third mechanism for reducing peak forces is to increase the area of material
affected by the impact. When a larger area experiences an impacting force, the
energy of the impact is more widely distributed and the peak force at any particular
location is reduced. As energy is dissipated within the protective material, the test
equipment should also record a reduction in the measured forces.
One commercial product that sets out to distribute the energy of an impact over a larger
area is isoBLOXTM. This polymeric sheet is about 1mm thick and the manufacturers
claim that their product operates by promoting both energy absorption and energy
dispersion. Experimental work was undertaken to assess the influence of isoBLOXTM
used alongside PVN sheets of different thickness. Peak forces were measured and
plotted in Figure 5.

231
Figure 5. Experimental results obtained with isoBLOXTM

The PVN material provides effective protection above 6mm thickness, and the
addition of an isoBLOXTM sheet makes little difference to the performance under
these experimental conditions. However, there are distinct differences for the thinner
layers of PVN. However, it should be noticed that if the isoBLOXTM curve is shifted to
reflect the 1mm thickness of the material, the two curves almost overlap.
One of the aims of this research is to develop thin, flexible materials suitable to imparting
impact protection to apparel. Energy absorption has not emerged as a major factor
for thin materials. The most important parameter appears to be thickness, and the
ability of the material to extend the impact time so that the energy of the impact can
be dissipated with less trauma. There are remaining questions about increasing the
area of the impact, so that a greater volume of the energy-absorbing material can
be involved. To find answers to these questions, a hypothesis can be proposed based
on the use of leather as a material providing impact protection.
Leather has been used by mankind for reinforcement and impact protection for at
least as long as recorded history. Leather is a composite material, with an outer skin
(which is durable) and an inner more porous layer (which acts as a barrier between
the skin and the delicate tissues within the body). The biomimetic hypothesis is that the
skin is not just a surface, but it has a function of enhancing the protective properties
of skin, including energy dispersion.
To test this hypothesis, several composite materials have been prepared. The inner
porous layer was chosen to be made of PVN, with nominal thicknesses 2mm and
4.5mm. The surface layer was a fabric or polymer sheet that was attached to the PVN
using a double-sided adhesive tape. Selected results are in Figure 6.

232
Figure 6. Experimental results using composite materials

Sample 1: PVN sheet only
Sample 2: PVN sheet with 100g Kevlar weave
Sample 3: PVN sheet with black polyester woven lining
Sample 4: PVN sheet with 0.5mm polypropylene film
Sample 5: PVN sheet with nylon/polypropylene mesh
Sample 2 has the covering of Kevlar weave, but there are no indications that the skin
has any effect. It was a fairly loose weave, so the implication is that it was inadequate
for spreading the area affected by the impact.
Sample 3 is a tightly woven polyester lining, and a small reduction in peak forces is
evident with the 2mm substrate. There was a problem her as the surface of the sample
was visibly affected, with localised delamination at the point of contact. Figure 7 is an
image of the delaminated area. What it shows is that the fabric was dispersing the
energy, but the internal cohesion of the composite was inadequate for the task.

233
Figure 7. Delaminated polyester lining (The dark circle is 1.5mm diameter)

Sample 4 had a covering of a solid sheet of 0.5mm polypropylene. This was slightly
deformed by the impacts, but was anticipated to disperse the impact energy more
effectively than a fabric. Reductions in peak force are apparent for both substrate
thicknesses.
Sample 5 was covered with a nylon/polypropylene mesh, as illustrated in Figure 8a. This
shows peak force reductions of over 30% for both substrates. At the impact location,
the mesh was deformed but the substrate showed the least signs of damage of all
the samples tested.
Figure 8. PVN substrate covered with a nylon/polypropylene mesh (The dark circle is
1.5mm diameter) (a) Before the impact. (b) After the impact.
The test results show a diversity of behaviours, but the all are consistent with the
hypothesis proposed. The Kevlar and polyester surface coverings were unable to
disperse energy over a wider area, in one case because the material was too loosely
woven and in the other case because of delamination. The polypropylene sheet had
a greater potential to promote dispersion, but the greatest effects were found with
the nylon/polypropylene mesh.
234
CONCLUSIONS
Product developers interested in providing garments with impact protection should
realise that there are several mechanisms relevant to their work. This research
considers energy absorption by materials, reduction of peak forces transmitted by
extending the duration of the impact, and energy dispersion by broadening the
area of impact. For apparel, the greatest effects are associated with materials that
extend the duration of impacts, but energy dispersion is likely to be an important
factor to address. By applying a biomimetic approach, the hypothesis proposed is
that the internal structure of leather provides a template for assembling composite
materials to protect against impacts. Experimental work with sample composites has
demonstrated results consistent with the hypothesis, thus providing a framework for
future research.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks to Tony Jennions of Try & Lilly Ltd for assistance with some samples and useful
discussions. Also to James Lorbiecki of Martin-Baker Aircraft Company Limited for
some of the material samples used in this research.
REFERENCES
BS EN 812:1997/A1:2001. Industrial bump caps. Brussels: European Committee for Standardization.
BS 7928:1998. Specification for head protectors for cricketers. London: British Standards Institution.
Ferguson, R.W., Green, A., Hansen, L.M. 2013. Game Changers: Stats, Stories and What Communities
Are Doing to Protect Young Athletes. Washington, DC: Safe Kids Worldwide.
http://www.safekids.org/research-report/game-changers-stats-stories-and-what-communities-are-
doing-protect-young-athletes
Healy, M. 2013. 1.35 million youths a year have serious sports injuries. USA TODAY (August 6).
http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/08/06/injuries-athletes-kids-sports/2612429/
Pain, M. G., Tsui, F. and Cove, S. 2008. In vivo determination of the effect of shoulder pads on tackling
forces in rugby. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26: 855–862.
Venkatraman, P. and Tyler, D. 2015. Impact-Resistant Materials and Their Potential. In Hayes, S.G. and
Venkatraman, P (eds.), Materials and Technology for Sportswear and Performance Apparel, Chapter
8, 205-230, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press

235
PROTECTIVE PROPERTIES OF TEXTILE PACKAGES DESTINED ON THE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING FOR WELDER
PROTECTIVE PROPERTIES OF TEXTILE

PACKAGES DESTINED ON THE PROTECTIVE
CLOTHING FOR WELDER
Iwona Frydrych1,2, Cichocka Agnieszka1 , Paulina Gilewicz1
1
Lodz University of Technology, Żeromskiego 116, 90-924 Lodz, Poland
2
Central Institute of Labour Protection – National Research Institute, Wierzbowa 48, Lodz, Poland
(Presenting author E-mail: iwona.frydrych@p.lodz.pl;
Corresponding author email: iwona.frydrych@p.lodz.pl)
ABSTRACT
The main aim of research was producing the protective clothing model for the welder
with the use of packages containing aluminised basalt fabrics. So far such a kind of
clothing has been produced with the use of aluminized glass fabrics. These products
fulfil their task, but many scientific publications suggested that basalt fibres would be
better to apply for this purpose, because they are characterised by the bigger values
of tensile strength and thermal resistance in comparison to the traditionally used E
glass fibres. The application temperature range of fabrics made of basalt fibres is
wider.
The proposed in research packages are consisted of two aluminised basalt fabrics
(B2, B3) of different mass per square meter and different weave (plain and twill)
+ wool (WN) or cotton (BN) fabrics with the inflammable finishing. The results of
resistance to the convective, contact and radiation heat as well as the resistance
to the molten metal splashes performed for different kinds of packages according
to the appropriate standards allow selecting the best package for the mentioned
clothing. For the comparison purpose results obtained for the packages with the use
of glass fabric (S2 - used so far in such clothing) are also presented.
Keywords: basalt fibres, aluminized basalt fabrics, contact heat, convective heat,
radiation heat, resistance on big metal splashes
INTRODUCTION
In the case of protective clothing very important feature influencing its utility is assuring
the appropriate protection and comfort in such a way that the job activity is not limited
and the dangerous situations causing the accident are not created. An important
aspect from the employer point of view is also the product price. Optimization of
welder clothing material package is still actual and takes into consideration first of
all new materials produced by new technologies, which are characterized by a
high strength and barrier properties, a low mass per square meter and good utility
properties at acceptable costs (Singha, K., 2012). We should remember that using
technical textiles and their modifications for the personal protection of workers
exposed to different kinds of risk is crucial and concerns the labour safety as well as
prevention in the workplaces (Wang N., 2001).
The main objective of research was producing the protective clothing model for

236
the welder with the use of packages containing aluminised basalt fabrics. Earlier
aluminised basalt fabrics as a part of packages were used for the protective gloves
(Hrynyk, Frydrych, 2015). So far the protective clothing for welder has been produced
with the use of aluminized glass fabrics, which fulfils the task, but many scientific
publications suggest that basalt fibres are characterised by the bigger values of
tensile strength and thermal resistance, because they have a wider range of working
temperatures in comparison to the traditionally used E glass fibres. The application
temperature of fabrics made of basalt fibres is significantly higher than that of fabrics
made of glass fabrics. In Table 1, there is presented the comparison of mechanical
(strength) and some thermal properties of basalt and glass of type E fibres (Hrynyk &
co, 2013).
Table 1. Comparison of strength parameters of basalt and E glass fibres
Glass fibre
Parameters Basalt fibre
(type E)
Fibre diameter, µm 7-22 5-20
Fibre density, g/m3 2,65 2,60
Stress, MPa 4150 ¸ 4800 3450
Young’s modulus, GPa 100 ¸110 76
strain, % 3,30 4,76
Range of application temperature, °C -260 ¸ +700 -60 ¸ +380
Border temperature of fibre resistance during
+750 +550
the short-term acting, °C
Melting temperature, °C +1050 ¸ +1460 +730 ¸ +1000
Thermal resistance, W/m2K 0,031 ¸ 0,038 0,034 ¸ 0,040
Basalt fibres are called Man Made Mineral Fibres (MMMF) and are produced from
the basalt rock by drawing and winding fibres from the melt. The chemical content of
basalt rock is given in Table 2 (Cooke, 1991).
Table 2. The chemical structure of basalt rock
Chemical mean Content [%]
SiO2 52.8
Al2O3 17.5
Fe2O3 10.3
MgO 4.63
CaO 8.59
Na2O 3.34
K2O 1.46
TiO2 1.38
P2O5 0.28
MnO 0.16
Cr2O3 0.06

237
Basalt fibres show a low moisture absorption, low elongation at break, LOI> 70, but the
high tensile strength and modulus, very good chemical resistance, more extended
operating temperature range than the regular E glass fibres, getting close to the
carbon fibre and the high strength glass, but beating them price wise (Qi & co, 2006,
Kovacic, Militky, 1996, Militky, 1996, Militky and co, 2002, Militky and co, 2007). Due to
their specific properties they can be used as a full substitute of special glass fibre
threads in the heat resistant elastic structures for technical purposes.
The non-combustible properties of basalt woven materials enable to resist flames for a
long period of time. Basalt woven fabrics provide a very low thermal conductivity, what
makes them flexible materials that ensure exceptional high-temperature performance.
Exposed for the high temperature they have not only a good mechanical resistance,
but also the chemical resistance. They are also ecologically clean and nontoxic,
which is their next technical advantage.
Basalt fibres don’t react with water and don’t create air pollution. Their storage is safe.
They can cause the allergy reaction of skin, eyes and lungs; therefore during their
production the PPE (Personal Protection Equipment) should be used. The long-time
reaction on the contact with basalt fibres wasn’t stated. They don’t cause the cancer
reaction like asbestos. They are signed as safe for the human being health according
to the US and EU standards.
In the paper we are going to present thermal properties of textile packages with
chosen basalt fabrics of Czech production, which potentially can be used for the
production of clothing (for example for welder). Research carried out aimed at
modelling the chosen protective and biophysical properties of clothing produced
with the use of aluminised basalt fabric content. Here we present only the results of
protective properties.
In Table 3, there are presented the basic characteristics of examined materials, which
will be used in the clothing packages. The mass per square meter was determined
according to the standard EN 12127:1997, and thickness according to the standard
EN ISO 5084:1999.
Table 3. Characteristics of materials
Mass per
square Thickness
Fabric Symbol Weave
Lp. meter [mm]
[g/m2]
1. Aluminised glass fabric ST 55 S1 250 0.47 plain
2. Aluminised glass fabric ST 97 S2 430 0.56 twill
3. Cotton fabric impregnated inflammably BN 250 0.60 plain
4. Wool fabric impregnated inflammably WN 566 5.31 twill
5. Aluminised basalt fabric B1 319 0.35 plain
6. Aluminised basalt fabric B2 440 0.49 twill
Thermal resistance is an important property from the point of view of the human
being health and comfort. The basic resistance in the protective clothing should
be assured by the inflammable material or its packages. The proposed packages

238
were consisted of two aluminized basalt fabrics (B2, B3) of different mass per square
meter and different weave (plain and twill) + wool (WN) or cotton (BN) fabrics with
the inflammable finishing. The results of resistance on the convective, contact and
radiation heat as well as the resistance on the molten metal splashes performed
for different kinds of packages according to the appropriate standards allow for
selecting the best package for the mentioned clothing. For the comparison purpose
results obtained for the packages with glass fabric (S2 - used so far in such clothing)
are also attached.
For the presented in Table 3 testing materials the following tests were performed
according to the appropriate standards: the flammability, resistance to the contact,
convection and radiation heat as well as the resistance to the activity of big molten
metal splashes.
Flammability was measured according to PN-EN ISO 15025:2005 procedure. It relies
on the exposing the fabric sample to the activity of small flame coming from the gas
blowpipe for 10 s. After the exposure the time of further burning and glowing were
determined. Additionally, the flame dissemination was observed (i.e., whether the
flame achieved the upper of one of vertical fabric sample edges) and moreover, if
there were created burned residues or holes.
Flammability measurements were done for 4 samples (two of them were cut in the
warp direction, two – in the weft direction) by the edge burning method using the
fabric sample mounted in the special frame. As a result the highest value of time
of further burning and further glowing obtained for the tested samples was taken.
On this basis the efficiency level of protection was determined. In Table 4, there are
presented the criteria of assessment of the protection efficiency level.
Table 4. Levels of flammability efficiency according to the PN-EN ISO 15025:2005
Efficiency level Time of further burning [s] Time of further glowing [s]
1 ≤ 20 A lack of requirements
2 ≤ 10 ≤ 120
3 ≤3 ≤ 25
4 ≤2 ≤5
The resistance to the contact heat of basalt fabrics was assessed according to PN-EN
702:2002. Fabric package specimen is placed on the calorimeter and it is in the
contact with the cylinder, which can be heated to the temperature confined in the
range 100 to 500°C. Contact temperature is chosen on the basis of predicted usage
conditions. During the measurement the threshold time is measured (i.e., time from
the first contact with the heating cylinder to the moment, when the temperature will
increase about 10 °C). The measurement is carried out for three specimens and the
mean value of them is determined. For the measurement OTI type device was used
and as the contact temperature 250°C was chosen. For the resistance to the contact
heat four efficiency levels are given in the standard (Table 5).

239
Table 5. Levels of efficiency for the resistance to the contact heat according to the
PN-EN ISO 11612:2011
Threshold time tt [s]
Efficiency level
min. max.
F1 5.0 ˂10.0
F2 10.0 ˂15.0
F3 15.0
The resistance to the convective heat was measured according to the PN-EN ISO
367:1996. The horizontally placed package sample above the gas blowpipe is
undergone to the heat flux (of density 80 kW/m2) arising from the flame. The transmitted
heat is measured using Cu (copper) calorimeter being in a direct contact with the
sample. Heat transmission index (HTI24) is the time of colorimeter temperature increase
of 24 °C. Measurement result for one fabric package sample is calculated as a mean
from the values obtained for three specimens. The level of efficiency for the property
is given in Table 6.
Table 6. Levels of efficiency for the resistance to the convection heat according to
the PN-EN ISO 11612:2011
Heat transmission index HTI24 [s]
Efficiency level
min. max.
B1 4.0 ˂10.0
B2 10.0 ˂20.0
B3 20.0
Resistance to the radiation heat is determined according to the procedure described

in the PN-EN ISO 6942:2005. The measurement principle relies on acting on the fabric
package specimen by the heat radiation of the flux density 20 kW/m2 in the established
time period. Time of the temperature increase of about 24 °C was registered. It is
expressed as a radiation transmission heat index t24 (RHTI24) [s] calculated as a
mean value from the results of two specimens. The efficiency levels for the radiation
heat resistance are given in Table 7.
Table 7. Levels of efficiency for the resistance to the radiation heat according to the
PN-EN ISO 6942:2005
Radiation transmission heat index t24 (RHTI24) [s]
Efficiency level
min. max.
C1 7,0 ˂20,0
C2 20,0 ˂50,0
C3 50,0 ˂95,0
C4 95
The last measurement method belonging to the group of measurement of thermal

factors is the resistance to big molten metal splashes. Diversity of conditions, in which
liquid metal splashes are in the direct contact with the material used for the clothing
production, makes difficult to assess properly the degree of danger. Measurement
240
according to PN-EN ISO 9185:2009 relies on pouring a certain amount of molten metal
on the sample of materials, which is placed in the small frame under the determined
angle to the horizontal plane. Under the examined sample the PVC foil is placed.
During the measurement the lowest mass of liquid (molten) metal, which after pouring
on the sample causes a damage of PVC foil being under the sample, is registered. For
the purpose of measurements the aluminium, cuprum, iron, steel or other metals are
used. In the case of our experiment it was the molten iron. The protection efficiency
criteria for the property classification are given in Table 8.
Table 8. Levels of efficiency for the resistance to big metal splashes according to the
PN-EN ISO 9185:2009
Big metal splashes [g]
Efficiency level
min. max.
E1 60 ˂120
E2 120 ˂200
E3 200
RESULTS
Concerning the flammability the measurements were done for single basalt fabrics
(not for the packages). In the case of both basalt fabrics the value of time of further
burning and further glowing was equal to 0. The obtained results of other described
above measurements are presented in Table 9.
Table 9. Results of protection efficiency levels on thermal factors
Resistance to
Resistance to Resistance to Resistance to
Symbol of big molten
contact heat at convective heat radiation heat
package metal splashes
250°C HTI(24) [s] RHTI(24) [s]
[g]
S2/BN
> 220 7,4 s 9,3 41,9
3 level 1 level 1 level 2 level
S2/WN
> 220 16,4 s 13,5 78,7
B2/BN
> 220 7,8 s 7,1 184,7
B2/WN
> 220 16,4 s 13,4 235,7
B3/BN
> 220 8,0 s 7,4 150,3
B3/WN
> 220 17,0 s 13,6 278,9
Basing on the results from Table 9, it can be stated that the resistance to big molten
metal splashes showed that all the examined samples (6 packages) were on E3
efficiency level according to the standard EN ISO 9185:2009.
Generally, it can be said that the results obtained for the textile packages with the
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aluminised basalt fabric content are satisfying and they showed the similar values to
the packages with the aluminised glass fabric content for three first thermal factors (i.e.,
the resistance to big metal splashes, to the contact heat at 250°C, and to convective
heat).
In the case of radiation heat they showed much higher resistance than the packages
with glass fabric content. Additionally, the higher levels of protection efficiency are
fulfilled by the packages, which contained the thermal insulation insert of symbol WN
i.e., the wool fabric impregnated inflammably.
CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of carried out research the following conclusions can be drawn out:
1. Analysis of single layer materials indicated two aluminized basalt fabrics of
symbols B1 and B2, which fulfil the assumed criteria can be taken into consideration
at creating the textile packages. It means that these fabrics are characterized by
the similar values of mass per square meter and similar values of thermal insulation
parameters, to the appropriate glass fabrics, which have been used for the welder
clothing so far.
2. Analysis of results obtained for textile packages with the aluminised basalt fabric
content showed the same protection efficiency level as have the packages with the
aluminized glass fabric content for three first thermal factors (i.e., the resistance to big
metal splashes, to the contact heat at 250°C, and to convective heat). In the case of
radiation heat the packages with the aluminized basalt fabrics showed much higher
resistance than the packages with glass fabrics.
3. On the basis of results of performed research it can be stated that the textile
package containing the aluminized basalt fabric of twill weave and mass per square
meter equal to 450 g/m2 + the wool fabric finished inflammably, seems to be the best
for the production of protective clothing for the welder.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Authors would like to thank the Central Institute for Labour Protection –National
Research Institute for enabling to carry out presented above research.
REFERENCES
Singha K., 2012, A Short Review on Basalt Fiber. International Journal of Textile Science, 1(4):19-28.
Wang N., 2001, The function fiber and application in labor protective clothing. Journal of Industrial
Textile, 4:6-10.
Hrynyk R, Frydrych I., 2015, Study on textile assemblies with aluminized basalt fabrics destined for
protective clothing, International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, vol. 27, No 5, pp. 705-
719.
Hrynyk R, Frydrych I, Irzmańska E, Stefko A, 2013, Thermal properties of aluminized and non-aluminized
basalt fabrics. Text. Res. J. vol. 83, issue 17, No 10, pp.1860-1872.
Kovacic V., Militky J., 1996, Thermomechanical Properties of Basalt Fibres, Fibres & Textiles in Eastern
Europe, Vol. 4. no 1(12). 72-73 (1996)
Militky J., 1996, Ultimate mechanical properties of basalt filaments, Textile Research Journal, vol. 66.
no 4, pp. 225-229.
Militky J., Kovacic V., Rubnerova J.,2002, Influence of thermal treatment on tensile failure of basalt
fibers, Engineering Fracture Mechanics 69, 1025—1033.
Militky J., Kovacic V., Bajzik V., 2007, Mechanical Properties of Basalt Filaments, Fibers & Textiles In

242
Eastern Europe, Vol. 15, 49-53.

EN 12127:1997 Textiles. Fabrics. Determination of mass per unit area using small samples. PN-EN
12127:2000
EN ISO 5084:1999 Textiles. Determination of fabric thickness.
PN-EN ISO 15025:2005 Protective clothing. Protection against heat and flame. Method of test for limited
flame spread (ISO 15025:2000).
PN-EN 702:2002 Protective clothing - Protection against heat and flame. Measurement method:
Determination of the contact heat transmission through protective clothing or its materials
PN-EN ISO 11612:2011 Protective clothing – Clothing protecting against hea and flame
PN-EN ISO 367:1996 Protective clothing. Protection against heat and fire. Method of determining heat
transmission on exposure to flame.
PN-EN ISO 6942:2005 Protective clothing - Protection against heat and fire. Method of test: Evaluation
of materials and material assemblies when exposed to a source of radiant heat
PN-EN ISO 9185:2009 Protective clothing. Assessment of resistance of materials to molten metal splash

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Study of the materials for cut resistance
STUDY OF THE MATERIALS FOR CUT

RESISTANCE
Dionísio Silveira1; Raquel Carvalho1; Raul Fagueiro1; Noel Ferreira2; Carlos
Ferreira2; Filipa Monteiro2
1
Centre for Textile Science and Technology, University of Minho, Guimarães, Portugal
2
A. Ferreira e Filhos S.A., Vizela, Portugal
(Presenting author E-mail: dionisiosilveira@fibrenamics.com; Corresponding author email:
ABSTRACT
Crime increases year after year. Aggressions using knives, other cut and puncture
elements are increasing greatly leading to a real need for security personnel
protection, whether public or private, as weapons used are often improvised and
can cause damage in various human body parts or even death.
This work is focused on the study of fibrous materials to be used in cut protection
clothing. Different knitted fabrics were produced in single jersey based weft knitted with
yarns of different compositions, including ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene,
para-aramid, high tenacity polyester, high tenacity polyamide and high tenacity
polypropylene. Tests have been conducted to analyse the cutting performance index
according to the EN388 standard that defines the material performance according to
a scale from 0 to 5. The number of cycles required for a material to be cut determines
the performance index, which is subsequently converted to the referred scale, where
0 refers to a material that presents no resistance to cut and 5 the material with greater
resistance. From the results obtained it was possible to verify that the jersey structure
produced with the ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene presents the best
performance (4 in the above mentioned scale) and the worst performance is from
the jersey structure produced with high tenacity polypropylene yarns that obtained
the classification of 1.
Keywords: cutting resistance, Knitted fabrics, EN 388
INTRODUCTION
The safety and citizens’ well-being are guaranteed by various organizations, which
can be public or private. For both, public and private sector like military, police
officers, prison guards, private security guards, bodyguards among others; the need
for functional clothing or uniforms able to protect them from physical assaults is a
demand [1,2,3].
The major problem is that most of the times, the threats are silent, and there is no way
of predicting that it will happen, so it is imperative that their uniform can provide some
protection in a daily basis and not just when they know they will face threatening
situations [4,5].
Therefore it is necessary for them to use appropriate personal protective equipment,
which can be wearied all day long without being too heavy, without limitations of
a person’s ease of movement and preferentially that can be wearied next to the
244
skin. Injuries made by bladed weapons constitute a considerable share of the total
number of accidents. According to Decker et al it has been a greater demand for
knives protection products, on the one hand, due to the increase in burglaries with
the use of knives and on the other hand, due to improvised weapons by inmates
to engage in disrespect. One reason for the increased use of bladed weapons in
Europe is tight legislation for firearms. If no other methods can be applied to eliminate
or reduce the risk, cut protection clothing should be provided [6].
Great efforts and developments are being made to create cut and puncture resistance
textiles [7-13]. It can already be found on the market several fibres and textiles with
considerable cut and puncture resistance, composed of high performance fibres like,
fiberglass and para-aramid. Another great available fibre is the ultra-high tenacity
Polyethylene (UHMWPE).
Despite the good performance of such fibres, some limitations related to comfort
while using them as wearable textiles, are reported [14]. And only few studies have
reported the cut resistance behavior of these yarns. These fibres can be manufactured
into fabrics by weaving, knitting or nonwoven technologies.
The aim of this study is to analyse the cut resistance performance of selected
commercial high performance fibres to provide the most suitable material for cut
resistance protection. High performance fibre yarns were selected based on their
characteristics such as flexible, ergonomic, light weight and that do not develop
contact dermatitis. To analyse the cut resistance performance single jersey structures
were produced with different materials including ultra-high molecular weight
polyethylene (UHMW-PE), para-aramid (p-AR), high tenacity polyester (PES HT), high
tenacity polypropylene (PP HT) and high tenacity polyamide (PA HT). In order to study
the performance of each fabric, samples were tested for cut resistance, according
to EN 388.
High performance fibres based yarns, namely high tenacity polyester (PES HT), high
tenacity polyamide (PA HT), high tenacity polypropylene (PP HT), ultra-high molecular
weight polyethylene (UHMW-PE), and para-aramid were selected and used to
compare the cut resistance performances. Five specimens of each high performance
fibres based yarn were tested according to NP EN 2060, ASTM 3108, ASTM 3412 and
NP EN 2062, to determine their yarn linear density, coefficient of friction and tensile
properties. The yarn testing results are summarized in table 1.
Table 1. Yarn testing results
Coefficient Breaking Initial Displacement at
Yarn Tenacity Breaking
Linear Density (Tex) of Friction Extension Modulus maximum force
material (N/Tex) Load (N)
(µ) (%) (GPa) (mm)
47 0.70 16.15 47.3 80.72 67.5
PA HT [0.43-0.70]
(± 1.7%) (± 4%) (± 5%) (± 5%) (± 5%) (± 4%)
55 0.53 12.6 50.2 63.00 29.54
PES HT [0.45-0.70]
(± 1.6%) (± 2%) (± 6%) (± 7%) (± 6%) (± 2%)
110 0.64 19.56 11.8 97.81 71.68
PP HT [0.35-0.55]
(± 0.7%) (± 5%) (± 9%) (± 17%) (± 9%) (± 5%)
176 2.70 8.56 45.3 43.01 476.01
UHMW-PE [0.31-0.37]
(± 0.9%) (± 7%) (± 36%) (± 38%) (± 35%) (± 7%)
173 1.65 4.37 47.7 21.83 285.64
p-AR [0.25-0.35]
(± 0.4%) (± 3%) (± 4%) (± 31%) (± 4%) (± 3%)

245
The selected yarns were used to produce a knitted jersey structure, in order to compare
the behaviour of the yarns having the same structure. Five single jersey weft knitted
fabrics were produced for this research on a CMS 320 TC Stoll electronic flat knitting
machine, with similar adjustment parameters namely cams settings, yarn feeding
tension and fabric take down. Table 2 shows the physical characteristics of the weft
knitted fabrics produced.
Table 2. Characteristics of the knitted fabrics
Areal Loop Length Density Tightness
Structure Yarns mass (g/ (lu)/100
factor
m2) wales (cm) wales/cm courses/cm
185,44 0,66 5 7
PES HT 11,24
(± 7%) (± 2%) (± 10%) (± 12%)
160,19 0,71 6 7
PA HT 9,72
(± 8%) (± 0%) (± 0%) (± 6%)
Single 429,42 0,70 7
PP HT 5 (± 10%) 14,16
Jersey (± 5%) (± 0%) (± 8%)
519,08 0,88 4 5
UHMW-PE 15,01
(± 7%) (± 4%) (± 0%) (± 10%)
437,75 0,93 4 6
p-AR 14,16
(± 4%) (± 4%) (± 11%) (± 8%)
Cut resistance performance was evaluated according to standard EN388, using
Coup test device (Figure 1). This device consists of a circular free-rotating blade, under
pressure from a standard weight (5N), which is moved backwards and forwards over
the surface of the specimen over a fixed stroke length. Number of cycles required for
the blade to cut through the material is used to calculate the Cut Index, varying from
0 to 5 (5 represents the highest performance level).
Figure 1. Coup testing device

RESULTS
Cut resistance is defined as the ability of a material to resist damage when challenged
with a moving sharp edge. The results presented in table 3, show the influence of the
yarn type. UHMW_PE jersey fabric present the highest cut resistance performance while
the PP HT jersey fabric the lowest. It is clear from table 3 that the cut resistance index
of UHMW_PE jersey fabric offers the best cut protection and this is mainly attributed
to the good tenacity of the yarn in addition to the higher areal weight of the fabric
(because there is more material present). The poor cut resistance index of the PP HT

246
jersey fabric may be attributed to the low tenacity of the yarn. PP HT fabric and PA HT
fabric had the same cut resistance index but due to the physical characteristics of their
knitted fabrics, mainly the areal weight, 429,42 g/m2 for PP HT fabric and 160,19 g/m2
for PA HT fabric, PP HT fabric was considered the worst cut resistance of this research
(because there was more material present to cut). Cut resistance is a combination
of many factors: material type, areal weight of the fabric and fabric construction; the
material type being the factor that has the greatest impact on the cut resistance of
personal protective equipment.
Table 3. Structures cut index according to EN388
Structure 1 (Jersey)
Yarns
Level Cut Index
PES HT 1 2,4
PA HT 1 2,1
PP HT 1 2,1
UHMW-PE 4 10,9
p-AR 2 3,4
CONCLUSIONS
The present study took into consideration the cut resistance behaviour of single-layer
jersey knitted fabric, produced with five types of high performance yarns (PES HT, PA
HT, PP HT, UHMW-PE, and p-AR) in order to investigate the effect of the yarn type on the
cut protection performance. It was proved that due to tenacity of the yarns, UHMW-PE
jersey fabric had the highest cut performance – level 4, while the PP HT jersey fabric
had the worst cut performance – level 1. The study on the cut performance of the
high performance yarns showed that cut resistance is a combination of many factors:
yarn type, fabric areal mass and fabric construction; the yarn type being the factor
that has the greatest impact on the cut resistance of personal protective equipment.
According to the results it is suggested the use of UHMW-PE jersey fabrics as cut
protective clothing that is lightweight, comfortable and efficient.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was carried out under the project nº 2014/38320 “CEP- Multifunctional clothing
development incorporating: Comfort / Ergonomics / protection” headed by AFF – A.
Ferreira e Filhos S.A. (Portugal), co-funded by the European Regional Development
Funds FEDER through COMPETE Operational Programme Competitiveness Factor.
REFERENCES
[1] Justice, C. and S. Capstone. 2012. Police Use of Force : A Review of the Literature.
[2] Force Science Institute. 2011. New reaction-time study addresses what’s “reasonable” in armed-
suspect encounters.
[3] Nelson, E. 1989. AN EXAMINATION OF POLICE OFFICER MENTAL CHRONOMETRY. The Missouri
Review, 12(2): 144–145.
[4] Christie, L. 2013. America’s Most Dangerous Jobs. CNN Money, p.1.
[5] Bleetman, A. 2003. Wounding patterns and human performance in knife attacks: Optimising the
protection provided by knife-resistant body armour. Journal of Clinical Forensic Medicine, 10(4): 243–
248.

247
[6] Decker, M.J. 2007. Stab resistance of shear thickening fluid (STF)-treated fabrics. Composites
Science and Technology, 67(3-4): 565–578.
[7] Messiry, M. El. 2006. Study of puncture cut resistance in protective fabrics. , 1(c): 2–4.
[8] AITEX, 2012. Future of protective clothing 5th ed., 5th ECPC and NOKOBETEF 10, Future of Protective
Clothing.
[9] Dolez, P.I. and T. Vu-Khanh. 2009. Recent developments and needs in materials used for personal
protective equipment and their testing. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics,
15(4): 347–362.
[10] Smith, W.C. 1999. An Overview of Protective Clothing - Markets , Materials , Needs. Industrial
Textiles, pp.1–12.
[11] Thilagavathi, G., K. Rajendrakumar, and T Kannaian. 2010. Development of Textile Laminates for
Improved Cut Resistance. Journal of Engineered fibers and fabrics, 5(2): 2–6.
[12] Konopov, I., and C. Vic. 2011. The Assessment and Evaluation of the Comfort and Protection of
Advanced Textiles , (February).
[13] Shishoo, R. 2002. Recent developments in materials for use in protective clothing. International
Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, 14(3/4): 201–202.

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Functional textiles
BIO-BASED AND BIODEGRADABLE TEXTILE

MATERIALS FOR NEW PERSPECTIVES
Danuta Ciechańska, Magdalena Kucharska, Konrad Sulak, Krystyna
Twarowska-Schmidt, Wacław Tomaszewski
Institute of Biopolymers and Chemical Fibres, M. Sklodowskiej-Curie 19/27,90-570 Lodz, Poland, e-mail:
ibwch@ibwch.lodz.pl
Substitution of synthetic crude oil-derived polymers with biodegradable materials
obtained from renewable resources offers the opportunity to reduce petroleum
consumption and to curtail the amount of durable waste, a threat to the environment.
After packaging, textiles are another source of this burdensome waste.
Since more than 15 years, the Institute of Biopolymers and Chemical Fibres (IBChF)
conducts investigations in biodegradable synthetic polymers and biodegradable
fibrous products. In recent years the Institute participated in the several research
projects (strategic project for the Polish national economy) related to this subject.
Objective of the projects was the elaboration of technologies for the manufacture
of textiles from biodegradable polymers like polylactide, aliphatic polyesters and
copolyesters, aliphatic-aromatic polyesters, thermoplastic cellulose and modified
polypropylene [1,2,3].
This presentation shows the results of investigations related to manufacturing of
fibers and non-wovens from PLA, which count to the newest generation of textile raw
materials. Alike other synthetic fibers, the biodegradable PLA fibers can be used in
the manufacture of textiles like underwear, clothing, sanitary- and medical disposals,
geotextiles and technical textile like agro-nonwovens, fishing nets and ropes [2].
The synthetic textiles, for medical purposes are surface modified nanofibers made of
biodegradable polymers of natural origin as chitosan [4] or collagen [5]. The proper
selection of these polymers and the technique of their processing should ensure
biocompatibility of modified surfaces with the human body.
In IBWCh research is also conducted into obtaining cellulose nanofibers from waste
plant biomass, which is a rich source of the polymer [1]. Processes of cellulose
extraction from vegetal raw materials and of production of micro- and nanofibrous
forms involve a few steps including biotechnological. Cellulose nano-fibers get more
and more attention because of their excellent mechanical properties which allow
their application in production of various types of composites.
In the Institute of Biopolymer and Chemical Fibres multidirectional investigations are
in full swing concerning with the use medical of polysaccharides and their various
useful forms. The research includes among others multifunctional materials dressings
and implants [4,5,6].
Acknowledgement
The research work was done under the project: 1. Project “The use of biomass in the
preparation of environment-friendly materials” POIG 01.01.02-10-123/09, acronym
BIOMASA, 2. Project „Biodegradable fibrous materials” POIG.01.03.01-00-007-/08,

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Functional textiles
acronym BIOGRATEX, 3. Project “Technology to produce biodegradable polyesters

using renewable raw materials”, POIG.01.01.02-10-025/09, acronym BIOPOL, 4.
Project “AdvanCellMat”, NCBiR/ERA-NET-MATERA/09/2011, 5. Project “The hemostatic,
resorbable dressing with natural polymer”,PBS1/B7/5/2012 acronym HEMOGUARD, 6.
Project SRATEGMED1/235368/8/NCBR/2014, acronym Smart AUCI

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Functional textiles
SIDE ILLUMINATION OF polymer OPTICAL FIBER covered WITH fluorescent POLYESTER FABRIC under bending state
SIDE ILLUMINATION OF POLYMER OPTICAL

FIBER COVERED WITH FLUORESCENT POLYESTER
FABRIC UNDER BENDING STATE
Juan Huang1, Dana Křemenáková1, Jiří Militký1, Jakub Wiener1
Department of Material Engineering, Faculty of Textile Engineering, Technical University of Liberec,
Czech Republic
juan.huang@tul.cz
ABSTRACT
Thin fiber diameter and sufficient side illumination are preferred for polymer optical
fiber (POF) applied in textile structure for shining purpose. It is difficult to fabricate the
side emitting POF with the diameter less than 1 mm. Side illumination of end emission
POF could be obtained by surface modifications such as side notching, abrasion and
addition of fine particles in fiber core or cladding. This contribution is an attempt to
improve and even the side illumination of side emitting POF with 2 mm diameter by
using fluorescent polyester (PET) fabric. The side illumination intensity of samples under
10 bending states are measured by semi-automatic instrument. The results indicate
that both fluorescent PET fabric and bending radius play significant effects on side
illumination intensity of POF. The fluorescent PET fabric enhances the side illumination
of POF markedly. When the bending radius of sample is smaller than the technical
limit of bending radius, the side illumination increases significantly. The results also
imply that the peak of side illumination could be observed near to the middle part of
bend.
Keywords: polymer optical fiber, side illumination, fluorescent PET fabrics, bending
state
INTRODUCTION
Polymer optical fiber (POF) is one kind of optical fiber, which is made from polymers.
It was firstly introduced as the substitute of glass optical fibers in short haul data
communications links and them widely accepted in our daily lives since it is light,
soft, cheap, flexural, anti-impact, easy-connecting, and with large numerical aperture
[1]. The applications of polymer optical fibers (POFs) in Textiles are catching more
attention due to the specular lighting effect. The textile structures (woven, braids
and knits) based on POFs can be used in shining textiles, e.g., the table cloth, curtain
and clothes [2, 3], POFs with the diameter less than 0.5 mm can be easily woven
with traditional textile yarns (flex, cotton, wool, etc.) into fabric structures for various
decorative and lighting patterns, or can be served as the active safety elements in
visible textiles [4]. In above cases, the lighting effect should be as strong as enough.
Side emitting effect of side emitting POF is much greater than that of end emitting
POF because the light in side emitting POF can emit out from the fiber surface. A
lot of efforts have been made to enhance the side emission by both mechanical
and chemical methods. The polymeric materials can be chosen or the fluorescent
additives can be added during manufacturing processes to increase the difference

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Functional textiles
of refractive indices of fiber core and cladding [5], the notches created on fiber
surface [6], surface abrasion by polishing method [7, 8], the increment of surface
roughness by laser treatment [9] or the weave structure [10, 11] can also give the
chances to light emitting out.
The aim of this contribution is to investigate the side illumination intensity of side
emitting POFs wrapped with fluorescent textile fabrics. The effects of fiber diameter,
fluorescent fabric and bending radius of samples on side illumination intensity were
measured and studied.
Materials
Naked side emitting POF with 2 mm diameter was prepared by Grace POF Co., Ltd.
The basic properties of POF are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Basic characterization of side emitting POFs.
Technical data Photoelectrical data
Minimal bending 8 times of diameter Numerical aperture 0.6
radius
Temperature 40˚C ~ 120˚C Light refraction rate of outer layer 1.34
Light loss <2%/feet Light refraction rate of the core 1.475
Wave length 380 ~ 780 nm Maximum of coming light 75˚
All samples with fluorescent polyester (PET) woven fabric were cooperated with Stap
Company, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. (a) Naked POF structure, (b) POF covered with fluorescent PET fabric.
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
For testing of side illumination of sample bending state, one end of the sample under
stretched condition was connected to the light source (4) which was in the tangent
line of the circular wheel (5) (the tangent point was set as 0˚), another end was fixed
by the clamp which was also in the tangent line of the circular wheel (the tangent was
set as 180˚), as shown in Figure 2. For better comparison, the distance between sensor
(1) and sample should be as small as possible (1-2 mm). The movement of sensor was
achieved by the stepping motor (2) and control unit (3). All measurements should be
performed in a dark condition to eliminate the light effect in the testing environment.
The diameters of ten circular wheels are given in Table 2 and the related parameters
of bending state testing are described in Table 3.

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One end of all samples should be polished until it is smooth enough to maximize the
accepted light for fiber before connecting with light source.
Figure 2. (a) Apparatus and (b) corresponding flowchart for measuring illumination
intensity of samples in bending state (right): 1-detector, 2-stepper motor, 3-control unit,
4-light source, 5-clamp, 6-sample, 7-wheel.
Table 2. Details of the circular wheels with different bending states.

Wheel number Radius [mm] Disc number Radius [mm]
1 10 6 75
2 15 7 100
3 20 8 125
4 25 9 150
5 50 10 175
Table 3. Testing condition of illumination intensity for POFs under bending states.
Parameters Value
Bending angle [˚] 0 ~ 180˚
Step size [mm] 5
Distance between sensor and light source without movement [mm] 84
Fiber length [mm] 1200
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 3 displays the relationship between the side illumination and bending angle
at different bending states. Firstly, it is found that the value of side illumination of POF
with fluorescent PET fabric is obviously higher than that of naked POF under the same
bending state. The phosphors in fluorescent PET fabric can absorb the energy first and
then release slowly. Once the sample is connected to the light source continuously,
the sample shows stronger illumination effect. The usage of fluorescent PET fabric
might be an effective and easy method to enhance the side illumination of naked
POF due to the emission property of phosphors.
Secondly, it is interesting to find that the illumination intensity at the bending angle of
0˚ which should be the same theoretically is different for samples under 10 bending
states.
The device has different height of 10 circular wheels, the height of wheels with 10 mm,
15 mm, 20 mm bending radii is the same and the height of others is the same, which
leads to high illumination intensity with three small wheels. At the same time, it is seen
from the figure that there is no evident difference of side illumination at this starting
point with both three small wheels and others, while, according to the increase in the
bending radius, the side illumination decreases slightly. If the optical fiber is bent, the

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Functional textiles
light bending place might transmit back rather than propagate forwards, and the
amount of light would rise when the bending radius of optical fiber declines.
(a) (b)
8 10 mm 8 10 mm
15 mm 15 mm
20 mm 20 mm
25 mm 25 mm
6 50 mm 6 50 mm
S ide Illumination (W/m2)
S ide Illumination (W/m2)

75 mm 75 mm
100 mm 100 mm
125 mm 125 mm
4 150 mm 4 150 mm
175 mm 175 mm
2 2
0 0
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
B ending Angle (°) B ending Angle (°)
Figure 3. Side illumination of samples under different bending states: (a) naked POF,
(b) POF with fluorescent PET fabric.
Moreover, the curves in Figure 3 at each bending state are various. According to
the decrease in bending radius, the side illumination versus bending angle curve
gradually presents a convex upwards; this trend becomes more visible with small
bending radius. It results in the significant difference of results among different
bending radius. The side illumination increases with the decline in bending radius and
is evidently high with the bending radius not more than 20 mm. The reason behind
it could be explained by the minimal bending radius which is given as one of the
technical data in Table 1 and is about 8 time of fiber diameter. When the POF is bent,
both side illumination and optical attenuation increase. If the bending radius of POF is
smaller than its technical bending limit, the side illumination would increase markedly.
Figures 4-5 illustrate the influence of bending angle on side illumination of samples at
different bending states. In order to understand the bending state regarding to both
fiber diameter and wheel diameter, the ratio of wheel diameter (D) to fiber diameter
(d) is considered.
(a) (b)
8 0 8
5 95
10 100
6 15 6 105
20 110
25
S ide illumination [W/m2]
6 6 115
4 30 4 120
35 125
40 2 130
2
45 135
4 50 4 140
8 12 16 20 24 55 8 12 16 20 24 145
60 150
65 155
70 160
2 2
75 165
80 170
85 175
90
0 0
0 40 80 120 160 200 0 40 80 120 160 200
D/d D/d
Figure 4. Side illumination of naked POF at different bending points: (a) 0-90˚, (b) 95-
175˚.
At the same bending angle, the side illumination intensity decrease with increasing
D/d, the decreasing rate goes up from 0 to 90˚ bending angle and goes down from
95˚ to 175˚ bending angle. In the case of the same wheel, when the bending radius
is no more than 20 mm (which means the D/d equals to 20), the higher the bending
angle in the range of 0-90˚, the larger the side illumination intensity (as shown in small
figures in Figure 4a and 5a), and the increasing rate is inversely proportional to the
value of D/d. On the contrary, the higher the bending angle in the range of 95˚-175˚,

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Functional textiles
the smaller the side illumination intensity (as shown in small figures in Figure 4a and
4b), and the decreasing rate is inversely proportional to the value of D/d.
(a) (b)
8 0 8
5 95
8 10 100
8
15 105
6 20 110
6

6 25 6 115
30 120
4
35 4 125
40 130
2 45 135
4 4 2
50 140
8 12 16 20 24 55 145
60 8 12 16 20 24 150
65 155
2 70 2 160
75 165
80 170
85 175
90
0 0
0 40 80 120 160 200 0 40 80 120 160 200
D/d D/d
Figure 5. Side illumination of POF with fluorescent PET fabric under different bending
points: (a) 0-90˚, (b) 95-175˚.
Figure 6 shows the peak values of side illumination of samples. There are decaying
exponential relationship between peak of side illumination intensity and wheel
diameter, and growing exponential relationship between peak value and bending
angle. When the bending radius or D/d value declines from 175 to 10 mm, the peak
value rises in the range of 1-8 W/m2 and is located at the bending angle shifting
from 0 to 100˚. Which means, the highest peak might be found with smallest bending
radius and at approximately 100˚ bending angle that is very near to the middle part
of bend.
B ending angle [°] (b) B ending angle [°]
(a)
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
8 8
D/d
Peak of illumination intens ity [W/m2]
Peak of illumination intens ity [W/m2]
2
7 y=1.0+18.9exp(-x/7.6), R =0.99 7
6 6
5 5
D/d
4 4 2
y=1.4+28.3exp(-x/6.7), R =0.98
Bending angle Bending angle
3 3
y=0.9+0.004exp[(x+83.5)/25.5], y=1.4+0.003exp[(x+66.5)/21.8],
2 2
2 R =0.99 2 R =0.98
1 1
0 0
0 40 80 120 160 0 40 80 120 160
D/d D/d
Figure 6. Peak values of side illumination of samples: (a) naked POF, (b) POF with
fluorescent PET fabric.
CONCLUSIONS
The fluorescent PET fabric was used to improve the side illumination of naked
POF. According to the measurements of side illumination of POF with and without
fluorescent PET fabric, it is concluded that the fluorescent PET fabric enhances the
side illumination of naked POF. The technical datum of bending radius limit is a critical
value for bending state testing of side illumination and separates the testing results
into two different parts.
When the bending radius is not more than this critical value, the side illumination
versus bending angle curve shows a convex upwards, and this convex is more visible
with smaller bending radius and the peak of side illumination is observed near to the
middle part of bend.
Conversely, when the bending radius is more than the critical limit, the side illumination

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Functional textiles
versus bending curve presents a normal decay exponential trend between side
illumination and bending angle. Besides, the bending radius plays a perceivable role
in side illumination which increases slightly with decreasing bending radius.
The effect of the ratio of wheel diameter to POF diameter on side illumination would
be interesting if different fiber diameters are taken into account,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported under SGS-21028 project by Technical University of Liberec.
REFERENCES
Zubia, J., and Arrue, J. 2000. Plastic optical fibers: an introduction to their technological processes and
applications. Optical Fiber Technology. 7:101-104.
Thiele, E., Helbig, R., Weigand, F., Arnold, R., and Seeger, M. 2009. Two ways to apply optical fibers in
textile structures. T-Plot Workshop Technical Textiles and Textile Recycling.
http://lumigram.com/
Křemenáková, D., Lédl, V., Militký, J., Bůbelová, B., and Meryová, B. 2013. Certified Product n. 24997
Active illuminating safety product. Patent office CZ.
Gauvreau, B., Guo, N., and Schicker, K. 2008. Color-changing and color-tunable photonic band gap
fiber textiles. Opt Express, 16: 15677-15693.
Shen, J., Tao, X.M., Ying, D.Q., Hui, C.Y., and Wang, G.F. 2013. Light-emitting fabrics integrated with
structured polymer optical fibers treated with an infrared CO2 laser. Textile Research Journal, 0: 1-10.
Harlin, A., Mailis, M., and Vuorivirta, A. 2003. Development of polymeric optical fibre fabrics as
illumination elements and textile displays. Autex Reserch Journal, 3: 1-8.
Im, M.H., Park, E.J., and Kim, C.H. 2007. Modification of plastic optical fiber for side-illumination. Hum
Comput Interact, 4551: 1123-1129.
Huang, J., Křemenáková, D., Militký, J., Zhu, G.C., and Wang, Y. 2014. Evaluation of illumination intensity
of plastic optical fibers with TiO2 particles by laser treatment. Autex Research Journal, 1-6.
Wang, J.C., Yang, B., Huang, B.H., and Jin, Z.M. 2012. Design and development of polymeric optical
fiber jacquard fabric with dynamic pattern display. Textile Research Journal, 82: 967-974.
Wang, J.C, Huang, B.H., and Yang, B. 2012. Effect of weave structure on the side emitting properties of
polymer optical fiber jacquard fabrics. Textile Research Journal, 0: 1-11.

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EXPERIMENTAL AND ANALYTICAL INVESTIGATION ON THERMAL AND ACOUSTIC BEHAVIOR OF 3D SPACER KNITTED FABRICS
EXPERIMENTAL AND ANALYTICAL

INVESTIGATION ON THERMAL AND ACOUSTIC
BEHAVIOR OF 3D SPACER KNITTED FABRICS
Veerakumar Arumugam, Rajesh Mishra, Jiri Militky, Dana Kremenakova,
Jana Salacova & Mohanapriya Venkataraman
Dept. of Materials Engineering Technical University of Liberec, Liberec, Czech Republic 461 17
(arumugam.veerakumar@tul.cz, veerakumar27@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT
Utilization of 3-Dimensional (3D) porous textile materials by the civil and mechanical
engineers for improved thermo-acoustical environment has widened the research
scope. Since spacer textile fabrics have superior thermal and acoustical characteristics
compared to conventional woven/knitted structures or nonwovens due to their
wonderful 3D sandwich pattern and porous nature. Hence this research paper
presents an experimental investigation on the sound absorption behavior and thermal
properties of 3D knitted spacer fabrics. The Sound absorption coefficient (SAC) and
thermal conductivity (K) were measured using two microphone impedance tube
and thermal conductivity analyzer (TCi). Moreover, tortuosity of the spacer fabrics
was carefully calculated and discussed analytically. This study deeply discusses the
influence of material parameters and characteristics on acoustical properties of 3D
spacer knitted fabrics. The results show that the fabric surface property, porosity, flow
resistivity and tortuosity have significant effects on the sound absorbability as well as
thermal conductivity. Finally the paper describes regression equations and correlation
between Noise reduction coefficient (NRC) and Thermal conductivity (K) for this
knitted spacer fabrics. The equation is useful to determine NRC value by knowing the
K-value and vice versa for designing the material for various applications.
Keywords: 3D Spacer Fabrics, Sound Absorption Coefficient (SAC), Thermal
Conductivity, Regression, Thickness and Bulkiness
INTRODUCTION
Spacer fabrics have two outer surfaces connected to each other with spacer yarns,
they provide light weight and bulkier structure. The middle layer comprises of mono or
multifilament yarns. Components in spacer fabrics differ depending on the yarn type
and production method (Mecit and Marmarali 2012). There are two types of knitted
spacer fabrics: warp-knitted spacer fabrics and weft-knitted spacer fabrics. The first
type can be produced on rib raschel machine having two needle bars (McCartney,
Allen and Donaghy 1999), while the second type can be produced on double jersey
circular knitting machine having a rotatable needle cylinder. It can be produced by
flat knitting too (Shepherd 2004).
The properties of spacer fabrics such as 3D fiber disposition, possibility to use different
materials and single step production system, enable them in different application
areas. The major application areas are acoustics and automotive, aerospace, civil
engineering, medical field, geotextiles, protective textiles, sportswear and composites

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Functional textiles
(Xiaohua, Hu and Feng 2008. Gross 2003). Dial et al. introduced fabric with spacer
structure to improve sound absorption performances. Their studies analyzed and
reported that acoustic performance of plain weft knitted spacer is good in middle
and high frequency range (Dias, Monaragala, Needham and Lay 2007). Liu and
Hu analyzed and compared the effects of different fabric layers and arrangement
sequences of both warp and weft knitted spacer fabrics on the noise absorption
coefficient (Liu and Hu 2010). They suggested that sound absorption behavior of
spacer fabrics are effective with multilayer arrangements backed up with air cavity.
There is only few research studies conducted on acoustic performance of spacer
fabrics. Hence, it motivates researchers to carry out experimental and theoretical
studies of spacer fabrics about its sound absorption performance.
Therefore the current study reports an experimental and analytical investigation on
sound absorption behavior of weft knitted spacer fabrics. Also, the influence of spacer
fabric parameters and characteristics of sound absorption are carefully examined
and reported. Meanwhile thermo-acoustic performance of spacer fabrics are
studied and analyzed. Since good thermal and acoustic performance of materials
are necessary when the materials are used as inner lining of automotives, on the walls
inside buildings or any other indoor environment (Srinvastav, Dhabal, Suman, Saini
and Panchal 2006). During summer, the thermal conductivity of materials should be
low to resist heat transfer from outside to inside and in winter it is reverse (to protect
heat transfer from inside to out). So for indoor application, the material must have
excellent performance in both thermal and acoustic performance. Thus the needs of
correlation between these two properties are important to assess the efficiency when
materials are used for indoor environment.
In this work, the sound absorption of spacer knitted fabrics was calculated using two
terms, namely sound absorption coefficient (SAC) and noise reduction coefficient
(NRC) using impedance tube method. SAC is the measure of sound absorbed by
the samples for each and every frequency and overall sound absorption of different
materials can be compared through NRC. It is defined as the arithmetic average
of SAC at four different frequencies, namely 250 Hz, 500 Hz, 1000 Hz and 2000 Hz
[16]. The materials characteristics e.g. porosity, airflow resistivity, density and thickness
were measured as per standards. The tortuosity which largely influences the acoustic
performance was experimentally (using ultrasonic testing) and theoretically studied
and compared. Finally an attempt has been made in this study to find the correlation
between thermal conductivity and noise reduction coefficient.
The six fabric samples were classified into two groups for convenient analysis of results,
the first group has been developed using Polyester/Polypropylene blend with three
different proportions and second group with Polyester/Polypropylene/Lycra blend
having another 3 different compositions. As a spaceryarn, threedifferenttypesof 88
dtex Polyester monofilamentyarn and Polyester multifilament yarns (167 dtex and 14.5
tex) were used. 14.5 tex Polypropylene and 44 dtex multifilament yarns with Lycra
werealsousedforthe face and back side of the spacer fabrics (Table 1). These fabrics
were developed in SINTEX pvt. Ltd. Czech Republic.

258
Fabric Fiber
Functional textilesFabric Technical
sample Technical face Spacer composition
layers
EXPERIMENTAL AND ANALYTICAL back
INVESTIGATION ON THERMAL AND ACOUSTIC BEHAVIOR OF 3D SPACER KNITTED FABRICS
No. yarn (%)
Table 1. Fabric particulars. Group 1 - Without Lycra

Fabric
Fiber composition
sample Fabric layers Technical face Spacer Technical back
(%)
No. Polyester
yarn
58% POP 42%
Polypropylene monofilament Polypropylene
S1 GROUP 1 -(PES monofil -
(POP) -14.5 tex WITHOUT LYCRA (POP) -14.5 tex
PES
monofilament
88 dtex
Type of (POP)
Polypropylene
Polyester
(POP)
Polypropylene 58% POP 42% PES
S1 yarns and -14.5 tex
monofilament (PES
-14.5 tex monofilament
linear Polypropylene Polyester (PES) -
monofil - 88 dtex Polypropylene 45% POP 55%
S2 (POP)-14.5 tex 14.5 tex (POP) -14.5 tex PES
density
Type of yarns

and linear
Polypropylene (POP)- Polyester (PES) - 14.5 Polypropylene (POP)
S2 density Polypropylene Polyester (PES) - Polypropylene 41%POP & 59%
45% POP 55% PES
S3 14.5 tex tex -14.5 tex
(POP) -14.5 tex 167 dtex (POP) -14.5 tex PES
Group
Polypropylene (POP) 2-Polyester
With(PES)
Lycra
- 167 Polypropylene (POP)
S3 41%POP & 59% PES
-14.5 tex dtex -14.5 tex

GROUP 2- WITH LYCRA
Polyester 55%POP
Polypropylene Polyester 55%POP 39%PES
Polypropylene (POP)-14.5 monofilament Polypropylene
Polypropylene (POP) 39%PES
S4
S4 (POP)-14.5 tex
monofilament (PES monofilament 6%
tex Lycra - 44dtex (PES monofil) - (POP) -14.5 tex
-14.5 tex monofilament 6%
Lycra - 44dtex monofil) - 88 dtex Lycra
88 dtex Lycra
Type of
Type of yarns
yarns and
and linear Polypropylene
Polypropylene (POP)-14.5 Polyester (PES) -
Polyester (PES) - 14.5 Polypropylene
Polypropylene (POP) 42% POP 52%
42% POP 52% PES 6%
S5
S5 (POP)-14.5 tex PES 6%
linear
density tex Lycra - 44dtex tex
14.5 tex
-14.5 tex
(POP) -14.5 tex
Lycra
density Lycra - 44dtex Lycra

Polypropylene (POP)-14.5
Polypropylene Polyester (PES) - 167 Polypropylene (POP) 39% POP 55% PES 6%
39% POP 55%
S6 tex and Lycra - 44dtex Polyester (PES) -
dtex Polypropylene
-14.5 tex Lycra
S6 (POP)-14.5 tex and
167 dtex (POP) -14.5 tex
PES 6%
Lycra - 44dtex Lycra
The fabric characteristics such as areal density, stitch density, structure, thickness

etc. are presented in Table 2. The density (D) of the fabric was calculated using the
The fabric characteristics such as areal density, stitch density, structure, thickness etc. are
relationship
presented in (eqn.
Table 1)
2. The density (D) of the fabric was calculated using the relationship
(eqn. 1)
W
D= kg / m3 (1)
t
Where, W is areal density (weight per unit area) which was determined following the
standard method ASTM D 3776. Thickness, t was determined using SDL thickness gauge
as per ASTM D 5736 standard.
Porosity
Porosity, H, was calculated using the equation (2),
ρb
H = 1− (2)
ρa
where, ρb is bulk density of spacer fabrics, ρa is weighted average absolute density of
fibres in the spacer fabric, expressed in kg/m3.
Determination of tortuosity 3

The tortuosity is a fundamental parameter which describes complexity of the path of
sound wave propagating within a porous material. In this work the tortuosity of spacer
fabrics were determined by analytical method.
Analytical determination of tortuosity

259
The tortuosity is a fundamental parameter which describes complexity of the path of sound
Functional textiles
wave propagating within a porous material. In this work the tortuosity of spacer fabrics
were determined by analytical method.
Analytical determination
For analytical of tortuosity
determination, a few assumptions are made by Dias et al (Dias,
Monaragala, Needham and Lay 2007). There are pores in the fabric which are like
For analytical determination, a few assumptions are made by Dias et al (Dias, Monaragala,
slits whose walls are bounded by the mesh of yarns and angle of inclination of a pore
Needham and Lay 2007). There are pores in the fabric which are like slits whose walls are
is same as the angle of inclination of the interconnecting yarn between the front and
bounded by the mesh of yarns and angle of inclination of a pore is same as the angle of
back surfaces
inclination of the ofinterconnecting
the fabric. Thusyarn
analytical
between model considers
the front these
and back pores to
surfaces of be inclined
the fabric.
at an angle (θ) normal to the surface of the fabric. Also angle θ can be
Thus analytical model considers these pores to be inclined at an angle (θ) normal to the determined
surface
using theof spacing
the fabric. Also angle
between tuckθ loops
can be
on determined
alternate wales using onthe
thespacing between
front and tuck
back face
loops on alternate wales on the front and back face of the fabric (d) and its thickness (t).
of the fabric (d) and its thickness (t). So tortuosity (ks) of the fabric and angle of
So tortuosity θ (k
inclination s) of
can bethe fabric and using
determined angle the
of equations
inclination θ can be determined using the
(3,4);
equations (3,4);;
1
Ks = (3)
cos 2 θ
⎛ d ⎞
θ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ (4)
⎝ t ⎠
The spacing d can be determined from the number of wales per cm (W ) of the plain
knitted face of a particular fabric and the number of needle positions between the two
alternate wales (p) using equation (5).
10
d = ( p + 1) +
(W − 1) (5)
Thus, with the use of equations (5-6), the tortuosity of the spacer fabrics can be
calculated approximately. The results are reported in Table 2.

Air flow resistance
Air flow resistance of spacer fabric was calculated from air permeability value obtained
Air flow resistance
from Textest FX-3300 air permeability tester. The air permeability is described as the rate
of air flow passing perpendicularly through a known area, under a prescribed air pressure
Air flow resistance of spacer fabric was calculated from air permeability value obtained
differential
from Textest between
FX-3300 the two
air surfaces of tester.
permeability a material
The (100 Pa) (Oglakcioglu
air permeability and Marmarali
is described as the
2007). Tests were performed according to standard ISO 9237 for five specimens of each
rate of air flow passing perpendicularly through a known area, under a prescribed
sample and expressed as linear air flow velocity (v) in m/s. This specific flow resistance
air pressure differential between the two surfaces of a material (100 Pa) (Oglakcioglu
has been converted to air flow resistivity, R using the equation 6 shown below. The results
and Marmarali 2007). Tests were performed according to standard ISO 9237 for five
are reported in Table 2.
specimens of each sample Table 2. and expressed as linear air flow velocity (v) in m/s. This
Characteristics of spacer fabrics.
specific flow resistance
Characteristics of has been converted to air flow resistivity, R using the equation
6 shownSpacer
below. The results areS1
Fabrics S2in Table
reported S32. S4 S5 S6
Areal Density Average 493 443 477 632 657 695
(g.m-2)
SD 0.08 0.06 0.1 0.05 0.06 0.11
Thickness Average 4.4 2.62 2.74 4.4 3.5 3.4
(mm) SD 0.45 0.56 0.31 0.28 0.44 0.23
Density Average 112 169.1 174.1 144.8 187.7 205.4
(kg.m-3) SD 0.25 0.31 0.24 0.55 0.15 0.3
4


260
Functional textiles
Table 2. Characteristics of spacer fabrics.

Characteristics of Spacer Fabrics S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
Average 493 443 477 632 657 695
Areal Density (g.m-2)
SD 0.08 0.06 0.1 0.05 0.06 0.11
Average 4.4 2.62 2.74 4.4 3.5 3.4
Thickness (mm)
SD 0.45 0.56 0.31 0.28 0.44 0.23
TIWC 2016, 25-28 April,
Average 112 2016,
169.1 Poznan,
174.1 Poland 187.7
144.8 205.4
Density (kg.m-3)
SD 0.25 0.31 0.24 0.55 0.15 0.3
Stitch
Stitch Density (Stitches/ Average
Average 200 200150 150
150 150
350 350280 280 280 280
cm )Density
2
SD 0.05 0.02 0.06 0.03 0.05 0.05
(Stitches/cm2) SD 0.05 0.02 0.06 0.03 0.05 0.05
Average 0.90 0.86 0.85 0.87 0.84 0.83
Porosity Average 0.90 0.86 0.85 0.87 0.84 0.83
Porosity SD 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.02
SD 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.02
Average 2.74 2.89 1.06 1.07 1.00 2.14
Tortuosity
Tortuosity AnalyticalAverage 2.74 2.89 1.06 1.07 1.00 2.14
SD 0.113 0.042 0.004 0.002 0.014 0.042
Analytical SD 0.113 0.042 0.004 0.002 0.014 0.042
Average 23669.3 107334 121170 43588.94 163452.1 191233.84
Air Air flow flow Resistivity
R(Pa.m -2.
s)
Resistivity Average 23669.3 107334 121170 43588.94 163452.1 191233.84
-2. SD 12.08 17.41 19.04 8.55 10.26 9.12
R(Pa.m s)
SD 12.08 17.41 19.04 8.55 10.26 9.12

∇P
Air Flow Resistivity, R = Pa .m−2 .s (6)
v* d
Where R - air flow resistivity,
∇P - Pressure difference in Pascal,
v -linear air flow velocity in m/s
d- thickness in metre
Thermal conductivity measurements were performed using C-Therm Thermal Conductivity
Thermal TCi.
Analyzer conductivity measurements
The TCi is were performed
based on the modified using
transient plane C-Therm
source Thermal
technique. The
Conductivity Analyzer TCi. The TCi is based on the modified transient plane source
testing of the materials can be performing by placing the sample on the heating element
technique.
(sensor) for The testing
about of the materials
0.8 seconds. can beis performing
A known current by placing
passed through the sample
the sensors heating
element which results
on the heating element raise in temperature
(sensor) for aboutat
0.8the interface
seconds. A between material
known current is and
passed the
samples. This temperature rise at the interface induces a change in the voltage drop of the
through the sensors heating element which results raise in temperature at the interface
sensor’s
betweenspiral heating
material and element
the samples. (Kuvandykova 2010). The
This temperature rise standard test method
at the interface induces EN
61326-2-4:2006
a change in thewas used for
voltage dropthis
oftesting using TCi
the sensor’s spiral(Cha, Seo and
heating Kim 2012).
element This test
(Kuvandykova
was performed under room temperature. The results are reported in Table 2.
2010). The standard test method EN 61326-2-4:2006 was used for this testing using TCi
Measurement of sound absorption coefficient (Impedance Tube Method)
(Cha, Seo and Kim 2012). This test was performed under room temperature. The results
are reported in Table 2.the impedance tube method was used to determine the normal
In this research,
incident
Measurementsound absorption coefficient, coefficient
of sound absorption SAC (α). A minimum
(Impedance of three
Tubespecimens
Method) for each
sample were tested according to ASTM E 1050-07. Standard test method for impedance
and absorption
In this research,of the
acoustic materials
impedance tube using a tube
method with used
was two microphones
to determineand
the a normal
digital
frequency analysis system was used (Figure 1).
incident sound absorption coefficient, SAC (α). A minimum of three specimens for
each sample were tested according to ASTM E 1050-07. Standard test method for
impedance and absorption of acoustic materials using a tube with two microphones
and a digital frequency analysis system was used (Figure 1).

261
Functional textiles
Figure 1. Impedance tube method (ASTM E 1050-08 and Bruel & Kjaer, 2009).

Figure Impedance tube method (ASTM E 1050-08 and Bruel & Kjaer, 2009).
It uses1.plane sound waves that strike the material straight and so the sound absorption
coefficient is called normal incidence sound absorption coefficient, SAC . In this study,
It uses plane sound waves that strike the material straight and so the sound absorption
the impedance tube method was used, which is faster and generally reproducible
coefficient is called normal incidence sound absorption coefficient, SAC . In this study, the
impedance and,tube in particular it requires
method was used, relatively small circular
which is faster samples,
and generally both 29 and
reproducible 100
and, in mm in
diameter
particular according
it requires relatively tosmall
the frequency range (former
circular samples, both 29 measures 500in
and 100 mm Hzdiameter
to 6.4 kHz and
according to the frequency range (former measures 500 Hz to 6.4 kHz and later 50 Hz to
later 50 Hz to 500 Hz). Thus the method avoids the need to fabricate large test sample
500 Hz). Thus
with the method
lateral dimensions avoids the need
several timesto thefabricate
acoustic large test sample
wavelength with and
(Ryu lateral
Yunseon
dimensions
2000,several
Seddeqtimes
1991). the acoustic wavelength (Ryu and Yunseon 2000, Seddeq
1991).
. .
Calculation of NRC (noise reduction coefficient)
Calculation of NRC (noise reduction coefficient)
The “Noise Reduction Coefficient” (NRC) is a measure of how much sound is absorbed
The
by a"Noise Reduction
particular Coefficient"
material, and is(NRC)
derivedis a from
measure of how much
the measured sound
Sound is
Absorption
absorbed by a particular
Coefficients material,
[29]. The NRC was and is derived from
determined using the the
measured
followingSound Absorption
formula (eqn. 7).
Coefficients [29]. The NRC was determined using the following formula (eqn. 7).
α 250Hz + α500Hz + α1000Hz + α 2000Hz
NRC = (7)
4
RESULTS
RESULTS
Effect of material parameter on air flow resistivity
Effect of material parameter on air flow resistivity
In this study, six spacer fabrics of different materials, stitch density, thickness and spacer
yarns were chosen to study the effect of material characteristics. Maximum 2% variation is
In this study, six spacer fabrics of different materials, stitch density, thickness and
observed in flow
spacer resistivity
yarns values for
were chosen all the
to study thetested
effectsamples. Table
of material 2 shows that Maximum
characteristics. the
percentage deviation of flow resistivity for sample 1 and sample 2 is 5-35%. Figs. 2 and 3
2% variation is observed in flow resistivity values for all the tested samples. Table 2
show the flow resistivity values for different samples (S1 – S6) with respect to density and
shows that the percentage deviation of flow resistivity for sample 1 and sample 2 is
porosity. The variation in flow resistivity with respect to thickness of samples has not been
5-35%.
discussed Figs. 2only
because andapproximately
3 show the flow 1-2% resistivity values
variation for different
in thickness samples
is observed (S1 – S6) with
between
respect to density and porosity. The variation in flow resistivity with respect to thickness
the samples of both the groups.
of samples has not been discussed because only approximately 1-2% variation in
The investigation
thickness isof observed
air flow resistivity
betweenfor thespacer
samples fabrics
of both made theup groups.of monofilament and
multifilament spacer yarns has been carried out and described in this section. It has been
observed that the flow resistance is significantly lower in case of spacer fabrics made up of
monofilament spacer yarn compared to multifilament spacer yarn. The same trend is
6
262
Functional textiles
The investigation of air flow resistivity for spacer fabrics made up of monofilament
and multifilament spacer yarns has been carried out and described in this section.
It has been observed that the flow resistance is significantly lower in case of spacer
fabrics made up of monofilament spacer yarn compared to multifilament spacer
yarn. The same trend is observed in both the group of samples (group 1 and group
2), it is because of the samples (S1 & S4) fabrics made up of monofilament spacer
yarns have more open structure as compared to samples (S2, S3 & S5, S6 respectively)
. Also, it is observed that group 2 samples have significantly higher flow resistance
than group 1 samples because of closeness of structure (higher stitch density) of the
samples on the outer surface to resist air to move inside the material.
As shown in Figure 2, the density of the material has a strong influence on the air flow
inside the material. It is obvious that the increase in density leads to increase in flow
resistance. The correlation between density and air flow resistivity was also calculated
and mentioned in figure. In both the group of samples the air flow resistance decreases
with increase in porosity. So, negative correlation trend was found between these two
parameters as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 2. Effect of density on air-flow resistivity.

263
Functional textiles
Figure 3. Effect of porosity on air-flow resistivity.

Effect of materials parameter on tortuosity.
Basically tortuosity is the measure of non-straightness of pore structure in given material.
If the path is more complex, the sound wave takes longer time to pass through the
structure and remains in contact with the constituent material for a longer duration
(Seddeq 1991). In this section the effect of material parameters on tortuosity has been
discussed thoroughly. The tortuosity values show significant difference between the
samples (S1 -S6). As per both the group of samples, there is significant difference
because of the variation in stitch density and related roughness on the surface of
the materials. A small variation in thickness causes a huge impact on tortuosity of
air channel in the material. In Figure 4 the effect of porosity on tortuosity has been
presented, it shows a non-linear trend for both the group of samples because in 3D
spacer textile materials, the tortuosity depends on the inner geometry apart from the
porosity. The tortuosity increases with decrease in porosity of spacer textile materials.
3.50
3.00
2.50
T or tuosity
2.00
1.50 Experimental
1.00 Analytical
0.50
0.00
0.80 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.94
Por osity (% )
Figure 4. Effect of porosity on tortuosity.

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Functional textiles
In Figure 5, the influence of flow resistivity on tortuosity shows negative trend for group
1 samples and positive trend for group 2 samples. It is observed that samples with
lycra content on surface layer exhibit increased tortuosity along with increase in air
flow resistivity. It is obvious that, when the material has more tortuous path, it resists the
fluid to flow freely. In case of group 2, the samples show higher resistance to air flow
on the surface because of tightness of the fabrics (high stitch density). In contrast,
the group 1 samples without lycra show negative correlation, it may be because
of variation in thickness between spacer fabrics made up of monofilament and
multifilament spacer yarns. It is also observed that spacer fabric with monofilament
has more open channel for free flow of fluid than multifilament spacer yarns. Samples
S1, S2 and S6 have more tortuous path but still show lower sound absorption, it may
be incident sound energy reflected away from the top layer and does not penetrate
into the fabric.
Figure 5. Influence of tortuosity on air flow resistivity.
Influence of material characteristics on sound absorption coefficient

For the range of considered porosity, the influence on the sound absorption is
complicated. When porosity increases from 85 to 90 % for group 1 samples, the
changes on sound absorption is insignificant for low freqency range (50 Hz to 2000
Hz). But for frequency range above 2000 Hz, the absorption coefficient decreases
drastically when the porosity increases to 90%. This is mainly because of too much
space between the two layers in spacer fabrics which entraps excess of air, hence,
the sound energy dissipation is substantially weaken, especially when the porosity is
higher than 90%.
In case of group 2 samples with porosity (83 to 87%), there is signicant sound absorption
both in low and high frequency ranges. It is mainly due to dissipation of sound waves

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Functional textiles
between the layers having relatively lower volume of air trapped inside the structure.
In case of spacer fabric samples with monofilament (S1), the sound absorption is
comparitively lower than samples with multifilaments (S2 and S3) because of higher
porosity. In contrast, the trend is reversed for group 2 samples, S4 shows higher sound
absorption than S5 and S6, though the porosity is higer (87%) for S4. This is mainly
because of surface roughness and stitch density of the spacer fabrics which causes
sound waves to reflect more on the surface itself. Variations of porosity in the range of
2 or 3 % have minor influence on the acoustic behavior of spacer fabrics (Figure 6).
Figure 6. Sound absorption coefficient of spacer knitted fabrics.

The effect of tortuosity on sound absorption coefficient of the spacer fabrics are
analyzed and reported in this section. As can be seen, sound absorption coefficient
increases with decrease in the tortuosity values for both the group of samples (S1 to
S6) for middle and high frequency ranges. Referring to Table 2, it appears that the
optimum sound absorption performed by the less tortuous material is due to increase
in fabric thickness as areal density increases [29]. At higher values of the tortuosity,
the behavior shifts towards lower values of sound absorption. The thickness of the
porous material layer has a great influence on the position of the peak value in the
frequency spectrum. It is also observed that at low frequency, sound absorption has
a direct relationship with thickness and at high frequency; the thickness has a modest
effect on sound absorption. Thicker the layer of the porous material, lower is the
frequency at which the peak occurs. Also, the material thickness is about one tenth
of the wavelength of incident sound waves, which is the limit value for the porous
material to achieve effective sound absorption (Coates and Kierzkowski 2002).
In Table 2 air flow resistivity values have been reported. At low and mid frequencies,
variations of flow resistivity between samples have no noticeable effect on the
absorption coefficient. In contrast, there is significant difference in high frequency
ranges. It has also been observed that the variation in flow resistivity with respect
to thickness and tortuosity for sample with monofilaments spacer yarn S4 is higher
as compared to sample S1. This variation might be due to stitch density (surface
friction), anisotropic and inhomogeneous nature of spacer fabrics. Moreover, as
shown in Table 2, an increase in porosity is also associated with decrease in airflow
resistivity, along with decrease in tortuosity and thickness values as well. This is mainly

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Functional textiles
due to the air entrapped between both the layers of fabric. The sound absorbency
of spacer fabrics increases with the reduction in its porosity for group 1 samples (S1
to S3) but the trend is reversed in case of group 2 samples (S4 to S6). This may be
because of tortuous path in the middle layer and closeness of surface yarns in case
of 3-dimensional knitted spacer fabrics.
Overall it is observed that, at higher frequencies, spacer fabrics have ability to absorb
around 40-60% of sound due to its 3-dimensional bulk structure. But it has less absorption
in both mid and low frequencies. These discussions on sound absorption suggest that,
spacer fabrics can achieve substantial sound absortion by modifying its spacer layer
structure and material parameters.
Estimation of correlation between NRC and thermal conductivity
The three dimensional structure of a spacer fabric having higher thickness and lower
mass leads to higher amount of air trapped in the fabric. If the fabric is in contact
with air from one side, the trapped air will circulate between the upper and bottom
layers because of the high air permeability in these kinds of fabrics. This feature is
responsible to transfer the moisture and heat of skin surface through the circulating
air (Gross 2003). So, 3D spacer structure will be greatly thermally isolated. In this work
the thermal conductivity of spacer fabrics was also measured and compared with
acoustic characteristics. The correlation between Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC)
and Thermal Conductivity (k) has been explored using regression least square method
and the final fit and equation are shown in Figure 13 with correlation coefficient. This
equation helps to predict these two parameters for both the group of samples. In
Figure 7, it clearly shows that the NRC and k are directly proportional to each other.
Figure 13. Estimation correlation between NRC and Thermal Conductivity.

These regression equations are useful to find out the thermal conductivity value (k)
and Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) value for spacer fabrics design purpose if
one variable is known at room temperature.
CONCLUSIONS
It has been found that, spacer fabrics made up of monofilament yarns have lower
air flow resistance compared to multifilament yarns because of more open structure.
Also fabrics with lycra content have significant air flow resistivity because of closeness
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Functional textiles
of structure on the outer surface which resists air from passing through the material.
The experimental and theoretical investigation has been carried out to find the
tortuosity of spacers. The results show there is no significant difference between these
two methods. The tortuous path of the material is greatly influenced by small variation
in thickness as well as surface property of the materials. The spacer fabrics have
too much air in the pores, hence, sound energy dissipation may weaken when the
porosity is higher than 0.9. The airflow resistivity is inversely proportional to the porosity
of the fabrics; therefore, the sound absorption can increase with decrease in porosity
and increases with air flow resistivity. The 3D spacer fabrics have more tortuous path
but still lower sound absorption because incident sound energy may get reflected
away from the top layer and does not penetrate in to the fabric. The thickness of the
porous material layer has also a great influence on the position of the peak value
in the frequency spectrum. But the effect of density is more predominant in terms of
sound absorbency as compared to effect of thickness. Good correlation between
thermal conductivity and Noise reduction coefficient were found. It seems that the
NRC significantly increases with increase in Thermal conductivity.
Overall because of spacer layer, the fabric has efficiency to absorb more sound
energy in the frequency spectrum above 2000Hz and also excellent thermal behavior.
By controlling various material characteristics, the spacer fabrics can find suitability in
indoor environment for thermo-acoustic applications.
REFERENCES
Cha J., Seo J. and Kim S. 2012. Building materials thermal conductivity measurement and correlation
with heat flow meter laser flash analysis and TCi, Journal of Thermal Analysis Calorimetry 109:295–300.
Coates M. and Kierzkowski M. 2002. Acoustic textiles: lighter, thinner and more sound absorbent.
Technical Textile International 11 (7):15–18.
Dias T., Monaragala R., Needham P. and Lay E. 2007. Analysis of sound absorption of tuck spacer
fabrics to reduce auto-motive noise. Measurement Science & Technology 18 (8):2657–2666.
Gross D. 2003. 3D spacer knit fabrics for medical applications. Journal of Texile & Apparel Management
4:26-28.
Kuvandykova D. 2010. A new transient method to measure thermal conductivity of asphalt, C-Thermal
Technology 7: 1–10.
Liu Y. and Hu H. 2010. Sound Absorption behavior of knitted spacer fabrics. Textile Research Journal
80 (18):1949-1947.
McCartney P. D., Allen H. E. and Donaghy J. G. 1999. Underwire brassiere, warp-knitted textile fabric for
use in fabricating same and method of warp knitting such fabric. USPTO Patent Full Text and Image
Database, U S Patent No. 5669247.
Mecit D. and Marmarali A. 2012. Application of spacer fabrics in composite production. Usak University
Journal of Material Sciences 1:71 – 78.
Oglakcioglu N. and Marmarali A. 2007. Thermal comfort properties of some knitted structures, Fibres
& Textiles in Eastern Europe 15 (5 – 6):64 - 65.
Ryu and Yunseon 2000. The acoustic impedance measurement system using two microphones,
Bruel&Kjaer, Denmark.
Seddeq H. S. 1991. Factors influencing acoustic performance of sound absorptive materials, Australian
Journal of Basic Applied Science 3 (4):4610-4617, ISSN 1991-8178.
Shepherd A. M. 2004. Weft-knitted spacer fabrics. USPTO Patent Full Text and Image Database. U S
Patent No. 6779369 B2 (2004).
Srinvastav R. K., Dhabal R. L., Suman B. M., Saini A. and Panchal P. 2006. An estimation on thermo-
acoustic properties of mineral wool. Journal of Science & Indian Research 65:232-236.
Xiaohua Y. E., Hu H. and Feng X. 2008. Development of the warp knitted spacer fabrics for cushion
applications. Journal of Industrial Textile 37 (3):213-223.
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STUDY ON THE DURABILITY OF CONDUCTIVE EMBROIDED YARNS FOR APPLICATION IN INTERACTIVE TEXTILES
STUDY ON THE DURABILITY OF CONDUCTIVE

EMBROIDED YARNS FOR APPLICATION IN
INTERACTIVE TEXTILES
Daniel Dourado1, Cátia Relvas1, Raquel Carvalho1, Raul Fangueiro1,
Armando Antunes2
1
University of Minho – Campus de Azurém, 4800-058. Guimarães. Portugal
2
LASA - Armando da Silva Antunes S.A. - Estrada Nacional 105, 3344, 4835-517 Nespereira Guimarães.
Portugal
(Presenting author E-mail: raquelcarvalho@det.uminho.pt; Corresponding author
email: rfangueiro@civil.uminho.pt)
ABSTRACT
Interactive textiles based on electrically conductive yarns are being extensively
research due to its ability to functionalize fibrous structures, leading to a high
interactivity with the user. The aim of this study was to evaluate the durability of
interactive embroidered 100 % cotton fabrics, incorporating flexible conductive yarns
composed of 77 % polyamide (PA) and 23 % silver (Ag) (30 tex) when subjected
to wear factors such as washing, abrasion, creasing and stretching cyclic tests. The
conductive yarns were incorporated on the fabric at two different widths of 2 to 10 mm,
keeping a constant length of 10 cm. In order to study the durability of these materials,
the fabrics were subjected to different washing cycles, according to the standard NP
EN ISO 6330:2002, and to various abrasion cycles, according to the standard NPEN ISO
12947:1999 showing an increased electrical resistance when testing time is increased.
The increase on the electric resistance was more significant in the 2 mm width sample
rather than the 10 mm sample. The recovery from creasing, measured according to
standard NP EN 22313:1993, was further assessed and no significant changes were
observed. It could be concluded that the durability of conductive embroidered textile
substrates in terms of washing and abrasion is highly dependent on the width of the
conductive yarns embroidered area to perform the function. Larger conductive
embroidered areas were found to be significantly more stable to wear factors.
Keywords: Interactive textiles, conductive embroidery, conductive yarns, durability.
INTRODUCTION
For years, the aesthetic aspect of textiles was the most important characteristic for
their commercialization. However, the textile sector is now facing a new challenge
with the generation of smart and interactive textiles [1]. These are fibrous structures
capable of sensing, actuating, generating/storing power and/or communicating. In
fact, research and development towards wearable textile-based personal systems
allowing for health monitoring, protection and safety, and healthy lifestyle has gained
strong interest during the last 10 years [2]. It is well known that by including lead wires
in a fabric it is possible to obtain different characteristics in terms of interactivity,
sensors, lights, audible alerts, among others, in order to enhance the cognitive
development by a user [3]. The conductors may be defined as pure metal based

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Functional textiles
wires or compounds of metals and non-conductive yarns, which helps to improve

the mechanical properties thereof. The integration of these materials into a fibrous
substrate allows for imparting various functionalities conductive reliably applications,
since these materials can be used on fabric, knitting, sewing and embroidery [4].
Herein, we aimed at developing novel fibrous conductive structures to implement into
a home textile product (e.g. blanket embroidered with cartoons) in order to include
novel features such as improved interactivity with the children.
Materials:
In this study the substrates were embroidered with two types of conductive structures
with 10 cm in length, on of it with 2 mm width and the other with 10 mm in width. The
conductive yarn was composed by polyamide (PA) multifilament yarn coated with
silver (Ag) particles. Table 1 shows the composition the conductive yarn.
Table 1.Characterization of Polyamide/ Silver (PA/Ag) conductive yarn used in this
study.
Twist Friction
Composition Linear Type of
[number of Coefficient
Parameter [%] density [tex] Twist
turns/m [µ]
Conductive 77 Polyamide/
30 ± 1% 583 ± 6% S [0,25 - 0,28]
yarn 23Silver
Methods:
Resistance to domestic washing: In order to evaluate the conductive properties after
domestic washing, 20 washings were performed according to the standard NP EN
26330, using the 7A washing procedure. Briefly, it was applied a temperature of 40 ºC
and a washing load of 2 kg. The results were further analysed by reading the electrical
resistance across the terminals of each substrate, after each washing and drying
cycles. This test allows to verify if the structures maintain their conductive properties
after repeated washings and determining the ability/functionality of the conductive
textile after home laundering.
Abrasion Resistance test: The test to evaluate the resistance of materials to abrasion
was performed in agreement with the standard ISO 12947 - 2: “Determination of
the abrasion resistance of fabrics by the Martindale method - Part 2: Determination
of specimen breakdown”. A 794 grams load was applied on the fabrics, which
represents a pressure of 12 kPa. The evaluation of the embroidery conductivity was
performed through the direct method, by measuring the resistance between the
two ends with a digital multimeter. From the moment that the embroidery lost their
conductive properties no more measurements were carried out since they no longer
had the desired characteristics. Table 2 shows the frequency of stops in function of
the number of cycles performed. Figure 2 shows the arrangement of samples in the
Martindale machine.

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Functional textiles
Table 2. Frequency of stops in function of the number of cycles performed.

Number of cycles Stops (cycles)
≤ 2000 Each 500
> 2000 ≤ 4000 Each 1000
>4000 ≤ 10000 Each 2000
>10000 ≤ 40000 Each 10000
>40000 ≤ 80000 Each 40000
Figure 1. Representation of the 2 mm and 10 mm width at Martindale equipment.

Crease resistance test: To evaluate the resistance to crease a load of 10N was applied
for 1h on the samples in order to induce a crease, as depicted in Figure 2. Then the
measurement of electric resistance is carried out with a digital multimeter.
Figure 2. Load application on the samples for the crease resistance tests.
Tensile strength test: A stress-strain test was performed to two samples of 2 mm and 10
mm embroidered in 100% cotton fabric. The aim was to analyse the behaviour of the
mixture (fabric + embroidery) on the edge (rupture), to further perform a cyclic testing
that simulates the stretch that home textiles suffer when are placed in a bed.
Stretching cyclic tests: The electrical resistance was measured under stretching cycles
using the Hounsfield equipment. The clamping distance was set at 200 mm. Each
sample was measured with 50% of maximum elongation as determined in the stress-
strain test. The stretch-recovery speed was a constant 100 mm/s. The resistance of the
PA/Ag-containing embroidered samples was then evaluated with a digital multimeter
and the data obtained by a software developed within our group using the program
MatLab.
RESULTS
By analysing the results of resistance to domestic washing of the embroidered
structures comprising the conductive yarns composed of a mixture of PA/Ag it could
be seen that the electrical resistance increased exponentially with the number of
washing cycles they are subjected to (Figure 3). The structure with a width of 2 mm

271
RESULTS
Functional textiles
By analysing the results of resistance to domestic washing of the embroidered
structures comprising the conductive yarns composed of a mixture of PA/Ag it could be
seen
had that the electrical
lower performance resistance
until increased
since it has exponentially
shown higher with the number
electrical of washing
resistance with
cycles they are subjected to (Figure 3). The structure with a
increasing number of cycles. Since the electrical resistance is the capacity of a body width of 2 mm had lower
performance until since it has shown higher electrical resistance with increasing number of
to oppose the passage of an electric current when a potential difference is applied
cycles. Since the electrical resistance is the capacity of a body to oppose the passage of
it was concluded that the structure with 10 mm have shown slightly better results in
an electric current when a potential difference is applied it was concluded that the structure
terms of durability of conductivity after 20 washing cycles. This is due to the high
with 10 mm have shown slightly better results in terms of durability of conductivity after 20
redundancy that exists in 10 mm structure owing to the higher amount of conductive
washing cycles. This is due to the high redundancy that exists in 10 mm structure owing to
wires. Nevertheless, the difference was not as significant as expected when considering
the higher amount of conductive wires. Nevertheless, the difference was not as significant
the higher quantity of yarns present in the 10 mm structure. It should be noticed that
as expected when considering the higher quantity of yarns present in the 10 mm structure.
It should be noticed that at washing cycle nº 9 the resistance was highly increased in both
at washing cycle nº 9 the resistance was highly increased in both samples and
samples and maintained
maintained until washinguntil cycle
washing cycle
nº 15. nº 15.
A further A further
increase was increase
observed was inobserved in
both samples
both samples
until washing until
cyclewashing
nº 20.cycle
This nº 20. This
indicate that indicate
the fabricthat loses
the fabric loses conductivity,
conductivity, mainly after
mainly after cycle nº 9, probably due to the fact that Ag particles are lost with the washing
cycle nº 9, probably due to the fact that Ag particles are lost with the washing process.
process.
Figure 3. Resistance to domestic washing of PA/Ag embroidery structure with 2 mm

and 10 mm width.
Similarly to what was measured in the previous analysis, the electrical resistance of
the embroidery was tested after being subjected to a tensile test with a Martindale
equipment. The sample was continuously inspected for wear while the sample 4 was
pulled taut and loaded onto the lower plates of the Martindale machine. After 40000
cycles the induced abrasion caused a more pronounced increase in the resistance
in the 2 mm width structure, reaching the 60 Ω while in the structure with 10 mm width
less wear was observed, measured by the lower resistance increase (up to 20 Ω)
(Figure 4). Duplicating the number of cycles to 80000 resulted in an increase up to 50
Ω in the case of the 10 mm width structure while a significant increase to 180 Ω was
observed to the 2 mm width structure. Similarly to the behaviour of the embroideries
tested for domestic washing cycles, the 10 mm width structure have shown the most
satisfactory results in terms of resistance to abrasion not losing significant conductivity
after 80000 cycles.

272
Functional textiles
Figure 4. Resistance to abrasion of PA/Ag embroidery with a structure of 2 mm and

10 mm width.
With regard to the crease resistance test it was observed that after applying a load of
10N for a period of 7h no significant variations on the electrical resistance was
registered on both samples (Figure 5). It was observed that the PA/Ag yarn in the two
embroidery samples indeed possessed satisfactory properties in terms of electrical
conductivity, since theTIWC
electrical
2016, resistance of the 2016,
25-28 April, structures underwent
Poznan, Polandreduced
changes.
Figure 5 – Resistance measured after applying a 10 N load on the embroidery with 2

mm and 10 mm width for a period of 7h.

Likewise, Figure 5 – Resistance measured after applying a 10 N load on the embroidery with 2 mm
a stress-strain curve was obtained for the embroidery samples in order to
determine which reference stretch and 10 mm width for a period of 7h.
values should be used when performing the

stretching cyclic tests, a test that simulates the stretch that home textiles suffer when
are placed inLikewise, a stress-strain curve was obtained for the embroidery samples in order to
a bed. As depicted in Figure 6, both embroidery samples possessed
determine which reference stretch values should be used when performing the stretching
similar behaviour in terms of mechanical resistance possessing a breaking force of
cyclic tests, a test that simulates the stretch that home textiles suffer when are placed in a
500 N. bed. As depicted in Figure 6, both embroidery samples possessed similar behaviour in
terms of mechanical resistance possessing a breaking force of 500 N.


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Functional textiles
Figure 6 – Stress strain curve for the embroidery with 2 mm and 10 mm width.
Taking into consideration all the tested parameters and that no significant changes
were observed between the two samples, we opted to select the embroidery with 2
mm width for the simulation of the stretch applied when handling home textiles, by
doing the cyclic testing hysteresis. For the realization of this test we used an elongation
of approximately 50 % of the results of the breaking force, which was 20 mm (Figure
6). The test elongates the substrate to a maximum of 20 mm, further withdrawing the
strength applied at that time. 10 consecutive cycles of strecthing and retreat were
performed, with 1 minute break between trials up to a maximum of 10 cycles. The
results of the tests are shown in Figure 7. The electrical resistance was increased with
the number of cyclesTIWC applied,2016, 25-28
increasing April,
from 11.5 Ω2016, Poznan, to
in the beginning Poland
a resistance of
14 Ω at the end of the test. These results indicate that no significant loss of conductivity
was induced by the test indicating that they can be freely handled at home settings.
test. These results indicate that no significant loss of conductivity was induced by the test
indicating that they can be freely handled at home settings.

Figure 7 –Electrical resistance upon application of a cyclic tensile strength on

embroidery with 2 mm and 10 mm width.
Figure 7 –Electrical resistance upon application of a cyclic tensile strength on embroidery
with 2 mm and 10 mm width.
Inseparable
from the human environment. Hosted by the Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants (INF&MP), 274
Functional textiles
CONCLUSIONS
Embroidery samples containing conductive PA/Ag yarns with two different widths
were developed using embroidery technology and further analysed for their electrical
durability. Several test were performed to evaluate the durability of the yarns, which
consisted in the evaluation of their electrical resistance when subjected to different
wear conditions. It was concluded that after 20 domestic washing cycles and 80000
cycles of abrasion a significant change in resistance was observed mainly for the 2
mm width sample. On the other hand, the 10 mm width sample was less resistant to the
electric field passage, which means that it maintained better the conductivity and less
damage was induced. Nevertheless, the observed changes were not as significant
as expected and despite possessing less conductive yarns, the 2 mm sample still
possessed the ability to conduct electricity. With regard to the mechanical properties,
no significant changes were observed in both embroidered 2 and 10 mm samples,
and in the crease test no influence on the electrical resistance of the conductor yarn
was observed. The stretching cyclic test performed with the 2 mm sample indicated
that no significant loss of conductivity was induced by the cyclic test demonstrating
that they can be freely handled at home settings with loss of functionality. From this
study it could be concluded that the embroidery with higher number of conductive
yarns provided slightly better results in terms of durability for use in interactive textiles.
However, the 2 mm embroidery was also found to possess good functionality in terms
of durability. For that reason, for commercialization purposes the 2 mm was defined
as appropriate because it presents a good cost-effectiveness relation. It has to be
noted that the only wear factor affecting significantly the conductivity of this type of
yarns was the domestic washing test. Both analysed structures had shown not to be
prepared to withstand several washing steps, so a strategy on how to introduce these
conductive materials in home textile fibrous substrates needs to be reconsidered.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was carried out under the project No. 2014/38420 “SMART_BED - Development
of multifunctional home textiles for children and youth”, headed by LASA - Armando
da Silva Antunes S.A. (Portugal), co-funded by the European Regional Development
Funds FEDER, through COMPETE - Operational Programme Competitiveness Factors.
REFERENCES
[1] Syduzzaman, Md., Patwary S.U., Farhanaz, K. and Ahmed, S. 2015. Smart Textiles and Nano-
Technology: A General Overview. J Textile Sci Eng 5: 181. doi:10.4172/2165-8064.1000181.
[2] Miyoung, Suh, Kate Carroll and Nancy Cassil. 2010. Critical review on smart clothing products
development. Journal of Textile and Applarel, Tecnology and Magement, v.6, ISSUE 4.
[3] Michael J. Mcgrath and Cliodha Ní Scanaill. 2013. Sensor Technologies, Healthcare, Wellress and
Environmentl Applications, Apress Open.
[4] Stoppa Matteo and Chiolerio Alessandro. 2014. Wearable Electronics and Smart Textiles: A critical
Review in sensors.v14, 11957-11992. doi: 10.3390/s140711957.

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STUDY OF ELECTRO-THERMAL PROPERTIES OF

PYRROLE POLYMERISED KNITTED FABRICS
Syed Talha Ali Hamdani1,2, Anura Fernando1, Prasad Potluri1
1
School of Materials, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
2
Department of Weaving, National Textile University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
(Presenting author E-mail: hamdani.talha@ntu.edu.pk; Corresponding author email: hamdani.talha@
ntu.edu.pk)
ABSTRACT
Pyrrole is one of the most stable synthetic metals to date. It can be easily polymerized
on the surface of textile substrates. The purpose of the current research is to provide
a new material that could help to develop heating fabrics with improved textile
properties. This paper presents the results of research work carried out to investigate
the heating properties of nylon knitted fabrics impregnated with a polymerized solution
of polypyrrole. The temperature measurement was carried out using an infrared
temperature sensor (Calex pyro-usb-cf and Micro-epsilon Tim160) with emissivity value
of 0.95. The heat generated by the polypyrrole impregnated fabric was observed
under varying power levels and terminal separation distances in order to understand
the relationships between the length of the polypyrole electro-conductive fabric and
the level of heat generated. In order to understand the effect of polymerization on
textile properties of the nylon knitted fabric, a SiroFAST comparison was made for
the fabric before and after polymerization. It was concluded that the polypyrrole
could be very suitable for wearable heating fabrics due to the improved mechanical
properties afforded by the polymerization process.
Keywords: pyrrole; heating fabrics; knitting
INTRODUCTION
An electro-textile heat generating fabric is a flexible structure that can produce
heat due to electrical current running through it. These electro-textile fabrics may be
manufactured through knitting or weaving. Many authors (Anthony 1999, Gluckstien
1966, Hansen 2001, Alonzo 2010, Hearst 1970, Richardson 2009, Stephen P. Szczesuil
1994, Marick 1942, Siple 1953), have carried out a great deal of research for the
development of textile based heating elements. They are used in automobile industry
for heating seats and in various other medical applications such as electrotherapy
treatment (Oh, Park, and Kim 2003), and medical blankets for maintaining a patient’s
body temperature (Lee, Park, and Lim 2003, Kim, Oh, and Bahk 2004). These materials
are also used in personal heating garments and electro-textile bandages to keep
the body warm in very cold environments or for the application of heat (Farid et al.
2004). Heating elements are also used for de-icing purposes in aircraft wings. In all
the above applications where the main aim is providing a heating effect, pyrrole
polymerised fabric structures can be employed.
Generally electro-textile heating fabrics are available in the market under various
brand names and designs. Each one of these heating products is specially designed

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Functional textiles
for a specific end use. Some of the main heated clothing suppliers are; Outlast, EXO2,
Gerbing’s heated clothing, BikeTek, KEIS, and KLAN. According to Wang et al. (2010)
heating fabric can be categorised into four different types depending upon their
methods of manufacturing; (1) electrically heated, (2) phase change material based,
(3) chemically heated and (4) fluid/air flow heated fabric. However, still the heating
technologies used in these applications are lagging behind in terms of comfort for
next to body applications.
There is evidence of heating textiles being produced using a multitude of materials
and techniques. In previous work (Hamdani, Potluri, and Fernando 2013, 2014),
research in to the production and characterisation of knitted heating fabrics based
on silver coated polymeric yarn and stainless steel yarn was presented. Through such
materials and methods, it is possible to generate a reasonable amount of heat under
laboratory conditions at a low dc supply voltage (3-9 volts). In these cases the silver and
stainless steel yarn used proved to be suitable candidates for heat generating textiles.
However the use of such yarn material, even in the form of fabric patches, change
the mechanical properties of fabric structures such as drapability, stretch, bending
and fabric handle. Another downside to using such metallic yarns in fabric is that they
are sensitive to corrosive liquids, gases and mechanical friction in production and
washing/tumble drying. One of the goals of the experiments conducted in the current
research was to find a material that can function as a coating for yarn or fabric, which
can generate sufficient heat without compromising the mechanical and handling
properties. With this intention, in the current research, polypyrrole, which is one of the
foremost polymers used for electro-conductive applications, was investigated as a
replacement for electro-conductive metallic yarn in electrically heated fabric.
The main advantages of using pyrrole is that it can easily assume the shape of the
substrate being heated and can be deposited onto a substrate as a thin layer of
polymer. The moulding or deposition of pyrrole can be achieved using a conventional
process under controlled pressure and temperature. In the manufacturing process,
the pressure in the range of 50 to 150 bar is applied at a temperature range of 150-
300oC (Table 1: Steady state temperature and time constant of polypyrrole heating
elements at 9V..
Table 1: Steady state temperature and time constant of polypyrrole heating
elements at 9V.
Terminal separation Temperature Time constant
[cm] [°C] [sec]

1 105 54
2 65 92
3 55 121
4 49 187
5 45 302
During the investigation of heating properties, it was found that the heat generation

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Functional textiles
is also affected by the contact resistance between the polypyrole fabric and the
crocodile clips used at the terminals. Investigation of the thermal image given in the
Figure 6(a) confirms that heat generation is increased due to lower contact resistance
by the application of pressure at the terminals. The heat distribution over the surface
of the fabric was also studied using a thermal imager. It was found that the heat
gradually decreases from the terminals towards the centre of the fabric as can be
seen in the Figure 6(b).
Effect of contact pressure 3d thermal chart of heat distribution

Figure 1: Thermal images of polypyrrole coated fabric
Table 2 presents the SiroFAST fabric quality tests carried out on the polypyrrole coated
fabric. It can be deduced that the coating of polypyrrole improves the textile properties
of the fabric. Due to coating of polypyrrole the potential problems in the areas of
sizing, pleating-puckering and laying-up of the fabric were removed. It can be said
that the polypyrrole coated fabric can be tailored into a garment without any fear of
problems due to fabric handling. The problems highlighted by the SiroFAST chart for
the fabric after polymerisation are high extensibility and low bending rigidity, which
were there to begin with. Because knitted fabrics generally have a high percentage
of extension this problem cannot be avoided. However the problem that arises due
to high extension is only related to the fabric design and since in technical textiles
the functional properties are more important than the design, this problem can be
ignored. It was also observed that the bending rigidity of the fabric was also improved
by coating polypyrrole. However it was still not in a safe range due to which problems
may be faced during cutting operations. The problem of low bending rigidity can be
removed by coating a thicker layer of polypyrrole.
Table 2: Comparison of textile properties before and after polymerisation.
Before polymerisation After polymerisation
Characteristic
Warp Weft Warp Weft
Relaxation shrinkage 4.10% 2.10% 0% 2.10%
Hygral Expansion 6.40% 6.40% 4.30% 4.30%
Formability 0.31 mm2 0.29 mm2 0.59 mm2 70 mm2
Extensibility 30.10% 26.10% 29% 26.50%
Bending Rigidity 1.6 μN.m 1.7 μN.m 3.6 μN.m 4.30 μN.m
Shear Rigidity 15.1 N/m 57.7 N/m
Thickne 0.93 mm 1.11 mm
Surface thickne 0.20 mm 0.24 mm

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Functional textiles
Weight 132 g/m2 154 g/m2
CONCLUSIONS
Heating elements coated by polypyrrole have significant advantages over heating
elements made of conducting yarn in terms of manufacturing process and textile
properties. The coating of polypyrrole on to the surface of textile fabric can be carried
out on an industrial scale. It was concluded that the coating of this particular heating
material on to a textile substrate does not degrade the original properties of textile
substrate. The stretching of polypyrrole coated fabric increases the distance between
the electro-conducting particles due to which electro-conductivity is decreased. A
greater amount of heat was observed near the terminal points of electrical power
supplied. This was observed due to the decrease in contact resistance as a result of
applied pressure. The polypyrrole is very suitable for wearable heating fabrics due to
the improved mechanical properties afforded by the polymerisation process. Currently
the scientific community is paying much interest towards employing polypyrrole in
applications other than as heating fabric.
REFERENCES
Alonzo, Robert J. 2010. “Electrical Codes, Standards, Recommended Practices and Regulations - An
Examination of Relevant Safety Considerations.” In: Elsevier. http://www.knovel.com/web/portal/
browse/display?_EXT_KNOVEL_DISPLAY_bookid=3700.
Anthony, Arnold;. 1999. Personal Heat Control. In U.S Patent number 5970718: Kool Limited (Surrey, GB).
Farid, Mohammed M., Amar M. Khudhair, Siddique Ali K. Razack, and Said Al-Hallaj. 2004. “A review on
phase change energy storage: materials and applications.” Energy Conversion and Management
1597-1615.
Gluckstien, M. E. 1966. Warming Suit. In U.S Patent number 3229681.
Hamdani, Syed, Prasad Potluri, and Anura Fernando. 2013. “Thermo-Mechanical Behavior of Textile
Heating Fabric Based on Silver Coated Polymeric Yarn.” Materials no. 6 (3):1072-1089.
Hamdani, Syed, Prasad Potluri, and Anura Fernando. 2014. Thermo-mechanical behaviour of stainless
steel knitted structures. Paper read at 1st NED International Textile Conference, at NED university of
Engg. & Tech.
Hansen, Jr.; Howard O. Orlando, FL. 2001. Pocket use hand warmer. In U.S Patent number 6320161.
Hearst, Peter J. 1970. Chemical Heat Source For Divers. In U.S Patent number 3536059.
Jolly, R., C. Petrescu, J.C. Thieblemont, J.C. Marechal, and F.D. Menneteau. 1994. “Heating Panels for
Accomodation Obtained from Textiles Made Electrically Conductive by Polypyrrole Deposit.” Journal
of Industrial Textiles no. 23 (3):228-236. doi: 10.1177/152808379402300304.
Kim, Seong Hun, Kyung Wha Oh, and Jae Hyon Bahk. 2004. “Electrochemically synthesized polypyrrole
and Cu-plated nylon/spandex for electrotherapeutic pad electrode.” Journal of Applied Polymer
Science no. 91 (6):4064-4071. doi: 10.1002/app.13625.
Lee, J. Y., D. W. Park, and J. O. Lim. 2003. “Polypyrrole-coated woven fabric as a flexible surface-
heating element.” Macromolecular Research no. 11 (6):481-487.
Marick, L. 1942. Electrically heated wearing apparel.
Munstedt, Helmut, Helmut Gebhard, Herbert Naarmann, and Johannes Schlag. 1986. Pyrrole polymers
as electrical heating elements. Basf Aktiengesellschaft.
Oh, Kyung Wha, Hyun Jin Park, and Seong Hun Kim. 2003. “Stretchable conductive fabric for
electrotherapy.” Journal of Applied Polymer Science no. 88 (5):1225-1229. doi: 10.1002/app.11783.
Richardson, Lloyd. 2009. Force Ventilated And Heated Garment. In U.S Patent Publication.
Siple, P.A. 1953. Body Warmer.
Stephen P. Szczesuil, Rizalah Masadi. 1994. Body Heating And Cooling Garment. In U.S Patent number
5320164: The United States of America as represented by the Secretary of the Army.
Wang, F., C. Gao, K. Kuklane, and I. Holmar. 2010. “A review of technology of personal heating
garments.” International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics no. 16 (3):387-404.

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Functional Clothing and Textiles – An approach towards Fashion
FUNCTIONAL CLOTHING AND TEXTILES – AN

APPROACH TOWARDS FASHION
Dr. Sandip Mukherjee1
1
National Institute of Fashion Technology,Block-LA,Plot-3B Sector-III, Salt Lake City, Kolkata-700098,
India
(Presenting author E-mail: sandip.mukherjee@nift.ac.in)
Abstract
Functional garment and clothing is a new and innovative concept under the domain of
Technical textiles, are specifically engineered which cater a pre-defined performance
or functional requirement to the consumer. Textile structures being strong, lightweight,
flexible and foldable are able to conform to almost any shape are ideal materials
for this purpose. With the technological innovations appearing in both textiles and
electronics has started giving performance related benefits resulting in the innovations
of functional clothing which surpasses the conventional boundary and combines
with the area of nanotechnology, electronics, medicine, biotechnology etc to meet
the diversified requirements. Thermo responsive and shape memory polymer is used
to regulate body temperature. Deposition of polymer on fabrics in micro porous form
enables to develop breathable garments. Integrated with nano-materials, textiles
are imparted with very high energy absorption capacity and other functions such as
stain proofing, abrasion resistance, light emission, etc. The functional clothing have
got applications in the field of sportswear, protective clothing, work wear with safety
communication features, defense, medical for monitoring health care, leisure, fashion
wear etc. In the present paper a research is made on different classes of functional
clothing and its correlation with fashion. This innovative approach will hoist fashion to
a whole new realm and usher a new era in the field of functional clothing and textiles.
Keywords: functional clothing, sportswear, thermo responsive polymer, breathable
garment, nano-textiles, electronic textiles.
Introduction
Clothing is a basic human need that traditionally is viewed as a means of satisfying
the aesthetic needs of fashion. In recent context the need for fashion has been
combined with a critical need for function. Clothing performs basic protection from
the elements, fulfilling the aesthetic, comfort and functional requirements. Clothing
protects us from extreme climatic conditions and occupational hazards. It portrays
social and cultural status of individual and keep the wearer stylish and trendy. The
world of clothing is always changing, as new cultural influences meet technological
innovations.
Functional clothing, being a relatively new concept, is defined as a generic term that
includes all types of assemblies that are specifically designed and engineered to
deliver a pre-defined function to the user along with its normal applications (Gupta
2011). Functional clothing has a wide and diverse field with each functionality having
its own material requirements, specifications, processes and technology and made
from a blend of innovative materials to imply a value addition to meet the functional
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Functional textiles
requirement of the garment. It can be clothing for sporting activities, protective

functions, medical requirements, smart garments including electronic functionalities
and aesthetic features related to leisure fashion.
Design & fit of Functional Clothing
An approach to clothing design that has emerged as researchers recognize the
need for function as well as fashion in functional clothing design which involves
a process that takes the designer step by step from the initial request for a design
through the evaluation stage of the final design. The process of functional clothing
design combines the theories of physical and social sciences with basic clothing
design which encompasses a holistic approach to designing that has its origin rooted
in the ergonomic research conducted by researchers. The design process emphasise
the creative expression of fashion designers in order to meet the physical, social,
psychological and aesthetic requirements of the consumers (Easter 1994). Designing
of functional clothing depends on the requirement of the consumer and is specific for
a particular application. Apart from specific functionality, functional clothing should
suffice physiological, biomechanical, ergonomic and psychological requirements of
the user (Gupta 2011). Clothing specifically designed for certain functions causes heat
stress, reduces task efficiency and range of motion of the wearer (Adams 1994). The
design process starts with the users’ requirements. The steps involved in designing of
functional clothing is shown in Fig 1. The fit of a clothing is related to the appearance
and comfort which refers to the look, style and fashion, taking contour of the wearer,
drape, texture, weight of the fabric and silhouette of the garment into consideration.
Judging fit-in fashion apparel involves the grain of the fabric, the construction lines,
the set of the garment, balance and ease. For functional clothing, apart from wearing
ease and the design or style ease, functional ease is chosen by the designer to create
the desired silhouette to be able to adapt to the movement of the individual while
maintaining its purpose. Mobility and motion are closely related to fit in functional
garments and designing should be done to provide the level of protection required
as well as the level of movement by adopting motion analysis technique which would
entail understanding the extent and amount of changes of angles of the body while
in motion. These extreme movements would require additional fabric in the places
of expansion, in case of bending to the ground this area would be over the buttocks
and knees. Visual analysis and prototype testing of the garment is essential to obtain
a good fit (Boorady 2011).

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Functional textiles

User activity
User survey

Work
environment
User requirements
Material
selection
Accessories
Garment Design
Size and fit

Seams & stitches Pattern
Garment Assembly
Engineering
Openings & closures

Bench scale testing
Layering & zoning Testing & analysis

Field trials

Not appropriate Appropriate

Production

Fig. 1 Designing of functional clothing
Fig.Material Requirement
1 Designing of functional clothing
Material Requirement
The functional clothes should durable, elastic, thermoregulatory and light in weight. It
The should also fulfil
functional clothes the aesthetic
should durable, requirement of thermoregulatory
elastic, the consumer. The andmaterials
light inrequired
weight.for
specialized applications should posses good abrasion resistance,
It should also fulfil the aesthetic requirement of the consumer. The materials required fire retardance, water
forrepellance
specialized anti UV, anti ballistic,
applications should anti impact
posses good properties.
abrasion Specific
resistance,functional needs may
fire retardance,
require combination of materials ranging from polymers
water repellance anti UV, anti ballistic, anti impact properties. Specific functional and metals to ceramics,
composites, laminates and membranes (Shishoo 2002). Polyester, polyamide,
needs may require combination of materials ranging from polymers and metals
polypropylene, acrylic and elastane are used for sportswear and active wear. Nowadays a
to wide
ceramics, composites,
range of laminates
high performance and
fibers membranes
namely (Shishootenacity
Aramid, ultra-high 2002). polyethylene,
Polyester,
polyamide, polypropylene,
polyphenylene sulphide, acrylicpolyetheretherketone,
and elastane are usednovoloid, for sportswear and active
p-phenylene-2,6-
wear. Nowadays aare
benzobisoxazole wideused range of high performance
in sportswear, protective wear fibers namely
providing high Aramid,
tenacity, ultra-
rigidity,
highabrasion resistance, flame retardancy along with heat and chemical resistance.
tenacity polyethylene, polyphenylene sulphide, polyetheretherketone, novoloid, (Shishoo
2005). In case of protective clothing, high temperature resistant fibers like flame retardant
p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole are used in sportswear, protective wear providing
high(FR) wool, FR
tenacity, cotton,
rigidity, FR rayon,
abrasion Nomex, flame
resistance, Kevlar, Spectra, polybenzimidazole
retardancy along with heat and (PBI),
polyphenylene sulphide (PPS), oxidized acrylic and carbon are used. Aluminum coating is
chemical resistance. (Shishoo 2005). In case of protective clothing, high temperature
used with woven and non-woven materials to combat radiant heat.
resistant
fibers like flame retardant (FR) wool, FR cotton, FR rayon, Nomex, Kevlar,
Spectra, polybenzimidazole
Innovations in Sportswear (PBI), polyphenylene
and its interaction sulphide (PPS),
with oxidized acrylic and
Fashion
carbon are used. Aluminum coating is used with woven and non-woven materials to
combat radiant heat.
Innovative sportswear has got a strong interaction which leads to the development of latest
trend as sports
Innovations styling attract
in Sportswear andyoung consumers.
its interaction withThe growth of fashion brands and high
Fashion
fashion sports levels like Armani, Prada, Polo, Nike, Chanel, Hugo Boss, Adidas, Puma,
Innovative sportswear has got a strong interaction which leads to the development
Reebok use their technical expertise to produce new generation functional sportswear by
of using high performance textile materials maintaining style and design aesthetics. (Bramel
latest trend as sports styling attract young consumers. The growth of fashion brands
and2005). When sports garments are developed by ready-to-wear manufacturers, their design
high fashion sports levels like Armani, Prada, Polo, Nike, Chanel, Hugo Boss, Adidas,
Puma, Reebok use their technical expertise to produce new generation functional
3
282
Functional textiles
sportswear by using high performance textile materials maintaining style and design
aesthetics. (Bramel 2005). When sports garments are developed by ready-to-wear
manufacturers, their design approach takes into account an equal measure of style
and performance. Fit and silhouette are the key elements of a high performance
garment and fabrics and cuts are selected for their performance features and
functionalities which are the principal goal for designing of sports garments. Moisture
management, temperature regulation, elasticity, tenacity, odour reduction, light
weight along with are essential parameters governing the design and engineering of
sportswear (Gupta 2011). The new generation consumers are more conscious about
fashion along with the required functionalities which envisage the high fashion levels,
elevating the aesthetic criteria along with performance features for better styling. The
co-relation between fashion and sportswear in terms of design features is shown in
Table 1.
Table 1 : Design preferences in fashion and sportswear (Bramel 2005)
Fashion Sportswear
Style Performance
3D design 2D design
Detailing for aesthetic purpose Detailing for performance
Special attention to lining Less attention to lining
Regular application Sport-specific application
Trend, Style and Fashion

The outdoor clothing market was technically advanced but lacked aesthetic appeal
during the 1970s (McCann 2005). At the same time, skiing led the way in clothing and
fabric development. Fashion was a central element of skiing. For instance, Descente
Limited was the frontrunner in developing spandex downhill skii suits. By 1988, they
introduced Solar-Alpha, a fabric for ski-suits that converted optical energy from visible
rays of the sun to heat energy and also trapped body warmth by reflecting infrared
rays generated in the body. While the Japanese led innovations in micorfibres,
wetsuit neoprenes and swimwear fabric technology, the Italians found new ways
to aesthetically interpret highly technical fabrics. Mills such as Figli di Michelangelo
Calami developed the first pile fleece fabrics and has products such as thermal knit
fabrics for sports underwear or ‘sandwich’ fabrics for protection (Buirski, 1998). Vitoria
Guomo, a chief representative of sportswear designers in international meetings,
states that only in recent times, “trend color forecasting has made its official entry into
active wear”.
Breathable Garment
Waterproof breathable fabrics which are light and wrinkle free classified as coated,
laminated and high density woven fabric. The garments thus produced are coated
with polyurethane membrane having micro pores which provide protection from
environmental factors like rain, wind and prevent the loss of body heat (Mukherjee
2014). It allows the diffusion of water vapour, the idea being to vaporise the sweat
produced when wearing, but does not allow the liquid from outside to penetrate,

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Functional textiles
thus acting as a one way valve. This helps to keep people fresh, dry and clean. The
famous fashion brand Nike, developed a breathable jacket based on fashion and
functional concept, as a fashionable sportswear for jogging purpose. The sweat
of the wearer is transmitted to the surface of the fabric through wicking which is
then evaporated through the micro pores and keeps the wearer comfortable and
at the same time show their stylish and trendy taste. Gore-tex rain-wear fabric is
another type of breathable fabric having microporous polymeric film composed
of polytetrafluroethylene. Materials sensitive to stimuli are embedded in the fabric
by microencapsulation or printing to produce intelligent fabrics exhibiting changes
responding to the external stimuli (Mukherjee 2014). Temperature sensor fabric,
senses the change in temperature of the environment and responds according to
the functional requirement which again is preferred by the consumers to meet their
necessities (Chapmann 2002).
Active Cooling
Regulation of human body temperature is related to the rate of perspiration and as it
evaporates it carries away the latent heat of vaporisation and cools down the body.
The ideal ‘active cooling’ textile material should posses a good wicking ability. The
material should allow evaporation of sweat next to the skin producing cooling effect.
It has been reported that single jersey made from Lyocell having higher surface
temperature and heat dissipation rate (Shakthibhel 2011) is used for manufacturing
sportswear.
Technically advanced vests for athlete
Electronic devices embedded in fabrics can help convey digital information and
control signals, in the user’s immediate environment or to far locations. For instance,
athletes (Fig 2) use smart jerseys that allow monitoring of physiological conditions and
energy levels during active sports. Different electronic components such as sensors,
actuators, signal processing unit, energy supplies and communication systems can be
embedded in such as smart jersey (Mukherjee 2014). The suit can then monitor signals
coming from the body, such as respiration and heart rate, temperature fluctuations or
chemical changes.
Fig2: Application of smart jersey in athletics(www.darpa.smashirt.html)

Adidas, the ‘Sports Giant’, designed a running shoe that can sense the terrain and
adjust cushioning in the shoe heel to absorb shock. Presently, it is marketed in the
basketball market on a wide range. Bags with integrated controls, and various

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Functional textiles
apparatuses of MP3 player or i-pod are the common applications in this area. A bikini
with audio player, a shirt with pre constructed mobile phone, an auto temperature
regulated ski-jacket which is also capable of giving alerts about the position of other
skiers, etc. are nowadays commonly in use. Electronic sensors embedded in Hug
Shirts can gauge the body temperature, pressure and heart rate, and transmit a
long-distance embrace to loved ones based on that information. The Time Magazine
named the Hug Shirt as ‘one of the top inventions of 2006’ (Loreffrey, 2006).
Another interesting product known as “Smart Bra” has been developed. It has got
special abilities to loosen and tighten its straps. It can also relax and stiffen its cups,
thus restricting breast motion which prevents breast pain and sag. The straps and
midriffs of the bra have attached sensors that monitor breast movements and prevent
the breast clavicles from snapping in case of excessively heavy breasts. In this way,
the bra encourages women with large breasts to participate in sports. Microchips that
can gather information from breast movements will enable design improvements in
lingerie for full busted women and provide a more reasonable agreement between
fashion and comfort. (Amsamani, 2010).
Protective Sportswear
Coated and laminated fabrics are used to make protective sportswear in hiking,
golf, fishing, cycling and sailing for protection against the weather. It includes jackets,
over-trousers, gloves, headwear, socks, walking shoes and boots (Holme, 2003). Since
aesthetic design and styling has become more important due to a sporty lifestyle,
leisure fashion wear has become more associated with protective sportswear.
Engineered, light-weight hardwearing fabrics enable the sports person to increase
their performance without restricting body movements and at the same time providing
comfort in all its forms. To prevent injuries in case of football and other sports a
special kind of knee sleeve is used comprising of elastic sleeve along with disposable
polypyrole coated with nylon elastomer fabric sensor. This is placed over the knee
cap to prevent injuries during change in movement and direction (Pat, 1991).
Innovations in Protective textiles and clothing and its interaction with Fashion
Protective functional clothing challenges include combinations of categories like
chemical hazard protective, environmental hazard protective and injury protective.
Recent developments in the field of smart and intelligent textiles, nanotechnology
and biotechnology have resulted in radical transformations in the area of protective
textiles and clothing, principally for protection and safety along with added fashion
or convenience. Leisure fashion-wear has become more associated with sportswear
enable to increase their performance and functionality.
Temperature controlled fabrics and Garment
For comfort in extreme climates, one would ideally require clothing that responds to
changes in temperature. A Phase Change Material (PCM) is a latent heat-storage
material that can absorb or release heat energy with change in temperature. It is a
lightweight fabric, incorporated with material sensitive to stimuli (Zhang 2001). The
material changes from solid to liquid state or vice versa depending on the conditions
and thereby absorbs or releases the latent heat of fusion. Thus, PCM treated clothing
keeps the wearer warm in extreme cold and cool in extreme hot conditions.

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Functional textiles
Fig 3 : Temperature Controlled Garments (www.gizmag.com)

Work wear with safety communication features
The smart garments have got a wide range of application in the market segment of
professional uniform and work wear for hands-free communication for police and
other professionals, with easy to use radio communications construction workers and
many others (Sakthibel 2010,). The Functional Hi-tech jacket (Fig 4) equipped with
various electronic devices was designed for fashionable wear and also provides
specific functional requirement. It can be applied for mountain rescue services
having radio communication features. The thermal sensor technology was integrated
into the jacket using textile cabling and silicon encapsulation with an alerting system
provides fire fighters the required warning signal in case of elevation of temperature
level (Mukherjee, 2014).
Fig 4: A Smart Jacket (www.tonychor.com)
Thermochromic Garment
The colour of textiles change with the variation in atmospheric conditions by
incorporating chromic material in it which respond to change its colour due to
change its temperature (Australia.M, 2000). They are incorporated in the fabric by
microencapsulation or printing (Gupta S, 2005) The garment fades with increase in
atmospheric temperature, and darkens when the temperature is decreased (Fig. 5).

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Functional textiles
The colour-change temperature varies from -5 to +60◦C. In addition to fashion effects

this can be utilized as a temperature indicator acting as a protective clothing.
Fig 5: Thermochromic Garments (hypebeast.com)
Electronic Garment
Conductive materials along with carbon based fibers are used along with textiles to
manufacture e-garments having wearable electronic features. It is applied to shield
electromagnetic radiation. It is futuristic in nature and incorporates more intelligent
features through a wide range of micro-systems having minute components
developing unique and exclusive products which create a new domain of fashion
range (Mukherjee, 2014). Wearable computers in the form of vests and jackets have
been developed.
Nanotechnology for protective functional textiles and clothing
Nano materials such as nanotubes developed either from silicon or carbon would be
very useful for producing functional protective clothing providing ultra high strength
and performance and enhancing fiber strength and conductivity with heat treatment
(Chaudhary 2009). The nano-fibers are used in bullet proof vest and electromagnetic
wave tolerant fabrics which find wide range of application in defence for military
combats. The fabric used for this purpose is breathable, light weight, strong, abrasion
resistant, water proof, temperature sensitive and capable of changing colour.
Innovative functional leisure fashion wear
Researchers at the University of South Australia are working on a special jacket that has
wearable computer and facilities of a cell phone, and is termed as a “Smart Suit”. The
suit comes with a “smart hanger and wardrobe” that can recharge electronic gear in
the suit and connect the suit with a desktop computer. Obviously, these garments with
electronic facilities extend the boundaries of techno fashion and introduce many
interesting features. A jacket dubbed as ‘Musical Jacket’ has an embedded chip that
stores the wearer’s favourite music or facilitates radio and plays them on demand. The
jacket also has a built-in screen that can show moving images (Mukherjee, 2014). A
solar bikini augments the basic swim-suit with strips of photovoltaic film attached with
conductive thread. The suit generates a five-volt output that can recharge gadgets
like an i-pod through an USB connector.

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Functional textiles
Wearable Solar Jacket

For the garment industry, the solar jacket is one of the most noteworthy applications
of solar power. Using the jacket, the wearer can carry around portable electronic
devices and also keep them charged. The jacket has a solar panel (fig 6) that powers
a hidden battery pack charger using solar energy. This charger can be connected
to mobile devices such as cell phones, ipads or MP3 players (Kumar 2010). The jacket
thus provides the convenience of backup and charging on-demand and is highly
relevant in the market of small garments.
Fig 6. A wearable Solar Jacket (www.gizmag.com)
Shape memory fabric

Shape memory fabrics are made of copolymers of hard and soft segments. In response
to external stimuli the fabric and garment tend to change their physical shape. The
fabrics return to its original shape and size in accordance to suitable temperature
conditions. They have a metallic look and can appear in different colors when
viewed with different light sources. They are easily maintained and are non-allergenic
in nature. The fabrics respond to stimuli such as light, temperature or electric field, and
exhibit special functions like actuation, sensitivity and damping. The world of fashion
is enamoured with special features of the garments (Hu 2007).
Functional Medical Clothing
The US company Vivometrix has developed the lifeshirt, which can monitor
physiological symptoms from patients. The lifeshirt consists of a garment, a data
recorder as well as an analysis software. Sensors monitor symptoms such as respiration
rate, electrocardiogram and posture, while the software analyzes and visually
displays the data. The shirt is reliable, comfortable, user friendly and at the same time
fashionable (Grossman, 2003). A Finish research consortium driving in remote Arctic
areas developed the three-layer Cyberia clothing ensemble for snow mobile drive.
The PCM underwear has sensors that monitor heart rate and body temperature, and
the outer garment has devices such as a GPS (Mattila, 2001) that help locate the
driver in emergency situations.
A new generation high-tech vest can keep soliders and firefighters alive in the high
temperatures of deserts or major fires. The vest has a cooling system based on heat
pipe technology, that extracts body heat through evaporation of water from cavities
in the vest. Sensors and tiny flexible light emitting displays (FLED-s) can receive and
respond to stumuli generated by the body. The sensors monitor heart rate, respiration,
body temperature and pulse readings, and if the vital signs fall below critical values,
send a warning to remote locations.
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Functional textiles
Conclusion
The present trend of production of functional textiles & clothing show nearly same
speed of growth as the conventional textiles due to fast emerging phase in the
field of technical textiles. Keeping pace with this trend, electronics and technology
sectors have developed wearable technology in the present decade. Clothing has
become carrier of entertainment and communication systems. Development of new
materials and improved technologies for production of functionally specific clothing
ensembles has led to innovative garments for sportswear, protective clothing, function
leisure fashion wear and medical clothing. The garments not only provide enhanced
comfort but also reduce physiological strain on the users. At the very outset of material
development, designers need to work with close association and consultation with
scientists and technologists to seamlessly integrate the technology into diversified
and innovative products. There is a rising demand in fashion to integrate the newly
available technical capabilities and smart functionality into fabrics. The present
versatile advancement in this respect gives exhilarating challenges to the future. These
concerted efforts would help harness human creativity to deliver smarter products
with intelligent and functional features along with a versatile design.
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UTILIZATION OF ACRYLIC FIBROUS WASTE FOR PREPARATION OF ACTIVATED CARBON NANOPARTICLES
UTILIZATION OF ACRYLIC FIBROUS WASTE

FOR PREPARATION OF ACTIVATED CARBON
NANOPARTICLES
Salman Naeem1, Vijay Baheti1, Malgorzata Okrasa2, Jiri Militky1, Blanka
Tomkova1
1
Department of Material Engineering, Faculty of Textile Engineering, Technical University of Liberec,
Studentska 2, Liberec 46117, Czech Republic
Central Institute of Labour Protection, Lodz, Poland
2
(Presenting author E-mail: example@example.com; Corresponding author email:

vijaykumar.baheti@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT
In present study, activated carbon is prepared by controlled pyrolysis of acrylic fibrous
waste under the layer of charcoal using physical activation in high temperature
furnace. The main objective is to study the effect of four factors (i.e. final pyrolysis
temperature, holding time at final temperature, heating rate per hour, and number
of steps) on carbonization behavior of acrylic fibrous waste. The Box-Behnken design
and response surface modeling was performed to get higher specific surface area
and higher electrical conductivity. The development of porous morphology having
higher surface area is found to increase with increase in pyrolysis temperature,
increase in number of steps, decrease in holding time and decrease in heating rate
till some optimum value. This behavior is attributed to gradual reaction of atmospheric
oxygen with carbonized acrylic fibrous waste, which resulted into the opening of
previously inaccessible pores through the removal of tars and disorganised carbon.
Moreover, these four factors also found to have significant effect on the development
of electrical conductivity of activated carbon. Later on, the carbonized acrylic fibrous
waste was pulverized in dry conditions by high energy planetary ball milling to get
activated carbon nanoparticles. In addition to refinement of size, the specific surface
area and electrical conductivity of pulverized carbon particles was found to increase
with increase in milling time. The activated carbon particles obtained after three hours
of dry milling revealed the particle size of 521 nm, the electrical conductivity of 21.78
s/m for 0.5 wt % concentration of aqueous dispersion and the specific surface area
of 432 m2/g.
Keywords: Acrylic fiber waste, Pyrolysis, Activated carbon, Response surface model,
Optimization, Ball milling, Carbon nanoparticles
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, quality of fresh air surrounding the living place has gained an
importance as it affects health, comfort, satisfaction and productivity of people.
In fact, the indoor quality of air is more important than the outdoor air since most
people spend an average of 90 % of their time in enclosed buildings [1-3]. The volatile
organic compounds are regarded as major source of indoor air contaminants. The
volatile organic compounds are a highly diverse class of chemical contaminants

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having 50 to 300 compounds of boiling point in range of 50 oC to 260 oC [4, 5]. The
few examples of volatile organic compounds are formaldehyde, benzene, toluene,
acrolein, radon, ozone, and fine particles, which can be found in cooking or tobacco
smoke [6]. A long-term exposure to these compounds causes headaches, dizziness,
nausea, or allergic reaction.
Due to diverse nature of presence of volatile organic compounds in indoor air, there
is no single method for their removal from the atmosphere. The commonly used
indoor air purification methods are adsorption, photocatalytic oxidation, negative
air ions and nonthermal plasma [7]. However, the adsorption based techniques are
most attractive than others since they do not generate harmful intermediates [8, 9].
The removal of volatile organic compounds by adsorption on activated carbon,
activated carbon fibers, zeolites, porous clay ore, activated alumina, silica gel, etc
have been studied previously [10]. However, the activated carbon based adsorbents
are effective at removing a broad spectrum of indoor volatile organic compounds
due to their high adsorption capacity and considerable surface area [11].
Activated carbon is a highly porous product, usually derived from carbon sources such
as bituminous coal, lignite, wood, or coconut shell [12]. Activated carbon has a very
high porous structure with a large internal surface area around 500-2000 m2/g [13].
In recent years, research on exploring alternative inexpensive sources together with
methods for preparation of activated carbon materials has attracted attention. The
idea of converting acrylic fibrous wastes generated in textile industries, into activated
carbon is considered as one of the favorable approach. The short acrylic fiber wastes
are suitable for porous activated carbon because of their excellent natural structure
and low ash content [14]. The activated carbon derived from acrylic fiber wastes are
advantageous over carbon made from other materials because of its low cost, high
density, better purity, and virtually dust-free nature [15].
In present study, acrylic fibrous waste is converted into activated carbon by physical
activation in presence of air via controlled thermal treatment under the layer of
charcoal using high temperature furnace. The carbonization behavior was studied
under the four variables i.e. final pyrolysis temperature (FPT), holding time at final
temperature (HTFT), heating rate per hour (HRPH), and number of steps (NOS) using
Box-Behnken design and response surface modeling. These four variables were
optimized to get higher specific surface area and higher electrical conductivity.
This work is further aimed at the preparation of activated carbon nanoparticles by
subsequent action of high energy ball milling process. The pulverized activated
carbon nanoparticles are expected to find suitable applications in the field of odor
capture for products like garments, innerwear, shoe soles, home kitchens, air filters,
pet homes, etc.
Carbonization of acrylic fibrous wastes
The acrylic fibrous waste was obtained from Grund Industries, Czech Republic in the
form of discarded bath mats. The short segments of acrylic fibers were removed from
bath mats using mechanical cutting method. The measured quantity of these fibers
was later transferred in high temperature furnace to convert into activated carbon

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using physical activation in presence of air. The pyrolysis was carried out under the
layer of charcoal in order to have gradual reaction of atmospheric air with carbonized
acrylic fibrous waste. The carbonization behavior was studied under four variables
FPT, HTFT, HRPH, and NOS. These four variables were optimized to get higher specific
surface area and higher electrical conductivity. The optimization was performed
using Box-Behnken design and response surface modeling under three levels and
four factors as mentioned in Table 1. The mathematical relationship between the
four independent variables and the response is approximated by the second order
polynomial as given in Equation (1) and Equation (2)
Table 1. Selected factors and levels for pyrolysis of acrylic fibrous wastes
Levels
Name of factor (-) (0) (+)
FPT (oC) 800 1000 1200
HTFT (min) 0 30 60
HRPH (oC/hour) 150 300 450
NOS 1 2 3
(1)
(2)
where and model constant;,,, and ,,, are linear coefficients; ,,, ,and ,,,, are cross product
coefficients and ,,,and ,,, are the quadratic coefficients. The coefficients of main effect
and two factor interaction effect are estimated from the experimental results using
the mathematical software package SYSTAT.
Characterization of carbonized acrylic fibrous waste
Characterization of specific surface area. The surface area was measured from
N2 adsorption–desorption isotherms at 77.35 K using Quantachrome Instruments.
Adsorption/desorption isotherm measurements were collected in the relative pressure
range P/P0 from 0.02 to 1. The samples were pre-treated in an oven at 45 °C in dry-
room for at least 5 h and then out gassed overnight at 350 °C prior to the adsorption
analysis. Both adsorption and desorption isotherms were measured and the surface
area was determined from the adsorption curve.
Characterization of surface resistivity. Hewlett Packard 4339 B high resistance
meter was used to measure the surface electrical resistance of carbonized acrylic
fibrous waste. The environmental condition for the measurement was kept at 22 oC
temperature and 29.5 % relative humidity and voltage used was 100 V. Due to high
electrical conductivity of carbonized acrylic fibrous waste, alternative method of
characterization using multimeter was also carried out.
Preparation of nanoparticles from carbonized acrylic fibrous wastes
After getting the optimum pyrolysis parameters, dry pulverization of carbonized
acrylic fibrous waste was carried out using high energy planetary ball milling of Fritsch
pulverisette 7, Germany. The sintered corundum container of 80 ml capacity and
zirconium balls of 10 mm diameter were chosen for 3 hours of dry milling. The ball to
material ratio (BMR) was kept at 10:1 and the speed was kept at 850 rpm.

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Characterization of activated carbon nanoparticles

Characterization of particle size. Particle size distribution of dry milled activated
carbon particles was studied after each hour of milling on Malvern zetasizer nano
series based on dynamic light scattering principle of brownian motion of particles.
Deionized water was used as dispersion medium and it was ultrasonicated for 5 min
with bandelin ultrasonic probe before characterization. In addition, morphologies of
dry milled activated carbon particles were observed on scanning electron microscope
(SEM) of TS5130-Tescan at 30 KV accelerated voltage and on field emission scanning
electron microscope (FESEM) of Zeiss at 5 kV accelerated voltage. The amount of 0.01
g of carbon black particles was dispersed in 100 ml acetone and then a drop of the
dispersed solution was placed on aluminum foil and gold coated after drying.
Characterization of specific surface area. The specific surface area of activated
carbon particles was measured in similar way as described in previous section 2.2.
Characterization of electrical conductivity. The pulverized activated carbon particles
were taken out after every 30 min of dry milling and dispersed in distilled water using
Bandelin SONOPLUS ultrasonic probe. The electrical conductivity of dispersion was
measured by conductometer under different concentrations of activated carbon
particles from 0.5 to 4.0 wt %.
RESULTS
Optimization of pyrolysis parameters
Using the Box–Behnken experimental design, twenty seven runs with appropriate
combinations of FPT, HTFT, HRPH and NOS were conducted. The results for specific
surface area and surface resistivity are given in Table 2. During the initial pyrolysis stage
of stabilization at 250 oC, the acrylic fibrous waste was softened with the evolution of
volatile matter causing subsequent bubbling, hardening and shrinkage of the char
[12]. The subsequent pyrolysis cycles of the char at increased temperature found to
result into micropore formation followed by pore enlargement as the atmospheric
air reacts with the carbonized acrylic fibrous wastes. This phenomenon indicated
the increase in specific surface area with increase in pyrolysis temperature. The
experimental results in Table 2 were fitted to a full quadratic second order model
by applying multiple regression analysis using SYSTAT software. The model equation
representing specific surface area and surface resistivity are expressed in terms of
FPT, HTFT, HRPH and NOS for actual values of variables as given in Equation (3) and
Equation (4)

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Table 2. Box-Behnken design showing obtained properties of activated carbon

Surface
FPT HTFT HRPH (oC/ Specific surface
Run NOS resistivity
(oC) (min) hour) area (m2/g)
(Ω.mm)
1 1200 0 300 2 278 0.52
2 1000 30 450 1 92 130.50
3 1200 30 450 2 90 0.65
4 1000 0 300 3 160 7.83
5 800 0 300 2 120 1174.50
6 1200 60 300 2 213 0.31
7 1000 60 300 1 59 83.52
8 1000 30 300 2 170 28.71
9 1200 30 300 1 58 135.72
10 1000 30 300 2 140 2.47
11 1200 30 150 2 256 0.67
12 800 60 300 2 88 208.80
13 1200 30 300 3 340 0.46
14 800 30 300 1 45 112.23
15 800 30 450 2 63 323.11
16 1000 30 150 1 82 125.28
17 1000 0 150 2 176 4.69
18 1000 60 450 2 135 2.08
19 800 30 150 2 105 169.65
20 800 30 300 3 74 522.00
21 1000 30 150 3 190 6.78
22 1000 60 300 3 179 3.39
23 1000 0 300 1 53 92.92
24 1000 30 300 2 143 3.21
25 1000 60 150 2 121 1.57
26 1000 30 450 3 110 2.35
27 1000 0 450 2 137 3.92
(3)
(4)
For the estimation of significance of the model, the analysis of variance and the
F-test were carried out. The corresponding variables would be more significant when
the absolute F-value becomes greater and the p-value (significance probability
value) becomes smaller. Using 1.0 % significance level, a model is considered highly
significant if the p-value is less than 0.01. From the p-value presented in Table 3 and
Table 4, it can be concluded that only the linear contributions in case of specific
surface area are highly significant. The square contributions and the interaction
contributions are not significant in both cases of specific surface area and surface
resistivity. The coefficient of determination is found to be 94.0 % for specific surface
area model and 86.0 % for surface resistivity model, which means that the model
could explain 94.0 % and 86.0 % of the total variations in the system. With the help of
canonical analysis in SYSTAT software, set of optimised parameters for both specific

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surface area and surface resistivity are calculated and given in Table 5.
Table 3. Estimation of significance of model for specific surface area
Source DF SS MS F-value p-value
Regression 14 122203.15 8728.79 6.62 0.000
Linear 4 91412.16 22853.04 17.34 0.000
Quadratic 4 7903.00 1975.74 1.49 0.026
Interaction 6 22888.00 3814.66 2.89 0.05
Residual error 12 15814.91 1317.91
Lack of fit 10 15268.91 1526.89 5.59 0.16
Pure error 2 546.00 273.00
Total error 26 138018.07
Table 4. Estimation of significance of model for surface resistivity
Source DF SS MS F-value p-value
Regression 14 1143892.28 81706.59 2.46 0.06
Linear 4 553200.37 138300.09 4.16 0.02
Quadratic 4 277465.86 69366.46 2.09 0.14
Interaction 6 313226.03 52204.33 1.57 0.23
Residual error 12 398187.31 33182.27
Lack of fit 10 397740.87 39774.08 178.18 0.00
Pure error 2 446.44 223.22
Total error 26 1542079.59
Table 5. Optimum values of pyrolysis parameters
Specific surface area Surface resistivity
Pyrolysis factor
(m2/g) (Ω.mm)
FPT (oC) 769.63 970.05
HTFT (min) 17.19 58.40
HRPH (oC/hr) 382.27 337.52
NOS 1.47 1.72
The three dimensional plots of response surface model are studied for the interaction
effect of pyrolysis factors on specific surface area and surface resistivity. The plots are
shown from Figure 1 to Figure 6. The development of porous morphology having higher
surface area is found to increase with increase in pyrolysis temperature, increase in
number of steps, decrease in holding time and decrease in heating rate till some
optimum value. This behavior is attributed to gradual reaction of atmospheric oxygen
with carbonized acrylic fibrous waste, which resulted into the opening of previously
inaccessible pores through the removal of tars and disorganised carbon [12].
Moreover, these four factors also found to have significant effect on the development
of electrical conductivity than surface area of activated carbon. It is clear from
Figure 4 (a) and Figure 4 (b) that the effect of heating rate was more pronounced for
increased specific surface area than the effect of holding time. The slower heating
rate below 300 oC/hr was found more advantageous for gradual increase in reactivity
between atmospheric oxygen and carbon. However, with increase in holding time,
the chances of sudden increase in reactivity between atmospheric oxygen and
carbon are higher. As a result, the reduction in values of specific surface area with

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increase in holding time can be observed.

Surface plot of SPECIFIC_SURFACE_AREA Vs FPT, HTFT Surface plot of RESISTIVITY Vs FPT, HTFT
300 1000
E_AREA
RESISTIVITY
200 500
SPECIFIC_SURFAC
100 0
70
70
60
60
0 0
130 130
50
50
200 200
0 1 0 1
40
40
HT 110 HT 110
FT FT
30
30
0 0
100 100
20
20
900 900
800 FPT 800 FPT
10
10
700 700
0
0
Figure 1(a). Effect of FPT and HTFT on Figure 1(b). Effect of FPT and HTFT on surface
specific surface area resistivity
Surface plot of SPECIFIC_SURFACE_AREA Vs FPT, HRPH Surface plot of RESISTIVITY Vs FPT, HRPH
300 500
E_AREA
400
RESISTIVITY
200 300
SPECIFIC_SURFAC
200
100 100
0
0
0
50
50
0 0
130 130
0
0
40
40
200 200
0 1 0 1
HR 110 HR 110
0
0
30
30
0 0
PH 900
100 PH 900
100
0
0
20
FPT
20
800 800 FPT

700 700
0
0
10
10
Figre 2 (a). Effect of FPT and HRPH on Figure 2 (b). Effect of FPT and HRPH on surface
Surface plot of SPECIFIC_SURFACE_AREA Vs FPT, NOS Surface plot of RESISTIVITY Vs FPT, NOS
400 600
E_AREA
500
300 400
RESISTIVITY
SPECIFIC_SURFAC
300
200 200
100
100 0
-100
3.5
5
3.
3.0
0
3.
0 0
130 130
2.5
200 200
2.
0 1 0 1
NO 110 NO 110
2.0
0
2.
0 0
S 100 S 100
1.5
5
1.
900 900
FPT FPT
1.0
800 800
1.
700 700
0.5
5
0.
Figure 3 (a). Effect of FPT and NOS on Figure 3 (b). Effect of FPT and NOS on surface

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Surface plot of SPECIFIC_SURFACE_AREA Vs HTFT, HRPH Surface plot of RESISTIVITY Vs HTFT, HRPH
200 200
E_AREA
190
180
RESISTIVITY
170 100
SPECIFIC_SURFAC
160
150
140 0
130
120
0
0
50
50
70 70
0
0
40
40
60 60
50 50
HR HR
0
0
30
30
40 40
PH 30 PH 30
T T
0
0
HTF HTF
20 20
20
20
10 10
0 0
0
0
10
10
Figure 4 (a). Effect of HTFT and HRPH on Figure 4 (b). Effect of HTFT and HRPH on surface
Surface plot of SPECIFIC_SURFACE_AREA Vs HTFT, NOS Surface plot of RESISTIVITY Vs HTFT, NOS
200 200
E_AREA
RESISTIVITY
150 100
SPECIFIC_SURFAC
100 0
5
5
3.
3.
0
0
3.
3.
70 70
5
60 60
2.
2.
50 50
NO NO
0
0
2.
2.
40 40
S S
5
30 30
1.
1.
T T
HTF HTF
20 20
0
0
1.
1.
10 10
0 0
5
5
0.
0.
Figure 5 (a). Effect of HTFT and NOS on Figure 5 (b). Effect of HTFT and NOS on surface
Surface plot of SPECIFIC_SURFACE_AREA Vs HRPH, NOS Surface plot of RESISTIVITY Vs HRPH, NOS
250 50
E_AREA
40
200 30
20
RESISTIVITY
SPECIFIC_SURFAC
150 10
0
100 -10
-20
50 -30
-40
5
5
3.
3.
0
0
3.
3.
500 500
5
5
2.
2.
400 400
NO NO
0
0
2.
2.
S 300 S 300
5
5
1.
1.
H 200 H
HRP
200
HRP
0
0
1.
1.
100 100
5
5
0.
0.
Figure 6 (a). Effect of HRPH and NOS on Figure 6 (b). Effect of HRPH and NOS on surface

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Preparation of activated carbon nanoparticles

Characterization of particle size. Figure 7 (a), Figure 7 (b) and Figure 7 (c) show the
particle size distribution results of dry milled activated carbon particles for different
time of milling from one hour to three hours. It can be seen from Figure 7 (a) that the
rate of particle size reduction is higher during the initial one hour of milling during
which the characteristic particle diameter Z-average reduced to 1563 nm. However,
the particle size was gradually reduced later and reached to 521 nm after three
hours of dry milling as shown in Figure 7 (c). When milling was performed for longer
time, particle size distribution changed from multimodal distribution to near unimodal
distribution. The reason behind multimodal distribution of particles is due to increase
in temperature within the mill because of continuous impact of balls [16, 17]. The
increased temperature of mill rendered the activated carbon particles to undergo
cold welding and deposited a layer on the surface of milling media. The growth of
deposited layer changed the impact force of balls on the material with least impact
on particles at bottom of layer. The morphology of activated carbon particles after
three hours of dry milling was further investigated with the help of SEM images shown
in Figure 8 (a), Figure 8 (b) and Figure 8 (c). The shape of activated carbon particles
was observed in the form of mixture of both nanoparticles and nanosegments. The
few carbon particles with higher aspect ratio were found due to inability of milling
process as a result of increased temperature.
Figure 7 (c). Particle size

Figure 7 (a). Particle size Figure 7 (b). Particle size
after three hour of dry
after one hour of dry milling after two hour of dry milling
milling
Figure 8 (a). SEM image Figure 8 (b). SEM image Figure 8 (c). SEM image
after one hour of dry milling after two hour of dry milling after two hour of dry milling
Characterization of specific surface area. From Figure 9, the specific surface area of
activated carbon particles was found to increase with increase in milling time. This
behavior was found more significant during initial one hour of milling during which
surface area of activated carbon particles changed from 278 m2/g to 346 m2/g for

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30 min of milling interval. Afterwards, there was steady improvement in surface area
up to 432 m2/g for three hours of milling.
Figure 9. Effect of milling time on specific surface area of activated carbon particles
Characterization of electrical conductivity. Figure 10 shows the electrical conductivity
of aqueous dispersion of activated carbon particles measured under different
concentrations from 0.5 to 4.0 wt %. The influence of dry milling time on electrical
conductivity is clearly observed under lower concentration of carbon particles below
1 wt %, where electrical conductivity of aqueous dispersion of carbon particles
increased significantly with increase in dry milling time. This behavior was attributed
to increase in surface area and reduction in size of activated carbon particles at
extended milling time. For higher concentration of carbon particles (i.e. 2 wt % and 4
wt %), there is gradual increase in electrical conductivity with increase in dry milling
time. This behavior is attributed to early achievement of percolated network of carbon
particles due to their higher loading in aqueous dispersion.
Figure 10. Effect of milling time on electrical conductivity of activated carbon particles
CONCLUSIONS
The acrylic fibrous waste was successfully converted into activated carbon by physical
activation in presence of air using controlled thermal treatment in high temperature
furnace. The multistage pyrolysis with 1200 oC of final pyrolysis temperature resulted
into activated carbon having higher specific surface area and higher electrical
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conductivity. The lower heating rate and shorter holding time are found to have
significant effect on the development of porous morphology with higher surface area.
This behavior is attributed to gradual reaction of atmospheric oxygen with carbonized
acrylic fibrous waste. For the analysis of variance of results in Box-Behnken design, the
coefficient of determination is found to be 94.0 % for specific surface area model and
86.0 % for surface resistivity model. After getting the optimum pyrolysis parameters, dry
pulverization of carbonized acrylic fibrous waste was carried out using high energy
planetary ball milling. The activated carbon particles obtained after three hours of
dry milling revealed the particle size of 521 nm, the electrical conductivity of 21.78 s/m
for 0.5 wt % concentration of aqueous dispersion and the specific surface area of 432
m2/g. In this way, ball milling process was found to mechanically activate the surface
of carbon nanoparticles with increase in electrical conductivity and surface area for
better compatibility with printing pastes or resins.
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C. I. Su, and C. L. Wang, Fiber Polym, 8, 482 (2007).
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A. Z. Muhammad Abbas, A. Yoshimasa, and M. Machidaa, J Hazard Mater, 180, 552 (2010).
G. S. Bhat, F. L. Cook, A.S. Abhiraman, and L.H. Peebles, Carbon, 28, 377 (1990).
S. K. Theydan, and M. J. Ahmed, Powder Technol, 224, 101 (2012).
M. A. Nahil, and P. T. Williams, J Anal Appl Pyrol, 91,67 (2011).
P. Soraia, and T. P. Silvestre, Waste Manage, 31, 378 (2011).
V. Baheti, and J. Militky, Fiber Polym, 14, 133 (2013).
V. Baheti, J. Militky and M. Marsalkova, Polym Composite, 34, 2133 (2014).

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APPLICATION OF VAPORISED HYDROGEN PEROXIDE IN BLEACHING AND DISINFECTION OF CELLULOSIC HYGIENIC AND MEDICAL PRODUCTS
APPLICATION OF VAPORISED HYDROGEN

PEROXIDE IN BLEACHING AND DISINFECTION
OF CELLULOSIC HYGIENIC AND MEDICAL
PRODUCTS
Anetta Walawska, Jadwiga Sójka-Ledakowicz, Barbara Filipowska,
Magdalena Kiwała
Textile Research Institute (Instytut Wlokiennictwa), 5/15 Brzezinska Str., 92-103 Lodz, Poland
(Presenting and corresponding author email: awalawska@iw.lodz.pl)
ABSTRACT
Under industrial conditions bleaching of textiles made of cellulose fibres commonly is
carried out using water bath of hydrogen peroxide in strongly alkaline media (pH>11).
A large quantities of water are required to remove from textiles the residues of
stabilizers and hydrogen peroxide, which may cause the chemical degradation of
cellulose. Environmental care and the need to meet increasingly stringent standards
for water and wastewater still force to seek new technological solutions to eliminate
impurities, preferably through the use of waste-free methods. The use of gas phase
hydrogen peroxide (Vaporised Hydrogen Peroxide – VHP) in bleaching is certainly an
innovative solution.
The VHP treatment is a fully ecological process, as a result, no waste-water is generated,
and by-products are decomposition products of hydrogen peroxide: water and
oxygen.
This paper presents new – occuring as the result of gas-solid reaction – bleaching
process with simultaneous disinfection of cellulose textiles using VHP. Individual
parameters of bleaching process in a model chamber and their influence onto
acquired whiteness degree will be discussed as well. Cellulose textiles subjected to
gas phase hydrogen peroxide are characterised by an acceptable whiteness and
microbiological purity.
This method is an ecological alternative to the conventional water- and energy-
consuming bleaching process. It can be successfully applied to cellulose textiles for
medical products (gauze, cotton wool, bandages) and hygienic products (protective
masks used in prophylaxis of bacterial and/or viral disease transmission).
Keywords: Vaporised Hydrogen Peroxide – VHP, cellulose products bleaching,
disinfection, hygienic cotton materials
INTRODUCTION
Cotton fibres as well as cotton textiles have excellent water and moisture absorbency.
For this reason this raw material is willingly used in the clothing industry, where the share
of cotton in total fibre consumption is about 50%, but also applicable for medical
and hygiene (Hebeish et al. 2009). Cotton is composed almost entirely of cellulose
– natural polysacharide, composed of glucose particles bonded with β-1,4-glicosidic

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Functional textiles
bonds. Planes of the following glucose moieties are twisted to each other at the angle
of about 180° (fig.1). Native cellulose present in plant fibres is characterised by high
value of polymerisation degree (2500 – 5000) and high polymolecularity (McMurry
2003).
Fig.1.The structure of cellulose mer cell

Cotton fibres apart from cellulose, contain also about 4-12% of non-cellulosic
components, which include pectin (0.4-1.2%), waxes (0.4-1.2%), protein (1.0-1.9%),
inorganic salts (0.7-1.6%) and other (resins, pigments, hemi-cellulose - 0.5-0.8%)
(Hebeish et al. 2009). The yellowish or brown coloration of raw cotton fibres is related
to the protoplastic residues of protein and the flavones pigments of cotton flowers.
Non-cellulose substances are removed by alkali treatment in the scouring stage, while
natural pigments – during the bleaching process.
Currently in textile industry, the bleaching process of cotton fibres with hydrogen
peroxide is in common use. In this process, the strongly alkaline media (normally
NaOH) and the use of hydrogen peroxide decomposition stabilisers are required.
Bleaching is carried out at a high temperature for a relatively long time. After the
bleaching process, it is necessary to remove from the bath stabilisers and residues of
hydrogen peroxide, which may cause the chemical degradation of cellulose. Energy
and water consumption in this process and during the preceding pre-treatment is
very high, with an average of 100-150 dm3 of water per 1 kg and from 5 to 20 kWh of
energy per 1 kg of the textile products (Zylla et al. 2003).
Recently, one of the priority directions of research are the environmentally friendly
technologies, allowing the reduction of water and energy consumption and limitation
of the environmental impact. The use of hydrogen peroxide in the gas phase in the
bleaching process of cellulose fibres products is the technological solution which fits
perfectly into the above assumptions.
Hydrogen peroxide in the gas phase (Vaporised Hydrogen Peroxide – VHP) is the
relatively new agent used in the decontamination of hospital or laboratory rooms
(especially surfaces hard to reach), ventilation, air conditioning, as well as the surfaces
of medical and pharmaceutical instruments, devices and clean rooms (Klapes and
Vesley 1990, Cummings et al. 1990), diagnostic equipment and production lines in
the biopharmaceutical industry (Radl et al. 2009, Lee et al. 2008, Jonston et al. 2005,
Wagner et al. 2007, Klapes and Vesley 1990, Heckert et al. 1997, Hall et al. 2007), and
suitable for usage in buildings and transportation vehicles including emergency
vehicles, buses, trains and aircrafts (Mobbassar et al. 2011, Galvin et al. 2012).
VHP operates on a plurality of microorganisms: bacteria, fungi, viruses both in the
vegetative forms and as a spore, which is considered to be the most resistant to the
various cidal agents (Klapes and Vesley 1990, Otter et al. 2007, Heckert et al. 1997).

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Functional textiles
Hydroxyl radicals generated by the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide in the gas

phase oxidize elements of the structure of microbial cells (cell membrane lipids, DNA)
leading to their destruction (Lee et al. 2008).
Hydrogen peroxide in the gas form is produced by vaporisation of liquid hydrogen
peroxide, whereby the mixture of VHP and water vapour is obtained.
The use of VHP in the cellulose fibres bleaching process is an innovative solution
(Walawska et al. 2015), described in the scientific literature to a limited extent (Sojka-
Ledakowicz et al. 2015). The impact of VHP on products made of cellulose fibres
results in two types of effects: the oxidation of natural colorants present in the fibres,
resulting in improving the whiteness of products, but first of all - the decontamination
(and under the appropriate condition even sterilization) of these products. This fact
makes that the method of bleaching with simultaneous disinfection with hydrogen
peroxide in the gas phase is used in the finishing of cellulose products, especially
made of cotton fibres, for special applications - medical and hygienic products. For
such products, the most important feature is to gain microbiological standards, in
accordance with applicable regulations, but a high degree of whiteness is much less
important (Polish Phermacopoeia).
Fig. 2. VHP generation system - schematic diagram

In research works described in this paper, the bleaching with disinfection process was
carried out in the prototype device, product of Innovation-Development Enterprise
IMPULS (Poland) shown in Fig. 2. This system operates in the closed circuit. During
operation, a small amount of an aqueous solution of H2O2 at a concentration of 30 to
59% is sprayed onto the heated about 120°C plate of the vaporizer and vaporised. The
produced mixture of steam and vaporised hydrogen peroxide is introduced into the
decontamination chamber together with a stream of carrier gas - air. The mixture of
air - water vapor – vaporised hydrogen peroxide (undecomposed) is recirculated to
the vaporizer, where the further portions of vaporised hydrogen peroxide are added.
This system has been developed to control the temperature, humidity and hydrogen
peroxide vapour concentration in the range of about 100 ppm to about 1000 ppm.
VHP treatment of cotton textiles is a periodic process consisting of the following phases
(fig. 3):
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Functional textiles
- Dehumidification, when the initial humidity in the chamber is reduced (this

stage is required, if relative humidity in the chamber exceeds 40%);
- Saturation of working chamber with VHP to assumed concentration (e.g. 600
ppm, 800 ppm);
- Bleaching/decontamination – in this phase the VHP concentration is maintained
at the defined level by making it up;
- Aeration – supply of VHP to the working chamber is suspended while the system
carries away the mixture of VHP and steam until a safe concentration (in a closed
cycle) is obtained.
VHP treatment process is designed as a „dry” process, to avoid condensation on
the treated surfaces, which is considered to be problematical, first of all, because
of the possibility of textile product damage as well as the possibility of corrosion of
measurement equipment for monitoring conditions inside the chamber (McDonnel.
2006, Pottage et al. 2014).
Method of bleaching with disinfection of cellulosic fibre products is a fully ecological
process, as a result no waste-water is generated. In this method, the bleaching agent
in a small amount is applied and the after-treatment - rinsing process, is not required.
The operation of VHP is possible at low temperatures. Hydrogen peroxide vapour
breaks down to innocuous products: water and oxygen. As a result it is an economical
process, reducing energy and water consumption.
In this paper, the innovative – occurring as a result of gas – solid reaction – bleaching
process with simultaneous disinfection of cellulose textiles using VHP is presented.
The individual parameters of bleaching process in the prototype device with
decontamination chamber and their impact on the achieved degree of whiteness
were discussed taking the example of cotton woven fabric to be applied for medical
clothing items as well as cotton non-woven fabric. Results of decontamination
efficiency of cotton products contaminated with selected strains of microorganisms
are shown.
Materials
Cotton non-woven fabric made of 100 % cotton raw fibres with the average length
12.3 mm, mass per unit area 70 g/m2 (Harper Hygienics S.A., Poland)
Woven fabric Medical, cotton 100%, plain weave, mass per unit area 170 g/m2
(Andropol S.A., Poland)
Before testing, cotton wool and fabric samples were subjected to the pre-treatment
with anionic wetting-washing agent Periwet WLV (Dr. Petry GmbH) - 2g/l, 98°C, 30 min,
liquor ratio 1:10.
Chemical agents
• Hydrogen peroxide 35% (Azoty Company, Pulawy, Poland)
• Sodium hydroxide
• Anionic wetting-washing agent Periwet WLV (Dr. Petry GmbH)

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Microorganisms
• Bacteria strains: Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538
• Bacterial spores: Bacillus subtilis (BGA, by Merck) ATCC 19659,
Geobacillus stereothermophilis ATCC 7953 (Simicon GmbH)
• Fungi: Aspergillus niger van Tieghem ATCC 6275
• Fungi spores: Chaetomium globosum Kunze: Fries ATCC 6205
• Yeast Candida albicans ATCC 10321
Nutrient mediums
• Tryptone soya agar (DifcoTM)
• Tryptone soya broth (BTL)
• Czapek-Dox agar (BTL)
• Czapek-Dox broth (BTL)
Experimental methods
Bleaching and decontamination process with VHP
Samples of cotton materials were subjected to the bleaching with decontamination
treatment with VHP process in the prototype VHP device (product of Innovation-
Development Enterprise IMPULS, Poland) shown in Fig. 2, under the controlled
conditions: mean VHP concentration of 100 ppm ÷ 800 ppm, temperature of 30°C,
35°C or 45°C, relative humidity depending on the temperature, respectively of 90%,
65%, 30%, pressure 940 hPa, time 20 minutes or 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 8 hours.
Fig. 3. Cycle of bleaching/decontamination with the use of VHP (an example)

For comparison, the traditional peroxide bleaching process of cotton samples in a
bath containing 4 g/dm3 of 35% H2O2, 2 g/dm3 of NaOH and auxiliaries was carried
out at the temperature of 98°C for 60 minutes. Liquor ratio was 1:10. After bleaching
there was rinsing at the temperature of 80°C and 60°C, then cold rinsing and rinsing
with 1 g/dm3 of 50% acetic acid.

306
For comparison, the traditional peroxide bleaching process of cotton samples in a bath
3
containing 4 g/dm
Functional textiles of 35% H2O2, 2 g/dm3 of NaOH and auxiliaries was carried out at the
temperature
APPLICATION OF VAPORISEDof 98°C PEROXIDE
HYDROGEN for 60 minutes.
IN BLEACHING Liquor ratio
AND DISINFECTION was HYGIENIC
OF CELLULOSIC 1:10. AND
After bleaching
MEDICAL PRODUCTS there was
3
rinsing at the temperature of 80°C and 60°C, then cold rinsing and rinsing with 1 g/dm of
50% acetic acid.
Whiteness measurement

Bleaching
Whiteness measurement results were evaluated by measuring the degree of whiteness for cotton
samples Bleaching - CIE whiteness results were indexevaluated (WI) with Datacolor by measuring 650 (Datacolor the degree Int.)
of whiteness for cotton
spectrophotometer
samples - CIE whiteness
equipped with Datacolor Tools software according to EN-ISO 105-J02 for 10° observer, index (WI) with Datacolor 650 (Datacolor Int.)
spectrophotometer equipped with Datacolor Tools software according to EN-ISO 105-J02
by the light D65. The colorimetric coordinates (X, Y, Z) of cotton samples and the
for 10° observer, by the light D65. The colorimetric coordinates (X, Y, Z) of cotton samples
chromaticity coordinates (x, y) were calculated. Then the whiteness index was
and the chromaticity coordinates (x, y) were calculated. Then the whiteness index was
determined according to CIE formula (1)
determined according to CIE formula (1)
WICIE = Y + 800( x0 − x) + 1700( y0 − y) , (1)
where x0 and y0 are the coordinates of achromatic point for the given illuminant. For the
D65 and x010°
where andobserver y0 are the these coordinatesvalues amount of achromatic to 0.3138 point and 0.3310
for therespectively. This CIE
given illuminant. For
whiteness index formula is limited to the value 40 < WI < 5Y – 280.
the D65 and 10° observer these values amount to 0.3138 and 0.3310 respectively. This
CIE whiteness index formula is limited to the value 40 < WI < 5Y – 280.
Degree of polymerisation
5
The
polymerisation degree was determined by viscosimetric method given in ISO 5351
–Determination of limiting viscosity number in cupriethylenediamine (CED) solution.
This method relies on determination of viscosity ratio of cellulose polymer solution in
cupriethylenediamine (CED) by the measure of efflux time of the solution. The average
degree of polymerisation is calculated as the average of three measurements.
Mechanical properties
The tensile strength and elongation at break of cotton fabric samples was determined
according to EN ISO 13934-1 with the use of tensile testing machine Hounsfield H5KS
(Tinius Olsen); velocity of tension 100m/min; distance between clamps 200 mm.
Microbiological tests procedure
Selected bacteria strains: S. aureus ATCC 6538, bacterial spores B. subtilis ATCC
19659 and G. stearothermophilus ATCC 7953 as well as fungi: A. niger ATCC 6275,
Ch. globosum ATCC 6205 and C. albicans ATCC 10321were deposited on the cotton
material samples - amount of suspension 0.1 ml per sample. Then, the contaminated
material samples were subjected to the treatment with VHP processes: at 100ppm,
200 ppm or 500 ppm of VHP in 35°C for 20 minutes or 1 hour. After the VHP process,
the samples were carried on the plates with appropriate nutrient agar (Tryptone soya
agar by DifcoTM for bacteria and spores; Czapek-Dox agar by BTL for fungi) or into
the appropriate broth (Tryptone soya broth by BTL for bacteria and spores, Czapek-
Dox broth by BTL for fungi). Then these samples as well as control samples (cotton
woven and non-woven fabric samples contaminated with individual microorganisms)
were put into the laboratory incubator under the conditions optimal for the individual
microorganisms growth: temperature of 37°C, time 72 hours for bacteria, temperature
of 30°C, time 168 hours for spores and temperature of 30°C, time 192 hours for fungi.
Cotton samples were considered as sterile if during the incubation period, there was
no microbial growth on the plates with agar nor in the broth.
Tests of sensitizing effect on animals
Tests in vivo for animal – guinea pig skin sensitization for samples of cotton products
samples, treated by vaporised hydrogen peroxide, were performed in accordance
with OECD guidelines by the Research Laboratory of Medicine and Veterinary
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Functional textiles
Products in the GMP Quality System at Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine in

Lodz, Poland.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Examining of influence of VHP process conditions on bleaching effect
Influence of VHP concentration
As a result of cotton woven and non-woven fabric treatment using vaporised
hydrogen peroxide, a significant improvement in their whiteness took place (table
1,2). After 4-hour process even at the lowest concentration used, 200 ppm, there was
an increase in the whiteness. For Medical fabric, increasing in whiteness degree of
24.39 units as compared to untreated sample (from WICIE=25.66 to WICIE=50.05) was
observed. While for cotton non-woven an analogous increase in whiteness degree
value amounts to 22.82 units (from WICIE=15.63 to WICIE=38.65. Further increasing in
VHP concentration resulted in further increase in whiteness degree of tested products
– of 30.51 units (to WICIE=56.17) for Medical woven fabric and of 39.87 units (to
WICIE=55.50) for non-woven fabric at VHP concentration 800 ppm (table 1).
Table 1. Degree of CIE whiteness index (WICIE) for cotton woven fabric Medical and
cotton non-woven fabric after VHP treatment at different concentration
Woven fabric Medical Non-woven fabric
VHP concentration
[ppm] Change of Change of
WI CIE WI CIE
WI CIE* WI CIE*
Without treatment 25.66 - 15.63 -
200 50.05 24.39 38.45 22.82
300 51.07 25.41 40.42 24.79
400 52.07 26.41 42.42 26.79
500 53.16 27.50 44.20 28.57
600 54.11 28.45 46.21 30.58
700 54.88 29.22 47.11 31.48
800 56.17 30.51 55.50 39.87
*) calculated as a difference between WICIE at particular VHP concentration and WICIE for
a sample without treatment; for each material
Influence of VHP treatment duration
In order to determine the influence of the duration of VHP treatment on the cotton
fabric, the studies of bleaching effect at selected VHP concentration of 600 ppm and
800 ppm in different time from one hour to five hours were carried out.
Only after one-hour treatment at 600 ppm (table 2), a significant increase in the
whiteness degree was observed. For the Medical fabric - about 26.82 units (to
WICIE=52.48) and for non-woven - about 24.04 units (to WICIE=39.67) with respect to a
non-treated. Further VHP treatment time extension caused a relatively slight increase
in the value of whiteness degree. For Medical fabric whiteness degree improved
by approximately 2 units - in relation to the sample treated with VHP for 1 hour (to
WICIE=54.31) and for the non-woven fabric WICIE improved for about 7 units, down to
WICIE=54.31.
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Functional textiles
Similar tendency was observed for samples of cotton fabrics subjected to the
bleaching process using VHP at a concentration of 800 ppm (table 3). However, in this
case, the value of whiteness degree for Medical fabric is about 2-3 units higher than
for the corresponding samples treated VHP with a concentration of 600 ppm and
amounts to WICIE=54.38 after 1-hour treatment to WICIE=57.71 after 5 hours. However,
in the case of cotton non-woven increasing the VHP concentration from 600 ppm
to 800 ppm resulted in a much higher increase of the whiteness - approximately 10-
14 units (table 3) for each treatment time. Whiteness degree for non-woven cotton
treated with VHP at concentration of 800 ppm was respectively WICIE=50.74 after
1-hour treatment and WICIE=57.21 after a 5-hour treatment.
This nature of changes of the whiteness degree over the time can indicate the following
mechanism of the process. In the first period, when a large number of active centers
(in textiles) is free and available directly to the molecules of H2O2, the process runs
fast and the progress in the bleaching is quickly achieved. Then, the surface of fibres
is occupied by a layer of hydrogen peroxide molecules which can form transient
complexes and block the direct access of H2O2 reactive particles to the surface -
then the bleaching process becomes slower. However, bleaching continues, albeit
slowly.
Whiteness degree of tested cotton materials after treatment with the VHP is significantly
lower than the one obtained for these materials subjected to a bleaching process
in a bath containing hydrogen peroxide. This suggests, that the bleaching process
with VHP can be applied to textile materials for application in which the primary
requirement is not high degree of whiteness. Such materials include some hygiene
and medical products. It should be underlined that the cotton products after VHP
process are characterised by very pleasant for users, aesthetic shade of white.
Table 2. Degree of CIE whiteness index for cotton materials bleached with vaporised
hydrogen peroxide at 600 ppm in different treatment time
VHP treatment time at Woven fabric Medical Non-woven fabric
600 ppm Change Change
[h] WI CIE WI CIE
of WI CIE* of WI CIE*
1 52.48 26.82 39.67 24.04
2 53.14 27.48 40.78 25.15
3 54.11 28.45 41.00 25.37
4 54.13 28.47 46.21 30.58
5 54.31 28.65 46.88 31.25
After bleaching in a
77.50 51.84 75.30 59.67
bath containing H2O2
*) calculated as a difference between WICIE after particular treatment time and
WICIE for a sample without treatment; for each material

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Functional textiles
Table 3. Degree of CIE whiteness index for cotton materials bleached with vaporised
hydrogen peroxide at 800 ppm in different treatment time
Woven fabric Medical Non-woven fabric
VHP treatment time at
800 ppm Change Change
[h] WI CIE WI CIE
of WI CIE* of WI CIE*
1 54.38 28.72 50.74 35.11
2 54.77 29.11 54.07 38.44
3 55.44 29.78 55.21 39.58
4 56.17 30.51 55.50 39.87
5 57.71 32.05 57.21 41.58
After bleaching in a
77.50 51.84 75.30 59.67
bath containing H2O2
*) calculated as a difference between WICIE after particular treatment time and
WICIE for a sample without treatment; for each material
Influence of VHP treatment temperature
The bleaching process with simultaneous disinfection of cellulose fibers using vaporised
hydrogen peroxide is the low temperature process. During these studies, experiments
were performed at different temperatures up from 30°C. With a relatively high
concentration of VHP in the chamber (800 ppm) at 30°C relative humidity reached a
value greater than 90%. As reported by the literature (McDonnel 2006, Pottage et al.
2014), if the VHP concentration exceeds the saturation point at a given temperature,
there is a condensation of concentrated hydrogen peroxide on surfaces. In such
conditions, the process becomes potentially dangerous to the tested samples of
textiles and electronic equipment (probes and sensors) inside the decontamination
chamber. Also the biocidal properties of liquid hydrogen peroxide are worse than the
gas one (Wagner et al. 2007).
In turn, raising the temperature in the chamber to 45°C at the VHP concentration
of 600 ppm, resulted in lowering of the relative humidity to approximately 30%. Under
such conditions, the bleaching process of woven fabric Medical becomes less
effective and at the same time the higher consumption of energy required to raise
the temperature in the working chamber. The whiteness degree obtained for Medical
fabric treated using VHP at 45°C is slightly lower than that one for samples treated with
VHP at 35°C for the same treatment time (fig. 3).

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Functional textiles
Fig. 3. Degree of CIE whiteness index for cotton woven fabric bleached with vaporised
hydrogen peroxide at 600 ppm in different treatment time and varied temperature
It can be concluded that from the point of view of obtaining the highest possible
whiteness degree, the VHP process should be performed in a relatively long time, with
a high concentration of VHP - 800 ppm, at the temperature of 35°C.
Efficiency of cotton materials decontamination by means of VHP treatment
The effectiveness of cotton materials decontamination has been proved by intentional
contamination of such materials with different microbials, and then VHP treatment at
various concentrations: 100 ppm, 200 ppm and 500 ppm.
Table 4. Decontamination efficiency by means of VHP of cotton woven fabric Medical
contaminated with selected microorganisms strains (100 ppm, 35°C, 1 hour).
Density of Growth of the microorganism on the
microorganism sample
suspension
Microorganism Nutrient medium Control - After
deposited on
samples without decontamination
[CFU/ml] decontamination with VHP
Staphylococcus Tryptone soya

growth no growth
aureus agar
1.2 x 10 8
gram(+) Tryptone soya
ATCC 6538 growth no growth
broth
Czapek- Dox
Chaetomium growth no growth
agar
globosum 1.5 x10 6
ATCC 6205 Czapek- Dox

growth no growth
broth
It has been shown that the vegetative forms of bacteria, Gram (+) species
Staphylococcus aureus and a fungi spores of Chaetomium globosum introduced
onto the surface of Medical fabric, are not resistant to the vaporised hydrogen
peroxide, already at the low concentrations of 100 ppm and the short term impact of
1 hour (table 4).
For cotton non-woven f samples contaminated with various microorganisms, there was
carried out the disinfection process in the changed conditions - higher concentration
of VHP amounted to 200 ppm, but shorter exposure time - 20 minutes. This process
was effective with respect to the fungi Chaetomium globusom, the yeast Candida

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Functional textiles
albicans and spores of Bacillus subtilis, and Geobacillus stearothermophilus (table 5).
However, in relation to Aspergillus niger fungi, the lack of efficacy was found. After the
decontamination process, there was observed white mycelium on the fabric surface.
Only after increasing VHP concentration to 500 ppm, there were not observed viable
conidia of Aspergillus niger on the cotton non-woven surface (table 5).
Table 5. Decontamination efficiency by means of VHP of cotton non-woven samples
contaminated with selected microorganisms strains.
Density of Growth of the microorganism on the
bacterial sample
suspension Condition
Nutrient After
Microorganism deposited of VHP Control -
medium decontamination
on samples treatment without
[CFU/ml] with VHP
decontamination
Czapek- growth – white
Aspergillus niger
7.4 x 106 Dox growth mycelium on
ATCC 6275
broth fabric surface
Chaetomium Czapek-
globosum 1.4 x 106 Dox growth no growth
ATCC 6205 broth
VHP
Spores of concentration
Geobacillus Tryptone
200 ppm,
0.6 x 106 soya growth no growth
stearothermophilus temperature
broth
ATCC 9372 35°C,
time
Spores of Bacillus 20 minutes Tryptone
subtilis 1.2 x 107 soya growth no growth
ATCC 19659 broth
Tryptone
Candida albicans
2.9 x 106 soya growth no growth
ATCC 10321
broth
VHP
concentration
500 ppm, Czapek-
Aspergillus niger
7.1 x 106 temperature Dox growth no growth
ATCC 6275
35°C, broth
time
20 minutes
Changes in cellulose polymerisation degree after VHP treatment

Cellulose contained in the raw cotton fibres of tested materials is characterised by
a high degree of polymerisation of 2951 for Medical fabric and 3465 for cotton non-
woven. As a result of the impact of hydrogen peroxide, both in the gas phase and in the
bath, on the products, the value of polymerization degree was significantly reduced
(fig. 4-5). In the case of Medical fabric, polymerization degree after the VHP process
decreased with the duration of the process, both at a concentration of 600 ppm and
800 ppm. After long-term, eight-hour treatment, there was the greatest degradation of
cellulose, and the polymerization degree reached the lowest values, respectively 110
(at 600 ppm) and 965 (at 800 ppm) (fig. 4). The cellulose polymerization degree in the
Medical fabric samples treated with vaporised hydrogen peroxide at a concentration
of 600 ppm for 1 to 5 hours as well as treated with VHP at a concentration of 800 ppm
for 1-4 hours remained similar to the polymerization degree for samples bleached by

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Functional textiles
H2O2 in the bath.
3500
2951
Woven fabric Medical
Polymerisation degree
3000
2500
2000
1500 1234 1369 1265 1247 1225 1222 1110 1169 1168 1140 1135 1065
965
1000
500
0
Fig. 4. Changes in polymerisation degree of cellulose for woven fabric Medical after
VHP treatment under different conditions
4000 3465
Cotton non-woven
Polymerisation degree
3500
3000
2500 1970
2000
1365 1342 1256 1195 1286
1500 1029 990 1072 1051 967 903
1000 675
500
0
Fig. 5. Changes in polymerisation degree of cellulose for non-woven cotton fabric

after VHP treatment under different conditions
In the case of cotton non-woven, the similar tendencies were observed (fig. 5).
However, it is noted, that for this product with the treatment time increasing, a greater
reduction of cellulose polymerization degree than for Medical fabric is observed. This
is probably due to differences in the structure of these two tested products. One square
meter of Medical fabric contains about 170 g of cotton fibres, while one square meter
of cotton non-woven - about 70 g of cotton fibres. Thus, for the non-woven fabric
- a product with looser, open structure, the availability of individual fibers for H2O2
molecules in the gas phase is greater. This results both in a higher bleaching efficiency
of non-woven fabric (table 1, 2) and in its greater susceptibility to degradation than
for Medical fabric (fig. 4, 5).
Changes in physical and mechanical properties after VHP treatment
Despite a noticeable reduction of cellulose polymerization degree in tested textile
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Functional textiles
products (fig. 4,5), caused by the action of hydrogen peroxide in the gas phase (under
the condition of 800 ppm, 35ºC, 4 hours), the changes in physical and mechanical
properties are relatively minor (table 6). The value of the tensile strength after VHP
process for Medical fabric and cotton non-woven decreased insignificantly – below
10% as compared to untreated samples, while for Medical fabric samples, bleached
in the bath, the slightly greater reduction in tensile strength was noted.
Elongation at break for Medical fabric after VHP treatment has not changed, but after
bleaching in the bath it increased slightly, especially in a warp direction. Whereas, for
cotton non-woven an increase in elongation at break after VHP treatment is observed.
Table 6. Changes in physical and mechanical properties after treatment using
vaporised hydrogen peroxide (800 ppm, 35ºC, 4 hours)
Woven fabric Medical Cotton non-woven
Parameters After
Without After VHP Without After VHP
bleaching
treatment treatment treatment treatment
in the bath
warp/ longitudinal
510 470 430 10.2 9.6
Tensile strength, direction
N weft/ cross
410 390 380 5.4 4.6
direction
warp/ longitudinal
10.5 10.5 15.5 51.0 44.0
Elongation at direction
break, % weft/ cross
24.0 25.0 25.5 76.0 60.0
direction
Results of tests of sensitizing effect on animals

The results of studies on animal skin sensitization confirmed that the cotton woven
fabric Medical for application as items of medical clothing (e.g. protective masks
used in prophylaxis or bacterial and/or viral disease transmission) as well as cotton
non-woven e.g. for cotton pads, subjected to a bleaching process with simultaneous
disinfection using vaporised hydrogen peroxide are the safe products for potential
users.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper described the innovative – occurring as a result of gas – solid reaction –
bleaching process with simultaneous disinfection of cellulose textiles using vaporised
hydrogen peroxide.
The whiteness degree of cotton products treated with VHP increased with the
enlargement of VHP concentrations and extension of the processing time. However,
the excessive prolongation of the process may lead to vast damage of the fibres. For
cotton products subjected to a long-term process (8 hours) at high VHP concentrations,
a drastic decrease in the cellulose polymerization degree was noted.
As the optimum process temperature, the value of 35°C is recommended. Making
the process at a lower temperature (30°C) resulted in a significant increase in relative
humidity in the chamber, which dangerously approaches to the saturation point,
hence H2O2 condensation on the textile product surface can cause its damage. In
turn, raising the process temperature caused significant reduction in relative humidity
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Functional textiles
in the chamber to 30%. Under such a conditions the bleaching process becomes less
efficient. It has been found that the VHP treatment at a concentration of 800 ppm,
with duration time up to 4 hours, at 35°C is safe for the cotton products.
It should be underlined that cotton products after VHP process carried out under such
conditions are characterised by aesthetic shade of white, which is very pleasant for
users.
As a result of such a treatment bleached and microbiologically pure products, free
from microorganisms such as Gram (+) bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, bacterial
spores Bacillus subtilis, moulds Aspergillus niger, yeast Candida albicans as well
as fungi spores Chaetomium globosum and Geobacillus stearothermophilus are
obtained.
Bleaching with disinfection process using hydrogen peroxide in the gas phase is an
ecological alternative to the conventional water- and energy-consuming bleaching
process. It can be successfully applied to cotton textiles for medical and hygienic
products (elements of medical clothing, gauze, cotton wool, bandages, cotton pads).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
THE PRESENTED RESULTS ARE A PART OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT (No. NR05-0026-10)
CARRIED OUT IN THE PERIOD 2010-2013 IN THE TEXTILE RESEARCH INSTITUTE (IW) AND
FINANCED BY THE POLISH - NATIONAL CENTRE FOR RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
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Cummings A.L., Childers R.W. Mielnik T.J. 1990. U.S.Patent No. 4.909.999
Galvin S., Boyle M., Russel R.J., Coleman D.C., Creamer E., O’Gara .P., Fitzgerald-Hughes D., Humphreys
H. 2012. Evaluation of vaporised hydrogen peroxide, Citrox and pH neutral Ecasol for decontamination
of an enclosed area: a pilot study. Journal of Hospital Infection, 80: 67-70
Hall L., Otter J.A. Chewins J., Wengenack N.L. 2007. Use of hydrogen peroxide vapour for deactivation
of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in a biological safety cabinet and a room. Journal of Clinical
Microbiology, 45: 810-815
Hebeish A., Hashem M., Shaker N., Ramadan M., El-Sadek B., Abdel Hady M. 2009. New development
for combined bioscouring and bleaching of cotton-based fabrics. Carbohydrate Polymers 78: 961-
972
Heckert R.A., Best M., Jordan L.T. Dulac G.C., Eddington D.L., Sterritt W.G. 1997. Efficacy of vaporized
hydrogen peroxide against exotic animal viruses. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 63: 3916-
3918.
Jonston M.D., Lawson S., Otter J.A. 2005. Evaluation of hydrogen peroxide vapour as method for
the decontamination of surfaces contaminated with Clostridium botulinum spores. Journal of
Microbiological Methods, 60: 403-411
Klapes N.A., Vesley D. 1990. Vapor-phase hydrogen peroxide as a surface decontaminant and
sterilant. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 56 (2): 503-506
Lee M.H., Kim H.L., Kim C.H., Lee S.H., Kim J.K., Lee S.J., Park J.C. 2008. Effects of low temperature
hydrogen peroxide gas on sterilization and cytocompatibility of porous poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic
acid) scaffolds. Surface & Coatings Technology, 202: 5762-5767
McMurry J. 2003. Organic chemistry. Volume 4. Warsaw: Publishing PWN
McDonell, G. 2006. Hydrogen peroxide jogging/fumigation. Journal of Hospital Infection, 62: 385-386
Mobbassar Hassan Sk, Ruel A. Overfelt, R. Lance Haney, Jeffrey W. Fergus. 2011. Hydrogen embrittlement
of 4340 steel due to condensation during vaporized hydrogen peroxide treatment. Materials Science
and Engineering A, 528: 3639- 3645
Polish Pharmacopoeia. 2008. Issue VIII
Pottage T., Walker J.T. 2014. Public Health England, UK, Woodhead Publishing Limited, 299-324

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Radl S., Ortner S., Sungkorn R., Khinast J.G. 2009. The engineering of hydrogen peroxide decontamination
system. Journal of Pharmaceutical Innovations, 4: 51-62
Wagner G.W., Sorrick D.C., Procell L.R., Brickhouse M.D., Mcvey I.F., Schwartz L.I. 2007 Decontamination
of VX, GD, and HD on a surface using modified vaporized hydrogen peroxide. Langmuir, 23: 1178-
1186
Sojka-Ledakowicz J., Walawska A., Filipowska B., Lewartowska J., Olczyk J., Kiwała M. 2015. New Eco-
friendly method of cellulosic products bleaching with simultaneous disinfection. FIBRES & TEXTILES in
Eastern Europe, 23.3(111): 115-119
Walawska A., Sojka-Ledakowicz J., Filipowska B., Lewartowska J., Olczyk J., Kiwała M. 2015. Polish
Patent No. 221467
Zylla R., Lewartowska J., Sojka-Ledakowicz J. 2003. Recycling of process water from the dyeing
processes with the use of chemical oxidation (in Polish) In: XI Conference on Science and Technology:
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Medical and therapeutic textiles
THE CONCEPT OF SELECTION OF BIOCIDAL MODIFIERS TO MELT-BLOWN NONWOVENS FOR REUSABLE RESPIRATORY PROTECTIVE DEVICES
THE CONCEPT OF SELECTION OF BIOCIDAL

MODIFIERS TO MELT-BLOWN NONWOVENS FOR
REUSABLE RESPIRATORY PROTECTIVE DEVICES
Katarzyna Majchrzycka1, Małgorzata Okrasa1, Justyna Skóra2, Beata
Gutarowska2, Bogumił Brycki3
1
Department of Personal Protective Equipment, Central Institute for Labour Protection – National
Research Institute, Wierzbowa 48, 90-133 Łódź, Poland
2
Institute of Fermentation Technology and Microbiology, Lodz University of Technology,
90-924 Łódź, Poland
3
Laboratory of Microbiocides Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University,
Umułtowska 89b, 61-614 Poznań, Poland
(Presenting author E-mail: kamaj@ciop.lodz.pl; Corresponding author email: kamaj@ciop.lodz.pl;)
ABSTRACT
Recent research shows that the growth of microorganisms on filter materials is mainly
influenced by the availability of organic matter, humidity and temperature and type of
microorganism. It can be also affected by addition of biocidal agents to the structure
of filter material. Those results have outlined a new direction for the development
of protective properties of respiratory protective devices (RPDs), i.e. their bioactivity.
When designing such products it is essential to determine the selection criteria for
biocidal agent to be introduced into the filter materials. There are a lot of factors
that should be taken into account, like the fact that RPDs should be effective in the
conditions of use at the workplace and at the same time biocidal modifiers should
be harmless to the user. In order to develop such criteria a study on the influence of
humidity and organic dust content on survivability of microorganisms on filter materials
were performed. The study was conducted in conditions simulating real RPD’s use at
biomass processing workplaces.
It was assumed that the biocidal effect should be dependent on the time of use
of RPDs. For this purpose, specially designed biocidal modifiers, produced in
micro-encapsulation process were developed, to be introduced to the melt-blown
nonwovens for RPDs’ construction. One promising direction to obtain an optimal
biocidal activity with minimal biocidal agent content is the use of gemini surfactants
as an active substance for encapsulation.
Keywords: filtering respiratory protective devices (FRPD), filter material, biocidal
modifiers, microorganisms, humidity conditions, organic dust
INTRODUCTION
The element of the utmost epidemiological importance when discussing the biological
spread of factors harmful for the environment and workplace is the air-dust and air-
droplet way. Biological particles that spread in this manner (germs, allergens, toxins)
enter human organism through respiratory system, thus becoming one of the most
common cause of occupational diseases. That is why, in case of exposing a worked
to harmful aerosols, it is necessary to apply RPD that would employ the phenomenon

317
of particles filtration. With prolonged use of such equipment against industrial dust,
including organic dust, a formation of aggregates of particles occurs which may
be transferred and undergo re-emission from the filtering surface into the respiratory
system (Jankowska et al. 2000). This phenomenon takes on a particularly dangerous
character when, among the particles that are broken away, there are pathogenic
microorganisms or products of their decomposition. Therefore, it is important to ensure
biocidal activity inside the filtering surface throughout the whole period of using
RPD(Rengasamy, Zhuang, and Berryann 2004).
While designing bioactive nonwovens that are to be used in RPD against organic
dust, it was assumed that the equipment would be used repeatedly at workplaces
under industrial conditions. This results from the fact that UE legislation (89/656/EEC
1989; 89/686/EEC 1989) enables using filtering equipment repeatedly when applying
it for protection against biological factors. In this case, exchanging equipment
for a new one takes place only when a worker feels discomfort connected to the
increase of breathing resistance due to the nonwoven being blocked. In practice,
this means that the users themselves decide how long their equipment is going to
be used, having no knowledge about phenomena that take place inside it. Another
important aspect connected with a repeated use of RPD needs to be stressed here.
Activities such as: taking off, putting on or adjusting equipment after completion of
work or during breaks at work may become the reason why microorganisms causing
infections spread or transfer.
In order to prevent these negative phenomena, it is necessary to ensure efficient
inhibition of microorganisms’ proliferation that are blocked in the filtering nonwoven
throughout the whole period that RPD is used. This aim may be achieved as a result
of cyclical release of biocidal agents from the carriers that are incorporated into the
polymer fibres structure. Due to safety of using equipment, it is important that these
carriers be permanently bonded to the material of nonwoven so as to prevent their
transfer into respiratory system of the user. Moreover, it is necessary to minimize the
content of biocidal agent that is released into the structure of equipment while it is
used repeatedly, so as to limit its potentially negative influence on human organism.
The aim of the present research was to elaborate assumptions needed when
creating functional structures to modify melt-blown nonwovens that are designed for
constructing reusable RPDs. To do so, model studies were designed and performed.
Microorganisms survival was assessed in melt-blown polypropylene nonwovens in
various levels of humidity that comes from air exhaled during the usage and with
different amounts of deposited mass of organic dust (biomass). The results of model
studies were then used in elaborating a concept of selection of biocidal modifiers to
melt-blown nonwovens for RPDs.
For the model studies on the microorganisms’ viability on the filter material under
varying conditions of humidity and in the presence of deposited biomass dust,
polypropylene melt-blown nonwovens with average surface weight of 30 g/m2, were
used. Biomass samples for model tests were collected from the working environment
in power plant processing plant biomass. They were dried three times for 24 h at
70˚C, in decreased pressure conditions in a vacuum drying chamber and grounded

318
afterwards. Then the resulting organic dust was prepared by subsequent sterilisation
for 15 min at 115˚C and drying for 24h at 70˚C under reduced pressure in drying
chamber. The dust particle size distribution was symmetrical with mean value of 102
nm.
Based on the taxonomic variety (gram-positive cocci, gram-negative rods, gram-
positive bacilli, yeast, and mould) five, strains of microorganisms were selected for the
study from pure culture collections. Namely: Escherichia coli 10536, Staphylococcus
aureus 6538, Candida albicans 10231, Aspergillus niger 16404 (from the American Type
Culture Collection (ATCC)); and Bacillus subtilis 01644 (from the National Collection
of Agricultural and Industrial Microorganisms (NCAIM)). Selected strains were also
characterised by their varying ability to survive in the environment (production of
either endospores, spores or vegetative cells).
Evaluation of microorganism viability in the filter material under varying humidity
levels was performed using modified quantitative method, AATCC 100-2004 (AATCC
Test Method 100-2004 2004) with incubation time 120 h, which corresponded to the
estimated time of use for reusable FFR. Detailed description of the methodology used for
the study was presented in (Majchrzycka et al. 2016).Three levels of the mass humidity
of the materials (40, 80 and 200%) were chosen. Mass humidities of the materials were
established by applying sterile distilled water onto the samples using pipette with sterile
tips for the distribution of small water droplets over the whole sample. Next, 10 µl of
standardized inoculum of microorganisms was applied evenly in the same way. Filter
material samples were prepared in two independent repetitions of the experiment and
placed in a climatic chamber at 28°C and relative humidity RH of 80%. The samples
were collected immediately after inoculum application (0 h), and after 8, 24, 48, 72 and
120 hours of incubation. Then they were placed in 50 ml of sterile saline (0.85% NaCl)
and shaken for 10 minutes to wash out the microorganisms from the tested materials.
Bacteria were incubated at 30°C for 24-48 hours on TSA medium and fungi on MEA
medium at 27°C for 3-5 days. The number of microorganisms (CFU/sample) was
determined via plate count method.
Before the evaluation of microorganisms’ viability in the filter material with various
dust contents previously prepared organic dust was placed on the filter material
on a specially designed test stand described in (Majchrzycka et al.). The time in
which the dust was deposited was chosen such that the mass of dust on the sample
corresponded to the mass of dust deposited on FRPD filter layers when in use at the
workplace. Dust contents (Dp) relative to the mass of the material equalled 9%, 21%,
32%, 52%, 62%, 81%, 101% and 104% and were calculated according to the formula:
Dp=(mp/mm)×100%, where mp denoted dust mass and mm the mass of filter
materials sample. The viability of microorganisms was measured using a quantitative
method called AATCC 100-2004 (AATCC Test Method 100-2004 2004). The number of
microorganisms on filter materials was assessed after 0 and after 24 hours of incubation
at a temperature T=28±2°C and relative air humidity RH=80% in a climatic chamber.
Then the samples were placed in 50 ml of sterile saline (0.85% NaCl) and processed
in the same way as in case of viability testing under varying humidity levels.
In both cases, the survival rate of microorganisms (S) was determined by the formula
S=(Nt/N0)×100%, where N0 denoted the number of microorganisms present on the

319
filter material at the time t=0 h, and Nt the number of microorganisms present on the
filter material after 24 h of incubation.
RESULTS
Survival rate expresses the dynamics of changes in the number of microorganisms
on the tested materials in subsequent incubation times. The dependence of this
parameter on the amount of moisture accumulated in the filter materials is presented
in the table 1.
Table 1. Survival rate of microorganisms on the filter materials under varying
conditions of mass humidity.
Mass Time of Survival rate of microorganisms under varying conditions of humidity, %
humidity, % incubation, h E. coli S. aureus B. subtilis C. albidans A. niger
8 109 167 159 1810 88
24 2 248 382 855 92
40 48 0 308 1002 574 132
72 0 591 2192 506 114
120 0 2083 1632 484 80
8 157 1279 2522 1809 69
24 25 6434 2955 1777 89
80 48 11 7794 3015 1665 112
72 1 9338 2403 1597 97
120 0 11618 1552 1122 46
8 102 962 885 2145 83
24 80 7261 1569 1536 112
200 48 66 8535 4131 1198 154
72 58 12803 3262 1194 128
120 0 15796 401 1194 72
Results of the study showed varied dependency of viability of microorganisms on the

moisture content in the filter materials (for detailed discussion see (Majchrzycka et al.
2016). The best survivability on filter was demonstrated by Staphylococcus aureus in
the whole range of moisture content. While in case of yeast Candida albicans and
bacteria Escherichia coli a gradual decrease in survivability on the filter material was
observed. Survival rate for Bacillus subtilis and Aspergillus niger increased within 48–72
h of incubation and then in 120 h decreased regardless of mass humidity of samples.
After five days of incubation the survival rate was the lowest for E. coli (from 0% to
0.1%) and A. niger (from 46% to 80%). The highest values were observed for S. aureus
bacteria (from 2083% to 15796%).
The results confirm the findings of previous studies (Gutarowska and Michalski 2012;
Majchrzycka, Gutarowska, and Brochocka 2010) where where it was also proven that
the type of microorganism, the physiological conditions, and the structure of the cell
wall pay an important role in microorganisms’ survival. Similar results were also shown
by Pasanen et al. (Pasanen et al. 1993) in case of biodegradable FRPD stored in high
humidity conditions and by Maus et al. (Maus, Goppelsröder, and Umhauer 1997) for
ventilation filtering media.

320
As the relative humidity inside of FRPD increases up to approximately 90% almost

immediately after start of its use (Majchrzycka et al. 2016) there is excessive amount
of moisture that is collected inside the filter material. This in turn can cause growth of
microorganisms that the worker is exposed to, which in turn can be harmful to the
user’s health. This indicates that the biocidal agent for use in reusable FRPDs should
exhibit its antimicrobial efficacy from the very start of their use.
The results of model research on the viability of microorganisms in the filter material
with various organic dust contents are presented in the table 2.
Table 2. Survival rate of microorganisms on filter materials after 24 h incubation in the
presence of deposited biomass dust.
Survival rate of microorganisms under varying conditions of humidity, %
Ammount of dust, %
E. coli S. aureus B. subtilis C. albidans A. niger
0 196 857 26 113 70
9 606 840 10 16 20
21 726 113 9 11 46
32 728 61 12 6 80
52 723 72 37 15 62
62 719 42 41 6 90
81 624 52 32 9 35
101 350 61 21 5 71
104 380 52 48 4 71
Model studies showed that the viability of microorganisms on filter material depended
on organic dust content as well as on the kind of microorganism under consideration.
In case of bacteria E. coli, in high humidity conditions, dust deposited on the sample
had a stimulating effect on the growth (increase of survival rate from 196% to 606%
in 24 h with 9 % of dust). For S. aureus bacteria and C. albicans yeast the presence of
organic dust inhibited growth. Low survival rates were observed for the spore-forming
bacteria B. subtilis and the mould A. niger for samples with 26-70% dust contents,
however, it was determined the growth of these microorganisms wasn’t significantly
affected (Majchrzycka et al.). Presented results confirm the findings of earlier studies
on microorganism susceptibility to changing environmental conditions (Maus,
Goppelsröder, and Umhauer 2001).
The performed studies shown that biocidal agent designed to introduce melt-blown
nonwovens for RPDs should be activated with each use of equipment and the
spectre of its bioactivity should include primarily bacteria and yeast. The problem of
development of microorganisms in the filtering nonwoven of filtering RPD concerns
mould to a lesser degree, as it requires better environmental conditions for their
growth and production of spores. It was also shown that organic biomass may be
a favourable growth material mostly for microorganisms that have high demand
for carbon and low demand for nitrogen. Summarising the obtained results, it was
stated that the amount of moisture collected inside the filtering material will be of key
importance for the survival and development of microorganisms in filtering materials
of reusable RPDs. This conclusion was used to elaborate a concept of selecting
biocidal modifiers to melt-blown nonwovens for reusable RPDs. It was assumed that
they should be characterised by the following:
321
• Very good microorganism activity of the active substance that is expressed by

low Minimal Inhibitory Concentration values (MIC [mg/l]) () and Minimal Bactericidal
Concentration values (MBCt [mg/l]) (),
• Compatibility of the active substance with the carrier, which would enable
creating supramolecular structure,
• Thermal resistance and process compatibility that would enable introducing
supramolecular structure into fibres when they are being formed in melt-blown
technology,
• Bioavailability of the active substance at various times in melt-blown nonwoven
(the possibility of gradual and controlled release of a biocidal agent) while RPD is
used in the environment of organic dust.
Among the active substances that present microorganism activities and which could
be used in RPDs construction in the context of requirements concerning authorization
to biocide use (2012/16/EU 2012) and following the formulated criteria, gemini
surfactant, hexamethylene dibromide-1, 6-bis- (N, N-dimethyl-N-didecyl ammonium
chloride) (12-6-12) was selected. It is a modern microbiocide characterised by at least
two orders of magnitute higher antimicrobial activity than analogical, monometric
quatenrary ammonium salts. This biocide excellent antimicrobial activity enables its
use in much lower concentrations as opposed to other available microbiocides. This
will allow to a greater increase in security of its use. Moreover, this agent is resistant to
high temperatures, which makes it possible to apply it in melt-blown technology.
A type of the used carrier plays a decisive role in obtaining an appropriate profile
of gradual and controlled release of a biocidal agent. Due to the assumed method
of introducing functional structures into the polymer that creates the melt-blown
nonwoven fleece, no polymer substance can be used here as they are susceptible
to deformation. That is why, as carriers of a biocidal agent, silicate nano-crystals of
tubular structure were selected, resistant to high temperatures and of sizes that do
not exceed 100nm. Morphological structure of nano-crystals allows to embed in them
specific amounts of the active substance and also to control its release at a specified
time. Supramolecular structure of the carriers also allows their easy implementation
in the polymer structure. A biocidal agent encapsulated in nano-crystals remains
inactive in anhydrous state and the initiation of functional structures activities “at first
breath” can be achieved through introducing polyols into the supramolecular system.
In order to confirm the assumptions, initial technological trials were performed using
the elaborated biocidal agents. Functional structures in form of powder were dozed
centrally into the specially prepared fibre-forming head (Majchrzycka 2014) that was
positioned symmetrically to the zone of fibre production. This allowed permanent
connection of the introduced structures to the semi-plastic polymer fibres. Nonwovens
including functional biocidal capsules underwent tests that would determine their
antimicrobial efficiency towards E. coli bacterium. Reduction in the number of
bacteria by one level in the logarithmic scale was achieved at time t=0 and by 5-6
levels after a 24-hour incubation. There will be further studies in this field.

322
CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of model studies that simulated the use of filtering reusable RPDs at
workplaces, functional biocidal capsules were elaborated and created, which
included hexamethylene dibromide-1, 6-bis- (N, N-dimethyl-N-didecyl ammonium
chloride) (12-6-12) that was embedded in tubular silica nano-crystals, and their
modification that additionally included polyols. Preliminary studies show that they
ensure bioactivity from the moment of the first contact with water vapour from exhaled
air. Diversified requirements for moisture that is necessary to activate individual
variations of biocidal capsules enable to control the time of biocidal activity at the
assumed time that the equipment is used. By applying appropriate proportions of
the elaborated capsules, it will be possible to obtain the desired effect of biocidal
efficiency.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The publication is based on the results of Phase III of the National Program “Safety
and working conditions improvement”, financed in the years 2014 – 2016 in the field
of research and development work by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education
and the National Centre for Research and Development (the Program coordinator is
the Central Institute for Labour Protection – National Research Institute).
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against Biodegradation. Woven Fabrics, Prof. Han-Yong Jeon (Ed.). InTech.
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on air filters and spore reentrainment from filters into air. Journal of Aerosol Science 31 (8): 969–78.
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Majchrzycka, K., B. Gutarowska, and A. Brochocka. 2010. Aspects of tests and assessment of filtering
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RECENT ADVANCES IN THREE-DIMENSIONAL PRESSURE RELIEVING CUSHIONS FOR THE PREVENTION OF PRESSURE ULCERS.
RECENT ADVANCES IN THREE-DIMENSIONAL

PRESSURE RELIEVING CUSHIONS FOR THE
PREVENTION OF PRESSURE ULCERS.
S.C.Anand1, C.D.Hepburn1 and C.Wood2.
1
Institute of Materials Research and Innovation, University of Bolton, Bolton, United Kingdom.
2
Baltex Limited, Ilkeston, United Kingdom.
(Presenting author E-mail: sca1@bolton.ac.uk ; Corresponding author email: sca1@bolton.ac.uk)
ABSTRACT
Polyurethane (PU) foam is one of the most common materials used in the development
of pressure relieving cushions. However, it suffers from reduced efficiency in terms
of thermophysiological comfort, cost, recycling and importantly, creating a suitable
environment for the prevention of pressure ulcers. The paper presents research
carried out at the University of Bolton, in the development of pressure relieving
cushion applications using three-dimensional (3D) warp knitted spacer fabrics. Three
properties, pressure distribution, air permeability, and heat resistance of 3D warp
knitted spacer fabrics are focused on, with particular emphasis on pressure distribution
in the development of improved performance and efficacy of cushion applications.
This research includes the development of a novel technique for measuring pressure
distribution while under simulated loading conditions.
Using this system, fully patented novel and smart 3D knitted spacer Airospring®
cushions were developed, with the following features:
1. The introduction of a shaped/contoured surface interface was able to re-distribute
high pressure points normally located in vulnerable areas of an immobile and seated
person.
2. They are much better at reducing peak pressures than PU foam cushions and
distribute pressure evenly over a much larger area of the cushion.
3. They provide a well-ventilated and comfortable cushion.
4. They can be laundered in a washing machine, are non-flammable and can be
easily recycled.
Keywords: Pressure ulcers, thermophysiological properties, 3D spacer fabrics, pressure
distribution, pressure relieving cushion.
INTRODUCTION
Decubitus ulcers also known as pressure ulcers are a worldwide healthcare concern,
affecting tens of thousands of patients and individuals. Susceptibility to decubitus
ulcers comes from a combination of external factors (e.g. pressure, friction, shear
force, heat and moisture), and internal factors (e.g. fever, malnutrition, anaemia, and
endothelial dysfunction) (Bansal et al. 2005).
This has become a significant burden to the NHS and the economy in general. It was
previously estimated that the annual expenditure for treating decubitus ulcers was as
much as between £1.8 and £2.6 billion (Bennett et al. 2004).
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As the population ages, this cost is likely to increase in the future. A final and poignant
aspect is that globally decubitus ulcers have resulted in over 28,000 deaths in 2013,
increasing from 14,000 deaths in 1990 (GBD collaborators 2015), given the continued
ageing of the population, this figure can only increase.
The areas discussed in this paper are; pressure ulcers, the causes and solutions,
focusing on the recent research and innovation programme initiated at the University
of Bolton in order to improve further the performance and efficacy of these three-
dimensional pressure relieving cushions.
These new developments have been engineered in order to assist in the prevention
and treatment of pressure ulcers as suffered by immobile or wheelchair bound
individuals.
1. Pressure Ulcers
Pressure ulcers or pressure sores are areas of damage to the skin and underlying
tissues that are caused by impaired blood supply and tissue malnutrition as a result of
prolonged pressure, friction or shear, moisture and heat (McInnes et al. 2015).
Significant weight bearing areas were identified by Meschan (Meschan 1975),),
Peterson and Adkin (Peterson and Adkins 1982) as the Ischial Tuberosities (‘IT’), the
Sacral Coccygeal area, the greater and lesser Trochanters and the Intertrochanteric
Crests, which receive excessive pressures when a person is in a sitting position.
The ‘IT’ are located approximately 10cm apart in females and slightly closer in males
(Meschan 1975). The weight distribution is mainly over the tips of the ‘IT’ when sitting in
a normal erect position with no pelvic tilt. Typically, the ‘IT’ lie 5 to 13 cm from the back
of a typical wheelchair back panel (Peterson and Adkins 1982). These anatomical
pointers take on a significant importance when used in the development of an
effective contoured pressure relieving wheelchair cushion.
2. Three-dimensional Knitted Spacer Fabrics
Three-dimensional (3D) knitted spacer fabric is a knitted fabric consisting of two
separate knitted surfaces which are joined together back to back and kept apart by
an inner layer of monofilament spacer yarns. There are two types of knitted spacer
fabrics, weft knitted spacer fabrics and warp knitted spacer fabrics. This research
utilises the second type, warp knitted spacer fabrics, which are knitted on a double-
needle bar warp knitting machine, normally Karl Mayer RD4N and RD6N machines
(Anand 2008). Typical warp knitted spacer fabrics exhibit ‘Isotropic’ characteristics in
their tenacity, breaking extension and initial modulus properties. Additional properties
such as water vapour transmission and heat evaporation are intrinsic to a pressure
relieving device (Anand 2013).
Thermophysiological properties such as thermal absorptivity, thermal resistance and
air permeability in warp knitted spacer fabrics have been studied by X.Ye et al (Ye
et al 2007), with the following conclusions: In comparison with PU foam, warp knitted
spacer fabrics are able to transfer heat away from the human body more easily
than PU foam and this was due to a much higher heat conductivity and a lower
heat resistance than the foam. Warp knitted spacer fabrics also exhibit better air

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permeability, as compared to PU foam of similar thicknesses (Ye et al. 2007).

3. Contouring/shaping
A pressure relieving cushion that does not reflect the human body shape at its interface
will inevitably result in maximum pressures at high risk areas.
Research conducted by Carlson et al (Carlson, Payette and Vervena 1995) shows
that, deeper cushioning by itself will continue to exhibit high pressure points at the
same high risk areas.
The most obvious feature affecting this redistribution of pressure is a shaped recess
under the pelvis area, taking in the ‘IT’ area. This feature helps to reduce pressure on
the less compliant bony areas and transfer those loads to areas such as the posterior
thighs, which have greater compliance and tolerance to pressure (Carlson, Payette
and Vervena 1995). An added advantage of contouring the surface interface of a
wheelchair cushion is to increase the accuracy and repeatability of the individual’s
position on the seat.
4. New Methodology
During human trials, the effects of bodily movements can include changes in pressure
and distribution. This would vary from human test subject to test subject, giving
extremely variable results. The removal of human participants at this stage would
help to reduce the variability of testing previously seen with human subjects. For this
stage of the research, it was therefore decided to develop an ’ideal’ facsimile of
the ‘human buttocks’ for this new methodology. Work had already been carried out
by other Researchers (Staarink 1995), (Bar 1991), (Ferguson-Pell 2009), and (Hollinton
2014) in creating a more standardised facsimile of the ‘human buttocks’ in a seated
position.
‘Rigid Cushion Loading Indenters’ (RCLI) have been developed and used in a number
of newly drafted standardised test methods and research studies, for assessing the
characteristics of seat cushions (Seikman 1998), (Reddy et al.1982), (Bain 1999) and
(ISO 2007). The RCLI described in the International Organisation for Standardisation
(ISO) 16840-2 (ISO 2007) and (BS ISO 2007) is a simple representation of the human
buttocks, which can be produced in both solid and hollow forms. The ability of
this specific shape to generate loading simulations, similar to that seen in human
volunteers, has been demonstrated by Staarink (Staarink 1995).
5. Rigid Cushion Loading Indenter (RCLI):
An RCLI was fabricated in wood to create a solid template for this research work.
This, in combination with a Denison® Universal Tester and a Pressure Mapping
System, was the ensemble used to test and analyse pressure distribution in pressure
relieving cushions and enable the development of novel prototype designs for
pressure relieving wheelchair cushions. The Boditrak Pressure Mapping System from
Vistamedical, Canada was used for this research and consisted of a sensor mat with
16x16 sensors (sensor count =256), sensing area of 645mm² and a standard pressure
range of 0 to 200 mmHg (Pressuremapping.com 2014).
The RCLI is attached to the central column of the universal tester, with the test cushion
placed in a set position beneath the RCLI. The pressure mat is positioned on top of

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the cushion and linked to the FSA software on a computer. The RCLI is lowered onto
the cushion to a set load, peak and average pressure distributions are measured and
recorded, creating pressure mapping profiles covering the whole covered area of
the cushion.
Pressure mapping measurements were taken under a series of different loading
pressures, held in position and released for set time periods.
A cycling programme was developed to test the validity of the test method and
generate a suitable amount of data in order to characterise each prototype.
Each cycle applied set loads of 0.500kN and 0.750kN, held for a fixed time period
of 15 minutes. The loads were released and the cushions were allowed to rest for
30 minutes. The cycle was repeated continuously by using a software programme
linked to the Denison Universal Tester, which allows the cycles to be repeated as
many times as needed, to test repeatability of the test results. The pressure mapping
software recorded pressure results throughout all the cycles, capturing data both
numerically and graphically. Data was captured by using the ‘Recording’ mode of
the FSA software which records results continuously. The results were analysed at the
initial loading stage of the cushions and after being applied for 15 minutes. The cycles
were compared for repeatability of results and to examine variability throughout the
testing periods. The work is continuing to refine and further develop this methodology.
The pressure mapping test apparatus consisted of the following equipment:
• Rigid Cushion Loading Indenter (RCLI) (BS ISO 2007)
• Denison Universal Tester
• Boditrak Pressure Mapping System (Pressuremapping.com 2014)
• Laptop
6. New Developments
These new research developments started with reducing the high pressure points
in the Ischial Tuberosities (‘IT’) area, by using the shape of the human buttocks as a
starting point.
A shaped recess was created at the back of the cushion, to enable a reduction of
pressure at the back, where the ’IT’ are positioned. The recess in the ‘IT’ area, was
created by using a combination of multiple layers of knitted spacer fabric, these were
cut and castellated to eliminate the high pressure points.
Two prototypes models ASD4 and ASD5 were developed by using different combinations
of 20mm and 6mm thick warp knitted spacer fabric structures. Construction details of
prototype cushions ASD4 and ASD5 can be found in Table 1.
Initial testing of these first prototypes, by using the new methodology revealed a
reduction in peak pressures in the ‘IT’ area, transferring more pressure down the thighs
by using the less vulnerable Trochanteric Shelf.

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Table 1. Specifications of ASD4, ASD5 and PU Foam Cushions

PROTOTYPES LAYERS CORE SPECIFICATION THICKNESS SHAPE/CONTOURING
A – Quality A1301 6.0mm
B – Quality M8960 20.0mm Recess created at layers B &
ASD4 – Full
5 layers C - Quality M8960 20.0mm C, cut and castellation, and
contoured recess
D - Quality M8960 20.0mm cut only respectively.
E- Quality D010002 6.0mm
TOTAL = 72.0mm
A – Quality A1301 6.0mm
B – Quality M8960 20.0mm
ASD5 – Partial Recess created at layers B
5 layers C - Quality M8960 20.0mm
contoured recess only, cut and castellated.
D - Quality M8960 20.0mm
E- Quality D010002 6.0mm
TOTAL = 72.0mm
PU Foam 1 layer PU Foam 100.0mm Flat PU foam
RESULTS
Testing by using the new methodology was carried out on the Airospring® model
AS200, ASD4 and ASD5. These results can be seen in Tables 2 and 3. Pressure mapping
results have been recorded on initial loading of the cushion and after 15mins of loading
of the cushion. The compressive loads applied were 0.500kN (approximately 50kg)
and 0.750kN (approximately 75kg). As the pressure results were continually changing,
the software calculates the standard deviation (σ) and coefficient of variation (CV%)
for each set of data.
With an increase in the load and time, more spreading occurred to the less vulnerable
areas. By using the video capture mode of the pressure mapping test, fluctuations of
pressure could be seen as the 3D knitted spacer fabric re-distributes the pressure
around the cushion. The RCLI became immersed in the cushion, as the cushion moulds
and settles around the shape of the RCLI, while continually re-distributing the pressure,
as the spacer structure successfully accommodates the pressure applied to it.
The novel structure created in the IT area, re-distributes the peak pressure that normally
occurs in this area and spreads it along the trochanteric shelf. With an increase in
time, the pressure spreads to a greater area. This can be seen in ASD4 and in ASD5
at a load of 0.500kN, where the spread of the load has increased from time of initial
loading to 15mins later. The pressure is distributed mainly in the thigh area, which is a
less vulnerable part of the human anatomy.
The structure of the ASD4 prototype gives a more ‘gentle’ spread of pressure, than a
simple hole in the ‘IT’ area, which is harsher and gives additional pressure points. This
construction also seems to encourage moulding in the recess area when additional
weight is added, taking advantage of the 3D construction of the fabric and making
use of the resilience of the spacer fabric.
Tables 2 and 3 summarise the pressure mapping data collected for the Airospring®
AS200 cushion, ASD4 and ASD5 new prototype cushions and compared with PU foam,
recording the average overall pressure results for each cushion.

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The data from these prototypes clearly shows the significant advantages of 3D warp
knitted spacer fabrics in the construction of pressure relieving wheel chair cushions.
The substantial reduction in average overall pressure during initial sitting and over
time is illustrated in Tables 2 and 3. The maximum peak pressures reached in ASD4
and ASD5 is also much lower than PU foam which is seen to reach the maximum
pressure of 200mmHg. The additional ability to disperse heat and moisture as well as
pressure, makes warp knitted spacer fabrics an excellent choice of materials to use
in the construction of pressure relieving wheelchair cushions.
Table 2. Comparative summary of pressure mapping results at initial loading
Initial loading of 0.500kN at time ‘0’
AS200 ASD4 ASD5 PU FOAM
Cushions
FLAT FULL RECESS PARTIAL RECESS FLAT
Maximum Value (mmHg) 93.8 80.3 81.7 200.0+
Mean (mmHg) 35.1 29.1 33.7 54.4
Standard deviation (mmHg) 17.5 18.8 20.5 34.7
Coefficient of variation (%) 49.7 64.5 59.6 61.8
Initial loading of 0.750kN at time ‘0’
Cushions
Mean (mmHg) 42.7 45.4 39.7 59.2
Table 3. Comparative summary of pressure mapping results after 15mins loading

Loading of 0.500kN after 15mins
Cushions
Mean (mmHg) 45.1 21.1 40.6 50.6
Loading of 0.750kN after 15mins
Cushions
Mean (mmHg) 51.6 51.3 53.9 65.0

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CONCLUSIONS
Some key conclusions drawn from this research work are as follows:
• Thicker warp knitted spacer structures, or multi layers of different thicknesses may
be used to develop effective contoured structures.
• Warp knitted spacer fabrics retain their thickness over long periods of both static
and dynamic loading. This is mainly due to the superior resilience of the material.
• Shaped/contoured cushions encourage greater reduction of pressure in the IT
area than flat cushions.
• Multi-layered warp knitted spacer fabrics by using a shaped/contoured recess,
encourages further reduction of pressure in the vulnerable Ischial Tuberosities
area.
• Multi-layered contoured warp knitted spacer structures are better at reducing
peak pressure in the vulnerable areas than PU foam. Furthermore, they distribute
the pressure more evenly over much larger areas of the cushion than PU foam.
• Warp knitted spacer fabrics inherently possess superior thermophysiological
comfort properties than PU foam, due to their higher thermal conductivity and
lower thermal resistance than the PU foam products.
• As established in other studies (Anand 2008, Anand 2013), warp knitted spacer
fabrics are much more breathable substrates for pressure relieving wheelchair
cushions. They are also extremely efficient in the dissipation of both water vapour,
as well as the moisture away from the body.
• Airospring® is the brand name of fully patented cushions AS100, AS200 and all
other shaped/contoured cushions developed and fully characterised in this
research work. They are machine – washable and tumble - dryable. They are also
recyclable, since only one fibre type, polyester, is used throughout the cushions.
These cushions are also non-flammable.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors most sincerely thank Baltex Ltd, Ilkeston, Derbyshire, U.K. for their kind
sponsorship and support during this project.
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USING QFD AS A METHOD TO DEVELOP FUNCTIONAL MEDICAL PRODUCTS FOR CHILDREN WITH CANCER
USING QFD AS A METHOD TO DEVELOP

FUNCTIONAL MEDICAL PRODUCTS FOR
CHILDREN WITH CANCER
Power, E.J.1, Harris, J.M.2 and Leaper, D.J.3

1&2
School of Art, Design and Architecture, University of Huddersfield 1, Queensgate, Huddersfield, UK.
3
School of Human Health, University of Huddersfield 1, Queensgate, Huddersfield, UK.
(Presenting author E-mail: e.power@hud.ac.uk; Corresponding author email: e.power@hud.ac.uk)
ABSTRACT
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a recognised method of translating customer
needs into appropriate technical requirements to inform ergonomic design
development. This paper details how QFD has been used to develop a tactile
advanced product for a medical application. The project has undertaken innovative
experimental and industrial research which has led to the design of a child-focused
“Wiggle Bag” which will be used to safely harness and reduce infection at the site
of a venous catheter placed in the chest wall of long-term child cancer sufferers.
Children with cancer regularly have long term central venous catheters inserted
through their upper chest wall to deliver medication. They can result in medical issues,
particularly infections or accidental removal, but also discomfort for the children,
particularly when sleeping. The research uses an inductive approach, triangulating
various research strategies including questionnaires, focus groups and interviews
from parents, carers and medical personnel. QFD was used to bring together the
key findings from the primary data analysis to establish design criteria and inform
the product development. The outcome of the research was a functional product
ergonomically designed for maximum comfort and safety, with the added unique
selling point of having antibacterial properties.
Keywords: medical products, functional textiles, cancer, textiles, QFD, children
INTRODUCTION
The project uses quality function deployment (QFD) to undertake innovative
experimental and industrial research contributing to the design of a child focused
“Wiggle Bag”, which will be used to safely harness and reduce infection at the site of
a central venous catheter tail placed in one of the major central veins of long-term
child cancer sufferers. The paper details the development of a QFD to aid the product
development process by synthesising data collected from a variety of sources and
enabling the interdisciplinary team to agree a set of technical requirements; thus,
balancing academic enquiry with practical application.
BACKGROUND
Cancer in childhood is rare; however, through exceptional clinical and scientific
research, treatment is successful for most children (Cancer Research UK, 2016).
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Treatment usually involves the use of intensive chemotherapy at some stage which
can only be administered intravenously through central venous catheters (lines)
placed through the neck or under the collar bone into one of the central veins
adjacent to the heart (Macmillan, 2016). There are not many sites available to
place these catheters and considerable skill is required to insert them, including the
need for tunnelling under the skin and sophisticated catheters, with several external
openings, or incorporating a subcutaneous “cuff” which helps to keep the catheter
in place (the most commonly used is the “Hickman line”). As they may be needed for
prolonged periods of time their care is paramount, mainly to avoid infection which
usually requires their removal and replacement. Use of the lines requires a very strict
guideline involving non-touch technique; when undertaken rigorously the risk of
infection is minimised (Department of Health, 2016). Another complication, which is
more likely in children than adults, is the risk of displacement or accidental complete
removal. Replacement of the catheters can be distressing and increasingly difficult.
Children also are embarrassed by the appearance of these tubes attached to their
neck or chest which may also cause discomfort, particularly when sleeping.
A device which could safely contain these fine bore tubes in place and reduce the risk
of infection in young patients between 2-4 years old poses a considerable challenge
to improve the quality of care during this traumatic period of their lives. Meeting this
need is paramount to make the period of cancer chemotherapy less distressing, whilst
at the same time allowing medical and nursing staff easy access to the catheter to
give treatment (sometimes overnight). A holding device which could have a built-in
antimicrobial fabric would help to prevent external contamination; and the risk of
infection. This could also help reduce pressure on parents to feel responsible for the
management of the catheters because they are present with their children, including
sleep-overs, during treatment. Their vigilance in preventing very young children from
chewing on the intravenous lines, or preventing accidental removal through snagging
of the loops of tubing external to the skin, could be lessened and allow them to feel
less pressured. Having a better level of comfort for the children with full mobility, when
the device is not being used, would also be a bonus. Older children are able to
take some responsibility for themselves but infection and accidental removal are still
major risks. However, they certainly are more likely to want an aesthetic look or even
concealment of their central venous catheters!
The theoretical framework which underpins this study used an abductive logic within
the philosophical approach of interpretivism and the epistemology of constructivism.
This enabled the researchers to determine the best approach to construct knowledge
from competing interpretation within the data set collected to best inform the design
(Bryman and Bell, 2015). Muratovski (2016) identified that in “design research” it is
paramount that a balance is created between academic inquiry and practical
application to ensure a successful outcome. Due to the cross-disciplinary nature of this
project (medical/wellbeing, textiles/apparel) and the stakeholders (academic and
an external charity) it was essential to resolve epistemological and methodological
differences to discover and agree a set of principles to inform the development of
the product criteria (Stember, 1991; McLeish and Strang, 2014). In establishing these
boundaries a shared understanding was created between the various stakeholders
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regarding the technical requirements for the product design. An interpretive

constructionist philosophy was deemed important to the project as it allowed data
collection methods to be employed that are primarily qualitative. This allowed the
team to gain a deeper understanding of impacting issues through the synthesizing
of a cross-section of views based on a specific group of carers, patients and medical
personnel. Due to the timeframe of the project (five months) an inductive approach
was adopted. This approach allowed a small research sample to be selected and
was largely associated with product development in context (Saunders et al., 2016).
The research design involved the use of an expert panel (carers of patient, patients)
and was influenced by individual perspectives and personal experiences. The
research constructed knowledge to inform design research using the QFD model. This
allowed data collection from various sources (literature, focus group and informal
interviews) to be synthesised leading to the development of an agreed set of technical
requirements (Mauzer, 1994). One of the key concepts of QFD is the union of the
process to balance innovative ideas regarding product and component technologies
with customer demands forming a priority for design and technical features. (Chen
et al., 2000; Cango & Trucco, 2007). The first section of the QFD process, which was
utilised in this study, was split into three stages: capturing the consumer requirements,
determining importance and translating these into technical requirements.
Prior to conducting any research involving human participants, market research was
conducted which established five alternative products which were available on-
line and in the US market. Each product was evaluated to assess the differences in
approach to design and a mini-wear trial was conducted to establish comfort values
and compare design characteristic. To aid the understanding of the complex issues
surrounding the homecare of children with cancer and the challenges associated
with the care of the central venous catheters an exploratory focus group was formed
with parents of children with cancer and an adult patient. Due to the sensitivity of this
research, the focus group was facilitated by the researchers and the questions were
delivered by a representative of a local charity trust. Ethical considerations were a
high priority throughout the data collection process; all interviews were recorded with
permission of the participants. The data from the focus group was consolidated with
information obtained from the medical profession, charity and market research and
synthesised into a focused design brief and set of technical requirements, through the
QFD. The research and initial product design is presented within this paper.
RESULTS
The five products currently available on the market were evaluated for design
characteristics, comfort and presented to the focus group for analysis (Figure 1). The
first product (A), whist recognised for its aesthetic print was deemed unsuitable for
small children due to risk of strangulation. It would not meet the legal requirements
for sleepwear and poses a high risk of snagging to the Hickman line. The Gus Gear
product (B) fitted the body snuggly and was easy to adjust. However, the child
during wear complained that it restricted movement, and that the metal clasps
were uncomfortable to lie on. Parents at the focus group commented that the flap
containing the lumen would be difficult to access and felt that the product was bulky,
heavy and the metal clasps would be uncomfortable during sleep. Product (C) from

335
Health Fully Healing, was very complex to fit and during fitting, the mocked Hickman
Line was snagged accidentally. The child however, preferred the looser fit of this
harness and commented that it was soft when lying on front, but uncomfortable on
when lying on the back (probably due to lack of cushioning around the catheter).
Parents at the focus group commented on the poor aesthetics of this harness, one
participant stated that it resembled body armour and would have concerns regarding
the child overheating. Product D (careAline) was the preferred product by the child
for comfort, “this one is just right, it is very soft”. In the design the Hickman line wrapped
around the body sandwiched inside the harness. However, the fitter had to watch
the Youtube clip to establish how to correctly thread in the line, which was deemed
rather tricky. The child commented that comfort was good when lying on their front
and back and the catheter only pressed into her when lying on her side. The parents
at the focus group felt that this product had the potential to restrict breathing (this
was found not to be the case in wear) and could increase perspiration. They thought
that the product would slip down during wear and it would not be comfortable for
the child. In the main they appeared unconvinced that wrapping the line around the
body was the optimum position. The final product (E) Bundiebaby resembled a baby
vest, the child that participated in the trial had the torso measurements of a 4 year old
and commented that she didn’t like this one. It was very time consuming to fit primarily
due to the amount of poppers. In terms of comfort the child commented that it was
only practical to lie on her back since the plastic poppers hurt her everywhere else.
This was not presented at the focus group due to unavailability.
A B C D E
Figure 1 – competitor products
Primary data collection
The sampling criteria for the focus group (March 2015) is illustrated in Table 1. Due
to the sensitivity of the research, the first criterion was extended to include an adult
cancer patient who expressed interest in the project. The discussion was based around
8 initial themes (general, user issues, H&S, market, design, infection, and technical
requirements). The aim was to enable the researchers to gain understanding/
knowledge regarding the experiences/views to reduce the humanistic complications
in the management of central venous catheters. Three participants contributed to
the focus group, a further three individuals completed the questions electronically
and three further surveys were conducted with representatives from the medical
profession (Table 2). The selection for the participants was purposive and arranged
by the charity using their extensive network. The availability of medical personnel
governed the selection of participants, the approach was somewhat opportunistic/
convenient, based on their expert knowledge in cancer care.

336
Table 1 – Criteria for carer focus group/questionnaire

Criteria for participation in focus group
1 Experienced carer of cancer patient (aged 1-16) with central line
2 Type: Peripheral venous cannula around chest
3 Demographic (Yorkshire/midlands)
4 Experience of nightcare and round the clock treatment
Table 2 – Sample of medical personnel and data collection type

Email questionnaire Consultant nurse at UK hospital – experience of caring for children with cancer
Interview Senior IV nurse at UK hospital – extensive experience of IV care across all sectors
Email questionnaire Ex – nurse with extensive experience of cancer care.
The data was synthesised and used to define the design criteria for the product. Table
3 illustrates the main themes extracted. The priorities in terms of design were: comfort,
functionality, and aesthetics. The design brief was constructed based directly on
the data extracted. It was concluded that the product should be non-medical and
should not interfere with the open wound in skin of the chest wall of the children. It
had to be interchangeable for use on the left and right side of the upper chest for
both Hickman and Portacath type of central venous catheters. Comfort was of a high
priority for the selected age group (2-4 years). It was ascertained that the product
should be designed to reduce movement/friction of the line and reduce the potential
of snagging during the night-time routine. A key focus was to take the weight of the
lumen, from the open wound and have a dignity function in relation to the young
patient. Finally the product had to meet legal and appropriate standards for H&S,
comfort, functionality and be aesthetically pleasing.
Table 3: Focus group findings
General Can require access Home care averages ½ The Hickman line is Portacaths are
to the line 30/40 times times a day for standard permanent for up to inserted when
a day in the early treatment two years required and last
stages a maximum of 7/8
days
Routine Night-time routine is Quite often the parent Often buy child Difficult to keep Keeping lines clean
more difficult. sleeps with child for oversized clothes so ends dry during is a priority, some
Parent and child comfort and heightens line is not trapped. showering and children use the end
are often disturbed the risk of snagging Older babies trap daily cleaning. as a comforter.
during sleep. the line. Discomfort of dangling line in All the time there
Long Hickman line lumen area as child nappies etc. difficult is a need to look
– risk of snagging as rolls over, may lead to during toilet training. at hygiene due
child moves during bruising due to sensitive to danger of
sleep. skin. contamination and
infection
Experience Any design needs to Health and safety For a baby comfort is NHS do not offer Cost: there would
be age appropriate. is primary concern a higher priority than any functional be no limit, people
followed by functionality functionality. pouch or bag for would find a way to
Comfort and aesthetics user afford it if it helps in
anyway.
Function Controls baby Lightweight and not Easy to clean and Easy to access the Has some anti-
temperature. Allows bulky. Smooth material washable/quick drying Hickman line. microbial properties.
body to breath and for comfort. or disposable. Hypo-allergenic.
wicks away moisture.
Design Minimum fabric. No hard fastening or Reduces the chance Fits torso, snug and Avoid wrapping
Stable in wear. itchy Velcro. that the line will get secure around body, do not
trapped or snag. restrict breathing
Priority No risk of Comfort, functionality Very sensitive skin – Anything to Safety is of a high
strangulation and accessibility, avoid tapes aid sleep and importance, anything
aesthetics are important comfort would be to aid with the dignity
for age range in this welcomed element must not
order. interfere with medical
aspects, it must be a
well-being product.

337
Discussion and QFD

The data obtained during the primary research was synthesized into a set of 16 user
requirements (Figure 1, orange column). The first stage of the QFD was to agree on
these as a team, in terms of language and to rank them on a scale of 1-5 in terms
of importance (green column). This required a judgement and compromise within
the team in relation to which user requirements took priority. The team devised and
agreed a set of 29 technical requirements (purple row), and established whether a
positive or negative attribute was desirable (grey row). The final task was to establish
the strength of the inter-relationship between the user and technical requirements. At
each individual intersection (beige area) a numerical grade of 0 (no relationship), 3
(weak relationship), 5 (medium relationship) and 9 (strong relationship) was given to
indicate the strength. The relationship grade was then multiplied by the parent/carer
priority rank (green column) to provide the data displayed in the beige matrix (QFD).
The value of each technical requirement was totalled to rank the importance of each
technical requirement. The highest priority according to the data displayed was the
location of the harness, followed by the function and then style line.
Reduce the weight of hanging lumin

Drawcords redduce stragulation
colour / visual appearance
Risk of blood restriction

Flamability (nightwear)
Low impact protection

Placement of pocket
Location of harness
Snagging reduction
Minimum fabric
Antimicrobrial
Sizing BS 7231
Wear and tear
Hanging loops
Neck opening
Quick release
Quality fabric
Breathability
accessability
Lightweight
Ajustability
Fasterners
Durability
Low bulk
Styleline
Comfort
Wicking
Snug fit
Design
User
Rank
requirments % ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ V V V V V ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ V ^ v V V ^ ^ ^
product to be
comfortable 5 9.09 45 0 15 25 45 45 15 25 0 15 25 15 45 45 45 45 45 25 45 45 15 0 45 25 25 15 25 45 25
Dignaty 5 9.09 0 25 45 45 25 15 0 25 15 0 25 25 0 0 0 25 45 0 15 15 25 0 0 0 15 15 0 0 15
easy access
(parent) 4 7.27 0 0 36 36 20 12 0 12 12 0 12 0 36 0 36 36 36 20 36 20 0 20 0 0 0 0 36 0 36
Quick release
(medical staff) 3 5.45 0 0 15 27 15 9 0 9 0 0 9 0 27 0 15 27 27 15 0 15 0 27 0 0 0 0 27 0 27
Suitable for
day and night 5 9.09 45 15 45 25 45 15 0 15 25 45 25 25 45 45 25 45 25 45 45 45 25 25 45 25 25 25 45 25 45
Washable 4 7.27 0 0 12 0 0 12 20 36 20 20 0 0 0 0 0 12 0 0 12 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Disposable 2 3.64 10 0 10 10 6 6 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Reduce risk of
pulling 5 9.09 0 0 45 45 45 25 0 25 25 0 45 15 45 25 45 15 45 45 45 45 15 25 0 0 0 0 45 15 25
Prevent
against 2 3.64 18 0 18 10 18 6 18 10 6 0 0 0 6 6 0 6 10 18 6 10 0 0 10 0 0 0 6 0 0
Health and
saftey 5 9.09 45 0 45 45 45 25 25 25 25 45 25 25 45 45 45 25 45 45 15 25 0 45 25 0 0 0 45 25 25
Functional 4 7.27 36 0 36 20 20 36 36 36 36 36 20 20 36 36 36 36 36 20 20 36 20 12 36 12 20 20 36 20 36
Desirable to
wear 2 3.64 10 18 18 18 6 10 10 10 6 0 6 10 18 18 10 10 18 10 18 18 6 0 10 18 18 6 18 10 10
cost 1 1.82 5 5 9 3 0 5 9 5 5 9 3 3 0 0 3 5 5 0 3 3 5 3 5 0 0 3 0 3 0
Protection
from lumin 3 5.45 0 0 15 15 9 0 0 15 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 0 27 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 15 27 0
Age
appropriate 4 7.27 12 20 20 36 12 36 0 20 20 36 36 12 36 36 36 36 36 20 36 20 20 20 20 20 20 12 20 20 36
Medical value 1 1.82 9 0 3 0 5 0 9 5 3 3 0 0 9 9 9 5 5 5 3 3 0 0 3 0 0 0 3 3 5
Sum 55 100 235 83 387 360 316 257 142 273 213 209 231 150 348 265 305 328 393 268 326 300 143 177 199 100 132 96 321 193 285
Figure 1 – QFD Matrix

338
This data enabled the team to focus specifically on the design of the fit of the
product, as opposed to developing a new material. The fit of the product on the user,
appeared to be more important than the placement of the pocket. This was a surprise
since in the original discussions the placement of the pocket had been of primary
concern. When all the data was synthesised comfort was the most prominent factor.
This enabled the team to conduct initial trials regarding comfort of other products
available on the market which informed the design of what has become known as
the “Wiggle Bag” (as the device protected the “wiggly worm” catheter). Initially there
was some reservation regarding wrapping the central venous line, around the body,
yet initial trials showed this to be the most comfortable position for wear. The size of
the pocket was initially thought to be important to provide impact protection, but
the technical requirements showed this to be lower down on the priority scale. This
changed the design from a bulky pocket, to a disposable belt bag that was relatively
flexible (Figure 2).
Figure 2 - Final Prototype

The general features of the QFD are synthesized under the four parameters identified
to be of importance to the parent/carers (Table 4). It was interesting that health and
safety, in terms of regulations, were not the most important design criteria, comfort
during wear ranked the highest cumulative followed by functionality. This was perhaps
evident from some of the other products on the market, which had not considered
strangulation from long attached cords, or loose fasteners. Whist the charity was highly
focused initially on aesthetics this was much lower down the list for user requirements.
The material selected was therefore considered in light of the requirements and whilst
anti-bacterial properties were lower on the list of desired criteria they were included
to differentiated the final design from others on the market.
Table 4 – Technical requirements
Regulations Comfort Function Aesthtics
colour and
Drawcords stragulation 348 Location of harness 393 design 387 visual 83
Hanging loops 305 Styleline 360 Placement of pocket 321
Snagging reduction 300 Fasterners 328 Snug fit 316
No blood restriction 265 Comfort 326 accessability 285
Sizing BS 7231 231 Breathability 235 Quality
Reduce fabric
the weight of 273
Wear and tear 213 Low
Wicking
impact 199 hanging lumin 268
Flamability (nightwear) 209 protection 193 Ajustability 257
Quick release 177 Antimicrobrial 142 Durability 143
Neck opening 150 Low bulk 132
Lightweight 100
Minimum fabric 96 Aesthetics
Reguations total 2198 Comfort total 2504 Function total 2250 total 83

339
CONCLUSIONS
The outcome of the research was a functional product ergonomically designed
for maximum comfort and safety, with the added unique selling point of fabric with
antibacterial properties. The paper details the value of aligning views and translating
these into an agreed set of technical parameters within the design team. This
process aided the development team in finding an optimum solution to reduce the
humanistic complications in the management of central venous catheters, which has
the potential to reduce the discomfort for the children, particularly when sleeping. The
product was designed to benchmark three important things comfort, functionality and
aesthetics ensuring patients dignity during wear. Prototypes have been produced at
the University and the harness has met with the enthusiastic approval of Little Heroes
Cancer Trust.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The team would like to thank Little Heroes Cancer Trust for partnering with the university
during the development of the product. Due acknowledgement of the manufacturer
of the final prototype should be given to the fashion and textile technicians Helen
Turner, Maureen Jackson and Melissa Fletcher. The team would also like to thanks
Ruth Clare, a textile scholar who conducted the literature searches which informed
the production specification development and fabric selection.
REFERENCES
Bryman A. and Bell, E. 2015. Business research methods (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford
Cagno, E. and Trucco, P. 2007. Integrated green and quality function deployment. International
Journal of Product Lifecycle Management 2(1): 64-83
Cancer Research UK, 2016. Children’s cancer statistics. Cancer Research UK. www.cancerresearchuk.
org › Health professional › Cancer Statistics
Department of Health, 2016. Saving Lives: reducing infection, delivering clean and safe care. High
Impact Intervention No 1. Central venous catheter care bundle. Department of Health. hcai.dh.gov.
uk/.../2011-03-14-HII-Central-Venous-Catheter-Care-Bundle.
Macmillian, 2006. Chemotherapy for children’s cancers. www.macmillan.org.uk › ... › Treating children’s
cancers
Mauzer, G 1994. QFD for Small Business a short cut through a maze of matrices. 6th Symposium on
QFD, Novi, US.1-12.
McLeish, T. & Strang, V. 2014. Leading interdisciplinary research: transforming the academic landscape.
Leadership Foundation for Higher Education.
Muratovski, G. 2016. Research Methods for Designers. London: Sage.
Rubin, H.J. & Rubin, I.S. 2011. Qualitative Interviewing. US: Sage.
Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. 2016. Research methods for business students, 7th Edition. UK:
Pearson.
Shen, X.X., Tan, K.C. & Xie, M. 2000. An integrated approach to innovative product design using Kano’s
model and QFD. European Journal of Innovation Management. 3(2): 91-99.
Stember, M. 1991. Advancing the social sciences through the interdisciplinary enterprise. The Social
Science Journal. 28(1): 1-14.

340
DEVELOPMENT OF FUNCTIONAL 3D WOVEN

FABRICS FOR THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS
Małgorzata Matusiak1, Łukasz Frącczak2
1
Institute of Architecture of Textiles, Lodz University of Technology, 116 Zeromskiego str. 90- 924 Lodz,
POLAND
2
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Machine Tools and Production Engineering, Lodz
University of TechnologyAffiliation, 116 Zeromskiego str. 90- 924 Lodz, POLAND
(Presenting, corresponding author E-mail: malgorzata.matusiak@p.lodz.pl;
Co- author E-mail: lukasz.fracczak@p.lodz.pl)
ABSTRACT
3D woven fabrics can be manufactured both with 2D and 3D weaving. Dependably
on the way of manufacturing the properties of the 3D woven fabrics can be different.
Appropriate designing the 3D woven fabrics enables to manufacture the functional
fabrics of special features necessary for predicted application. In the presented work
the 3D woven fabrics have been developed using the 2D weaving technology. Based
on the goffer structures it was possible to crate the fabrics of the unique topography
and mechanical properties. It was achieved by an appropriate configuration of warp
and weft yarns. Analysis of the fabric topography have been performed using the 3D
laser scanning. Mechanical properties of fabrics have been measured by means of
the standardized testing methods. Obtained results confirmed that the fabrics can be
applied in the therapeutic clothing supporting antiaging or anticellulite treatment.
Keywords: 3D woven fabrics, stiffness, friction, topography, therapeutic clothing
INTRODUCTION
Each day the human organism is in permanent contact with different kinds of textile
materials. It determines an importance of the materials touching the human skin
and their properties for the human health and well-being. An appropriate designing
the fabrics, woven or knitted, from the point of view of their properties, especially
mechanical ones creates new possibilities of an employment of the fabrics and
clothing made of them for prevention and treatment of many health problems,
for instance in anti-ageing, anti-cellulite, anti-bedsores therapies, for people with
oversensitive skin, with skin diseases, etc.
An application of clothing in different kinds of prevention and therapies became
possible thanks to an intensive development of new advanced polymers, fibres, textile
materials and technologies. Rapid development in the area of textile engineering
and interdisciplinary investigations aimed at an elaboration of the innovative textile
products made possible to impart new features and functions to the textile products.
A term therapeutic means medicinal or playing the same role as a therapy. It is a lot
of examples of textile products which can be considered as therapeutic. We should
mention here: clothing applied in the compression therapy, compression socks applied
to support the venous and lymphatic systems of the leg, weighted articles used in
rehabilitation in different child illnesses, FIR textile materials, health monitoring textile

341
products with integrated electronic (textronic product), textiles for the oversensitive
skin, anti-cellulite underwear and others.
Weighted clothing is the clothing that adds weight to different parts of the body. It is
usually used as part of resistance training. Weighted clothing can be also applied in
different therapies for people, mostly children suffering with different dysfunctions:
• sensory integration (SI),
• autism,
• Asperger’s syndrome,
• Down’s syndrome,
• cerebral palsy.
FIR technology uses far infrared rays to ensure that energy radiated by the body is
recovered to positively affect performance capacity and wellbeing (Wilimas 2009).
Far infrared rays are part of the sunlight spectrum of infrared waves ranging from 0.76
micron to 1,000 microns. When the FIR material is stimulated by the thermal energy
emitted by the human body, it converts it into the far infrared rays and reflects it back
into the human body. FIR materials are used to stimulate the blood circulation and in
heated clothing.
Textronic is a novel branch of science, aimed to connect the textiles with electronics
and informatics (Mazzoldi 2002). The idea of textronics is based on incorporation of
electronic elements in fabric or garment structure. Textronic products are used in
different applications such as: sport, medicine, protective equipment, etc.
The anticellulite underwear is offered by many textile manufacturers. Anticellulite
products improve the blood circulation and remove liquid from the body, mostly due
to the micrommassage. Massaging effect results from the texture of the product with
coarse and smooth areas which help fighting the imperfections caused by cellulite
due to the continuous body movement (Matusiak, Sikorski 2010).
The aim of presented work is to develop the functional woven fabrics for anticellulite
and antiaging applications. Particularly, the 3D woven fabrics of small-scale evenly
distributed three-dimensionality were designed in such a way to obtain their surface
and mechanical properties ensuring the micromassaging action of clothing made of
these fabrics.
The 3D structure of the woven fabrics was achieved by an appropriate combination
of warp and weft yarns. Two kinds of the 3D woven fabrics were an objects of the
investigation. Both fabrics were manufactured on the basis of the same warp made
of 20 x 2 tex cotton yarn. In the sample I two warps have been applied of different
tensions and one kind of the weft yarn - 12 tex x 2 See Cell Activ 12 %. It created a
typical goffer structure with the convex strips in the warp direction. In second fabric -
sample II the same two warps of different tension have been applied as in the sample
I. Additionally two kinds of yarns of different elasticity have been used as a weft. Such
a combination of warp and weft yarns gave the goffer effect in both directions: warp
and weft. The structural characteristics of the manufactured fabrics are presented in

342
Table 1.
Table 1. Characteristic of the woven fabrics elaborated in the frame of the
presented work
Value
Parameter Unit
Sample I Sample II
Raw material – warp I - CO CO
Raw material – warp II - CO CO
Dry Release SeeCell Dry Release SeeCell
Raw material – weft I -
Activ Activ
Raw material – weft II - - PU57/PES43
Warp I linear density tex 20 x 2 20 x 2
Warp II linear density tex 20 x 2 20 x 2
Weft I linear density tex 12 x 2 12 x 2
Weft II linear density tex - 37
Weave – warp I - plain plain
Weave – warp II - rep 2/2 rep 2/2
Warp density dm-1 274 351
Weft density dm-1 281 283
Prepared fabrics were measured in the range of their physical and mechanical
parameters by means of the standardized methods. Measurement was done in the
range of the following parameters:
• mass per square meter,
• thickness,
• warp and weft take up,
• breaking force,
• elongation at break,
• stiffness.
Additionally the surface friction and surface topography were measured in order to
characterize the surface features of the fabrics from the point of view of their expected
massaging effect.
The surface topography (Militky, Mazal 2007) of the investigated goffered fabrics was
assessed using the 3D laser scanning. The test-bench consisted of the measuring arm
CimCore Romer Infinity 2 with the Perceptron’s Contour Probe laser head was applied
in measurement. In order to perform the measurements the ScanWorks program was
used, whereas to process the point cloud - the Geomagic Studio software. The point
clouds were achieved as a results of the laser scanning of the investigated fabrics.
Next, they were processed by means of the Geomagic Studio software in order to
generate the texture of the fabrics. Each sample was scanned in two directions. It
gave two separate point clods, which are considered as two separate objects. In
order to integrate the point clouds for given fabric the Global Registration option was

343
applied, which sets the point clouds from different stages of the scanning towards
each other in such a way that the standard deviation is minimized. The results were
exported to the format appropriate to use by the CAD software (Matusiak, Frącczak
2015).
Prepared scans of the fabric surface were cut in both directions: warp and weft. It
allowed to obtain the fabric sections and to extract the lines representing the profile
of the fabric in the place of cutting. The series of parallel lines spaced each 1 mm
were generated in such a way to cover at least a full pattern repeat defined along
the warp and weft (fig.1).
Fig. 1. The series of lines created in both warp and weft directions
For each line an evaluation length was divided equally into 5 sampling lengths and
next, the total height of the profile Wz was determined for each sampling length. The
total height of the profile Wz means the height between the deepest valley and the
highest peak inside each extracted sub-area – sampling length on the evaluated
line (Calvimontes 2010). It is determined as a sum of height of the largest profile peak
height and the largest profile valley depth within a sampling length.
Measurement was performed for each fabric in both directions: warp and weft. Next,
for each line an average total height of the profile was calculated as an arithmetic
mean from the results of the measurement of 5 sampling lengths.

344
RESULTS
Results of measurement of the basic mechanical parameters of the investigated
fabrics are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Results of measurement of the fabric mechanical parameters
Value
Parameter Unit
Sample I Sample II
Mass per square meter gm -2
208 357
Thickness mm 1.49 1.89
Warp I take up % 5.06 8.03
Warp II take up % 62.9 75.5
Weft I take up % 10.3 39.8
Weft II take up % - 91.6
Breaking force - warp N 684 519
Breaking force - weft N 434 347.4
Elongation at break - warp % 27.88 13.72
Elongation at break - weft % 12.78 56.1
Stiffness – warp direction mNm 0.036 0.161
Stiffness – weft direction mNm 0.027 0.073
Stiffness - total mNm 0.031 0.108
Static friction coefficient - warp - 0.929 0.985
Static friction coefficient - weft - 1.59 1.428
Dynamic friction coefficient - warp - 0.714 0.678
Dynamic friction coefficient - weft - 0.802 0.753
On the basis of the obtained results it was stated that the fabrics are characterized by
thickness much higher than thickness of typical 2D cotton fabrics, which usually does
not exceed 1 mm. Thickness of the sample II is bigger than thickness of the sample I.
It is due to the application of the elastomeric yarn in weft causing goffering effect in
weft direction.
From the point of view of the fabrics’ application in anticellulite and antiaging
therapies a very important role is played by the stiffness and surface friction of the
fabrics. Performed study confirmed that the fabric II is characterized by significantly
higher stiffness: in warp and weft direction as well as the total stiffness than the fabric
I (fig. 2).
0,18
0,16
0,14
0,12
0,1
mNm
Sample I
0,08
Sample II
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
warp weft total
Fig. 2. Stiffness of the investigated fabrics

345
In the case of the surface friction the differences between both elaborated fabrics
are not so clearly visible (fig. 3) as in the case of the fabric stiffness. The dynamic
friction coefficients of the sample II are higher than that of the sample I. In the case of
the static friction in the warp direction the friction coefficient of sample II is higher than
for the sample I but in the weft direction the relation is opposite (fig. 3).
1,8
1,6
1,4
1,2
1
0,8 Sample I
0,6 Sample II
0,4
0,2
0
warp weft warp weft
static dynamic
Fig. 3. Friction coefficients of the investigated fabrics

From the point of view of the massaging effect we can state that the fabric II has
better properties. Higher stiffness fosters the massaging effect caused by the rubbing
a human skin with the fabric while moving. Due to this fact the dynamic friction is
more important than the static one.
On the basis of the results from the 3D laser scanning (Tbale 3) we can see that the
fabrics differ significantly between each other in the range of the total height of the
profile in both directions and its dispersion.
Table 3. The results of the determination of the total height of the profile Wz for lines
created in the warp and weft directions of the investigated fabrics
Average Wz
No. of line Fabric I Fabric II
Warp direction Weft direction Warp direction Weft direction
1 0.23 0.34 0.44 0.34
2 0.63 0.39 0.53 0.24
3 1.07 0.27 1.22 0.81
4 1.20 0.50 1.45 0.56
5 1.13 0.43 1.32 0.78
6 0.69 0.31 0.64 0.53
7 0.31 0.40 0.41 0.49
8 0.41 0.36 0.45 0.37
9 0.28 0.58 0.36 0.63
10 0.27 0.33 0.23 0.73
11 0.25 0.42 0.40 0.86
12 0.23 0.30 - 1.01
13 0.23 0.41 - 0.86
Average 0.533 0.389 0.677 0.631
SD 0.374 0.084 0.433 0.234
The sample I is a typical goffer fabric. It is characterized by an existing of two kinds
of strips in the warp direction: basic flat strips and goffered strips. Due to this fact the
lines created parallel to the warp can be divided into two groups: lines along the flat

346
strip characterized by low values of the Wz parameter and lines along the goffered
strip characterized by high values of the Wz parameter (fig. 4). Taking into account
that lines were created each 1 m a width of the flat strips is ca. 8 mm, whereas the
goffered strips - ca. 6 mm.
1,6
1,4
1,2
1
mm
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
No. of line
Fig. 4. The average values of the total height of the profile (Wz) for the lines
created parallel to the warp of the fabric I
In the weft direction the lines created parallel to the weft are characterized by low
values of the average total height of the profile in the range from 0.27 mm till 0.58 mm
(fig. 5) .
In the case of the fabric II we can also distinguish two groups of lines in warp direction:
the lines representing the goffered and flat strips (Fig. 6). However, the maximal value
of the Wz parameter is higher than in the case of the fabric I. Additionally, the width
of the strips is a little lower than in the fabric II. It is due to the application of the
elastomeric yarn in weft direction what caused a thickening the fabric structure in
the weft direction. In weft direction (Fig. 7) the value of the Wz parameter is more
diversified than in the fabric I. We can observe a goffer-like structure received thanks
to the application of two weft yarns of different elasticity.
1,6
1,4
1,2
1
mm
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
No. of line
created parallel to the weft of the fabric I

347
1,6
1,4
1,2
1,0
mm
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
No. of line
created parallel to the warp of the fabric II
1,6
1,4
1,2
1
mm
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
No. of line
created parallel to the weft of the fabric II
The topography of the elaborated fabrics can favorable affect the massaging effect
of the fabrics. A combination of the high stiffness and surface friction of the fabrics as
well as developed topography resulting in existing the convex and concave places
on the fabric surface makes the fabrics suitable for the application in the therapeutic
clothing ensuring the micromassaging effect. From this point of view the fabric II with
the elastomeric yarn in weft has better properties than fabric I being a typical goffer
fabric.
CONCLUSIONS
Elaborated 3D woven fabrics are characterized by high stiffness and surface friction
in comparison with the typical 2D cotton and cotton-like woven fabrics. Additionally,
they have significantly developed surface topography. All this features cause that
fabrics can be applied in clothing assuring the micromassaging effect. Such kind of
clothing is applied in different therapies, especially in anticellulite and antiaging ones.
From the point of view of the micrmassaging effect the application of the elastomeric
yarn in weft resulting in the goffering effect in the weft direction significantly improved
the properties of the 3D fabric.
In further investigation the fabrics will be assessed in the utility trials in order to confirm
their massaging acting.

348
REFERENCES
Calvimontes A., Badrul Hasan M.M., Dutschk V. 2010. Effects of Topographic Structure on Wettability of
Woven Fabrics. in: Woven Fabric Engineering, ed. Dobnik Dubrovski P., 71-92. Sciyo.
Matusiak M., Sikorski K. 2010. Investigation of Woven Fabrics for Anticellulite Clothing. Proceedings of
9thInternational Conference CLOTECH’2010. Ed. Pawlowa M. Frydrych I 232 – 238, Radom, Poland.
Matusiak M., Frącczak Ł. 2015. Investigation of Waviness of 3D Woven Fabrics. Chapter in: Innovations
in Clothing Design, Materials, Technology and Measurement Methods. Ed. Frydrych I., Bartkowiak G.,
Pawlowa M., 166-182. Lodz University of Technology, Lodz, Poland.
Mazzoldi A., De Rossi D., Lorussi F., Scilingo E. P., Paradiso R. 2002. Smart Textiles for Wearable Motion
Capture Systems. AUTEX Research Journal. Vol. 2. No. 4.
Militký J., Mazal M. 2007. Image analysis method of surface roughness evaluation. International Journal
of Clothing Science and Technology 19. 186-193.
Williams T. 2009.Textiles for Cold Weather Apparel. Woodhead Publishing in Textiles.

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RETURN TO ZERO: DETOX THE TEXTILE SUPPLY CHAIN
RETURN TO ZERO:
DETOX THE TEXTILE SUPPLY CHAIN
*Rakesh Vazirani
TUV Rheinland, Hong Kong, China
(Presenting author E-mail: rakesh.vazirani@tuv.com)
ABSTRACT
Almost all persons on the planet are in contact with some sort of textile, fabric, or
footwear.
Each of these products uses chemicals during their production either to achieve a
function like water-repellence, for adding texture, or more commonly for colour.
In addition to the wide use of chemicals used, the large quantity of water, and the
presence of hazardous chemicals in the waste water has resulted in apparel and
footwear sector to be regarded as two of the most ecologically polluted industries in
the world.
This growing awareness and concern of safety issues related to chemicals in textiles,
has been driven by numerous factors; an increased knowledge of the hazards
associated with chemicals used; legislation (such as REACh in the European Union and
California Proposition 65 in the USA); DETOX campaign by NGO’s like Greenpeace;
and consumers’ desire for products that are safer for human health and environment.
As a result the industry has further concentrated efforts with associations/groups
focussing on specific aspects to achieve a Sustainable Textile Supply Chain.
This paper elaborates on the challenges, and provides and overview of how the
industry is responding to this incorporate sustainability.
Keywords: Greenpeace DETOX, ZDHC, Sustainability
INTRODUCTION
Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) like Greenpeace investigate the discharge
of wastewater by Apparel and Footwear supply chains. Investigation backed
up by various detailed reports, highlighted that wastewater discharge from textile
factories contain a wide range of toxic and hazardous substances. Certain chemical
compounds used in the Apparel and Footwear supply chains can cause serious harm
to environment. Many leading international brands have formed an industry forum
and committing them to eliminate hazardous chemicals discharge by 2020. The goal
is to stop the industry poisoning waterways around the world with toxic, persistent and
hormone-disrupting chemicals.
ZDHC (Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals) was established by the fashion
industry’s to work in a collaborative way for addressing issues highlighted by
Greenpeace (DETOX) and for eliminating hazardous chemicals from the factories
involved in textile and footwear supply-chain.
This is being supported by work being promoted via UNDP linked to chemical leasing;
and by EU garment initiative.
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Textile processes
RETURN TO ZERO: DETOX THE TEXTILE SUPPLY CHAIN

DETOX: NGO Greenpeace’s campaign against fashion industry players causing
pollution in water streams, and on their products (Concern : Environmental Pollution,
Health risks for consumers and workers)
ZDHC: Industry group for joint efforts to address DETOX goals (Zero Discharge of
Hazardous Chemicals)
SAC: Industry group (representing 33% of apparel industry) to develop/implement
audit methodology targeting social + environmental concerns (Sustainable Apparel
Coalition: Higg Index)
OIA CMWG: Industry association of outdoor brands targeting sustainable chemistry
(Outdoor Industry Association Chemical Management workgroup)
RESULTS
In principle, brands can address DETOX by
Greenpeace DETOX = ZDHC (MRSL, Training, and Wastewater requirement) +
SAC Higg Index (Environment module) +
IPE (Audit Report & Corrective action) +
OIA CMWG (Continuous Improvement)
CONCLUSIONS
Here paste your CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Greenpeace DETOX, ZDHC, IPE, OIA

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DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW ENERGY EFFICIENT RELAY NOZZLE CONCEPT FOR AIR-JET WEAVING MACHINES
DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW ENERGY EFFICIENT

RELAY NOZZLE CONCEPT FOR AIR-JET
WEAVING MACHINES
Achim Schröter1, Andreas Münkel1, Corrado Grassi2, Adjunct Prof. (Clemson
Univ.) Dr.-Ing. Yves-Simon Gloy1, Univ.-Prof. Prof. h.c. (Moscow State Univ.)
Dr.-Ing. Dipl.-Wirt. Ing. Thomas Gries1
1 Institut für Textiltechnik der RWTH Aachen University, Otto-Blumenthal Str. 1, Aachen, Germany
2
3T Textil Technologie Transfer GmbH, Otto-Blumenthal Str. 1, Aachen, Germany
(Presenting author E-mail: achim.schroeter@ita.rwth-aachen.de)
ABSTRACT
The textile industry is an energy intensive branch of industry. Increasing energy costs
are a challenge for textile manufacturers as well as for the developers of textile
production machines [Holtermann 2014].
Air jet weaving is the most productive method for the production of woven fabrics.
However air-jet weaving machines have a significantly higher level of energy
consumption compared to other weaving machines. Almost 80 % of the energy
consumed relates to relay nozzles [Holtermann 2014]. At the Institut für Textiltechnik der
RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany different novel relay nozzle geometries
with lower air consumption were developed by the use of simulations.
The simulations have shown potential energy savings up to 50 % compared to
conventional relay nozzles [Schröter 2015]. Furthermore practical validations of these
simulation results were done. The velocity, stagnation pressure and volume flow were
measured in the reed channel.
In addition, an energetic and economic evaluation of the best relay nozzle geometry
was done. The evaluations have shown that up to 50 % of the exergy can be saved
Keywords: energy efficiency, air-jet weaving, relay nozzles, energy reduction, exergy
savings
INTRODUCTION
The textile industry is an energy intensive industry. Increasing energy costs are a
challenge for textile manufacturers as well as for the developers of textile production
machines. As example, air-jet weaving is the most productive but also most energy
consuming weaving method [Schröter 2014]. In the air-jet weaving process the weft
yarn is inserted into the shed with compressed air by the use different nozzles types.
Figure 1 shows a schematic view of the weft insertion components.

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Textile processes
Optischer
Weft
Schuss- Reed
Riet Schusssensor
brake
bremse
Yarn
Yarn
Spule Weft
Vorspul- Main nozzle
Hauptdüse(n)
accumulator
gerät
Stafettendüsen
Relay nozzles Streck-
Stretch
düse
nozzle
Figure 1. Schematic view of air-jet weft insertion system [Holtermann 2014]

Current state of the art air-jet weaving machines employ a tandem and main nozzle
combination at the purpose to provide the initial acceleration to the weft yarn, and a
series of relay nozzles along the reed channel to keep constant yarn velocity of about
55 – 80 m/s. A profiled reed provides guidance for the air. At the end of the insertion
process a nozzles catches and stretches the yarn at the right side of the machine.
A cutter is used to cut the yarn when the insertion is completed and the beat-up
movement complete the fabric production process [Adanur 2001].
The air-jet weaving machine combines high performance (see Table 1) with low
wear, because no mechanical parts are directly involved in the weft insertion process
[Holtermann 2014].
Table 1. General Characteristics of Air-Jet weaving machine [Adanur 2001],[Erdem
2010]
Air Jet weaving machine
Weft Insertion rate 2000 m/min
Average Specific Energy consumption
3 – 5 kWh/kg
(kWh/kg of woven fabric)
However, the main drawback regarding of the technology is the very high energy
consumption (see Table 1) due to the compressed air usage which is required during
the weft insertion process. Since the cost of energy has a systematic increasing
trend, power consumption is still a challenging issue. In particular it is the limiting
factor in countries, whith high energy and manufacturing cost. An overview of the
manufacturing cost of a woven fabric can be seen in Table 2 [ITMF 2008].
For instance in Italy, the total manufacturing cost is 0,579 USD/m of woven fabric and
power cost corresponds to 27% (0,156 USD/m). In other countries such as India or
China, the total manufacturing costs are less, respectively 0,265 USD/m and 0,215
USD/m, but on the other hand the power consumption is responsible respectively for
35% (0,093 USD/m) and 38% (0,083 USD/m) of the entire value.

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Table 2. Overview of the manufacturing costs of a woven fabric [ITMF 2008]

Brazil China Egypt India Italy Korea Turkey USA
Waste 0,005 0,004 0,006 0,004 0,007 0,004 0,006 0,006
Labour 0,025 0,012 0,01 0,013 0,206 0,082 0,074 0,13
Power 0,075 0,083 0,035 0,093 0,156 0,051 0,091 0,052
Auxiliary material 0,028 0,036 0,05 0,062 0,08 0,047 0,051 0,033
Depreciation 0,063 0,062 0,056 0,067 0,089 0,059 0,064 0,095
Interest 0,04 0,018 0,029 0,026 0,041 0,019 0,021 0,029
Total manufacturing
costs
0,236 0,215 0,186 0,265 0,579 0,262 0,307 0,345
(USD per meter of
fabric)
In order to decrease the energy consumption and to increase the energy efficiency,
air-jet weaving machines are under constant development. At the Institut für
Textiltechnik der RWTH Aachen University (ITA), Aachen, Germany, a novel method
based on exergy balances has been applied at the purpose of reducing the power
costs while keeping constant fabric quality. The study focused on the air flow field of
the relay nozzles [Holtermann 2014], [Schröter 2015]. A picture of the position of the
relay nozzles and the profiled reed is shown in the following Figure 2.
Heedles
Warp yarns
Relay nozzles Profiled reed
Figure 2. Detailed view of the relay nozzle and the profiled reed [Schröter 2015]
Finally, the result of the research led to the development of a new geometry of the
relay nozzle which is able to provide the same value of propulsive force to the weft
yarn at a lower operating pressure level. This new concept of relay nozzle is able to
work at 2 bar inlet overpressure in place of 5 bar, as relay nozzles available on the
market [ITMF 2008]. In such a way, the productivity is kept constant and the costs
associated to the compressors to pump up the air are decreased.

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Textile processes

Increasing the energy efficiency of a production machine is one of the biggest
challenges for the machine producer. Therefore an approach was developed at ITA
especially for textile machines. The 6ζ method [Holtermann 2014] developed at ITA
provides a framework that allows for the systematic analysis of production machines
and it is integrated with three basic pillars. These three methodical pillars are:
1. Consistent assessment of energetic inefficiencies by means of exergy balances
2. Clear focus on economic measures
3. Tool for the systematic derivation of actions for energy efficiency improvements
By considering the symbol for the exergetic efficiency ζ (zeta) and the six consecutive
steps, the method is considered as 6ζ method [Holtermann 2014]. Figure 4 shows the
structure of the 6ζ method.
Figure 3. Structure of the 6 ζ method [Holtermann 2014]

Pillar 1: Exergy balances
The use of exergy balances is fundamental for assessing the energy efficiency of
arbitrary production processes. Exergy balances are of particular value if the
considered process consumes energy forms that are not fully convertible such as
heat, steam or compressed air [Holtermann 2014].
Pillar 2: Focus on economic measures
4
The 6η method has a clear focus on economic measures that support entrepreneurial
decisions. In the analysis phase, subsystems are prioritized according to costs due
to energetic inefficiencies instead of applying pure physical measures. The net
present value (NPV) method in combination with scenario techniques ensures a
rational economic performance evaluation of generated improvement measures
[Holtermann 2014].
Pillar 3: Novel tool for the derivation of actions for energy efficiency improvements
The 6ζ method comprises a two-step scheme for the development of energy

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efficiency improvement measures. Firstly, machine components of the target

machine categorised in two dimensions. The first dimension distinguishes the
components according their contribution to value creation. The latter distinguishes
whether dissipation is an incorporated attribute of the working principle (e.g. driving
a yarn by air friction) or not (e.g. movement of a rapier). The second step provides
generic improvement measures depending on the categorization result. This scheme
provides an added value to the user since improvement measures are generated in
an efficient as well as effective way [Holtermann 2014].
APPLICATION OF THE METHOD
The force on the yarn in the reed channel is provided by the friction between the air
and the yarn surface and is given by the following Eq. (1),
(1)
With
ρ = air density
cw = skin friction coefficient
cF = air velocity
c = yarn velocity
A = yarn surface
This force is proportional to the square of the relative velocity between the air stream
and the yarn. So the air velocity is one of the most important influences on the
propelling force.
Assuming the further hypothesis:
Steady state flow
Negligible yarn flexibility
Constant yarn velocity across the shed
The thrust provided by the relay nozzles to the yarn is the key point for the productivity
of the machine and for the quality of the product.
The study carried out at ITA concentrated on the development of a new geometry
of nozzle in order to reduce the acting pressure without affecting the productivity
negatively. Therefor an analytical mathematical model was set up at ITA which
calculates the maximum velocity along the free stream of an ideal nozzle. This
calculation should help to estimate the amount of air velocity, a nozzle is able to
reach under ideal circumstances. This helps to benchmark the new designed nozzle.

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RESULTS
The mathematical model calculates the flow parameters under ideal conditions and
is shown in eq (2).
Assuming the following conditions:
Lossless flow
No shockwaves
No change of flow direction
Round free stream
(2)
with :
= air velocity in core zone
d = diameter of the nozzle
m = mixing factor
x = position
= position of the yarn
For the calculation of the general stream the parameter rF is set to zero, the parameters
are shown in Figure 4 Schematic view of the free stream and the position of the yarn.
Yarn
dF
rF
Nozzle
d
x‘ x
Core length Main zone
Figure 4 Schematic view of the free stream and the position of the yarn

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Textile processes
Comparing the nozzle design with the mathematical model and get some information
about the flow inside of the nozzle different, flow simulations have been carried out.
The simulations are done with the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation
tool ANSYS Fluent from ANSYS, Inc., Canonsburg, USA. The simulation is based on the
following assumptions:
• Compressible flow field
• Ideal gas
• Steady state flow
With these assumptions a CFD model was set up and a CAD-model was integrated
into this model. Behind the nozzle outlet a free flow field with ambient pressure is
modulated. At the inlet of the nozzle, 1 bar overpressure was set as condition. The CFD
model with the simulated flow field is shown in Figure 5. Simulated flow field of the new
nozzle concept..
Velocity
350
270
200
110
5
[m/s]
7 mm 10 mm
Figure 5. Simulated flow field of the new nozzle concept.

The air stream out of the nozzle is very compact (e.g. low divergence flow, no
shock waves) and has a small blowing angle of 6-8 degree. In agreement with the
convergent nozzle theory, it can be drawn from the simulation that sonic conditions are
achieved at the outlet surface (M = 1, v = 343 m/s). The nozzle is in choking condition
and the mass flow density rate reaches the highest possible value which the outer
surface can allow by taking into account the initial boundary conditions of pressure
and temperature. Moreover, the expansion of the flow occurs outside of the nozzle
by means of dumped oscillations. In Figure 6. Comparison between the velocity of
the simulated air stream of the nozzle and the ideal analytical model the simulated
velocity of the air stream up to a distance of 130 mm behind the nozzle is shown and
compared to the analytical model. The Figure 6. Comparison between the velocity
of the simulated air stream of the nozzle and the ideal analytical model shows on the
vertical axes the velocity of the air and on the horizontal axes the distance downstream
the nozzle. The nozzle is located in the origin.

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Textile processes
350
Simulation
300
minimum required
velocity
250
Air velocity [m/s]
theoretical analysis
200
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Distance [mm]
Figure 6. Comparison between the velocity of the simulated air stream of the nozzle
and the ideal analytical model
It can be seen that the velocity of the air is higher than a velocity of 60 m/s for a
distance of around 80 mm in the simulation while the theoretical model calculates a
distance of 75 mm. Overall the theoretical analysis and the simulation have a good
agreement. The flow of the nozzle is guided well and therefore the developed nozzle
works effective. The difference between the simulation and the theoretical model is
resulting from the condition that the model calculates with a lossless nozzle without
change of the flow direction.
The simulation cannot give any information about the flow condition inside of the
reed without raising the simulation time. Because of the two-dimensional projection
of the analytical model the calculation of the flow field, at the position of the yarn
in the free stream is possible. This calculation gives an idea of the flow field which
is affecting the yarn. Figure 7 Comparison between the simulated air stream of the
nozzle and the calculated flow in the free stream at the position of the yarn shows the
calculated flow field at the position of the yarn compared with the simulation in the
central layer of the nozzle.

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Textile processes
350
Simulation
300
minimum required
velocity
250
Air velocity [m/s]
theoretical analysis of
the free stream
200
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Distance [mm]
Figure 7 Comparison between the simulated air stream of the nozzle and the
calculated flow in the free stream at the position of the yarn
The distance with a velocity higher than 60 m/s is only 47 mm (see Figure 7 Comparison
between the simulated air stream of the nozzle and the calculated flow in the free
stream at the position of the yarn). Despite of the lower reachable distance the
exergy saving potential of the nozzle is about 50 %, due to the low operating pressure
of 1 bar. Measurements in the reed channel shown similar results compared to the
analytical model. Only the distance behind the nozzle is different. This difference can
be reasoned in the influence of the reed which is not considered in calculation. But
this difference has no effect on the energy balance of the weaving machine.
80
Calculated velocity
70 Measurement data
60 Measurement data switched

Air velocity [m/s]
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Distance [mm]
Figure 8

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Textile processes
CONCLUSIONS
At the Institute for Textile Technology of RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany,
a novel method has been developed to identify potentials in saving energy of textile
production processes [Holtermann 2014]. The air-jet weaving process is the most
productive but also the most energy intensive weaving process. The pneumatic
components of the machine were identified as biggest energy consumer. Based on
a theoretical model of the weft insertion, a new concept for the relay nozzle has
been drawn. The new nozzle needs only 2 bar inlet overpressure in place of 5 bar,
as commonly used in the state of the art machines. By means of CFD simulations,
the potential of the nozzle is shown and an energy reduction up to 50% is possible.
Nevertheless, the simulation includes a faithful reproduction of the free flow field of
the relay nozzle, without taking into account the interaction with the profiled reed,
and therefore, it gives a first insight on how to reduce the power consumption of the
weft insertion process. The simulations were validated by a theoretical model and
measurement of the air velocity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Project VIP0477 in form of assistance “Validierung des innovationpotenzials
wissenschaftlicher Forschung – VIP ” supported by the German Federal Ministry for
Education and Research (BMBF)
The European Commission gratefully acknowledged for its support of the Marie Curie
program through ITN EMVeM project, Grant Agreement No: 315967
REFERENCES
Erdem Koç, Emel Çinçik 2010. Analysis of Energy Consumption in Woven Fabric Production, Fibres and
Textiles in Eastern Europe 2010, Vol 18, No. 2 (79), Ondokuz Mayis University, Mechanical Engineering
Department, Samsun, Turkiye.
Adanur, S. 2001.Handbook of weaving. Boca Raton ; London ; New York: CRC ; Taylor and Francis,
2001.
Holtermann, T. 2014.Methode zur Bewertung und Erhöhung der Energieeffizienz von
Produktionsprozessen der Textilindustrie. Aachen: Shaker, 2014; Zugl. Aachen, Techn. Hochsch., Diss.,
2014.
Schröter, A. 2014. Steigerung der Energieeffizienz des Luftdüsenwebverfahrens am Institut für
Textiltechnik. Förderverein Cetex Chemnitzer Textilmaschinenentwicklung e.V. (Hrsg.): Mehrwert
durch Textiltechnik : Tagungsband zur 14. Chemnitzer Textiltechnik-Tagung ; 13. und 14. Mai 2014. –
Chemnitz.
Schröter, A. and Grassi, C., 2015. Increasing the energy efficiency of air jet weaving based on a novel
method to exploit energy savings potentials in production processes of the textile industry – AUTEX
2015. 10th – 12th June 2015, Bucharest, Romania.
International Textile Manufacturers Federation (ITMF) 2008. Spinning/Texturing/Weaving/Knitting :
International Manufacturing Cost Comparison 2012. Zürich: ITMF, 2008.

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A study on optimum adjustments for stitching single jersey knitwear fabrics on an overlocking machine
A STUDY ON OPTIMUM ADJUSTMENTS FOR

STITCHING SINGLE JERSEY KNITWEAR FABRICS
ON AN OVERLOCKING MACHINE
John McLoughlin1, Felicia Tang2, Prabu Venkatraman 3, Steven Hayes4
Presenting author: Dr Steven Hayes, University of Manchester
The University of Manchester | School of Materials
steven.hayes@manchester.ac.uk
Manchester Metropolitan University, Department of Apparel, Hollings Faculty
j.mcloughlin@mmu.ac.uk
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the findings of a study for chain stitching knitted fabrics on an
overlocking machine using variable machine settings to achieve a flat quality seam.
The fabrics are single jersey knitted structures and are commercially available for
the production of apparel products, particularly jumpers and cardigans. Five fabrics
were chosen for the study and were stitched on a four thread overlocking machine,
stitch number 514. A base setting for the machine was recorded which included static
thread tension, presser foot force and the differential feed setting. Each sample was
then sewn individually in order to achieve a flat seam. The machine settings deviation
was recorded for each individual fabric and these seams were evaluated for seam
evenness and uniformity using an independent panel of experts.
The results have highlighted the technical complications of stitching knitted structures
due to their properties of extensibility and looped structure. Adjusting the differential
feed setting and presser foot force proved to be the most influential adjustments for
achieving the desired consequence.
Keywords: Overlocking, Overedging, Stitching, Sewing, Knitwear, Single Jersey
INTRODUCTION
When stitching knitwear, the seams must be able to stretch with the fabric and retain a
flat and acceptable join of the panels being sewn. Knitted garments are traditionally
difficult to sew due to their properties of high extensibility and looped structure
causing the fabric to flatten and compress under the weight from the presser foot on
the sewing machine. This causes distortion of the fabric producing the phenomena
known by the industrial term of waving or fluting (McLoughlin, 2002). An example of
this seam is given in figure 1.
There are three main methods of manufacturing knitwear apparel. These are:
1. Cut make and trim, where the garments are knitted into panels and cut to
shape ready for being stitched into garments using an overlocking machine. This is
the most comment method of producing knitwear garments and is also the cheapest
to produce.
2. Shaping and Linking, where the panels are knitted to shape and then stitched
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Textile processes
using a two thread chain stitch. This method of production produces flatter and less
bulky seams which retain their shape better when being worn.
3. Fully fashioned, which are garments that are completely produced on the
knitting machine which little or no stitching involved. These tend to be the most
expensive garments to purchase.
The focus of the work reported here concentrated on the most common manufacturing
technique of ‘cut make and trim’ which is subject to the most challenging conditions
when being stitched. The fabrics used for the study were single jersey materials of
similar composition and fibre configuration. It is also important to mention that there
is little research in this area highlighting a gap in the knowledge. Therefore it was
deemed right and proper to address this issue.
The aim of this research was to determine the optimum adjustments for stitching these
fabrics using a four thread overlocking with a stitch type 514. In order to achieve this
aim, the following experimental work was undertaken.
Five single jersey knitwear fabrics were chosen for this study and all of them were
used for manufacturing apparel (appendix 1). The machine for stitching them was a
Pegasus MX-5214/M03/3334 given in figure 2. The stitch type was a 514 stitch (Hayes
and McLoughlin, 2006).
Figure 1: Wavy / fluted seam

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Textile processes
Figure 2: Pegasus four thread overlocking machine

The fabrics were initially stitched on the current machine setting which was termed as
a base adjustment from which visual assessments were made on the seam flatness
and quality. The deviation of machine adjustments were made manually using
commonly used measuring equipment used by the clothing industry. Previous research
has highlighted difficulties when stitching knitwear fabrics (American and Efird, 2009).
The presser foot force was determined using a device given in figure 3 and the thread
tension was measured similarly given in figure 4.
Figure 3: Presser foot force measuring device Figure 4: Thread tension measure device
When conducting this practice based experiment, knowledge was offered from two

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Textile processes
technicians with over 15 years’ experience of working with sewing machines and
fabric. One of the reasons that was suggested as to why the fabric achieved a flat
seam regardless of being set to its optimum setting, was that even if both fabrics
are identical it depends on which direction the material was cut. It was identified
in the literature by Zeydan (2007), ‘the cutting direction of the materials where the
number of threads is distinctly higher in the warp direction can affect the stitching of
the fabric too’. This could be the reason why the fabric reacted differently when it was
sewn on its supposed‘optimum setting’. Sundaresan et al. (1998), reinforce that fabric
properties contribute to the seam quality when the fabric tightness factor had been
found to affect the needle penetration force during high-speed sewing.
RESULTS
As discussed previously, the fabrics shown in Appendix 1 were stitched using textured
multifilament threads on a four-thread over lock machine. These were the constant
variables within this study. As regards handling the fabric, one experienced technician
was required to perform the sewing.
An independent variable is an aspect of the experiment that will change; the researcher
manipulates this variable and then measures the effect each time (Bhattacharyya,
2006). Therefore, it was essential to analyse the independent variable; as Walliman
(2011) states, in simple terms:
“Changes are made to an independent variable and the effects are observed on
a dependent variable, i.e. cause and effect” (Walliman, 2011, p11). In this case the
independent variables were as mentioned above:
1. Thread Tension
2. Pressure Foot Force
3. Differential Feed Mechanism
The lengthy experience and knowledge one technician (15+ years) allowed him to
determine a base setting for the machines. The interaction between the fabric and the
machine settings was observed, taking the fabric characteristics into consideration.
However, the independent variables were adjusted in order to discover the optimum
setting for each fabric.
When this was complete, five experienced experts within this field were asked to
subjectively assess each seam on a scale of 1 – 5 (for the scale rating) The results
from this study are discussed below.

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Table 1: Machine settings for Fabric 1 – Hot Pink
Base Settings
Fabric 1 Thread Tension (g) Pressure Differential

Foot Feed
Needle Needle Primary Secondary Force
(Kg) Adjustment
1 2 Looper Looper
One notch
240 180 30 40 3.2 below zero
Table 2: Machine settings for Fabric 2 – Solid Orange
Base Settings

Foot Feed
(Kg) Adjustment
1 2 Looper Looper
240 180 30 40 3.2 Zero
Table 3: Machine settings for Fabric 3 – Jersey Equestrian
Base Settings
Fabric 3 Thread Tension (g) Pressure

Differential
Foot
Feed
Adjustment
1 2 Looper Looper (Kg)
240 180 30 40 3 Zero
Table 4: Machine settings for Fabric 4 – Navy and Green Stripes
Base Settings
Fabric 4 Thread Tension (g) Pressure

Differential
Foot
Feed
Adjustment
1 2 Looper Looper (Kg)
240 180 30 40 3 Zero

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Table 5: Machine settings for Fabric 5 – Grey Marl
Base Settings

Foot Feed
(Kg) Adjustment
1 2 Looper Looper
240 180 30 40 3 Zero
The tables above highlight the machine settings for each fabric stitched and the
seam qualities are given in appendix 2. An independent panel of experts assessed
the fabrics for seam quality from 1 being the worst seam quality to 5 being the best
seam quality. The results from their assessment are presented in appendix 3.
CONCLUSIONS
The aims of this study was to evaluate the quality of the seam for knitted fabrics and
to determine the optimum machine adjustments for stitching single jersey fabrics, as
well as to investigate factors that cause seam deformation. In order for the aims to be
achieved, individual objectives had to be identified so that they can be individually
addressed using primary or secondary research.
The evidence provided has shown that the optimum adjustments were achieved for
the individual fabrics. However, the findings have proven that the optimum setting
was reached and measured for a specific fabric; it does not necessarily have to
be set to the same setting again to achieve a good quality flat seam. Instead of
being reliant on measuring devices, an experienced technician is more reliable as
they have the knowledge and experience of working with the machines. As quoted
by the technician “every machine behaves differently and has their own individual
personality regardless of whether it is made from the exact same brand”.
Seam quality was established by the subjective assessment approach using experts’
opinions. However, it can be reasoned that this method was very subjective and it
can also be argued as to what qualities and experiences an individual may have to
be deemed as an ‘Expert’. In addition, the operator handling is subjected to changes
and human error. It is never guaranteed that the sewing performed previously can be
exactly replicated again, consequently affecting the consistency of the seam quality
and results.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Mr Derek Hebdon, technician at Manchester Metropolitan University
Jim Roscoe Previously Technical manager for Brother UK and Technician at Manchester
Metropolitan University
REFERENCES
American and Efird 2009. A & E Innovate, Create, Deliver. [Online] [2nd March]
http://www.amefird.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Sewing-Stretch-Kni-tFabrics-2-6-10.pdf

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Bhattacharyya, D. K. 2006. ‘Research Methodology’, 2nd Edition, India: Anurag Jain for
Cooklin, G., Hayes, S. and McLoughlin, J. 2006. Introduction to Clothing Manufacture, 2nd ed. Blackwell
Publishing, Oxford.
McLoughlin, J. 2012. SET: Sewing Engineering Technology, ISBN: 978-1-909422-00-1, 1st edn, jm-
Associates, Lancashire.
Sundaresan, G., Salhotra, K.R., Hari, P.K., (1998), Strength reduction in sewing threads during high speed
sewing in industrial lockstitch machine, International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology,
Vol. 10 Iss 1 pp. 64 - 79
Walliman, N (2011), Research Methods, The basics, USA and CanadaL Routledge
Zeydan, M., 2007. Modelling the woven fabric strength using Artificial Neural Network and Taguchi
Methodologies, IJCST, 20, 2, p104-118
Appendix 1: Materials used for the study

Fabric Weight FabricThickness
Stitch Density
Sample Image (g/m²) (mm) (Wales X Courses)
Sample 1:
Jersey
221 0.384 50 X 65
Equestrian
Sample 2:
Neon Yellow 180 0.562 38 X 40
Sample 3:
Baby Pink
664 1.664 23 X 37
with Stripes
Sample 4:
Deep Orange 276 1.158 25 X 100
Sample 5:
Thick
Knitted 625 2.488 13 X 15
Brown
Appendix 2 Sewn seams for all five fabrics

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Seam quality for fabric 1

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Appendix 3: Results for seam flatness given by the experts

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CREATING THE POLY(N,N-DIMETHYLAMINOETHYL METHACRYLATE) FIBRES BY MELT SPINNING METHOD
CREATING THE POLY(N,N-

DIMETHYLAMINOETHYL METHACRYLATE) FIBRES
BY MELT SPINNING METHOD
Dawid Stawski1, Dorota Zielińska1,2, Michał Chrzanowski1
1
Lodz University of Technology
Department of Material and Commodity Sciences and Textile Metrology,
Żeromskiego 116, 90-924 Lodz, Poland
2
The Institute of Security Technologies ‘‘MORATEX’’, Poland
(Presenting and Corresponding author email: dawid.stawski@p.lodz.pl)
ABSTRACT
The article presents the results of work on creating fibres from PDMAEMA by melt-
spinning technique. The morphological analysis of surface PDMAEMA fibres has been
carried out by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Wide Angle X-ray Diffraction
(WAXD). Tensile strength analysis at various levels of humidity - 0%, 45%, 65% and
100% has been performed. It has been observed that the value of maximum strength
is independent of storage conditions, whereas the elongation at maximal strength is
clearly dependent on the humidity.
Keywords: poly(N,N-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate), fibres, melt-spinning
technique
INTRODUCTION
Textiles have long been known as media to support the growth of microorganisms
such as bacteria, mildew or fungi. The development of microbes on textiles inflicts
a range of unwanted effects not only on the textile itself, but also on the wearer.
An increasing interest in healthy lifestyles and increasing demand for hygienic
clothing and active wear have created a substantial market for antimicrobial textile
products. The production of antimicrobial textiles was in the magnitude of 100 000
tones worldwide in 2000 [1]. There is a broad market for antimicrobial textiles not only
on medical, but also in outdoor textiles, automotive textiles, home furnishings and air
filters.
At present, most of the antimicrobial fabrics commercialized are produced
incorporating metals like silver and zinc, but, they have low biocompatibility and are
dangerous for the environment [2].
Poly(N,N-dimethylaminoethyl) Methacrylate (PDMAEMA) interests researchers’
attention for a long time. It reveals excellent antimicrobial properties [3-5, 6]. Mostly it
is produced in the form of foil. So far there are only two papers describing creating of
PDMAEMA fibres by using electrospinnig method [7, 8].
This study is focused on creating PDMAEMA fibres applying melt-spinning technique.
In melt spinning method, a melted polymer stream is ejected into a gas, usually air
at ambient temperature. The gas performs the main function of cooling the filament,

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and it exerts a drag force upon the rapidly moving filament. When the polymer melt
is extruded from the spinneret, it exhibits a die swell phenomenon. Then under the
drag force applied by the winder, fibre starts to attenuate and chain orientation and
crystallinity take place within a short time before melt solidification by the air cooling
effect. The comparatively simple and easy processing is the most important advantage
of melt spinning. However, it also suffers from problems like fibre breakdown, variation
in filament thickness, and limit to the fineness of fibre and spinneret clogging.
Materials
N,N-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA) (Sigma-Aldrich, Germany) was
purified by distillation under vacuum (69-70 oC, 1-2 mmHg).
Poly(N,N-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA) was prepared by radical
polymerization of DMAEMA initiated with azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN, Merck,
Germany). The average molecular weight (Mw =63000 g/mol) was determined by
gel chromatography.
Methods
SEM microscopy
Scanning electron microscope combined. The morphological analysis of surface
PDMAEMA fibres were carried out by means of scanning electron microscope (SEM)
Nova Nano-SEM 230 from FEI, Netherlands (SE Detector, voltage: 10 kV, low-vacuum:
0.3 Torr).
X-ray diffraction
Wide angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD) patterns were obtained with Cu Kα (λ=0.15418 nm)
source by means of X’Pert Pro X-ray system (from PANalytical, Netherland) operating
at 30 kV and 30 mA. Prior to measurements the PDAMEA material were ground to
obtain powder specimens.
Procedures
Melt spinning procedure. Firstly PDMAEMA material was dried for 48 hours at 1mbar
vacuum (20oC). Next crumbled material was introduced into co-rotating extruder
MiniLab (Haake, Germany) combined with collecting system (Zamak, Poland). The
spinning process was made at 120oC by 75 rpm. The spinneret diameter was 0,4
mm. Monofilament was collected on the collecting system working with rotational
speed 5 and 10 rpm and air cooling to temperature 20oC. In this system produced
monofilament was not drawing.
Tensile strength analysis were made on Instron with 20 mm/min stretching rate at
distance of 20mm between clamps. Samples before measurements were conditioned
at different levels of humidity: 0%, 45%, 65%, and 100% (20oC, 48h).
RESULTS
Synthesis of fibres made from PDMAEMA
The fibres from PDMAEMA were obtained by using melt spinning technique with two
different rotational speeds of collecting system (5 and 10 rpm). Sample 1 obtained

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with lower rotational speed has irregular shapes of margins, it means that collecting
speed was too slow in relation to pressing rate. On the SEM pictures (Figure 1) you
can see differences between both series the view of the sample with regular shapes,
obtained with higher collecting speed.
Fibre nr 1 Fibre nr 2
Figure 1. SEM pictures of fibres produced with higher collection speeds

Surfaces of both fibres are not smooth, what is not connected with production
process, but it depends on storing. In standard room conditions fibres made from
PDMAEMA are quite sticky. Inappropriate storing and transportation can cause
surface deformations shown on Figure 1. The cross section for fibre made on optical
microscope is presented on Figure 2.

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Figure 2. Cross section of selected PDAMEA fiber (optical microscope)

The shape of cross section of selected group of fibres is not round, one size is clearly
elongated. The cause of an oval shape appearing after the forming process may
be the collection of fibres not fully solidified. Collecting the fibers in such a state
causes its deformation. The second reason may be low glass transition temperature
of the polymer along with its completely amorphous nature, which makes polymer
malleable at ambient temperature.
The amorphous nature of studied materials was confirmed by the using WAXD method.
In Figure 3 the X-ray diffraction patterns obtained for studies materials are presented.
It is clearly seen the patterns are similar and typical for amorphous structure. In the 2θ
range 5º – 35º, the fitting procedure reveals three halos located at 2θ =7.9º, 2θ = 17.8º
and 2θ = 31.0º, with roughly equal FWHM ≈ 5º. This halos are characteristic for observed
broad X-ray scattering on the interchain spacing [9].
Figure 3. X-ray diffraction patterns obtained for studied fibers.

Properties of the fibres
The calculated linear weight of the selected fibres is ~ 167 (± 8) tex. The previous
tests showed, in accordance with our expectations, that the mechanical properties
of the hydrophilic polymer as PDMAEMA, are dependent on the storage conditions,
especially – humidity. We prepared media for fibres storing at various levels of humidity

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- 0%, 45%, 65% and 100%. In line with expectations at the 100% humidity the water
soluble polymer was completely decomposed. Samples stored at other humidities
were analyzed, and we found, that generally all samples have large elasticity. The
value of maximum strength is independent of storage conditions (Figure 3), whereas
the elongation at maximal strength is clearly dependent on the humidity (Figure
4). Sample kept at dry conditions (0%) has maximal elongation at about 200%, on
the other hand fibre in wet atmosphere obtains almost 500%. This effect is probably
connected with the fact, that water molecules are physico-chemically attached to
PDMAEMA. Entering between macromolecules, water creates some space, enabling
easier movement between polymeric chains.
Figure 3. Maximum strength of PDAMEA fibres in relation to air humidity at different

conditions
Figure 4. Elongation of PDMAEMA fibres in relation to air humidity at different conditions

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CONCLUSIONS
In this paper we showed, that it is possible to produce PDMAEMA fibres by using melt
spinning method. Different fiber structures were obtained by changing the preparation
conditions. The prepared samples were characterised by SEM and WXAD analysis.
We also found, that the mechanical properties of those fibres are dependent on the
storage conditions.
REFERENCES
Riva, A., I. Algaba, and R. Prieto. 2003. Dyeing kinetics of wool fabrics pretreated with a protease.
Coloration Technology, 118: 59-63.
1. Gao, T., and Cranson R. 2008, Recent Advances in Antimicrobial Treatments of Textiles. Textile
Research Journal, 78(1): 60-78.
2. Pinho, E., Henriques, M., Oliveira, R., Dias, A., and Soares, G. 2010. Development of Biofunctional
Textiles by the Application of Resveratrol to Cotton, Bamboo, and Silk, Fibres and Polymers 11(2): 271-
276.
3. Rawlinson, L.A.B, Ryan, S.M., Mantovani, G., Syrett, J.A., Haddleton, D.M. and Brayden D.J. 2010.
Antibacterial effects of poly(2-(dimethylamino ethyl)methacrylate) against selected gram-positive
and gram-negative bacteria, Biomacromolecules, 11(2): 443–453.
4. Stawski, D., Sarkar, A.K., Połowiński, S., Banerjee, A., Ranganath, A., Puchalski M. and Stańczyk K. 2013.
Antibacterial properties of polypropylene textiles modified by poly(2-(N,N-dimethyloamino ethyl)
methacrylate, Journal of Textile Institute, 104(8): 883-891.
5. Gutarowska, B., Stawski, D., Skóra, J., Herczyńska, L., Pielech-Przybylska, K., Połowiński, S. and Krucińska
I. 2015. Evaluation of Microbiological Hazards in Selected Workplaces and Assessment of Respiratory
Protection Effectiveness of Poly(dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate), Textile Research Journal, 85: 1083-
1094.
6. Huang, J., Murata, H., Koepsel, R.R., Russell, A.J. and Matyjaszewski, K. 2007. Antibacterial Polypropylene
via Surface-Initiated Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization, Biomacromolecules, 8(5): 1396-1399.
7. McKee, M.G., Hunley, M.T., Layman, J.M. and Long. T.E. Solution Rheological Behavior and
Electrospinning of Cationic Polyelectrolytes, Macromolecules, 39(2): 575-583.
8. Paneva, D., Bougard, F., Manolova, N., Dubois, P. and Rashkov, I. 2008. Novel electrospun poly(e-
caprolactone)-based bicomponent nanofibers possessing surface enriched in tertiary amino groups.
European Polymer Journal 44: 566–578
9. Stoclet, G., Seguela, R., Lefebvre, J.M., Elkoun, S. and Vanmansart, C. 2010. Strain-Induced Molecular
Ordering in Polylactide upon Uniaxial Stretching. Macromolecules 43: 1488-1498.

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DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW ENERGY EFFICIENT Profiled reed CONCEPT FOR AIR-JET WEAVING BASED ON A METHOD TO EXPLOIT ENERGY SAVINGS
DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW ENERGY EFFICIENT

PROFILED REED CONCEPT FOR AIR-JET
WEAVING BASED ON A METHOD TO EXPLOIT
ENERGY SAVINGS
Corrado Grassi1, Achim Schröter2, Yves-Simon Gloy2, Thomas Gries2
1
3T Textil Technologie Transfer GmbH, Otto Blumenthal Strasse 1, Aachen, 52074, Germany.
2
Institute of textile technology, RWTH Aachen, Otto Blumenthal Strasse 1, Aachen, 52074, Germany.
(Presenting author E-mail: corrado.grassi@ita.rwth-aachen.de)
ABSTRACT
The use of a novel method to exploit energy savings potentials in production processes
of textile industry is applied to air-jet weaving technology. Energy efficiency is taken as
central property in the design process and it represents a new requirement/property
to be defined in the phase of design problem/task definition. In contradiction with
established methodologies, the approach includes an initial analysis of existing
technical systems and the individuation and classification of relevant energy
consumers. The major consumers and processes are systematically addressed to
reduce energy consumption: interaction of relay nozzles flow field with the profiled
reed. A following step consists in verifying system design, predicting and evaluating
system behaviour using several tools (computational-fluid-dynamics simulations,
experimental analyses, etc.). Since nowadays products are becoming more multi-
disciplinary by constantly increasing integration of added functionality and since
energy is a global design attribute influenced by all disciplines, the development
of energy analysis methodologies, both numerical and experimental, requires an
integrated research strategy. Therefore in next air-jet weaving machine generations,
the design process should move from a purely performance and capacity driven
approach to an approach that includes energy efficiency as a key parameter.
Keywords: energy efficiency, air jet weaving, weft insertion, machine manufacturing,
simulation and experimental analysis
INTRODUCTION
Air-jet weaving is a type of weaving in which the filling yarn is inserted into the warp
shed with compressed air. Figure 1 shows a schematic of air-jet weaving utilizing a
multiple nozzle system and profiled reed which is the most common configuration in
the market. Yarn is drawn from a filling supply package by the filling feeder and each
pick is measured for the filling insertion by means of a stopper. Upon release of the
filing yarn by the stopper, the filling is fed into the reed tunnel via tandem and main
nozzles. The tandem and main nozzle combination provides the initial acceleration,
where the relay nozzles provide the high air velocity across the weave shed. Profiled
reed provides guidance for the air and separates the filling yam from the warp
(Adanur, 2001). A cutter is used to cut the yarn when the insertion is completed.

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Weft Reed
brake
Yarn Weft Main nozzle

accumulator
Relay nozzles Stretch
nozzle
Figure 1. Schematic view of air-jet weft insertion system

The air-jet weaving machine combines high performance (see Tab. 1) with low
manufacturing requirements, because differently from rapier and projectile machines,
the filling medium is just air and no mechanical parts are directly involved in the weft
insertion process. It has an extremely high production rate up to 1.100 weft insertions
per minute and it covers a wide range of processing yarns like spun and continuous
filament yarns.
Table 1. General Characteristics of Air-Jet weaving machine
Air Jet weaving machine
Weft Insertion rate (m/min) 2000
Average Specific Energy consumption
3–5
(kWh/kg of woven fabric)
Despite the very high production rate, the main drawback affecting negatively this
technology is the very high energy consumption (see Tab. 2) due to compressed air
demand which is required during the weft insertion process (Schröter, A. and Grassi,
C., 2015) and due to massive waste of such compressed, lost in the space between
the reed metal strips without giving a contribution to the weft insertion process. Since
the cost of energy has a systematic increasing trend, power consumption is still the
most challenging issue for textile production machine manufacturers. In particular it is
the limiting factor for such technology in the countries, where energy costs represents
a large share of the manufacturing costs (Erdem, K. 2010). An Overview of the
manufacturing cost of a woven fabric can be seen in Tab. 2. (ITMF, 2008).
For instance in Italy, the total manufacturing cost is 0,579 USD/m of woven fabric and
power cost corresponds to 27% (0,156 USD/m). In other countries such as India or
China, the total manufacturing costs are less, respectively 0,265 USD/m and 0,215
USD/m, but on the other hand the power consumption is responsible respectively for
35% (0,093 USD/m) and 38% (0,083 USD/m) of the entire value.

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Table 2. Overview of the manufacturing costs of a woven fabric

Brazil China Egypt India Italy Korea Turkey USA
Waste 0,005 0,004 0,006 0,004 0,007 0,004 0,006 0,006
Labour 0,025 0,012 0,01 0,013 0,206 0,082 0,074 0,13
Power 0,075 0,083 0,035 0,093 0,156 0,051 0,091 0,052
Auxiliary material 0,028 0,036 0,05 0,062 0,08 0,047 0,051 0,033
Depreciation 0,063 0,062 0,056 0,067 0,089 0,059 0,064 0,095
Interest 0,04 0,018 0,029 0,026 0,041 0,019 0,021 0,029
Total manufacturing
costs
0,236 0,215 0,186 0,265 0,579 0,262 0,307 0,345
(USD per meter of
fabric)
Due to intrinsic technological limitations which affected the development in the field
of CFD tools till recent times, it was however not possible to analyze precisely the
interaction of the flow field coming from the relay nozzles inside the shed. Therefore
large margins of improvement are left in the design of a new reed geometry which
can enable higher energy savings by optimizing the amount of air that remains
inside the weft acceleration region. At the purpose of decreasing the power costs,
a novel method based on energy efficiency as a central requirement in the design
phase has been developed at the Institut für Textiltechnik der RWTH Aachen University
(ITA), Aachen, Germany. Such method aims at increasing the energy efficiency of
the machine by increasing the effective amount of mass flow rate which is directly
involved in the weft insertion process. The study focuses on the interaction of the
flow field coming out of the relay nozzles with the metal strips of the profiled reed. A
detailed picture of the position of the relay nozzles and of the profiled is shown in the
following Fig 2.
Heedles
Warp yarns
Relay nozzles Profiled reed
Figure 2. Detailed view of the relay nozzle and the profiled reed
Finally, the result of the research leads to the investigation of the flow field throughout
the shed and it gives a valuable insight for the design and the implementation of a
new air tunnel shape, able to decrease the waste of air and the value of working
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pressure of the relay nozzles while keeping the same propulsive force to the filling yarn.
The productivity of the machine remains therefore constant and it is not negatively
affected while on the other side, the cost of the compressed air is largely reduced.
METHOD
Increasing the energy efficiency of a production machine is one of the biggest challenges
for the machine producer. The introduction of aspects of energy assessment into the
process for the design of industrial machineries extracts useful elements from the field of
the design theory. Theories and models of technical products and product development
process have been in the focus of scientific work for roughly 40-50 years. Today, they are
increasingly relevant also in industrial application (including machinery) because they are
vital elements of current strategies such as concurrent / simultaneous engineering. Design
for “X” (with “X” = strength, manufacturing, assembly, service, recycling, cost, etc.) is an
important strategy especially in engineering design practice: the introduction of energy
requirements into product specification can lead to define approaches of Design for
energy efficiency. Until now very few structured approaches for machinery design that
take into account the energy impact of the resources have been proposed in the field
of design theory and methodologies, and they have application limited to specific
machine typology. Therefore an approach was developed at ITA especially for textile
machines (Schröter, A. and Grassi, C., 2015). Established design methodologies have
not yet considered energy efficiency as a central requirement of technical systems.
As an inherent part of the methodology, it is necessary to take energy efficiency
as a central requirement into account, like the static, the dynamic or the thermal
behaviour of a machinery. A systematic approach for the development of energy
efficiency machine tools, proposed by Neugebauer (Neugebar, 2010), provides
general concepts that can be applied to other type of industrial machinery and
could be taken as reference in the possible definition of methodologies for the energy
efficiency design of specific machines. This approach is based on the property-driven
design methodology (see Fig. 3) by Weber (Weber, 2007), that defines the design
process as a process which has to reach given properties (i.e. requirements) by
defining characteristics to ensure this properties (e.g. geometries or materials).
Figure 3. Property-driven development by Weber
Energy efficiency is taken as central property in the design process and represents
Textile processes
a new requirement / property to be defined in the phase of design problem / task

definition. In contradiction with established methodologies, the approach (see Fig.
4) includes an initial analysis of existing technical systems and the individuation and
classification of their prior and relevant energy consumers (sub-systems and processes).
The identified major consumers are afterwards systematically addressed to reduce
their energy consumption: several options and solutions – the system characteristics –
are determined and considered, starting with the complete elimination of the energy
usage and ending with the option of recovering energy. A following step of analysis
consists of the verification of the system design, predicting and evaluating the system
behavior using several tools (e.g. FEM analysis, simulation models, experimental
analyses, etc.). The design process provides one or more solutions if the accounted
properties are met by the defined characteristics.
1. Task/Problem Definition
Achieve energy 2. Analysis of the energy use

efficiency and
effectiveness 2.1
3. Solution determination for
Systematization
of energy usage efficiency increase
2.2 Detection of 3.1 Adjust to
major energy needs energy 4. System Integration
consumers usage
2.3 Appraisal of 3.2 Energy 4.1 Integration of
subsystem 5. System Verification
the energy losses recovering
2.4 Definition of 3.3 System 4.2 Overall system System Analysis and
the relevant sub- design for sub- design quantitative
systems with high systems (CAD estimation of the
energy usage CFD, FEA) achieved effects
Concrete Methodology for energy efficiency based on Neugebauer Approach
Figure 4. Methodology for energy efficiency

Currently, the design of a machine is basically defined on the meeting of objective
requirements and performance (production output, dynamic and kinematic
properties, etc.) at the minimum cost. The idea at the base of this contribution is to
propose energy-efficiency as a new additional and central property in the design
process of a machine tool supported by specific methodologies. A systematic machine
design approach has to take into account both the machine tool performance and
the energy efficiency.
It must be noted that in general, energetic efficiency depends on how a machine
is made (“design”) and how it is used (“management”). These two aspects cannot
be fully separated and a designer must take into account how the machine will be
used and what will be the associated total cost of ownership and environmental
impact. Since nowadays products become more and more multi-disciplinary by the
constantly increasing integration of added functionality and product intelligence
and since energy is a global design attribute which is influenced by all disciplines, the
development of energy analysis methodologies, both numerical and experimental,
able to decrease the environmental impact and to keep constant the product quality
requires an integrated research strategy.

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APPLICATION OF THE METHOD

When the filling yarn is inserted through the shed, it lies relatively far from its final
position. This is because of the acute angle of the shed opening. Therefore, the newly
inserted filling yarn needs to be brought to its final position by pushing through the
warp sheet. Beat-up is the process of pushing the last inserted filling yarn to the cloth
fell by using the reed. The reed is a closed comb of flat metal strips (Fig 5).
Figure 5. Representation and dimensions of a state of the art reed metal strip
These metal strips are evenly spaced at intervals that correspond to the spacing of
warp ends in the fabric. Therefore the reed is also used to control warp yarn density in
the fabric and weight as a consequence. The spaces between the metal strips are
called “dents”. After beating up the filling, the reed is withdrawn to its original rest
position before the insertion of the next pick (Fig 6).
Figure 6. Yarn insertion system with relay nozzles and open profile reed
The shape and thickness of the metal wires used in the reed are important parameter
for the fabric features. Reed selection depends on several considerations including

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fabric appearance, fabric weight (ends per unit width), beat-up force, air space
requirement and weave design. During the weft insertion process, most of the air
injected by the relay nozzles (more than 50%) leaks throughout the reed and only a
small percentage of air, about 30%, is actually accelerating the yarn and driving it to
the receiving side of the machine. This matter turns into a large energy inefficiency of
the machine by considering the unexploited amount of air and the costs associated
to the compressors in order to pump up such wasted amount of air. On a large
industrial scale, such inefficiency mirrors into a relevant increase of the total cost of
ownership of the machine. Therefore, in order to counter this issue, an initial theoretical
investigation of the flow field along the reed has been carried out to better understand
the aerodynamics which lies at the basic of the weft insertion process and how the
flow field behaves in the tunnel shaped region. (see Fig. 7).
Figure 7. Theoretical model of the weft insertion process in air jet weaving machines
The propulsive force to move the yarn in the reed channel is provided by the friction
between the air and the yarn surface and is given by the following Eq. (1),
(1)
With
= skin friction coefficient
= air density
= air velocity
= yarn velocity
= yarn Diameter
= yarn length subject to air flow within the reed
This force is proportional to the square of the relative velocity between the air stream
and yarn. The propelling force increases with grow of the air velocity and it depends
on the amount of mass flow rate coming out from the relay nozzles too. To increase
the value of mass flow rate in the reed channel means to increase the productivity of
the machine.
Assuming the further hypothesis:
• Steady state flow
• Negligible yarn flexibility
• Constant yarn velocity across the shed

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Textile processes
• Interaction of air through the reed dents

The thrust provided by the relay nozzles to the yarn is the key point for the productivity
of the machine and for the quality of the product. To rise this value would mean to
increase the friction force which is actually the propelling force acting on the yarn
and responsible of the fabric production rate.
The study carried out at ITA gave a valuable intuition to build up a new geometry of the
metal strip, based on the aerodynamic duct theory in order to minimize the amount
of wasted air without affecting negatively the productivity. Characteristic of this new
shape is the more enclosed structure which prevents air to get out of the reed and it
fosters an increase of the mass flow rate, inside the shed, which is really participating
to the propulsive force on the yarn. The model in Fig. 7 is a reasonable approximation
and it gives an insight to understand the physics of the air jet weft insertion process.
Consequently, deep aerodynamic simulations have been carried out in order to
validate the theoretical model and to provide a more faithful representation of the
flow field coming from the relay nozzles along the shed.
RESULTS
For the validation of the theoretical model different, flow simulations have been carried
out. The simulations are done with the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation
tool ANSYS Fluent from ANSYS, Inc., Canonsburg, USA. Within the simulation the flow
field along the shed and the interaction with the reed is simulated and analyzed.
The simulation is based on the following assumptions:
Compressible flow field
Ideal gas
Steady state flow
With these assumptions a CFD model was set up and a CAD-model was integrated
into this model. Downstream of nozzles is a free flow field with ambient pressure. The
CFD model with the simulated flow field is shown in Fig. 8.
Figure 8. Velocity flow field simulation along the air tunnel

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The air stream that lies in the air tunnel escapes from the acceleration region of the
yarn not only towards the forward open side of the reed channel, but also through
the back. According to the fluid-dynamic theory, the air flows quite in the middle of
the channel. Moreover it can be drawn by means of the simulations that the walls of
the metal strips behave as a suction sink for the flow field which is forced to vanish
through the dents of the reed. Consequently, such amount of air is wasted and no
longer able to flow inside the shed again and to accelerate the yarn. Starting from
the state of the art metal strip shape and taking into account the results gained by
means of flow field simulation, a new geometry of metal strip has been therefore
developed to cope with this issue at the purpose of increasing the useful mass flow
rate in the shed which is actually accelerating the weft yarn. (See Fig. 9)
Figure 9. Massflow rate along the shed at three bar inlet overpressure.
This new shaped metal strip is not only capable to hold an higher quantity of air inside
the air channel but also to rise the flow velocity inside the channel (see Fig 10.) at a
given inlet pressure values.
Figure 10. Velocity flow field along the shed at three bar inlet overpressure.
The design of the new metal strip allows therefore a pressurized air saving during the
process of waving. After 50 mm along the profiled reed, mass flow rate and velocity
decrease respectively 38% and 26% by using the new design, instead of a more
severe inefficiency which affects the original geometry respectively by losing 49%
and 39% with respect to the initial values.
DISCUSSION
The simulation of the flow field along the shed show that energy savings are possible
by employing a new metal strip shaped geometry. Such geometry prevents air to
vanish towards the front of reed and it provides higher flow velocities inside the shed
as well at a given pressure. Such result can be positively exploited. Some first trials
showed that the nozzle inlet pressure can be reduced by 20% while keeping constant
the productivity of the machine. Basically the new strip shape offers the same friction
force to the yarn at a lower air pressure value, ca 20% lower than current market
configurations. Within the weaving process, the reed has a relevant influence on
guiding the air flow. The investigation of the flow field carried out in this study, gives
a relevant remark to use potential new geometries. Nowadays, by considering the
weaving process, the relay nozzles employ 5 bar in overpressure: by combining such
analysis on the reed with the investigation on the relay nozzles (Grassi, C., Schröter,
2015), noticeable energy savings can be reached. Of course the flow field out of
the nozzles is strictly connected to the flow behavior in the reed and other studies
have been carried out at ITA concerning this matter (Schröter, 2014). Eventually, by
using the new metal strip shape, the productivity of the machine remains constant
and the costs associated to pump up the air are largely reduced. The use of smaller
compressors (see Tab. 3) enables a relevant reduction of the energy consumption of
the weaving machine, without negatively affecting the quality of the fabric.

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Table 3. Energy consumption of a compressor depending on the operating pressure

Operation Pressure [bar] Energy consumption [kW/m³/h]
1 2,8
2 3,56
3 4,12
4 4,72
5 5,35
CONCLUSIONS
At the Institut für Textiltechnik der RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany, a
method based on energy efficiency has been developed to identify energy potentials
during air jet weaving process (Grassi, C., 2015). The air-jet weaving process is the most
productive but also the most energy intensive weaving process. By placing energy
efficiency as a central requirement in the design phase of the machine, the most
energy demanding processes and the components are identified and analysed.
Based on a theoretical model of the weft insertion, a new concept for the metal strip
of the profiled reed has been drawn. The new metal strip enables an higher friction
which is transferred to the filling yarn is flying. Such remark can be positively exploited
by decreasing the inlet pressure value and by leaving unchanged the productivity
of the machine. By employing the new shape of reed metal strip within the weaving
process, the productivity of the machine remains constant and the costs associated
to pump up the air are largely reduced. By means of CFD simulations, this study gives
a first insight on how to improve the usage of compressed air during the weft insertion
process. The next step is the validation of the new profiled reed concept before by
means of a test bench and afterwards on a larger scale within the real weaving
process.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The European Commission is gratefully acknowledged for its support of the Marie
Curie program through ITN EMVeM project, Grant Agreement N° 315967.
The project VIP0477 is in the form of assistance “Validierung des innovationpotenzials
wissenschaftlicher Forschung - VIP” is supported by the Federal Ministry for Education
and Research.
REFERENCES
Adanur, S. 2001. Handbook of weaving. Boca Raton ; London ; New York: CRC ; Taylor and Francis,
2001.
Schröter, A. and Grassi, C., 2015. Increasing the energy efficiency of air jet weaving based on a novel
method to exploit energy savings potentials in production processes of the textile industry – AUTEX
2015. 10th – 12th June 2015, Bucharest, Romania.
Erdem, K., and Emel, Ç. 2010. “Analysis of Energy Consumption in Woven Fabric Production.” Fibres
and Textiles in Eastern Europe 2 (79): 14-20.
ITMF, 2008. International Textile Manufacturers Federation 2008. Spinning/ Texturing/ Weaving/Knitting:
International Manufacturing Cost Comparison 2012. Zürich: ITMF, 2008.
Neugebar, R. 2010. Approach for the development of energy efficiency machine tools – Conference
on Supervising and Diagnostics of Machine Systems. Wroclaw, Karpacz : s.n., 2010.
Weber, C. 2007. Locking at “DFX” and “Product Maturity” from the Prospective of a new Approach to
Modeling Product and Product Development Processes. The Future of Product Development. 2007.
Vol. 3, pp. 85-104. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-69820-3_11.

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Grassi, C., Schröter, A., Gloy, Y., and Gries, T. 2015. “Reducing Environmental Impact in Air Jet Weaving
Technology by Using a High Volume Low Pressure Relay Nozzle Concept based on Energy Efficiency
as a Central Property.” Presented at the 50th Fiber Society’s, 2015 Fall Meeting, Raleigh, USA.
Schröter, A. 2014. Steigerung der Energieeffizienz des Luftdüsenwebverfahrens am Institut für
Textiltechnik. Förderverein Cetex Chemnitzer Textilmaschinenentwicklung e.V. (Hrsg.): Mehrwert durch
Textiltechnik: Tagungsband zur 14. Chemnitzer Textiltechnik-Tagung ; 13. und 14. Mai 2014. – Chemnitz.
Grassi, C., 2015. Reducing environmental impact of air jet weaving by exploiting a novel method
based on energy efficiency as a central property in the design phase of production processes of
composite materials - 4° Convegno Nazionale Assocompositi. 6th – 7th May 2015, Fiera Milano – Rho.

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Fabric Cover-factor and its significance WHEN stitching quality seams for apparel products
FABRIC COVER-FACTOR AND ITS

SIGNIFICANCE WHEN STITCHING QUALITY
SEAMS FOR APPAREL PRODUCTS
Dr Steven George Hayes1, CText FTI and Dr John McLoughlin2 CText FTI, Dr
Tasneem Sabir, CText ATI
University of Manchester, School of Materials
(steven.hayes@manchester.ac.uk)
Manchester Metropolitan University, Department of Apparel, Hollings Faculty
(j.mcloughlin@mmu.ac.uk)
ABSTRACT
There are certain physical and mechanical characteristics from yarns and fabrics
that are particularly influential on the seam performance and uniformity of a fabric.
One of these physical properties is the cover-factor. The cover-factor indicates the
extent to which the area of the fabric is covered by one set of yarns. The higher the
cover factors then the closer the yarns are packed together and consequentially the
denser the fabric becomes. The closer the yarns are packed together, then the more
strain is placed upon the sewing thread in the fabric due to the compressional forces
exerted against the sewing thread from the yarns of the material and vice-versa.
The objective of this study was to establish the ‘sewability’ of twenty plain woven,
lightweight fabrics commercially used in the production for shirting. The fabrics were
deconstructed and calculations used to determine the cover factor for each material.
A high performance digital camera was used to document an image for each fabric
and the fabrics were stitched using an integrated sewing unit (ISU), stitch number ISO
301. A base machine setting was derived and set prior to the stitching process. This
setting was set according to the initial machine manufacturers specifications. The
outcomes from this work highlight the fact that the higher the density of the cover-
factor, the more deformed the seam becomes affecting the quality of the stitched
seam. Ten experts from industry examined the fabrics based on their cover factor and
gave their judgement on their sewability and flatness of seam. Also the study found
that certain machine adjustments can have an influence on improving seam flatness
to an acceptable, industrial and quality level.
Keywords: stitching, sewing, machine settings, fabrics, cover factor
INTRODUCTION
In clothing production, people work under extreme pressures to produce work
of acceptable quality for the consumer. They also have to produce garments in
large quantities and at the right time. The vast majority of apparel production is
still done manually relying on the experience of fabric handlers and machine
operators. Attempts have been made by many researchers to develop systems that
would reduce human subjectivity in manufacturing. These include fabric objective
measurement (FOM) tools that assess the mechanical properties of the material by
measuring the fabric at small loads. Other methods have included the development
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of sophisticated systems that automatically adjust presser foot pressure and thread
tensions for individual fabrics (Stylios, 2005; Lojen, 1998; Mallet and Du, 1999; McWaters
and Clapp, 1994; Stylios and Sotomi 1996).
However many adjustments can only be performed by hand (Needles Eye, 1996).
The use of gauges is necessary to ensure proper adjustment and optimisation of the
machine settings. The fabric properties can result in sewing problems, poor stitch
formation, seam deformation and a general decline in machine performance and
seam sewability. It was for this reason that the fabric sew-ability study was developed
in order to develop a framework for sewing machine adjustments by identifying the
fabric properties that contribute to the quality of the seam.
One main factor that can affect seam performance is the cover factor of the material
(McLoughlin, 2013). The higher the cover factor, then the greater possibility that
structural jamming can occur as the yarns in the material becomes more resistant
to the sewing thread in the material. This highlights a gap in the literature as very little
work has been done in this area regarding the stitching of fabrics.
The conceptualisation of this study was built upon a hypothesis facilitating a method
for optimising sewing machine settings data using empirical research obtained from
this study. A pragmatic/applied approach was used in the work in order to organise
the ideas for achieving the research projects purpose. The research was divided into
elements to make it manageable and to achieve its aims.
The aims of the research were:
1. To ascertain key fabric parameters that affect seam performance, sewability
and aesthetics.
2. To evaluate the interaction between sewing machine settings and their impact
on seam quality.
3. To establish what influence the cover factor of a fabric has on the quality of the
sewn seam.
In order to achieve these aims, it was necessary to understand the fabric properties
that were pertinent to this study. The combination of processes, being able to quantify
these properties and the subjective factors of adjusting the machine for optimum
seam appearance, contributed to the originality of this work.
This study followed previous work undertaken by McLoughlin et al. (2010) where a pilot
study was undertaken to determine the physical properties of six shirting materials
and the machine adjustments for stitching them. The pilot study established the main
context for this work and the methods are given as follows:
The fabric sett of each material was determined using a piece glass and counting
needle over a light source in accordance with British Standards BS 2862:1972(85). The
sample specimens were conditioned in a standard atmosphere for testing textiles for
a period of 24 hours prior to the sewing experiments.
The lockstitch machine employs a rotary hook (as the loop taking mechanism) and
comprises a top thread (needle thread) and a bottom thread (spool thread). The

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stitch is formed by the interlacing of these two threads. Element 1 lists the principle
components engaged in stitch formation. Previous work undertaken by McLoughlin,
(2010) highlighted the effect of machine variables during the lockstitch process and
identified them as machine variable settings. The variables used in this research had to
be changed for each piece of fabric. A technique known as “machine optimisation”
was used to set the machine for the sewing tests. Optimisation is when the stitch
tension and presser foot settings are set as light as possible in order to sufficiently
sew the material with minimum distortion to the yarns in the fabric whilst producing a
robust seam. The stitch forming elements are given in Element 1.
Needle thread tension unit
Check spring
Take up lever
Needle bar
Feed system (fittings)
Rotary sewing hook and base
Figure 1: Juki lockstitch sewing machine
Figure 2 and 3: COAT thread tension and Tajima measuring devices

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Using a high performance USB camera, it can be clearly seen from the figures below
that yarns of the fabric are being displaced by the sewing thread at the interlacing
point where the needle has penetrated the material (figure 4). The yarn with the
smallest diameter is the one most displaced by the sewing thread (figure 5). This
camera device has proved to be an essential aid in identifying the physical properties
of the material. Representative samples of the twenty fabrics are given below.
The highest cover factor obtainable is 28 meaning that the yarns in the material are
touching together. From Appendix 1, it can be seen that fabric 1 has a warp cover
factor of 12.4. 4 out of the 10 expert panel ranked this fabric as being the best to sew.
The other 6 experts also gave this material a high ranking. An example of this fabric is
given in figure 6.
Figure 4: Interlacing of the sewing thread in the fabric
Figure 5: Width of the sewing thread compared to width of the yarn

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Figure 6: Fabric 1 with a warp cover-factor of 12.4

Fabric 2 has a mixed review of expert opinion, in that 4 experts give this material a
score above 10, whilst the other 6 are giving a ranking below 10. An example of this
material is given in figure 7.
Figure 7: Fabric 2 with a warp cover-factor of 14.27

Fabric 3 (figure 8) ranks very low in terms of the sew-ability of the fabric from all the
experts a part from judge 9 who gave it a top mark for best to sew of 20. The weight
of this fabric is also the heaviest of all the materials. The cover factor in this fabric can
be considered low particularly in the warp direction.

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Figure 8: Fabric 3 with a cover factor of 9.87

The information gained from the experts was useful in gaining a collective
representation of knowledge that is becoming scarcer in the United Kingdom. This
knowledge was collated, summarised and used as a road map as the basis for
generating good stitching practice. Several machine parameters and adjustments
were highlighted by the experts as important to good seam appearance and quality.
All twenty fabrics samples were stitched and the seam results are given in figure 9.
Figure 9: Seam results from stitching the twenty fabrics
Previous research has also contributed guidance on stitching shirting fabrics using
variable machine adjustments and settings (McLoughlin and Hayes, 2008; Mcloughlin
et al., 2010, McLoughlin et al., 2011; Hayes and McLoughlin, 2011; McLoughlin, 2013).
All of this work has explored the factors of reducing seam deformation utilising a
plethora of information and advice. Therefore, combined with this study, the following
conclusions can be drawn.
CONCLUSIONS
The research used a variety of shirting fabrics both from the pilot and the main study
that were considered according to their lightweight nature and properties. The fabrics
were stitched with different sewing parameters which included types of thread,
needle size and point type and stitch density. The experts also provided information
on engineering adjustments to the machine.
Several machine parameters and adjustments were highlighted by the experts as
essential to good seam appearance and quality. These were:
• Use the finest needle possible to reduce fabric buckling
• Use a polyester core-spun sewing thread reducing the diameter of the thread
whilst maintaining seam strength
• Thread tensions and foot pressure to be as light as possible
• Feed-dog setting one full tooth above the throat plate
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The use of low cost instrumentation for machine optimisation should be promoted;
such equipment for measuring thread tensions and presser foot force that currently
exists is scarce and inexpensive to purchase.
A larger population of stitching experiments needs to be performed in order to
determine the most desirable machine settings for the material to be sewn. Fabrics may
be ranked in a similar way according to their sewability properties. The instrumentation
would be used to measure optimum thread tensions and presser foot forces.
The outcomes from this work create a deeper understanding in stitching textile
materials and add new knowledge to the body of literature on fabric sewability and
stitching shirting fabrics. The study also contributes innovative and original information
on the behaviour of textile materials when being stitched. The application of an
effective quality management system is vital to companies producing products for a
global economy and to the overall well-being of the work force.
REFERENCES
Hayes, S.G. and McLoughlin, J., 2011. Invited speaker. Beyond predicting fabric and seam sewability
at the needlepoint. SPESA’s Advancements in Manufacturing Technology conference, 8th December
2011. Greensboro, NC.
Lojen, D. Z. 1998. “Simulation of sewing machine mechanisms using program package ADAMS”, Vol
10 No 3/4 p219-225
Mallet, E. And Du, R. 1999. “Finite element analysis of sewing process”, International Journal of Clothing
Science and Technology, Vol 11 No 1 p19-36
McLoughlin, J. and Hayes, S.G., 2008. An analysis on the relationship between sewing parameters and
fabric parameters and of their impact on seam quality (part 1). In: ISBN 978-962-367-628-1. The Textile
Institute 86th World Conference, 18th – 21st November 2008. Hong Kong
McLoughlin, J., 2013. A fabric intelligent technology system (FIT) as a guide line for stitching men’s
shirting fabrics, International conference on digital textile technologies, University of Manchester 5 –
6th of September.
McLoughlin, J., Hayes, S., Rowe, H., 2010. Towards a smart database to optimise the sewing performance
of fabrics (Part 2) In: ISBN 978-0-9566419-1-5. The Textile Institute 87th World Conference, 4th – 5th
November 2010. United Kingdom.
McLoughlin, J., Hayes, S., Rowe, H., 2011. Fabric parameter modelling for fashion design, from empirical
craft to designing for manufacture (Part 3) In: ISBN: 978-0-9566419-2-2. The Textile Institute regional
conference 30th November 2011. United Kingdom.
McLoughlin, J., Sabir, T. and Hayes, S. 2010, ‘Fabric parameter mapping for seam sewability’,
International Journal of Fashion Design, Technology and Education, First published on: 13th May 2010.
McWaters, S. D. And Clapp, T. G. 1994. “Computer simulation of fabric deformation for the design of
Equipment”, International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology”, Vol 6 No 5 p30-38
Needles Eye 1996. ‘The right adjustment needs the right gauge’, Issue 390, p24-28
Stylios, G. 2005. New measurement technologies for textiles and clothing, International Journal of
Clothing Science and Technology, Vol 7 No 3/4 p135-138
Stylios, G. and Sotomi, J. O. 1996. Thinking sewing machines for intelligent garment manufacture,
International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, Vol 8, No ½, p44-55

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Sett T ex C rimp ratio C rimp % A /D C over f actor
Fabric weight (gm-2) ends / cm pick s / cm warp wef t warp wef t warp wef t warp wef t warp wef t
C omposition
1 100% Cotton 111 29.33 27.33 17.91 18.59 0.94 0.93 5.51 7.06 49.38 47.3 12.4 11.77
2 100% Cotton 117 33.33 25.33 18.35 18.39 0.98 0.98 2.44 13.11 59.94 45.7 14.27 10.85
3 100% Cotton 164 19.33 16 26.16 57.82 0.98 0.86 1.7 16.05 49.56 79.6 9.87 12.17
4 100% Cotton 107 41.67 28.33 13.87 14.19 0.93 0.95 7.46 4.98 53.75 38.2 15.52 10.67
5 100% Cotton 129 58 28 14.07 12.92 0.94 0.96 5.9 3.72 76.71 34.7 21.76 10.06
6 100% Cotton 129 58 28 13.61 14.38 0.93 0.96 6.56 4.28 73.41 38.7 21.4 10.62
7 100% Cotton 99 38 26.67 15.24 13.32 0.93 0.95 6.96 5.09 53.86 33.7 14.83 9.73
8 100% Cotton 106 42 27.33 12.03 13.49 0.94 0.96 5.6 4.56 47.49 35.4 14.57 10.08
9 100% Cotton 121 32.67 26.33 18.03 20.48 0.98 0.89 2.17 12.28 57.72 48 13.99 11.9
10 100% Cotton 119 22 20.67 26.79 26.09 0.95 0.94 4.54 6.17 55.99 50.7 11.39 10.56
11 100% Cotton 119 31 27 22.76 14.84 0.89 0.96 11.15 3.75 62.79 38.5 14.79 10.4
97% Cotton / 2%
12 112 40 26.67 12.79 14.93 0.96 0.78 3.98 27.93 49.11 31.1 14.31 10.32
Spandex
13 100% Cotton 97 34.33 29.33 13.11 14.77 0.95 0.95 5.29 4.91 42.76 41.2 12.42 11.26
14 100% Cotton 109 46.33 27.67 14.04 15.55 0.95 0.95 5.38 4.84 61.8 40.9 17.35 10.92
15 100% Cotton 119 35 27 17.92 17.08 0.93 0.93 6.56 7.16 58.33 42.9 14.82 11.16
16 100% Cotton 97 36.33 26.33 13.64 14.35 0.95 0.96 4.82 3.8 47.08 36.3 13.41 9.96
97% Cotton / 3%
17 116 41 26.33 12.86 16.53 0.95 0.75 5.02 33.11 50.09 32.6 14.7 10.7
Spandex
18 100% Cotton 127 58 28 13.94 13.81 0.95 0.95 5.42 4.97 76.81 36.7 21.66 10.41
19 100% Cotton 129 58 28 14.18 15.5 0.93 0.96 6.52 4.5 76.49 41.7 21.84 11.02
20 100% Cotton 126 58 28 13.08 13.88 0.95 0.96 5.49 4.45 72.07 37.3 20.98 10.43
X B ar 117.65 40.61667 26.41667 16.22 18.05 0.95 0.93 5.4235 8.836 58.8 42 15.814 10.75
σ 15.06 12.09 3 4.387 9.858 0.02 0.06 2.05 8.204 11 10 3.72 0.653

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TENCEL® IN TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS – FROM FOOTWEAR TO AGRICULTURE, ACOUSTICS AND SUSTAINABLE PACKAGINGM
TENCEL® IN TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS

– FROM FOOTWEAR TO AGRICULTURE,
ACOUSTICS AND SUSTAINABLE PACKAGINGM
Crnoja-Cosic, B. Köll
LENZING AG, Werkstrasse 2, 4860 Lenzing, Austria
m.crnoja@lenzing.com, b.koell@lenzing.com
Keywords: TENCEL®, Lyocell, sustainability, dry/wet strength
INTRODUCTION
Constant innovation in man-made cellulosic fibres is one of the essential corporate
elements of Lenzing’s success. Hence we constantly search for novel applications for
our existing fibre portfolio.
Lenzing fibre products are part of the natural cellulose cycle. One outstanding
trait of our products is that they are highly compostable and fully biodegradable.
The environmental friendliness and biodegradability of TENCEL® fibers are essential
market criteria for sensitive segments such as cosmetics and hygiene. Innovations in
applications help to open up new market segments with existing products or to transfer
existing technologies to new markets. The use of fibres from Lenzing has expanded
over the years to encompass broad areas of application. Along with classic uses
in the textile industry, Lenzing fibres are also convincing choices for the products in
technical textiles.
No Water Chemical
Purity Softness Tenacity
melting Absorbing Resistance
Absorbent
x x x x
Wadding
Interlinings x x x
Coating
x x
Substrate x
Filter x x x
Flock x
Food
x
Casings x x
Mechanical
Rubber x x
Goods
Medical x x x x
Sanitary x x x x
Tea bags x x x x
Tyres x x
Fig.1: Potential End-uses of TENCEL® in Technical applications vs. requirements
There are numerous examples for possible applications for TENCEL® lyocell fibers,
many of them have no be fully exploited still. Beside the well-established apparel

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Technical textiles
segment also applications in the field of technical textiles will be developed in the
future. The specific and unique properties of TENCEL® and Lenzing cellulose fibers in
general should generate an additional benefit in these end-uses as well.
TENCEL® IN FOOTWEAR
TENCEL® offers, in comparison to traditional materials in shoes essentially two potential
conveniences because of its specific fibre properties which add to a distinct product
improvement
- moisture management
- performance improvement
- sustainability
Along with increasing media attention on topics like climate change, shortage of important
natural resources, declining working conditions and the abundancy of potentially harmful
substances, also consumers will be made aware and the demand for sustainable
products grows. Sustainability within the footwear industry will mostly be influenced by
its production materials post-usage considerations are very important, as shoes normally
won’t be recycled. TENCEL® has, in addition to other attributes an extraordinary high
moisture absorption, which impacts overall wearing comfort very positively.
Fabrics including TENCEL® display excellent moisture management properties and can
absorb high levels of water and water vapour without becoming wet to the touch. In
combination with polyester it can give excellent wicking and evaporation performance.
Recent data on blends of TENCEL® A100/PES blends indicate that, compared to 100%
PES wicking volume and speed are highest [1]
Tests have been carried out in order to asses on of the key criteria in footwear performance.
Resistance towards abrasion constitutes a major specification criteria for footwear related
fabrics. Martindale abrasion tests [12kPa loading] were carried out on two fabrics:
- Interlock Pique 62%PES/38% TENCEL®, 212gsm
- Interlock Pique 100% TENCEL®, 214gsm
Results, both in dry and wet fabric state respectively showed that the expected reduction
in abrasion resistance of TENCEL®/PES is well within 20% (80.000 cycles vs. 65.000 cycles).
All PES/TENCEL® easily pass common technical requirement for shoe linings.

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BIODEGRADABLE AND COMPOSTABLE FRUIT AND VEGETABLE NETS

Lenzing fibre products are part of the natural cellulose cycle. One outstanding trait of
its products is that they are naturally compostable.
The wood pulp used for man-made cellulose fibre products stems largely from
sustainably managed sources. We therefore know the origins of our key forests and
plantations and their methods of production.
Using packaging that can be composed or recycled not only removes the drain
on fossil fuels, such as crude oil, used to manufacture the old plastic nets but also
allows biodegradable substances to enter the supply chain. The new packaging not
only benefits the consumer, but also has a positive impact on the environment. The
cellulose net can be composted, allowing it to re-enter the food life cycle. Studies with
regard to rate of compostability were carried out in carefully controlled environments [2].
In composting tests, Lenzing fibers were found to have degraded completely after
6 weeks in a static aerated compost pile, while cotton fiber suffered a weight loss
of approximately 80 %.Under the same conditions, polyester, polypropylene and
polyethylene showed very little signs of degradation.
In sewage treatment simulations, viscose, lyocell and cotton fibers degrade completely
within 8 days in a typical sewage farm anaerobic digester, where the residence cycle
is about 20 days. Synthetic fibers, however, remain largely unaffected and show only
slight reductions in tensile strength after 12 weeks under the same conditions. Similar
results are also obtained for each of these fiber types in septic tank tests.
A landfill site, on the other hand, is not easy to define or simulate, as conditions vary
greatly. Organic matter buried in the ground rots over a period of time by the bacterial
process of anaerobic digestion. Soil burial is an accepted method of assessing the
biodegradability of a product in such an environment. Fibrous samples are contained
in fine inert synthetic mesh, then buried in soil beds, and retrieved at intervals for
microscopic examination and weight loss measurement. Analyses of a range of
nonwoven fabric samples, performed under stable conditions in our accredited
environmental laboratory, show that the behavior of man-made cellulosics is quite
different from the behavior of synthetic fibers. Fabrics made of 100 % Lenzing fibers
degraded readily, even when chemically bonded. Polyester and polypropylene were
unchanged.
ACOUSTIC BARRIERS
TENCEL® as a potential material for sound absorption was studied because of the
fiber’s very unique fibrillation characteristic [3]. The generation of microfibers greatly
enhances the specific surface area and effectively abates reflection of acoustic
waves. The Insulation and absorption properties of textile fabrics depend on the fiber
geometry and the arrangement of the fibers in the fabric. In nonwoven fabrics the
construction of the fabric and the density are important in determining how much
sound is absorbed. The space between the fibers (voids) is important in sound
absorption.
Clearly sound absorption depends on a number of factors that are not specifically
fibre related. The fabrics need to be semi-permeable. Not too tight as they reflect

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Technical textiles
the sound, but not so loose that they let it through. The structure can control this
permeability but also it can be influenced by other factors like a scrim place. The
thickness of the fabric is also a key criteria. Exactly how these factors – permeability,
thickness, density, fibre, and surface area interplay is an unknown.
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Comparative assessment of sound absorption materials
A) 100% TENCEL®, plain weave, Ne 20, 150gsm
B) 100% TENCEL®, as above, but subjected to fibrillation treatment
C) 100% polyester, same yarn and weave type as A) D) 100% cotton, same yarn and
weave type as A)
Loomstate – the fabric has been open width prepared. Preparation process to remove
all yarn spinning and weaving process aids
Fibrillation– as it says the fabric has generated fibrillation by wet process in a jet
machine
Enzyme Treatment – fibrillation removed (optional)
Softening & tumbling – release of the secondary fibrils to give peach finish on the
fabric
RESULTS
All four fabrics were then tested according to BS EN ISO 10534-2. For fabrics A, C and D
the frequency of maximum absorption is 2500Hz. Cotton and TENCEL® absorb around
95%of the sound at that frequency whereas polyester absorbs only about 90% of that
frequency. Fabric B, consisting of the fibrillated TENCEL® gives a maximum absorption
at 1250Hz a much lower frequency, where it absorbs 95%. The other three fabrics
at 1250Hz were greatly inferior, absorbing only 50-60%. After secondary fibrillation
performance improves again, but this time not to same extent as seen with the primary
fibrillation.
REFERENCES
[1] Mok, R., 2015. Presentation at Lenzing Fibers Symposium, Shanghai
[2] Technical Bulletin Lenzing AG, 2013. TechBull01_02_Biodegradability
[3] Taylor, J. M, Crnoja-Cosic, M., Burrow, T.R., Unterberger, Ch., Collins, G. W., Richardt, W. PCT
Appl. WO2015/164893 A1

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CARBON FIBRES – LATEST DEVELOPMENTS,

APPLICATIONS AND USE OF TEXTILE
PROCESSING
Vince Kelly,
Carbon-Fibre Technology, Ireland
The growth in polyacrlonitrile (PAN) based carbon fibre production since its inception
in the 1970’s has been phenomenal. What was then considered a speciality material,
is now produced globally with supply and demand increasing steadily as shown in
Figure 1,
Figure 1 Historic overview of carbon fibre demand and capacity
Carbon fibres are produced by the thermal degradation of polyacrlonitrile (acrylic)

fibres, specially produced for the carbon fibre industry. Most standard textile acrylic
fibres, do not have the required comonomers and finishes suitable for thermal
processing. Courtelle, from Bluestar, UK is one exception to this and can be converted
to a lower cost carbon fibre for less critical applications. Figure 2 shows the principle
of carbon fibre manufacture.

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Figure 2 Manufacture of acrylic precursor, carbon and oxidized fibres.

(Courtesy of Teijin, Japan)
Most carbon fibres are supplied on spools of up to 15 kg weight. Typical nomenclature
is the number of continuous filaments in a single yarn or tow, this usually abbreviated
to the K number where K = 1000s of filaments. Tows are traditionally supplied with
filament counts of 1K, 3K, 6K, 12K, 24K, 40K and 50K. Larger tow counts, 160K and 320K
and oxidized PAN fibres, are usually plated into cartons. Figure 3 shows the typical
range of mechanical properties of currently available carbon fibres.

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Figure 3 Carbon Fibre Mechanical Properties.

Note: (1) Tensile properties of carbon fibres are usually quoted in engineering units (Pa)
(2) Tensile modulus is normally considered to be absolute, carbon fibres being
totally elastic to break, unlike other fibres which have an initial modulus, followed by
deformation after reaching yield point.
Figure 4 Load/Elongation Curve of a typical standard modulus carbon fibre.

Conversion of carbon fibres to composite materials typically requires taking one
dimensional continuous filament tow and making a two dimensional “sheet” of
carbon fibres, bonded with a resin type substrate. Cut the shape required and layer
the sheets to make a three dimensional carbon fibre composite. The 3 dimensional
product is then cured and a lightweight, strong and stiff composite is produced.
A traditional process to convert carbon fibres to a two dimensional, resin impregnated
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sheet is pregregging (short for pre-impregnation).
Figure 5 Principle of the production of carbon fibre prepreg.

As seen in figure 5, a creel loaded with carbon fibre tows is formed into a sheet,
typically up to 1m width. Release paper is then coated with a film of resin. The band of
tows is then brought onto the resin coated paper and a second release paper applied
on top of the tow band. This is then run between squeeze rollers to impregnate the
resin into the fibres. A heating facility and further pressure rollers can then be applied
depending on the resin type and application. The upper layer of paper is then wound
off and a paper/fibre/resin sandwich, or prepreg, is then wound up and collected.
Figure 6 Creel of carbon fibre tows and prepreg winding

Prepregs are a two dimensional array of carbon fibre and resin. As the impregnated
tows are all parallel with each other, dimensionally stable composites have to be
formed by laying the prepregs sheets at different angles in the final structure.
Figure 7 Angularly layered prepreg sheets form a stable 3-D composite

Due to the complexity, high product wastage and high labour time of conventional
composite manufacture, the industry developed the technologies of “fibre placement”
where the fibres are placed in the required format of the end composite before
being impregnated with resin. Textile technologies have been used and are still being
developed to meet this requirement.

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Weaving
Plain weave was first used to create a cloth with equal reinforcement in the warp
and weft direction. The fabric was woven, then impregnated with resin to make a
prepreg. Other weave patterns then followed, such as twill weave were the fabric has
less crimp, due to less intersections of warp and weft. Satin weaves were developed
to have even fewer intersections of warp and weft, enabling a flatter fabric, easier to
impregnate.
Figure 8 Plain, Twill and Satin weaves

Different weaving structures enable carbon fibre to be accurately pre-formed
depending on the final application, before resin impregnation. Other weaving styles
such as basket, leno, mock leno and 3 dimensional weaving are also used.
Hybrid fabrics can be easily produced by weaving. Here the final application may
require a mixture of the properties of carbon fibre and for example, glass or aramids.
Figure 9 Hybrid fabrics of aramid/carbon and glass/carbon

As well as extensive application in aerospace structures, decorative carbon fibre
composites are found to have a strong market presence. Here the composites are
made not for reasons of mechanical performance, but because of their aesthetic
value. Weaving is extensively used in these products.
Figure 10 Woven carbon fibre parts used for aesthetic applications

(Furniture, cell phone cover, car hood)
Interestingly, The Japanese advanced fibre manufacturer Teijin, also complement

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their Tenax range of carbon fibres with a black pigmented aramid fibre, usually
referred to as “Black Twaron”.
Figure 11 Twaron aramids from Teijin, pigmented black and conventional yellow
Carbon fibres use other textile processes such as braiding (tubular fabrics) carding and
felting (for random orientation felts), knitting (warp and weft) for making composite
preforms.
Figure 12 Carbon fibre braiding, felt and knitted products.

Textile developments in carbon fibre products.
Thinner carbon fibre fabrics – Stretch broken yarns.
Making thinner carbon fibre fabrics, for specific applications, is not as easy as
simply producing finer tow counts. As the linear density (g/m) of the carbon fibre
tow decreases, the cost per kilogram of manufacture increases dramatically. To
overcome this, efforts have been made to produce thinner yarns and fabrics from
standard products such as 12K (800 tex) tow. The idea of taking continuous carbon
tows and breaking them into short “staple” fibres and then aligning and spinning into
yarns first appeared in the mid-to-late 1980’s, to meet the growing demand for faster
and automated manufacturing. A flat preform of aligned discontinuous fabric, for
example, could be pulled via vacuum into a complex tool, obviating the need for
hand layup methods.
Dr. Guenther Jacobsen, retired senior staff scientist who headed the SBCF (stretch
broken carbon fibre) program for Hexcel, explains: “The stretch-broken carbon fibres
give the material a pseudoductility akin to metals that makes it much easier to form
complex parts. With SBCF materials, manufacturing costs can be reduced, and the
number of composite parts on an airframe can be significantly increased.”

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Figure 13 Continuous filament carbon fibre is stretch broken and spun into a finer
staple fibre tow.
Spread carbon fibre tow
Technologies have been recently developed to take a standard continuous filament
carbon fibre tow and spread it many times its width, using a propriety process as
shown below.
Figure 15 Principle of thin fabric manufacture using tow spreading
Figure 14 Spread plain weave and conventional carbon fibre fabrics

(Courtesy of Oxeon AB, Sweden)
Contribution to the environment – carbon fibre and textile processing
Carbon fibres were long considered a speciality product, destined for use in aerospace
and other critical applications. However explosive growth in carbon fibre production
combined with increasing demand for lightweight reliable products, especially in the
automobile industry, makes an unending stream of new possibilities.
Carbon fibre composites were long considered too expensive for use in mass
produced cars when compared to metals. The increased cost of the vehicle did not
offset the increase in fuel efficiency from using lighter composite materials.
BMW in Germany looked at the whole concept of mass transportation including the

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ever increasing pressure to find zero emission vehicles. The result was a complete
rethink of car production, the use of electric power instead of burning fossil fuels and
the need to maintain car performance. The result was the zero emission BMW 3i series
of electric cars. Lower weight obtained through the use of carbon fibre composites,
enabled a larger battery to be installed, increasing the performance of the car.
Figure 16 The BMW 3i car, constructed with extensive use of carbon fibre composites,
made from textile preforms.
Process of carbon fibre composite manufacture for the BMW 3i car.

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Video at YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kaoq8Mc4xxw

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FLY-BAG2 - EXPLOSION-RESISTANT TEXTILE-

BASED CONTAINERS FOR AVIATION SAFETY
Petra Franitza1, Heike Illing-Günther1, Yvette Dietzel1, Alessandro Bozzolo2,
Donato Zangani2
1
Sächsisches Textilforschungsinstitut e.V.(STFI), Annaberger Str. 240, 09125 Chemnitz / Germany
2 D’Appolonia, Via S. Nazaro, 19 - 16145 Genova / Italy
(Presenting author E-mail: petra.franitza@stfi.de; Corresponding author email: donato.zangani@
dappolonia.it)
ABSTRACT
The EU project “FLY-BAG2 - Advanced technologies for bombproof cargo containers
and blast containment units for the retrofitting of passenger airplanes” (2012-2015) is
the direct follow-up project of “FLY-BAG - Blastworthy textile-based luggage containers
for aviation safety” (2008-2011). The objective of this follow-up project was to extend the
textile solutions of a blast resistant luggage container for the cargo hold developed
in FLY-BAG also for large aircraft and to construct for the first time a solution for the
passenger compartment. FLY-BAG2 products are intended to be applied in the cargo
hold of narrow-body as well as wide-body aircraft and in the cabin environment,
addressing the threat from devices brought on board by passengers.
The project was completed in September 2015. FLY-BAG prototypes were successfully
assembled and tested in loading operations and full-scale blast tests were completed
in a retired MD 87 and Boeing 747 with success, withstanding explosions that would
otherwise destroy an airplane. Both projects can be considered as a breakthrough in
the protection of aircraft and passengers. Prizes have already been awarded for the
innovative use of technical textiles in such a sector.
Keywords: technical textiles, high-strength/explosion-resistant material, aviation,
protection
INTRODUCTION
The threat of attacks to passenger airplanes with explosives hidden in luggage loaded
in the cargo holds or taken onboard is dramatically evident from terrorist events in the
last years. Commercial aviation can be protected from the threat of explosives in
two ways, either by preventing explosives from reaching the aircraft or by mitigating
the effects of explosives by protecting the aircraft from an onboard explosion. Direct
strengthening of the airplane structure is not a viable solution, since it would clearly
result in thicker skins and an unbearable weight penalty; moreover, the related costs
could not be justified in most of the commercial routes. The idea of reinforced air
cargo containers is not entirely new: the research efforts performed in the 1990s in
the USA and UK, in particular after the Lockerbie disaster [1], led to the development
of several prototypes of reinforced containers, named Hardened Unit Load Devices
(HULDs). HULDs never gained market acceptance due to their common drawbacks,
namely costs, weight, bulkiness and insufficient resistance to damage during every
day loading and unloading operations. Moreover, they were only designed for wide-
body aircraft. Narrow-body aircraft are in general not always compatible with ULDs.
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Technical textiles
Even when compatibility exists, airlines often prefer to load luggage in bulk due to
cost and logistic problems. But technical textiles can be utilized for mitigating the
effects of an onboard explosion. They are lightweight, resistant, and foldable.
Based on national research work of STFI (2004-2006, IGF-ZuTech 142 ZBG) for blast
resistant textile structures, the opportunity for joined research in larger dimensions was
given using such cargo applications in aeronautics. The first funded FLY-BAG research
project (2008-2011) was carried out by eight European partners from six countries and
tested a prototype of a textile based luggage container able to resist to the blast of
explosives [2]. The project received a lot of acknowledgements (TECHTEXTIL PRIZE
2011 Frankfurt, Design Technology Award 2011 MATERIALICA Munich, Innovation
Convention 2011 Brussels, Premio Nazionale per l’Innovazione 2012 Italy). Moreover,
a European patent was filed and granted (EP 2 492 217 B1). On the basis of the
success of FLY-BAG, a second European project FLY-BAG2 was prepared with the
aim to optimize the “FLY-BAG cargo version”, to develop a “FLY-BAG passenger cabin
version” and to validate the testing results by full scale explosion tests on dismantled
airplanes. The partners involved in the FLY-BAG2 research project (see www.fly-
bag2.eu) came from seven European countries, like research centers and small
and medium enterprises: D’Appolonia S.p.A. (Italy) as project coordinator, Aernnova
Engineering Solutions (Spain), APC Composite (Sweden), Blastech Ltd (UK), Cargo
Network (Netherlands), CETMA Centro di Progettazione, Design & Tecnologie dei
Materiali (Italy), DoKaSch Air Cargo Equipment (Germany), EASC European Aviation
Security Centre (Germany), INASCO Integrated Aerospace Sciences Corporation
(Greece), Meridiana Maintenance S.p.A. (Italy), University of Patras (Greece), ZIPLAST
(Italy), and STFI (Germany).
Figure 1: Main objectives of the FLY-BAG2 project

TASKS AND PROTOTYPES
First part of the FLY-BAG2 project work was to optimize the proposed concept for the
cargo container where an internal high-strength layer made of ballistic textiles is used
to stop blast fragments, coupled with an external layer deforming in a controlled way
411
TASKS
Technical AND PROTOTYPES
textiles
First part of the FLY-BAG2 project work was to optimize the proposed concept for the
cargo container where an internal high-strength layer made of ballistic textiles is used to
during the explosion, designed to fully contain the blast pressure. The current research
stop blast fragments, coupled with an external layer deforming in a controlled way during
the explosion,
results build upon designed to fully
the positive contain
results the blast
of such pressure.
a concept from The current research
a campaign of blastresults
tests
build upon the positive results of such a concept from a
and extending its application by developing solutions for the protection of wide-body campaign of blast tests and
extending its application by developing solutions for the protection of wide-body aircraft.
aircraft.

Current situation FLY-BAG Solution

Figure 2: Investigated solution for narrow-body aircraft (FLY-BAG1 Prototype)

Current ULD Current ULD after blast
FLY-BAG2 Solution

Figure 3: Solution for wide-body aircraft (FLY-BAG2 ULD-prototype with stabilizing inner frame)

The second task is addressing the “Least Risk Bomb Location” (LRBL) directive were a
solution was developed to protect possible blast events also in the cabin compartment.
The second task is addressing the “Least Risk Bomb Location” (LRBL) directive were a
The LRBL regulation mandated by the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) of USA foresees the deployment of the suspicious
solution was developed to protect possible blast events also in the cabin compartment.
object in direct contact with a fuselage wall in a least-risk position. This procedure suffers
The LRBL regulation mandated by the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)
some the
and clear drawbacks:
Federal Aviationin particular, cabin (FAA)
Administration crew is
ofexposed to unnecessary
USA foresees risks while
the deployment of
performing the long and complex procedure involved with transporting the suspicious
the suspicious object in direct contact with a fuselage wall in a least-risk position.
object to the LRBL. Moreover, passengers, crew and the aircraft itself are exposed to an
This procedure
unacceptably suffers
high some
threat from clear drawbacks:
detonation incushioning
in case particular,should
cabin not
crew is exposed
prove to
sufficient.
unnecessary risks while performing the long and complex procedure involved with
3
transporting the suspicious object to the LRBL. Moreover, passengers, crew and the

aircraft itself are exposed to an unacceptably high threat from detonation in case
cushioning should not prove sufficient. FLY-BAG2 has foreseen a twofold level of
protection: (a) a cabin bag made entirely by technical textiles, able to withstand to

412
Technical textiles TIWC 2016, 25-28 April, 2016, Poznan, Poland
FLY-BAG2 has foreseen a twofold level of protection: (a) a cabin bag made entirely by
the designed
technical charge;
textiles, (b)withstand
able to hardened to composite panels,
the designed used
charge;; (b) for further reinforcing
hardened composite
the LRBL
panels, area.
used for The composite
further structure
reinforcing is able
the LRBL to The
area. provide an additional
composite structure protection
is able to
provide an additional protection layer, in addition to the textile bag (see special chapter on
layer, in addition to the textile bag (see special chapter on composites).
composites).

Figure 4: FLY-BAG2 cabin device and used zippers therefore (credits to partner ZIPLAST)
Figure 4: FLY-BAG2 cabin device and used zippers therefore (credits to partner ZIPLAST)

TEXTILE MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
TEXTILE
The MATERIALS
material AND
selection EXPERIMENTAL
for the METHODS
textiles was made according to state of the art concerning
high-strength fabrics to be used for the layer construction for all applications in question.
The material selection for the textiles was made according to state of the art concerning
The textile approach included mechanical testing with tensile and abrasion testing, flame
high-strength fabrics to be used for the layer construction for all applications in question.
testing of the
The textile selected materials
approach included and dynamic burst
mechanical testingtests
withof tensile
textiles,
and fabric joints and
abrasion zip
testing,
closures. Additionally, the possibilities of STFI for weathering testing were used.
flame testing of the selected materials and dynamic burst tests of textiles, fabric joints

anda) zip closures. Additionally,
Mechanical testing of selectedthe possibilities of STFI for weathering testing were used.
textile materials
The following testing
a) Mechanical procedures
testing of selected were textile
used: materials
thread density in weaves (DIN EN 1049-2),
mass per unit area (DIN EN 12127), tensile behaviour (DIN EN ISO 13934-1), thickness
The following testing procedures were used: thread density in weaves (DIN EN 1049-2),
(DIN EN ISO 5084:1996-10), and air permeability (DIN EN ISO 9237:1995-12) with results
mass per unit area (DIN EN 12127), tensile behaviour (DIN EN ISO 13934-1), thickness
shown in Table 1.
(DIN EN ISO 5084:1996-10), and air permeability (DIN EN ISO 9237:1995-12) with results
shown in Table 1. Table 1: Textil- physical properties of the raw materials

Table 1: Textil- physical properties of the raw materials
4
Furthermore, the mechanical testing included the test for abrasion resistance of

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the raw and coated materials with the Martindale testing equipment according to
standard DIN EN ISO 12947-1 with the test conditions of pressure 12 kPa and the STFI
MD 100 abrasion standard cloth (woolen fabric). Following the findings for abrasion
resistance, it can be stated that as expected aramid fabrics (TWARON®) showed a
significant abrasion and high-strength polypropylene fabrics (INNEGRA®) had the
best abrasion results. The liquid crystal polymer fabric made of aromatic polyester
(VECTRAN®) had destroyed threads.
Table 2: Samples of abrasion test results (Photos: STFI)
INNEGRA® (uncoated) VECTRAN® (uncoated) TWARON® (uncoated)
45000 rubs: small abrasion 45000 rubs: 1 thread is destroyed 45000 rubs: significant abrasion
50000 rubs: small abrasion, single 50000 rubs: 2 - 3 threads are 50000 rubs: strong abrasion,
filaments destroyed destroyed significant loss in weight
b) Flame testing of textile materials

The flame testing of the selected high-strength textile materials was also done before
and after fabric coating. All burning tests were carried out as DIN 75200 tests (edge
flame impingement) and DIN 4102 B2 (surface flame impingement). Referring to the
aviation focus of the application a comparison of DIN 75200 with aviation standard
FAR 25.853 was provided. However, because of the required gas tightness and flame
resistance, the development of a flame-proof coating was necessary. One goal of the
coating is the protection against the immediate penetration of the explosive gases.
The raw materials reached values of air permeability up to 195 l/(m2*s) depending
on the thread densities, titers and fabric patterns. With a suitable coating the air
permeability can be reduced up to 0 l/(m2*s). Another function of the coating was
to ensure the slippage resistance of the fabric for further processing into FLY-BAG2
prototypes.
For the coating trials different binder systems and flameproof additives were tested.
Best results showed the coating systems based on Supron® U2368 with 30% Flammex®
App or 15% Actilox® 200 SM on INNEGRA®, VECTRAN® and TWARON® fabrics.
Table 3: Coated fabric samples after burning test (Photos: STFI)
INNEGRA® - DIN 75200 VECTRAN® - DIN 4102 B2 TWARON® - DIN 4102 B2

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Supron® U2368 Supron® U2368 Supron® U2368

+ 15% Flammex® App + 15% Actilox® 200 SM + 15% Actilox® 200 SM
c) Weathering tests
At Kap Arkona, STFI has equipment for direct natural weathering tests. The high-
strength materials selected for FLY-BAG2 had no available expertise according to
the weathering behaviour. Selected samples of INNEGRA® (uncoated, coated
and UV-stabilized uncoated) and VECTRAN® (uncoated and coated) have been
deposited there for natural weathering. The results of the weathering tests are still
under evaluation because of ongoing test campaigns.
Figure 5: STFI weathering testing rig at Kap Arkona, Island Rügen (Photos: STFI)
d) Dynamic burst tests of textiles, fabric joints and zip closures
A dynamic tensile test rig has been designed and commissioned for testing fabrics
and zip samples by partner BLASTECH. A comprehensive series of tests has been
conducted on several fabric types, indicating that the dynamic strength and strain at
failure, when the samples were loaded at rates very similar to quasi-static values. Typical
times from onset of loading to failure were ~20ms. The results for both, peak strength
and strain at failure are very close to the values quoted for static tests. This suggests
that the materials’ mechanical properties are effectively strain rate independent, and
static values may reasonably be used for modelling purposes. Samples of zippers
have also been tested to failure with load rising from zero to peak in ~10-20 ms. Results
indicate that the maximum dynamic strength of the zipper at these rates is ~11.5 kN
over a 120 mm loaded length.

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Figure 6: Virtual approach of “bang box test” and dynamic testing of textiles
(credits to partners CETMA and BLASTECH)
Finally, to summarise all used testing methods for fabric behaviour it can be stated
that the combination of different layers was chosen accordingly to the best testing
results for the needed performance and the minimum weight for the overall structure
used for the FLY-BAG2 prototypes.
BLASTPROOF COMPOSITE PANELS AND SIMULATIONS
Blast-proof composite panels have been developed for the cargo environment (floor
panels for ULD prototypes) and the cabin environment (panels to reinforce the galley
for the FLY-BAG2 cabin device). The design of blast-proof composite structures was
achieved through an extensive joined research activity carried out by partners of the
project: the Italian research organization CETMA [3], the Greek Applied Mechanics
Laboratory University of Patras (UoP/AML), and the Spanish aeronautic company
AERNNOVA. The activity was carried out by using the most advanced numerical Finite
Element (FE) codes, generating virtual models.
Figure 7: Virtual and experimental tests carried out on the blast-proof composites
A wide range of thicknesses and configurations have been assessed by testing panels
under impact at low and high velocity (using drop tower and air gun equipment) as
well as shock holing tests. These latter were carried out by the English partner BLASTECH.
The Greek company INASCO, together with the Spanish partner AERNNOVA, had
designed an innovative concept for the development of blast-proof composite
structures, to be used as reinforcement of LRBL. After having selected the most
performing materials in terms of resistance to shock-holing and high-velocity impact,
the experts have finalized an innovative design, which was used to manufacture the
prototypes. Considering the cargo environment, the composite sandwiches are part
of the blast containment units and used to reinforce the floor in order to withstand
the shock-holing effect during blast. The sandwich panels have a total thickness of 23
mm; the skins are made of aramid fibres/polyester resin with PVC and a polyurethane
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Technical textiles
foam core is in between.

As far as cabin environment is concerned, sandwich panels have been developed
for reinforcing the galley, in correspondence to the Least Risk Bomb Location where
the FLY-BAG2 cabin device will be placed. Basically, the reinforcing composites are
additional protection systems able to withstand blast, in case of large amounts of
explosives that cause failure of the FLY-BAG2 textile-based product.
Figure 8: Numerical approach of blast events on standard ULD and FLY-BAG2 Prototype
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
The obtained FLY-BAG2 textile solutions also with support of composite panels have
shown that the prototypes developed within the project can prevent a blast event
and safe the airplane structure from serious damage [4]. The FLY-BAG2, as a fully
passive blast containment unit fits perfectly to fix vulnerability by providing protection
for the passengers, crew members and the aircraft itself from the threat of onboard
explosions. The FLY-BAG system for narrow-body aircrafts has been patented (EP 2 492
217 B1) and a patent is pending for the FLY-BAG2 cabin device. To promote a prompt
market penetration of the developed FLY-BAG2 solutions, the blast containment devices
have been designed to be installed without any structural aircraft modifications, in
other words, without the need of new certification. From the beginning, the design of
FLY-BAG devices was supervised by the Italian airline Meridiana.
Lately, two incidents occurred where the FLY-BAG2 solution would have been very
useful. On the 29 July 2015, the British Airways Flight BA274 was rerouted because they
received a bomb threat. After the landing the police searched the plane, passengers
and baggage. On the 31 July 2015, at the Turkish Airlines flight TK79 an unclaimed
phone was found during flight on a passenger seat in the rear end of the plane. An
unclaimed phone or electronic device possesses a threat because terrorists are now
capable to hide explosives in mobile phones. An emergency landing was initialized
and the LRBL procedure was used as the security manual defined but the cabin
crew debated “for almost one hour […] what to do”. Luckily, in both cases it turned
out to be a false alarm but the FLY-BAG2 cabin version would have helped to ease
off the situation by providing a better sense of security. However, the crash of the
Russian Metrojet Flight 9268 on 31 October 2015 which happened in Egypt killing all
224 people on board, mainly returning Russian holidaymakers, could possibly have
been prevented with using a FLY-BAG product.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The projects FLY-BAG and FLY-BAG2 were co-funded by the European Union’s 7th
Framework Programme under Grant Agreements ACP7-GA-2008-213577 and AAT-
GA-2012-314560.
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The content of this paper and the copyrights of the pictures are owned by FLY-BAG2
project consortium. FLY-BAG2 project consortium does not accept any responsibility
or liability for any use made of the information provided in this paper.
References
[1] http://www.history.com/news/remembering-the-1988-lockerbie-bombing
[2] videoclip euronews futuris “Bomb-proof textiles take off”,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LlW81D6cprU
[3] “Fabric impact drop tests: numerical simulations using the ls-dyna micromechanical
approach and experimental characterization”, Rosario DOTOLI, Michele RIZZO,
CETMA, 6 March 2015, Copyright © ADEPRON, www.adepron.it
[4] http://phys.org/news/2015-07-bomb-proof-lining-explosion-luggage-aircraft.html

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NEW FIBROUS SOIL IMPROVERS FOR

AGRICULTURE
K. Dziedziczak B. Kowalski M. Wiśniewski,
Institute for Sustainable Technologies
National Research Institute
Radom, Poland
SUMMARY
Results of the R&D developments in the area of fibrous products for agriculture have
been described. The new techniques and prototypes producing the innovative
ecological products have been demonstrated.
Keywords: innovative techniques, soil improvement, soilless cultivation, prototype
machinery
INTRODUCTION
In the framework of the LIFE+ Project of the European Commission entitled NEW SOIL
IMPROVEMENT PRODUCTS FOR REDUCING THE POLLUTION OF SOILS AND WATERS AND
REVITALIZING THE SOIL SYSTEM the innovative techniques of the physical and chemical
processing the waste natural fibrous materials into the new agents improving the
soil and biodegradable soil less substrates for cultivation in greenhouses have been
developed. The prototypes that realize these techniques have been designed and
built in the Institute for Sustainable Technologies – National Research Institute (ITeE-
PIB).
TECHNIQUES OF PRODUCING ECO-ACTIVATORS AND BIODEGRADABLE SOILLESS
SUBSTRATES
The innovative techniques of the physical and chemical processing the waste natural
fibrous materials into the new agents improving the soil and substrates for the soil
less cultivation of plants in greenhouses have been developed. The prototypes that
realize these techniques have been designed and built. These realizations include
the following installations:
- Prototype arrangement for mechanical treatments of the fibrous material
with three fractions having expanded superficial area for increased absorption of
water. The three fractions of the fibrous material have been utilized for producing the
different eco-activators: the fine-grained (dusty) fraction for pellets, the middle one
with short fibres (up to 15 mm) as an agent in agro-nonwovens and the fraction with
long fibres (more than 15 mm) for the soil less and biodegradable substrates.
- Prototype device for impregnation of fractions of the basic substrate for direct
use as a non-consolidated fertilizer or as a raw material for producing the consolidated
eco-activators.
- Prototype of the automated chemical installation for esterification of fractions
of the basic substrate, with mixing container and dosage of acid and base agents –
equipped with a number of the control circuits, for the direct use as stated under item
2 or as a raw material for further processing.
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Technical textiles
- Prototype line for the mechanical consolidation of proper fractions of the fibrous
material for producing the biodegradable agro-nonwovens and soil less substrates.
- Prototype device for mechanical consolidation of the proper fraction of the
basic substrate for producing pellets as organic fibrous fertilizers.
- Automated prototype aggregate for producing the soil less biodegradable
substrates with automatic dosage of the fibrous material and forming the ready for
use products.
- Prototype devices, which have been designed and fabricated in two several
variants, for recycling the soil less substrates (that are impregnated with nutrient) in
order to their reuse as their eco-activators after cultivation season.
The technology chain for the soil improvers include the mechanical treatment of the
fibrous wastes into the basic raw material and its physical and chemical treatment
(i.e. impregnation and estrification). The produced fibrous organic components with
elevated nitrogen contents are nutrification agents with contents of organic elements
and are ready for use. Further processing of this product, by means of the next
developed device results in fibrous nutrificient pellets – with slow release of acting
media.
Producing the soil less substrates include the mixing the waste fibrous material (e.g.
saw dust) with waste fibres or yarns (e.g. cotton, wool), forming fleece layer, weighting
and packaging its pieces in black and white foil as ready for use substrates.
PROTOTYPES REALISING THE NEW TECHNIQUES
The prototypes that realize the innovative techniques have been designed and built
in the Department for Textile Techniques, Lodz, a branch of the Institute for Sustainable
Technologies – National Research Institute, Radom. These realizations include a
number of installations.
The first stage of techniques developed is preparing the raw material for further
processing that is realized by the prototype arrangement for mechanical treatments
of the fibrous material into the basic substrate with three fractions having expanded
superficial area for increased absorption of water – Figure 1.
Figure 1. View of the prototype defibering installation for mechanical processing

the raw fibrous material..
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The three fractions of the fibrous material are separated by means of the filter battery
shown in Figure 1 (background, left-hand side). These fractions include: the fine-
grained (dusty) fraction for pellets, the middle one with short fibres (up to 15 mm) as
an agent in agro-nonwovens and the fraction with long fibres (more than 15 mm) for
the soilless and biodegradable substrates.
One of the following steps of new techniques realize the prototype devices for
impregnation and for esterification of fractions of the processed raw material. The
products obtained are eighter for direct use as a non-consolidated fertilizer or as a
raw material for producing the consolidated eco-activators.
The next steps of the technology chain realizes the prototype line for the mechanical
consolidation of proper fractions of the fibrous material for producing the biodegradable
agro-nonwovens and biodegradable soilless substrates that is presented in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Automated line producing optionally the biodegradable nonwovens or

biodegradable soilless substrates.
The fleece layer formed by this line can be directed to the needling loom or
packaging device (Figure 3) giving the two different end products: agro-nonwovens
and biodegradable soilless substrates for cultivation of plants in greenhouses.

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a) b)
Figure 3. The two alternative end components of the prototype technological

line: a) needling loom for producing the agro-nonwovens; b) packaging device for
forming the soilless substrates.
The soilless substrates after cultivation season can be reprocessed by means of the
prototype device that has been shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Recycling device for processing the soilless substrates after cultivation season.
The recycled soilless substrates (that are impregnated with nutrient) can be reused as
eco-activators during the next cultivation season.
The nitrifying pellets are the next end product of developed technologies Prototype
device for mechanical consolidation of the proper fraction of the basic substrate for
producing pellets as organic fibrous fertilizers has been shown in Figure 5.

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.
Figure 5. Technological line (end part) for producing pelleted nutrificients.
The pelleted eco-activators have been produced from fibrous components and also
with contents of natural nitrogen sources – clover and lucerne. All of these prototypes
have been tested and verified and, if necessary, the changes in design have been
performed.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
By means of the prototype machines designed and fabricated in the Institute
for Sustainable Technologies – National Research Institute a number of the eco-
activators with nutrificient and organic components and biodegradable substrates
have been produced. These products have been tested by the Institute of Horticulture
in Skierniewice. An example of cultivation utilizing the new products shows Figure 6.
Figure. 6. Greenhouse cultivation of tomatoes on biodegradable soilless substrates

developed and produced by the Institute for Sustainable Technologies – National
Research Institute
The satisfactory action of all eco-activators and biodegradable substrates has been
demonstrated. This concerns not only the better crops but also the pro-ecological
action of all products.

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DESTRUCTION OF COMPOSITES UTILIZED FOR SPORTSWEAR IN PROGRAMMABLE FATIGUE EXAMINATIONS
DESTRUCTION OF COMPOSITES UTILIZED FOR

SPORTSWEAR IN PROGRAMMABLE FATIGUE
EXAMINATIONS
Katarzyna Kobiela-Mendrek1, Jadwiga Malkiewicz 2
University of Bielsko-Biała, ul. Willowa 2, 43-309 Bielsko-Biała, Poland
1
2 University of Dąbrowa Górnicza, Branch Department in Cieszyn, Department of Management and

Production Engineering, Frysztacka 44, 43-400 Cieszyn, Poland
(Presenting author E-mail: kmendrek@ath.bielsko.pl; Corresponding author email: jm.malkiewicz@wp,pl)
ABSTRACT
Among factors causing gradual destruction of products, mechanical loads play
an important role. It is often assumed that breaking a product is the end of its use.
However, in real conditions, withdrawal of a product from use usually takes place at
the stage preceding breaking the product.
The aim of the research was to determine stages of destruction of a composite utilized
for ski-jumper suits in programmable fatigue tests. The product subjected to the tests
was a five-layer laminate consisting of outer knitwear layers and a filling of two foam
layers separated by an elastic membrane. The tests were conducted with Instron 5544
strength machine. The program of the tests was based on the course of a ski-jump. This
type of tests enables observation of the destruction process, in which characteristic
stages can be distinguished.
As a result of the research it was noticed that during destruction of composites the
phenomena of composite delamination and its components damage occur in the
way that is specific to their nature. These phenomena take place simultaneously, but
the process of delamination ends earlier. The component of the smallest elongation
breaks as the first of the separated materials of the laminate.
Keywords: composites, fatigue tests, programmable fatigue tests, destruction
INTRODUCTION
The process in which material or an object loses its usage properties is called
destruction. A spectacular moment of the process is its final stage – destruction of the
material. In the case of textiles and textile-derived composites interruption of continuity
such as a break, a tear or an abrasion is usually considered as the sign of destruction.
These evident signals of wearing off are preceded by less clear symptoms including
decrease in thickness and mass per unit area, density of the structure and strength.
For garments loss of their aesthetic properties such as loss of elasticity, tendency to
crease, pilling, loss of original colours etc. can be an essential mark of loss of their
utility.
Performance of materials under mechanical loads is mainly influenced by their
heterogeneity and quality of production [Vassilopulos 2011]. Destruction is a result of
combined impacts of different factors, typical for purpose and way of using. Destruction
is also modified by environmental factors. Typical external factors causing or facilitating
destruction include mechanical loads – static and dynamic, oxygen, water, ultraviolet

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radiation and microorganisms. Destruction caused by oxygen, thermal factors and

radiation is called aging of material. Destruction caused by changing mechanical
loads is called fatigue of material. It should be noted that temperature fluctuations
and gradients as well as humidity can also impact mechanical loads. Regardless of
other signs of destruction and aging, loss of original tensile strength is an important
one. Unexpected loss of continuity (break) under loads smaller than determined in
static tests is a potentially threatening effect of destruction of some materials (e.g.
constructional) [Drobina 2012]
In the case of homogenous materials of isotropic properties fatigue destruction of
material proceeds in a characteristic way. Cumulating stresses result in characteristic
deformation within the crystals in the form of slide layers. These microsurfaces
merge into slide bands and consequently microscopic cracks arise in the material.
Microcracks combine and enlarge constituting cracks. Eventually, locally interrupted
continuity of the material results in a break [Dyląg 2000].
Processes of destruction occurring in multi-material systems, especially in composites,
can have complicated character. According to the standard [ASTM D 3878-07]
laminate is the kind of composite material that is reinforced with fibres or textiles
arranged in layers. The reinforcement is usually aimed at improving tensile strength
and stiffness of composite material. A border phase existing on the border between
the matrix and the reinforcement originating by combining the main components is
sometimes distinguished in composites.
Effects of cyclic impacts on heterogeneous materials cumulate with time leading
to global destruction of the construction or unable its use, however the process of
destruction proceeds in a slightly different way. Although composites are considered
invulnerable to fatigue destruction, especially in comparison with metals, they also
sustain damage under changing loads. A characteristic feature of composites
reinforced with fibres is their general anisotropy and heterogeneity, and their
mechanical performance is very different from the performance of metals and other
isotropic materials. Their destruction is not dominated by creation of a single crack
and its propagation as in metals. It is rather a combination of consecutive phenomena
[Vassilopulos 2011]., [Harris 2013].
Because of anisotropic characteristics in strength and stiffness of composite materials,
they exhibit very complex failure mechanisms. The damage development under static
and fatigue loading is similar, but at a given stress level causes additional damages
to occur as a functional of cycles [Kim, 1987].
The process of destruction of laminates is accompanied by many forms of destruction.
Propagation of destruction in laminates occurs through breaking matrix and fibres
and is accompanied by the process of delamination – breaking junctions between
elements of the composite. Destruction of composite materials can proceed violently
and arising of cracks and microbreaks is random. Mainly, it stems from the fact
that textile materials and composites are compound structures and, similarly, the
mechanism of fatigue destruction is compound.
The phenomenon of fatigue in laminates and the process of their destruction
is individual for different types of materials [Bathias, 2006]. The form of laminate

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destruction is very similar under both static loads and cyclic loads [Harris 2013]. The
way of destruction under cyclic loads is dependant not only on parameters of load
but also on many factors such as:
• physico-chemical properties of reinforcement and matrix
• direction of particular layers
• relation of layers to each other
• conditions of work environment
• methods of combining components and possibly type of binder
• production technology
Global destruction of composite is a result of many coexisting damaged pieces
located in a random manner. In the literature there are four typical forms of destruction
of composite materials with textile reinforcement:
• matrix break
• fibres break
• delamination
• separation of fibres and matrix
According to one author [Guz 1983] development of fatigue destruction of composite
material has three stages.
Stage I occurs in the range between 10% and 25% of fatigue strength. In matrix
microbreaks arise, which mainly results in decrease in stiffness and only to a small
degree drop in strength. Microcracks are situated in a random manner in the whole
volume of the laminate and develop primarily in cross-machine direction in the layers
of the orientation of 45 and 90.
At the second stage, enlarging of microcracks is accompanied by break of fibres,
their separation from the matrix and delamination. The stage includes the range of
fatigue strength of 70-80%. Rise in stresses results in their concentration on the border
between matrix and reinforcement (fibres) with the orientation of 0, which causes
fibres break and their separation from matrix. Destruction occurs more slowly than at
the earlier stage.
The last stage is characterised by intensification of the processes. Cracks along the
fibres of the orientation of 0 enlarge, which leads to their separation from the matrix,
delamination and laminate breaking proceed faster, until total separation of the
layers. Laminate loses stiffness. Eventually, break in continuity of the material takes
place.
Occurrence of the first stage does not eliminate the product from use, unless it has a
constructive function. The product can still pass loads, however its aesthetic functions
and functions influencing comfort of use can deteriorate. In constructive materials,
loss of stiffness of the material and loss of stability of the construction can make a
problem.

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The research involved a five-layer laminate of total thickness of 5.1 mm, utilized for
ski-jumping suits. The textile external layers are two identical in regard to structure and
composition column knitwear of charmeuse. The interior of the laminate comprises
of two layers of elastic foam separated by a thin layer of elastic membrane. Internal
layers of the laminate are perforated in order to obtain air-permeability required by the
law. All the layers were merged with flame lamination [Specifications for competition
2015]. In regard to elements of composites, the textile layers act as the reinforcement
and the internal layer act as the matrix.
The composite rectangular samples of dimensions 50 mm by 130 mm were subjected
to a stretching test in order to determine breaking force and elongation at break
according to ISO [ISO 13934-1:]. Tests of static strength were conducted at clumps
distance of 50 and at stretching speed of 100 mm/min. The aim of the test was to
determine range of strengths and elongations for fatigue tests and observe the
phenomena involved in composite destruction under increasing load.
At the second stage, the composite was subjected to programmable strength tests.
Utilizing Merlin Test Profiler software, a course of load adequate to the conditions of
use (reflecting the cycle of loads during a ski-jump) of the material was programmed.
Changes of loads on the laminate during its use result from changes of a ski-jumper
position at different stages of a jump. It was decided arbitrarily that maximal temporary
load on the laminate during programmable tests could not exceed 50% of breaking
force.
According to the consecutive stages of a typical ski-jump, course of test cycle was
designed on the basis of the following scheme:
1. Assuming the starting position – increase in load to 15% of the breaking force.
2. Awaiting the start signal – maintenance of load at 15% of the breaking force for 6 s.
3. Beginning of in-run – temporary increase in load to 50% of the breaking force
and decrease to the level of 25% of the breaking force.
4. In-run – maintenance of load at the level of 25% of the breaking force for 5 s.
5. Take-off – total diminishing of load (load at the level of 0%).
6. Flight – maintenance of the sample without load for 5 s.
7. Telemark landing – temporary increase in load to 25% of the breaking force.
8. Outrun – removing the load.
9. Unfastening skis – increase in load to the level of 10% of the breaking force,
maintenance of the load for 4 s and removing the load.
Analysing the course of loads it can be noticed that there are characteristic stages
which do not exist in typical fatigue tests. In the cycle of loads, temporary peak loads
of 50% and 25% of the breaking force respectively occur twice. Appearance of
these peak values – maximums and minimums – is characteristic for typical fatigue
tests. There is also a stabilization of load at the three levels of 15%, 25% and 10% of
the breaking force. Moreover, twice during the cycle, the composite is deloaded
and once the state is maintained for a few seconds.
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According to the prepared program of loads, strength tests of the laminate were
conducted until total break of the samples. Changes of load were performed at the
clamp movement speed of 30 mm/s.
Both kinds of tests – static and fatigue – were carried out with Instron 5544 strength
machine cooperating with Merlin Test Profiler software. The tests were conducted
separately for machine direction and cross-machine direction.
RESULTS
The difficulty in observation of particular stages of material destruction during standard
quasi-static stretching tests resulted from relatively high speed of the clamp movement
and related difficulty in perception of occurring phenomena. Simultaneous “work” of
all components of the laminate was an additional obstacle. Because of stretching,
break of interlayer junctions and consequently the composite delamination was
invisible. The final stage of destruction in statistical tests is a break of the stiffest layer –
in this case the filling and subsequently the knitwear.
Programmable fatigue tests enabled observation of all consecutive stages of the
composite destruction.
The first phenomenon – stage of the laminate destruction was its local delamination
meaning separation of some layers from the others. The surface layer of the knitwear
underwent delamination as the first one. The detachment took place mainly along
the perforation line. Almost simultaneously “blurring the picture” of the perforation
holes could be observed. Edges of the foam in the holes frayed as a result of break of
the weakest junctions. These phenomena can be explained by notch effect known
from strength tests of machine elements. It involves accumulation of stress in the
weakest section of an element or construction. In the case of the discussed composite
accumulation of stress takes place in the material between the perforation holes.
At the next stage, along with proceeding delamination, damage of the foam
appeared. It had a form of surface breaks which firstly occurred at the side of the
surface knitwear and then deepened towards the central membrane. This damage
arose along the line of perforation, thus in cross-machine direction. When a light
source was situated behind the material the damage was visible as partial tears of
the perforation caused by the foam layer friction in the vicinity of the holes. In this case
the changes can be considered as propagation of the damage, which means that
the changes accumulate within the initial damage, even the smallest one.
Delamination of the composite along the perforation line constituted an origin of a
new stage of destruction. The previously weakened bridges between the perforation
holes broke. This led to a total break of the composite filling along the perforation, in
cross-machine direction. This phenomenon was accompanied by a detachment of
the bottom layer of the knitwear. Tearing of the foam and the membrane along the
perforation occurred simultaneously along different lines of perforation. Tears were
deepened starting at the edges of the sample and were located alternately. If in
one perforation line the tear occurred at the right edge, in the next one it took place
at the left edge. The process finished with a break of the filling at the whole width of
the sample in one or even a few places. The composite filling from the moment of
the break constituted an essential stiffening of the laminate. After the break of the

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filling, its fragments unattached to the machine clamps, but fastened to the knitwear
(mainly to the bottom knitwear), moved together with the knitwear for some time. At
this stage, passing of the load occurred only through the knitwear and the composite
actually did not exist. Destruction of the last point matching the filling to the knitwear
resulted in dropping fragments of the system foam/membrane/foam from between
the knitwear. From this moment the observation considered only the knitwear.
At the final stage, in the clamps, there were visible areas of lower density of the
knitwear structure, which was caused by breaks of the weakest fibres in the threads
and eventually breaks in the both layers of knitwear occurred in one cycle of loads.
A characteristic feature is that during fatigue tests the sample break always occurs
along the clamp line. It shows the impact of traction between the edges of the clamps
and the threads of the product. This phenomenon can take place during standard
static strength tests only to a little degree. In fatigue tests many sample elongations
exist and consequently a reciprocating movement of a small piece of the knitwear
occurs in relation to the edges of the clamps.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Programmable fatigue tests create advantages conditions for an observation
of destruction of composites.
2. In the process of destruction of a laminate utilized for ski-jumping suits
consecutive stages can be distinguished. They are the following: delamination,
delamination progress accompanied by gradual damage to the filling layer, total
break in continuity of the filling layer, total delamination, break of the strengthening
layer.
3. The research has confirmed the strengthening role of the textile layer in the
laminate, as it broke as the last one.
In fatigue destruction of the perforated filling of the laminate, a phenomenon similar
to the notch effect occurring e.g. in metals has been observed.
REFERENCES
ASTM D 3878-07, Standard Terminology for Composite Materials
Bathias C., 2006, An engineering point of view about fatigue of polymer matrix composite materials. Int. J.
Fatigue 28, 1094–1099
Drobina R., 2012, Probabilistyczny model trwałości zmęczeniowej przędz bawełnianych gładkich i
płomykowych, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Akademii Techniczno-Humanistycznej, Bielsko-Biała
Dyląg Z., Jakubowicz A., Orłoś Z, 2000, Wytrzymałość materiałów, t.II, WNT, Warszawa.
Guz A.N., 1983, Mechanika kompozicjonnych materiałów , t.3. Naukowa Dumka, Kiev
Harris B., 2003, Fatigue in Composites: Science and technology of the fatigue response of fibre reinforce
plastics, Woodhead Publishing Limited.
ISO 13934-1:2013 Textiles -- Tensile properties of fabrics -- Part 1: Determination of maximum force and
elongation at maximum force using the strip method
Kim R. Y.,1987, Fatigue Behaviour in Composite Design, edt. Tsai S.W., Think Composites, Dayton, pp 19-34
Kocańda S., Szala J., 1997, Podstawy obliczeń zmęczeniowych, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa
Specifications for competition equipment and commercial markings, Edition 2015/16, July 2015,
International Ski Federation (PDF) in http://www.fis-ski.com/ (10.01.2016)
Vassilopulos A., Keller T., 2011, Fatigue of Fiber-reinforced Composites, Springer-Verlag London Limited,

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Study of the materials for thermal insulation in home textiles
STUDY OF THE MATERIALS FOR THERMAL

INSULATION IN HOME TEXTILES
Raquel Carvalho1, Cátia Relvas1, Raul Fangueiro1, Armando Antunes2
1
University of Minho – Campus de Azurém, 4800-058. Guimarães. Portugal
2
LASA - Armando da Silva Antunes S.A. - Estrada Nacional 105, 3344, 4835-517 Nespereira
Guimarães. Portugal
(Presenting author E-mail: raquelcarvalho@det.uminho.pt; Corresponding author email:
ABSTRACT
The thermal insulation in targeted textile substrates for home textiles assumes
particular interest nowadays. Increasing performance and decreasing thickness
are critical challenges to provide the required comfort to users during their rest
period. Thermal insulation is associated with the phenomenon of heat absorption /
desorption influencing the insulation value in fibrous material, since fibers absorb or
release moisture, depending on their chemical composition. Thus, regarding thermal
insulation, there are two major parameters to take into account: the conductivity and
heat resistance.
The main objective of this work is to study the performance of different fibrous structures
for home textiles applications in terms of thermal insulation. The innovative structures
considered within this study include non-woven fabrics produced with wool and
hollow polyester fibers incorporating cork. Non-woven structures have been prepared
in different compositions including 75/25% wool and hollow polyester, 50%/50% wool
and hollow polyester, blended with 2-5 mm cork granules size in proportions of 5%
and 10% or with an agglomerated cork panel of 0,8mm.
After production, samples were tested for their thermal behavior using Alambeta
equipment. Results show that the non-woven composition influences greatly the
thermal performance and the best result is obtained for sample with 50/50% wool
and hollow polyester.
Keywords: thermal insulation; thermal resistance; conductivity
INTRODUCTION
The human body generates a substantial amount of heat. Humans have long since
taken advantage of this source of energy for comfort by using blankets and clothes
to insulate the body and prevent the rapid loss of body heat to the environment [1].
Insulation products are used to block the transfer of heat which can be transferred
by various methods including convection, conduction and radiation. Radiation heat
transfer occurs when heat is sent through space and is capable of traveling to an
object where the heat can be reflected, absorbed or transmitted. Convection, i.e.
flow of fluid (air) through the pack includes flow driven by external forces, such as
wind, fans or blowers and natural or free flow driven by conditions within the pack,
such as thermal or density gradients; similarly, conduction includes conduction by air,
glass or any other compounds present within the pack [2,3,4].

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The rate of conductive heat transfer is directly proportional to the thermal conductivity
of the object through which heat is conducted. Heat transfer can therefore be slowed
by using insulation with a lower conductivity. Essentially, insulation is the use of a
material with a low overall conduction to reduce the energy flow across another material.
The insulation acts to retard and/or reduce the flow of heat, thus it must have a high
resistance (resistance being the inverse of conduction). In terms of bedding materials,
one can use thicker blankets or blankets with lower thermal conductivity [5].
The objective of the present work is to analyze some thermal properties of different
material compositions to produce a thin (8 mm) blanket with lower thermal
conductivity. Different materials were selected based on the literature namely wool
fibres, hollow polyester fibres and cork (granules and panels). The use of cork, besides
providing significant decrease in the costs of thermal insulation when compared with
conventional materials, has a commercial appeal and it is an environmentally friendly
material. Various nonwoven fabric compositions were produced and analysed to
provide the most promise for insulation blanket applications.
Various nonwoven material compositions have been compared for the development
of a thin thermal insulation blanket. Material compositions can be seen in Table 1.
Table 1. Material compositions
Composition Percentage [%]
Wool / Hollow polyester (WO/PES Ho) 50/50 e 75/25
Wool /Hollow polyester + Cork granules 2-5 50/50 e 75/25 + 5; 10
mm
Hollow polyester + agglomerated cork panel 100 + 100
0,8mm
Wool /Hollow polyester + agglomerated cork 50/50
panel 0,8mm
All nonwoven fabrics were produced via needle-punched technology with the
needle punching machine, Automatex, at the parameters stated in Table 2. Table 3
shows the physical characteristics of the materials used and of the nonwoven fabrics
produced.
Table 2. Needle punching machine parameters
Parameters Values
Speed of the draw off rolls [m/min.] 146
RPM [strokes/min.] 351
Speed of the infeed rolls in needleboard [m/min.] 86
Carpet speed at the entrance of needleboard [m/min.] 83
Output speed in cross-lapper [m/min.] 12.46
Speed of the cross-lapper [m/min.] 9
Carpet output speed of the card [m/min.] 9.357
Distance between plates (Stripper and Bed plates) needling [cm] 15

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Table 3. Characteristics of materials and nonwoven fabrics
Mass per
Linear density of Density Thickness Number
unit area
fibers (dtex) (g/cm3) (mm) of layer
(g/m2)
Wool 3,93 1,32
Materials
Hollow polyester 3,9 1,36-1,41

Cork 0,075
50%WO_50%PES Ho 94,34 8,00 1
75%WO_25%_PES Ho 90,65 8,00 1
Nonwovens
50%WO_50%PES Ho_10% + cork_2-5mm 200,61 8,00 2

75%WO_25%PES Ho_5% + cork_2-5mm 150,96 8,00 2
100%PES Ho+ Panel cork 486,44 8,00 3
50%WO_50%PES Ho + Panel cork 359,46 8,00 3
The experimental determination of the thermal properties of nonwoven fabrics was

made using an Alambeta instrument by Sensora of Czech Republic. This instrument
is able to measure thermal conductivity (λ), thermal resistance (r), the maximum
level of the contact heat flow, qmax, and the sample thickness. It simulates the dry
human skin and is based on the principle of measurement of heat power passing
through the test nonwoven fabric due to the difference in temperature between
the bottom measuring plate (22°C) and the top measuring head (32°C). The hot
plate comes in contact with the nonwoven fabric sample at a pressure of 200 Pa.
As soon as the plate touches the nonwoven fabric, the amount of heat power
transferred from the hot surface to the cold surface through the nonwoven fabric
is detected and processed to calculate the thermal parameters of nonwoven
fabric. Average of 5 readings was taken for each sample.
One of the most important properties of the thermal insulators materials is the
thermal conductivity. The thermal conductivity of insulating materials has been
found to vary with density, moisture content, temperature, direction of heat flow
with respect to grain for fibrous materials, the presence of defects in the material
and porosity [6].
As it can be observed from Figure 1 the thermal conductivity of the nonwoven
fabrics has fairly low values. The 50/50% wool and hollow polyester nonwoven
fabric has the lowest thermal conductivity value and the 100% hollow polyester
with agglomerated cork panel nonwoven has the highest thermal conductivity
value. That happens because the thermal conductivity of a material is an intrinsic
property of the material and the different combinations of the materials affects
the insulation response.

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Figure 1. Thermal conductivity (λ) of nonwoven fabrics.

Thermal conductivity affects directly the resistance to transmission of heat that a
material offers. The higher the thermal resistance value, the lower the overall heat
transfer. The thermal resistance of the selected nonwoven fabrics is shown in Figure
2. It is found that 50/50% wool and hollow polyester nonwoven fabric has the highest
heat resistance and the 100% hollow polyester with agglomerated cork panel
nonwoven fabric has the lowest value. This may be because the thermal conductivity
of those fabrics is the lowest for the 50/50% wool and hollow polyester nonwoven and
the highest for the 100% hollow polyester with agglomerated cork panel nonwoven
fabric.
Figure 2. Thermal resistance (r) versus thickness of nonwoven fabrics.

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CONCLUSIONS
Insulation products are used to block the transfer of heat, increasing its performance
and decreasing its thickness are critical challenges to provide the required comfort to
users during their rest period. Among the materials studied, 50/50% wool and hollow
polyester nonwoven fabric provides the best thermal insulation since it has the lowest
thermal conductivity (highest thermal resistivity). From the result of the research, the
best insulation thin blanket to be used in the winter of Western Europe is 50/50% wool
and hollow polyester nonwoven fabric.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was carried out under the project No. 2014/38420 “SMART_BED - Development
of multifunctional home textiles for children and youth”, headed by LASA - Armando
da Silva Antunes S.A. (Portugal), co-funded by the European Regional Development
Funds FEDER, through COMPETE - Operational Programme Competitiveness Factors.
REFERENCES
[1] U.S. Appl. No11/018,452, Set 19, 2006, Wilson, T.
[2] Tilioua, A., L. Libessart, A. Joulin, S. Lassue, B. Monod, and G. Jeandel. 2012. Determination of
physical properties of fibrous thermal insulation. EPJ Web of Conferences, 33, 02009.
[3] U.S. Appl. No 13/433,721, Out 19, 2012, Potter, R.M., et al.
[4] Karamanos, A., A. Papadopoulos, and D. Anastasellos. 2004. Heat transfer phenomena in fibrous
insulating materials. Proceedings of WSEAS/IASME international conference on HEAT and MASS
TRANSFER, Corfu, Greece. 17–19 August 2004. p. 1–12.
[5] Yachmenev, V.G., D.V. Parikh, and T.A.Jr. Calamari. 2002. Thermal Insulation Properties of
Biodegradable, Cellulosic-Based Nonwoven Composites for Automotive Application. Journal of
Industrial Textiles, 31(4): 283-296.
[6] Rajput. 2005. Engineering thermodynamics. New Delhi: Lax Mi Publications.

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ELECTRET MOISTURE ABSORBING COMPOSITES PRODUCED IN MELT-BLOWN PROCESS FOR USE IN RESPIRATORY PROTECTIVE DEVICES
ELECTRET MOISTURE ABSORBING COMPOSITES

PRODUCED IN MELT-BLOWN PROCESS FOR USE
IN RESPIRATORY PROTECTIVE DEVICES
Agnieszka Brochocka, Małgorzata Okrasa
Department of Personal Protective Equipment, Central Institute for Labour Protection – National
Research Institute, Wierzbowa 48, 90-133 Łódź, Poland
(Presenting author e-mail: maokr@ciop.lody.pl; Corresponding author e-mail: agbro@ciop.lodz.pl)
ABSTRACT
Filtering respiratory protective devices (FRPDs) intended for use in heavy physical
work conditions very quickly lose their protection parameters due to high relative
humidity and temperature, high dust concentration and elevated volumetric air
flow rate through the purifying element(s). One of the promising research directions
addressing this issue is designing new multifunctional polymer composite nonwovens
with various types of modifiers that could be used for FRPDs’ construction. Such
modifiers should not adversely affect the filtration efficiency of the nonwoven fabric
or its air flow resistance; on the other hand they should ensure sufficient mechanical
stability and good ability to collect moisture to guarantee good ergonomic properties
of the filtering nonwoven.
In the present study it was achieved by introducing granular superabsorbents into
the structure of electret melt-blown nonwovens during the production process.
To improve the electrostatic properties of the filter media, i.e. reduce the effect of
gradual neutralization of electric charge over time in heavy physical work conditions,
a device to generate electrostatic charge on the polymeric fibrous material was used.
The resulting composites were tested in terms of basic filtration and utility properties
such, as paraffin oil mist and sodium chloride aerosol penetration as well as air flow
resistance. Moreover electrostatic properties and the ability to absorb moisture from
the air during breathing simulation were assessed.
Keywords: moisture absorbing composites, electret nonwovens, melt-blown process,
filtering half masks
INTRODUCTION
The chemical industry nowadays offers a wide range of superabsorbents with constantly
improved properties and in a variety of forms and grades. Previously produced
granulated products were supplemented with fibers, hydrogels and powders of
different fineness. This rapid development constitutes the basis for the search for new
applications of superabsorbing materials. (Ahmed 2013, Zohuriaan-Mehr et al. 2010,
Soleimani and Sadeghi 2012). So far, they have been mainly used in nonwoven products
for personal hygiene obtained with hydrodynamic technologies (Dutkiewicz et al. 2001a,
Dutkiewicz et al. 2001b, Dutkiewicz 2002). Alternative manufacturing method, which
uses high-velocity air to attenuate the filaments directly from the melted polymer, is
the melt-blown technology. It is common in the production of nonwovens for filtering
purposes. Specific features of melt-blown nonwoven fabrics, resulting mainly from

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small diameters of the fibers, guarantee excellent filtering, thermo-insulating and

absorptive properties. Furthermore, the melt-blown technology enables efficient
modeling of the structure of nonwovens in terms surface density and porosity by using
different kinds of modifiers.
One of the examples of such materials is a polypropylene nonwoven fabric obtained
with melt-blown technology modified by the addition of 2 wt. % of microcrystalline
cellulose and 3 wt. % microbiological chitosan to achieve better utilization and disposal
characteristics (Sojka-Ledakowicz et. al. 2013). Despite the fact that the resulting
materials were characterized by a slightly worse filtering parameters in comparison
with unmodified ones, they had better biodestruction degree. Moreover, preliminary
microbiological studies indicated that they had antimicrobial properties. Similar works
concerning biocidal properties of filtering nonwovens were conducted by Brochocka
and Majchrzycka (2009). Biocidal properties of nonwoven fabrics were obtained by
the use of biologically active chemical modifiers introduced to the structure of the filter
material. The results of microbiological studies showed that the addition of modifiers
at the initial stage of nonwoven production did not give satisfactory results because
of the difficulty in combining polymer granulate with modifier particles. Moreover,
a negative effect of high processing temperature on the biocidal activity of the
modifier was observed. Therefore, further works were focused on the development
of the incorporation method of biocidal agents into the nonwoven structure in the
final phase of the production process. The usefulness of resulting nonwoven fabrics
for the construction of filtering respiratory devices protecting against bioaerosols was
confirmed due to their excellent antimicrobial properties.
Czaplicki (2006) presented an apparatus for the manufacturing of fibrous composites
with filtering and sorptive properties and their production method including
introduction of powdered activated carbon into the structure of the nonwoven fabric
with a jet of compressed air. Brochocka and Majchrzycka (2010) dealt with evaluation
of filtering and sorption properties of the fibrous structures containing high-efficiency
polypropylene nonwovens formed with melt-blown technique and composite
nonwovens with activated carbon. Closely related works were also conducted by
Kałużka et al. (2010) in respect to multi-layer fibrous structures containing polypropylene
nonwovens for simultaneous air cleaning of dust and gases.
A new method to improve filtration efficiency of nanoparticles of the nonwoven fabrics
was described in (Brochocka, Majchrzycka, and Makowski 2013). The improvement
was achieved by introducing powdered amber and perlite beads to the molten
polypropylene during the production of nonwoven in the melt-blowing process to
enhance electrostatic charge development on the surface of the filtering material.
Another interesting production method of composite nonwovens with homogeneous
structure was patented by Berrigan and Moore (2009). It relied on the introduction of
melt blown fibers into the stream of modifiers such as activated carbon and powdered
alumina.
Currently on the European market there is no multifunctional filter material obtained
in melt-blowing process that would have a high filtration efficiency while maintaining
low air flow resistance and at the same time have a good ability to collect moisture.
The purpose of this article is to evaluate the protective and utility properties of such

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nonwoven composites for construction of respiratory protective equipment in terms

paraffin oil mist and sodium chloride aerosol penetration, air flow resistance as well
as electrostatic properties and the ability to absorb moisture from the air during
simulation of breathing.
Atactic polypropylene granulate Borealis HL 508J (NEXEO Solutions Sp. z o. o, Poland)
with melt flow index 800 g/10min and density 50 g/cm2 was used for the production of
melt-blown nonwovens. Polymer superabsorbent (SAP) EK-X EN52 (TZMO S.A., Poland)
with particle sizes 250 µm (coarse) and 30 µm (fine) was introduced to the nonwoven
structure in an amount of 3 wt. % and 7 wt. % respectively. Nonwovens were prepared
using experimental stand equipped with an activator enabling corona-discharge
treatment of nonwovens during their production. Following types of nonwoven fabrics
were prepared:
•four types of corona charged and uncharged nonwovens with nominal surface
weight of 40 g/m2 containing SAP with coarse and fine SAP particles,
•two types of high-efficiency corona charged and uncharged filtering nonwovens
with nominal surface weight of 90 g/m2.
Characteristics of prepared nonwovens are presented in the table 1.
Table 1. Basic properties of nonwoven materials.
Mean surface Mean fiber diameter, Mean nonwoven

Type of nonwoven
weight, g/m2 µm thickness, mm
Nonwoven with coarse SAP

48.000 - 0.810
(250 µm)
Corona charged nonwoven

49.636 4.11 0.737
with coarse SAP (250 µm)
Nonwoven with fine SAP (30

40.909 - 0.729
µm)
Corona charged nonwoven

39.455 4.48 0.737
with fine SAP (30 µm)
Filtering nonwoven 96.692 1.25 2.532
Corona charged filtering

96.923 1.19 2.508
nonwoven
Nonwoven fabrics described above were used to construct three configurations of

fibrous composites presented in the table 2.

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Table 2. Configurations of fibrous composites.

Configuration of Fibrous structures
layers Outer layer Filtering layer Inner layer
Nonwoven with coarse Corona charged filtering Nonwoven with fine SAP
I
SAP (250 µm) nonwoven (30 µm)
Corona charged Corona charged
Corona charged filtering
II nonwoven with coarse nonwoven with fine SAP
nonwoven
SAP (250 µm) (30 µm)
Corona charged
Corona charged filtering Nonwoven with fine SAP
III nonwoven with coarse
nonwoven (30 µm)
SAP (250 µm)
Nonwovens containing coarse SAP with or without electric charge were used from
the side upstream of the sample. They were designed to dehumidify incoming air and
capture large particles from the surrounding atmosphere. Electret filtering nonwovens
were used as the main layer responsible for the capture of smaller particles. Inner
layer of nonwoven containing fine SAP with or without electric charge was used from
the side downstream of the sample to ensure moisture absorption from the skin of the
user. Then the composites were tested in order to assess their protective and comfort
properties.
Penetration indexes of paraffin oil mist and sodium chloride aerosol were determined
according to the EN 149:2001+A1:2009 and EN 13274-7:2008 standards concerning
test methods and requirements for the respiratory protective devices. The penetration
index is defined as a ratio of an aerosol concentration downstream of the sample
to an aerosol concentration upstream of the sample. During the tests polydisperse
sodium chloride aerosol with mass median particle diameter of approximately 0.6 µm
was used. The particle size distribution of paraffin oil mist was a logarithmic normal
distribution with a number median Stokes diameter of 0.4 µm. The test took place in
the initial stage of filtration, after 3 minutes from the start of the test.
Air flow resistance tests were performed alongside the measurements of paraffin oil
mist penetration. To perform the measurements of pressure difference before and
after the tested sample, digital micromanometer CMR-10A was used.
Water vapor sorption in the dynamic flow was evaluated on a breathing simulation
test stand used during the assessment of filtering respiratory devices according to the
EN 149:2001+A1:2009 standard. The stand consisted of a breathing machine, set to
25 cycles per minute and 2.0 liter per stroke, Sheffield dummy head and a saturator
located in the exhalation line between the breathing machine and the dummy head.
The temperature of air exhaled from the dummy head’s mouth was 37±2°C, ambient
temperate was 23.6°C and relative humidity 44.0 %. A sample of nonwoven composite
was placed in the filter cartridge, which was mounted directly in the mouth of the
dummy head for 200 minutes. After that the samples were weighted on an analytical
scale.

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RESULTS
The results of paraffin oil mist and sodium chloride aerosol penetration measurements
are shown in the tables 3 and 4.
Table 3. Test results of paraffin oil mist penetration.
Penetration index of paraffin oil mist, %
Configuration of
layers Standard Maximal/Minimal
Mean value Median
deviation value
I 1.21 0.06 1.20 1.33/1.10
II 1.16 0.03 1.17 1.19/1.12
III 0.66 0.24 0.70 0.96/0.29
Table 4. Test results of sodium chloride aerosol penetration.

Penetration index of sodium chloride aerosol, %
Configuration of
layers Standard Maximal/Minimal
Mean value Median
deviation value
I 0.39 0.03 0.40 0.45/0.33
II 0.26 0.05 0.27 0.33/0.17
III 0.22 0.04 0.22 0.29/0.17
Development of electric charges on the filtering nonwoven surface resulted in changes

in filtering efficiency of composites. Moreover it was shown that corona charging
caused a modification of the physical structure monofilaments similar to the effect of
low-plasma treatment of polypropylene and polycarbonate described in (Urbaniak-
Domagała et al. 2010, Brochocka et al. 2014). The lowest values of penetration of
paraffin oil mist and sodium chloride aerosol were achieved for configuration III
probably due to a favorable distribution of electrical charges in the individual layers
of the composite structure.
The results of air flow resistance measurements are shown in the table 5.
Table 5. Test results of air flow resistance.
Air flow resistance, Pa
Configuration of
layers Mean value Standard Median Maximal/Minimal
deviation value
I 364.1 7.2 364.6 377.3/352.9
II 347.3 6.5 346.9 358.6/338.2
III 335.7 14.3 337.9 358.2/310.3
In general the values of air flow resistance were similar, but the lowest results were
obtained in case of configuration III. Nevertheless, when considering the possible
use of such composites in the construction of filtering respiratory devices it should be
noted that resulting value of breathing resistance cannot exceed the value specified
in appropriate standards.

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In the table 6 the results of water vapor sorption in the dynamic air flow are presented.
Table 6. Test results of water vapor sorption in the dynamic air flow.
Mass of the sample, g
Configuration Measurement
of layers time Mean value Standard Median Maximal/Minimal
deviation value
before 1.4324 0.0222 1.4378 1.4542/1.3880
simulation
I
after 1.5276 0.0885 1.4920 1.7272/1.4696
simulation
before 1.4790 0.0475 1.4921 1.5324/1.3989
simulation
II
after 1.6459 0.1370 1.5780 1.8663/1.5048
simulation
before 1.3931 0.0312 1.3922 1.4433/1.3610
simulation
III
after 1.4803 0.1007 1.4542 1.6731/1.3949
simulation
In all cases substantial amounts of water vapor were adsorbed from the exhaled
air, the results were independent of the layer configuration. It was due to the fact
that the amount of SAP was identical in each configuration and that is the main
factor influencing sorptive properties of the composite structure. Similar results were
previously achieved in case of nonwoven products for personal hygiene intended
for a rapid adsorption and storage of physiological fluids (urine, sweat and blood) as
well as for insoles used in impermeable protective footwear (Bartkowiak and Frydrych
2011, Dutkiewicz 2002, Irzmańska, Brochocka and Majchrzycka 2012, Irzmańska and
Brochocka 2014).
CONCLUSIONS
Individual filtering nonwoven structures of different morphology were prepared in order
to play a specific roles in the resulting multi-layer composites. Then the composites
were tested in order to assess their protective and comfort properties. Paraffin oil mist
and sodium chloride aerosol penetration, air flow resistance and the ability to absorb
moisture from the air during breathing simulation were assessed.
The study results showed that it is possible to manufacture composite nonwoven
fabrics with good performance in terms of protective parameters and better comfort
characteristics associated with their use. The resulting composite structures met
with the requirements relating to the filtering efficiency of construction materials for
filtering half masks of 2nd protection class. At the same time the air flow resistance
was overly elevated as it reached the value of approximately 350 Pa while the value
of corresponding breathing resistance for filtering half mask of 2nd protection class
is 240 Pa. Test results of water vapor sorption during breathing simulation showed
that it is possible to reduce the amount of water that is accumulated under the
filtering respiratory protective devices by using SAP containing filtering nonwovens.
Presented results indicate that there is a wide range of applications for developed
nonwoven composite fabrics especially in the areas where comfort characteristics of
the materials play a crucial role.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
and working conditions improvement”, financed in the years 2014 – 2016 in the field
of research and development work by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education
and the National Centre for Research and Development (the Program coordinator is
the Central Institute for Labour Protection – National Research Institute).
REFERENCES
Ahmed, E.M. 2013. Hydrogel: Preparation, characterization and applications. A review. Journal of
Advanced Research, 6(2): 105-21.
Bartkowiak, G., and I. Frydrych. 2011. Superabsorbents and their medical applications. Handbook of
medical textiles, 505–46.
Berrigan, M.R., and E.M. Moore. 2009. Composite non-woven fibrous webs having continuous
particulate phase and methods of making and using the same. Patent no. WO 2009/088648 A1.
Brochocka, A., and K. Majchrzycka. 2009. Technology for the production of bioactive melt-blown
filtration materials applied to respiratory protective devices. Fibres and Textiles in Eastern Europe,
17(5):92-8.
Brochocka, A., and K. Majchrzycka. 2010. Ocena zmian właściwości ochronnych włóknin filtrująco-
pochłaniających wobec aerozoli i par substancji organicznych. Przegląd Włókienniczy. Włókno,
Odzież, Skóra, 64(2):34-7.
Brochocka, A., K. Majchrzycka, and K. Makowski. 2013. Modified melt-blown nonwovens for respiratory
protective devices against nanoparticles. Fibres and Textiles in Eastern Europe, 21(4):106-11;
Brochocka, A., I. Mian, K. Majchrzycka, J. Sielski, and J. Tyczkowski. 2014. Plasma modified polycarbonate
nonwovens as filtering material for liquid aerosols. Fibres and Textiles in Eastern Europe, 22(1):76-80.
Czaplicki, A. 2006. New method and equipment for manufacturing new adsorptive materials with
active carbon content. Fibres and Textiles in Eastern Europe, 14(4): 75-8.
Dutkiewicz, J. 2002. Superabsorbent materials from shellfish waste. A review. Journal of Biomedical
Materials Research, 63(3):245–381.
Dutkiewicz, J., L. Yong, L. Werner, Q. Jian, S. Tong, Z. Xiaomin. 2001. Fibrous materials Patent no. WO
2001/047568 A1.
Dutkiewicz, J., L. Yong, L. Werner, Q. Jian, S. Tong, Z. Xiaomin. 2001. Superabsorbent polymers. Patent
no. WO 2001/047569 A1.
EN 149:2001+A1:2009 Respiratory protective devices. Filtering half masks to protect against particles.
Requirements, testing, marking.
EN 13274-7:2008 Respiratory protective devices. Methods of test. Determination of particle filter
penetration.
Irzmańska, E., A. Brochocka, and K. Majchrzycka. 2012. Textile composite materials with bioactive
melt-blown nonwovens for protective footwear. Fibres and Textiles in Eastern Europe, 20(6A):119-25.
Irzmańska, E., and A. Brochocka. 2014. Influence of the physical and chemical properties of composite
insoles on the microclimate in protective footwear. Fibres and Textiles in Eastern Europe, 22(5):89-95.
Kałużka, J, E. Jankowska, M. Pośniak, and D. Ławniczak. 2010. Testing the efficiency of the simultaneous
air cleaning of dust and gases by fibrous filtering and sorptive structures. Fibres and Textiles in Eastern
Europe, 18(4):77-81.
Sojka-Ledakowicz, J., M. Latwinska, J. Kaluzka, and M. Kudzin. 2013. Polypropylene nonwovens with
natural polymers addition for filtration applications. Polimery, 58(7-8):557-61.
Soleimani, F., and M. Sadeghi. 2012. Synthesis of pH- sensitive hydrogel based on starch- polyacrylate
superabsorbent. Journal of Biomaterials and Nanobiotechnology, 3(2A):310-14.
Urbaniak–Domagała, W., H. Wrzosek, H. Szymanowski, K. Majchrzycka, and
A. Brochocka. 2010. Plasma modification of filter nonwovens used for the protection of respiratory
tracts. Fibres and Textiles in Eastern Europe, 83(6):94-9.
Zohuriaan-Mehr, M.J., H. Omidian, S. Doroudiani, and K. Kabiri. 2010. Advances in non-hygienic
applications of superabsorbent hydrogel materials. Journal Material Science, 45(21):5711-35.

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Dyeing and finishing technologies
SUSTAINABLE SOLAR SURFACE DECORATION: THE CORRELATION BETWEEN ANTHOTYPE PRINCIPLES WITH PLANT EXTRACTIONS AS A FORM OF ECO-PATTERNING FOR FABRICS.
SUSTAINABLE SOLAR SURFACE DECORATION:

THE CORRELATION BETWEEN ANTHOTYPE
PRINCIPLES WITH PLANT EXTRACTIONS AS A
FORM OF ECO-PATTERNING FOR FABRICS.
Dr Kate Wells1, Ness Greger2
1
University of Derby, College of Arts, Markeaton Street, Derby, UK.
2
University of Derby, College of Arts, Markeaton Street, Derby, UK.
(Presenting author E-mail: k.wells@derby.ac.uk; Corresponding author email: k.wells@derby.ac.uk)
ABSTRACT
This paper discusses design research undertaken into the correlation between natural
dyes (plant extractions) and the alternative photographic process of Anthotypes
discovered in the early 19th Century. The paper explores the relationship between
natural extracts (dyes) with their fastness properties in relation to the success of this
photographic process and the potential this form of imaging has as a sustainable/
health giving form of surface decoration for textiles: A form of Eco-patterning that relies
upon light and natural substances/dyes not synthetic dyes as the colouring medium.
Instigated by the output of collaborative research between two different disciplines:
That of textile design and early colouration methods with historical photographic
imaging techniques. The research project considered the symbiotic relationship
between natural plant extracts with the success of Anthotypes. The aim of which was
to consider the question: Could this kind of photographic image making be applied
as a future, sustainable method of design generation, colouration and patterning
of fabric for fashion and interiors? The objective was in creating an alternative
sustainable surface design process that relies upon light and natural substances/
dyes not chemical dyestuffs and pigments as the main patterning and processing
medium. The outcomes of which could also provide medicinal healing qualities by
wearing clothing or sleeping on material that has been coloured with natural plant
extracts (dyes), an added health bonus.
Keywords: Anthotypes, Fastness, Fugitive, Natural Dyes, Anti-Bacterial, Anti-Viral.
INTRODUCTION
The research recorded within this paper was based upon a design project which
considered the correlation between natural dyes (plant extractions) with an early
19th Century photographic process known as ‘Anthotype’, in possessing the potential
to evolve a form of eco-patterning that relies upon light and natural substances as the
colouring and decorative medium. Initiated through an earlier research project titled
the ‘Emerging Evidence’ presented at the FORMAT Conference 2015, that consisted of
collaborative research between different disciplines: Fabric colouration (dyeing) and
alternative photography. Two BA photographic students: Jane Jackson, Emily Pearson
and the author explored the emergence of an image using the early photograph

442
techniques of Cyanotypes and Anthotypes; initially investigated by Hershel (1792-

1871) who discovered this form of photography in the 1840’s. The design work of Ness
Greger entitled ‘Through the Woods’ submitted for her MA in Fashion & Textiles (2016)
considered the fastness and fugitive qualities of natural dyes alongside their potential
healing qualities as a textile patterning technique for eco clothing. Some of this more
recent project has been used to expand the original research that was carried out
in 2015 bringing it to this current state of enquiry. The resulting project covered within
this paper considered the symbiotic relationship between natural plant extracts with
the success of Anthotypes, the aim of which as to consider the question: Could this
kind of photographic image making be applied as a future, sustainable method of
design generation, colouration and patterning of fabric for fashion and interiors? The
purpose was to creating an alternative sustainable surface design process that relies
upon light and natural substances/dyes not chemical dyestuffs and pigments as the
main patterning and processing medium. The outcomes of which, could also provide
medicinal healing qualities and well being (Chengaiah 2010) by wearing clothing or
sleeping upon material that has been coloured with natural plant extracts (dyes), an
added health bonus. (Aura) (Wells 2014)
The main objective of the research project was to look at the substantive and the
fugitive properties of the colouration materials alongside different light wavelengths
as a way of analysing the success or failure of using Anthotypes as an alternative
sustainable surface design process. A more scientific/technical methodology was
applied to a design process asking the questions: How and why do Anthotypes work?
What is the correlation of both colorant and positive have with sunlight? Do differing
wavelengths, artificial daylight and Ultraviolet light affect the quality and colour of
images achieved on exposure? What relationship does this have with the fastness
properties of the natural dyes /plant extracts employed within the process? What
fibres and dyes potentially can add to the healing properties of the fabrics produced.
Early research into this field was carried out and recorded by Sir John Frederick
William Herschel (1792-1871) in the early 1800s. Herschel is known to have coined the
terminology “Photograph’ ‘Positive’ and ‘Negative’ (Fabbri 2012) as well as inventing
and developing two photographic processes: The first being Cyanotype, often referred
to as the ‘Blue-print’ process, which is the art of photographic printing in Prussian Blue,
a mineral pigment and dye invented around c1700 (Ware 2014); the second being
an Anthotype process which employs flower and plant extracts to coat papers that
when exposed for long periods of time in natural day light will produce photographic
images, sometimes referred to as Herschel’s Flower Essence Prints (Fabbri 2012).
The employment of Cyanotypes based on the Mineral dye or Lake colour: Prussian
blue as a Mineral dye to pattern fabric is well known and has been well documented.
(Ware 2014) The process makes use of it sensitivity to light to be able to create
photographic images or photograms on paper or fabric. (Hewitt 1995) but the use
of the photographic process of Anthotypes on fabric is relatively unexplored and
unknown.
The word Anthotype is derived from the Greek word anthos for flower. Herschel in his
quest to explore the new science of photography applied his current knowledge of
light, colour and botany and started to experiment with making images through light
using extracted flower pigmentation. (James 2009)
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In 1840 a paper published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society

called ‘On the Chemical Action of Rays of the Solar Spectrum on Preparations of Silver
and other substances, both metallic and non-metallic, and on some photographic
Processes.’ Herschel mentioned Anthotypes for the first time. In it he described trying
to speed up the bleaching action of vegetable juices by isolating specific rays of the
spectrum with a prim and noted the reaction, effect. (Fabbri 2011)
‘We all know that colours of vegetable origin are usually considered to be destroyed
and whitened by the continued action of light. The process, however, is too slow to be
made the subject of any satisfactory series of experiments; and as a consequence,
this subject, so interesting to the painter, the dyer, and general artist, has been allowed
to remain un-investigated.’ (Herschel 1840)
By 1842, Herschel thus describes the experimentation.
‘On the action of rays….. In operating on the colours of flowers I have usually proceeded
as follows: The petals of the fresh flowers, or rather such parts of them as possessed
a uniform tint, were crushed to a pulp in a marble mortar, either alone, or with the
addition of alcohol, and the juice expressed by squeezing the pulp in a clean linen
or cotton cloth. It was spread on paper with a flat brush, and dried in the air without
artificial heat, or at the most with a gentle heat that rises in the ascending current of
air from an Arnott stove.’ (Herschel 1842)
Herschel’s experimentation with Anthotypes was very short-lived by early spring 1842
Herschel had suspended his tests on plant colours in favour of further broadening his
search for new photosensitive substances.
The technique today remains unchanged for application to paper as an alternative
photography technique. Where plant extracts are applied to the surface of 100%
rag papers and exposed with a ‘Positive’ in contact with the coating and then left
for hours/days/weeks or months to expose in natural daylight, eventually creating
a photographic image. But very little has been written about the Anthotype process
and the potential of its application to textiles rather than papers. Key texts currently
available on Anthotypes are: Herschel’s own writings published by the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society 1840 & 1842; the recordings of Herschel published
by Hunt two years later in his book: ‘Researches on Light: An Examination of All
Phenomena connected with the chemical and molecular changes produced by the
influence of the solar rays; embracing all the known photographic processes, and
new discoveries in the art.’ and the more resent book ‘Anthotypes’ written by Marlin
Fabbri (2011).
Research and design interests into the fugitive nature of natural dyes made the
obvious connection linking light fastness combined with wavelength to the success
or failure of the Anthotype process for fabric as a sustainable eco form of decoration
although initial research had highlighted connections with different light wavelengths
even in the original writings of Herschel in his paper ‘On the action of the rays of
the Solar Spectrum on Vegetable Colours, and on new Photographic Processes’ and
those of Hunt in 1844, which contained very early light research contained in a chart/
graph that plots different substances and chemicals including Ferrocyanate of Potash

444
(Cyanotype) and the plants that Herschel experimented with in early Anthotypes (Ten
Week Stocks, Wallflowers, Corchorus Japonica and Green Leaves) against the Solar
Spectra of Light, Heat and Energia (Hunt 1844)
Experimentation and investigations started by employing the natural plants and juice
extractions of flowers and leaves obtained from the Cotesbach Hall Organic Gardens
concentrating on creating Anthotypes as a eco form of patterning with the aim of
understand the relationship that the natural colorant (Dye) has with types of light and
its relationship as to the success or failure of this type of photographic process for
fabrics.
As the research progressed the following questions of enquiry were posed:
Why and how do Anthotypes work?
What is the correlation between colorants and positives with sunlight?
Do differing wavelengths, artificial daylight and Ultraviolet light affect the quality and
colour of images achieved on exposure?
What relationship does this have with the fastness properties of the natural dyes /plant
extracts employed within the process?
What fibres and dyes potentially can add to the healing properties of the fabrics
produced?
Initially plant and flower juices were extracted in the same manner as Herschel’s initial
experimentations in 1842 (Herschel 1842) using Vodka and Surgical spirit for alcohol
extraction with a Marble Mortar and painting the plant extracts onto the surface of
the material. Information on the solubility of natural dyes in an alcohol was obtained
from old dye books Hummel (1885), Bemiss (1806) and Berthollet (1824) to determine
the best solvent to employ on the plants and flowers collected, with observations on
the solutions obtained and solubility of colouring matter recorded. Ness Greger who
employed fast and fugitive natural dyes; gathered locally in Derby or as standardised
pure extracts purchased from reputable suppliers carried out further work using
traditional dyeing procedures. The dyes were applied via the normal aqueous vat
and exhaust bath systems along side alum and tannin mordants to form a base for
experimentation, which resulted in very successful patterning however colour control
is restricted due to natural dye selection and availability. Initial bases of madder and
woad that process good light fastness properties were selected to colour natural
and regenerated cellulosic fabrics such as organic cotton, ramie, banana, bamboo
and soya, a medium shade to be over dyed with fugitive dyes such as elderberry,
blackberry and turmeric, resulting in a mixed hue. These fabrics were covered in
sections by either a black paper stencil or an acetate photographic positive to protect
the fabric beneath from exposure to a light source, which was obtained from either
an ultra violet light exposing box or daylight through glass over a period of time after
which the positives were removed exposing an image on the dyed materials.
To further the research into the healing benefits of natural dyes, extensive secondary
research was carried out on topical health applications of plants that produce a natural
dye colour which revealed substantial research outputs into the healing properties of
plants. For example, Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) historically was perceived to have
magical and protective properties, it has now been proven to have powerful anti-
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inflammatory properties. (Cardon 2007) In addition to Cardon’s extensive monologue

on ‘Natural Dyes’ that outlines the majority of their properties; the paper ‘Medicinal
importance of natural dyes - A review’ outlines many natural dyes that are known to
have anti-aging, antiseptic, anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory,
anti-carcinogenic and anti-fungal properties. (Chengaiah et al 2010)
To fully explore the sustainability and ecological aspect of the research project, it
became necessary to source alternative mordants to alum given that alum is the only
element of natural dyeing that is produced via chemical processes. One such source
has been discovered by the Bebali Foundation based in Bali (Bebali Foundation,
2013) who are helping to alleviate rural poverty, empower women and protect the
rainforest by selling fallen ‘symplocos leaves’ as a natural alternative to alum. This
negates the need for industrial methods involved in the production of alum and
creates colours nearly as strong as those created by alum; some experimentation
was performed using this as an alum substitute. Tannic mordants employed already
came from natural sources such as Oak Galls, Sumac and Pomegranate.
Base material choice was centred on cellulosic fibre bases: natural and regenerated
both knitted and woven that are biodegradable: Ramie, a highly sustainable fabric,
which is naturally resistant to bacteria, moulds and mildew; Bamboo is renowned
for its softness, antibacterial, thermos-control and UV protection properties. It is ideal
for allergy prone skin and is recognised as environmentally friendly due its fast
growing nature that does not require fertilizers or pesticides; Soya was selected for its
environmentally friendly production methods, low waste and the fact that plant stock
is easily regenerated. Others considered and experimented upon were banana and
milk fabrics, both waste bi-products of the food industry, and organic cotton.
RESULTS
According to Cristae, the analysis of the natural dyes listed in Colour Index revealed
that almost 50% of all natural dyes used to colour textiles are flavonoid compounds.
Most of the remaining natural dyes fall within three chemical classes, which are
anthraquinones, naphthoquinones and indigoids. Although flavonoid compounds
are not very light fast, anthraquinones and indigoids are noted for their excellent
light fastness. Other aspects of chemical structure may affect the light fastness, such
as the symmetry of the dye molecules: symmetrical dye molecules usually exhibit
greater light fastness than non-symmetrical dye molecules, and larger dye molecules
generally provide faster dyeing than smaller ones. (Cristae 2006) Cox-Crews (1982) in
a study on 18 yellow natural dyes concluded that the mordant is more important than
the dye itself in determining the light fastness of coloured textiles with the use of tin
and alum mordant results in significantly more fading. The light source (the nature of
the incident light) is very important during the photo-fading process; fugitive dyes are
faded mainly by visible radiation, while dyes of high light fastness are faded mainly
by UV radiation.
In order to establish a clear method of how to manipulate the differing light fastness
of natural dyes, a literary search was carried out with Patricia Crews (1982), Gill Dalby
(1985), Herschel (1842) and David Lee (2007) recording extensive research regarding
methods and techniques and have rated natural dyes based on their light fastness.
Their studies show that although the majority of natural dyes fade at differing rates
when exposed to natural daylight there are a handful of natural dyes that show a
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strong light fastness, these include Madder, Indigo and Woad. Therefore the mixing of
these light fast dyes with fugitive dyes can potentially create a colour that changes
over time. More work is planned in the future to investigate the influence of different
wavelengths at opposing ends of the spectrum.
By using an Anthotype processes as a patterning technique, very successful results were
created on a wide range of fabric types but this was reliant upon a strong natural light
source which is not always available in the UK so may be more successfully employed
in countries with high light levels throughout the year or through the employment of
ultra violet light sources but these tend to only be successful with the fading of yellows
and oranges.
The colour pallet that can be employed is limited to a small collection of fast and
fugitive dyestuff that process potential healing properties created by over dyeing and
layering. The use of a mordant such as alum at times increased the fugitive properties
of the dyes but others such as tannic acid provided the chosen dye substances with a
higher fastness rating but thus restricted the potential of using Anthotype techniques
to produce the patterning. Observations were made that the fabrics and patterns
produce continued to fade during time and exposure to natural daylight. If such
patterning is to be commercially successful this is a design that that would have to
be accepted by the consumer or other ways of stabilising the designs to stop further
fading would need to be investigated into such as the use of UV blockers and other
substances that would slow down the fading process. (Cristea 2006) Other sustainable
patterning was created by exploring the pH sensitivity of the dye stuff, for example
elderberry that can change colour dramatically from pink/blue to olive green with
a higher pH value and if applied to cellulosic fibres would cause little fibre damage
and a customised patterning solution could be created by utilising such properties.
CONCLUSIONS
“The Artists go on boldly, and are not afraid to be Chemists,
the Chemists gain courage and long to be Artists.”
The Athenæum 1858
As an eco form of patterning that uses light as the main catalyst for cloth decoration
the use of cyanotypes is well known (Hewitt 1995) and the revival of light sensitive vat
dyestuffs is well documented and commercially successful (House 1981) (Epp 1995)
but the application of natural dyes as Anthotypes is still at investigatory stages and will
rely on changes in attitude to the permanence of a pattern or colour but provides an
interesting challenge in eco patterning to take into further research.
The choice of sustainable materials both in the form of fibres, natural dyes and
mordants add to the eco-friendliness of the patterning technique and builds upon
the health aspects of the process. According to Li Yi–You in his paper: ‘The Soybean
Protein Fibre - A Healthy & Comfortable Fibre for the 21st Century’
‘The soybean protein fibre, with its good affinity to human skin, contains several amino
acids and has good health effects. In the fibre-spinning process of the soybean
protein fibre, the addition of Chinese herbal medicine with the effects of manner of a
chemical bond. The medical effect is outstanding and permanent, avoiding the
disadvantage that the medical effect is less long-lasting when functional products
of cotton goods are developed with the after-finishing method.’
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By considering such potential aspects in fibre development with similar properties

being provided to Lycel and Bamboo regenerated fibres prior to extruding or through
the use of natural colorants, the potential health giving aspects of a material can be
improved considerably. The sustainable and health aspects of natural dyes due to
the fact that they are now known to contain anti-viral and anti-bacterial properties
(Cardon 2007) more textile companies across the world are promoting positive
health giving attributes to a variety of products they market for example Aura Herbal
Textiles based in India. Their website states: ‘These ingredients are not only medicinal,
regenerative and healthy also our process helps avoid over 8000 chemicals used in
synthetic processes and saves over 2000 litres of water per garment.’
Although some very successful outputs were achieved, this research project plans to
be extended by looking at different solubility of colouring materials touched upon by
Hubble in 1885 and expanded upon by Lee “Natures Palette: The Science of Plant
Colour (2007) improvements in application of the colouring material will be considered
and explored. As well as methods for increasing the light fastness by applying after
mordant such as Iron or Copper acetates to the Anthotypes after exposure or as
recent research has revealed the use of UV blockers such as Vitamin C, (Cristea 2006)
lemon and lime juice extracts of banana peel (Salah 2010) that does not normally
affect the colour of the patterning produced.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Fellow researchers: Ness Greger; Jane Jackson, Emily Pearson and the Cotesbach
Estate. The University of Derby: College of Arts Research Fund; The University of Derby
Undergraduate Research Scholarship.
REFERENCES
“Aura. Welcome to aura”, Accessed 30 January 2016 .http://www.auraherbalwear.
com/HERBAL_DYEING#Herbs.
Bebali Foundation. 2013. Accessed 30 January 2016.
http://plantmordant.org/symplocos/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Plant-Mordant-
Project-Recipes-version-2.pdf
Berthollet. A. 1824. Elements of the art of dyeing and Bleaching. London: Thomas Tegg.
Bliss, E. 1815. The Dyer’s Companion. 3rd Edition. 1973. New York: Dover Publications.
Cardon, D. 2007. Natural dyes: Sources, tradition, technology and science. London:
Archetype Publications.
Chengaiah, B. Mallikarjuna Rao, K. Mahesh Kumar, K. Alagusundaram, M. and
Madhusudhana Chetty, C. 2010. Medical importance of natural dyes – A review,
International Journal of PharmTech Research, 2 (1): 144-154.
Cristea, D and Vilarem, G. 2006. Improving light fastness of natural dyes on cotton
yarn.
Dyes and Pigments. 70: 238e245. Accessed: 30, January 2016. www.elsevier.com/
locate/dyepig.
CoxCrews, P. 1982. The Influence of Mordant on the Lightfastness of Yellow Natural
Dyes. Faculty Publications - Textiles, Merchandising and Fashion Design. Paper 7.
Accessed 30 January, 2016. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/textiles_facpub/7.

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Dalby, G. 1985. Natural Dyes, Fast or Fugitive. England: Ashill Publishers.

Epp, D. 1995. The chemistry of Vat dyes. Edited by Mickey Sarquis. United States: Terrific
Science Press.
Fabbri, M. 2011. Anthotypes: explore the darkroom in your garden and make
photographs using plants. Stockholm: M. Fabbri, Alternativephotography.com.
Hewitt, B. 1995. Blueprints on fabric: innovative uses for cyanotype. Loveland, CO:
Interweave Press.
House, S. 1981. Artistic photographic processes. New York: American Photographic
Book Publishing.
Hunt, R. 1844. Researches on Light: An Examination of All Phenomena connected
with the chemical and molecular changes produced by the influence of the solar
rays; embracing all the known photographic processes, and new discoveries in the
art. London: Longman, Brown Green and Longmans. Re-print: Arno Press, New York.
(1973)
Herschel, J. 1840. On the Chemical Action of Rays of the Solar Spectrum on Preparations
of Silver and other substances, both metallic and non-metallic, and on some
photographic Processes.’ Accessed 30 January, 2016. http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.
org/content/130/1.full.pdf+html.
Herschel, J. 1842. On the Action of the Rays of the Solar Spectrum on Vegetable
Colours, and on Some New Photographic Processes. Accessed 30 January, 2016
http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/132/181.full.pdf+html.
Hubble, J. 1885. The Dyeing of textile fabrics. London: Cassell & Company Ltd.
James, C. 2009. The Book of Alternative Photographic Processes. 2nd edn. United
States: Delmar Cengage Learning.
Lee, D. 2007. Nature’s palette: the science of plant color. 1st edn. Chicago: University
Of Chicago Press.
Review of 5th Exhibition of the ‘Photographic Society’. 1582. The Athenæum p.246.
Salah, S. 2010. Antibacterial activity and ultraviolet (UV) protection property of some
Egyptian cotton fabrics treated with aqueous extract from banana peel. African
Journal of Agricultural Research Vol. 6(20), pp. 4746-4752, Accessed 30 January, 2016.
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJAR.
Ware, M. 2014. Cyanomicon: History, Science and Art of Cyanotype photographic
printing in Prussian blue. Buxton: www.mikeware.co.uk. Accessed 30 January, 2016.
http://www.mikeware.co.uk/mikeware/downloads.html
Wells, K. 2013. Colour, health and wellbeing: The hidden qualities and properties of
natural dyes. Journal of the International Colour Association: 11, 28-36
Yi-you, L. 2004. The Soybean Protein Fibre - A Healthy & Comfortable Fibre for the
21st Century. Fibres and Textiles in Eastern Europe, [e-journal], 12, 2: 8-9. Accessed 9
January, 2016http://www.fibtex.lodz.pl/46_05_08.pdf

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PLASMA MODIFICATION OF TEXTILES BEYOND

A BLACK ART
M.R.S. McCoustra1, R.R. Mather1
1
School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, EH14 4AS, Scotland
(Presenting author E-mail: r.r.mather@hw.ac.uk; Corresponding author E-mail: r.r.mather@hw.ac.uk)
ABSTRACT
Gas plasma treatments are now becoming well established commercially as a
means of altering the surface properties of textiles without detriment to their bulk
physical and mechanical properties. The technique offers a clean, dry approach that
uses considerably less energy than nearly all the traditional wet treatments. Plasma
treatments, depending on their nature, can render changes in fibre hydrophilicity/
hydrophobicity, assist dyeing, enhance the shrink-proofing of wool and promote
many other technologically desirable properties. The treatments are, however, far
from well understood at a mechanistic level and are to a large extent “recipe” based.
Our contribution sets out the case for improved knowledge and understanding of
plasma treatments of textiles, so that conditions can be better formulated, especially
on an industrial scale, and fewer trials are needed to achieve a desired result. We
also provide an overview of what is currently known about the mechanisms of
plasma treatments and highlight particular areas that we consider need immediate
improvements in our understanding of them.
Keywords: plasma, textile, secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), X-ray
photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR), statistical analysis,
computer modelling.
INTRODUCTION
Gas plasma treatments are becoming well established commercially as a means
of changing the surface properties of textiles without altering their bulk physical and
mechanical properties. Indeed plasma treatments are starting to revolutionise textile
processing technology, now that equipment on an industrial scale is commercially
available. Low pressure and atmospheric pressure technologies are available,
although arguably atmospheric pressure equipment is attracting more interest
commercially in that it can be more readily utilised as part of an overall continuous
process.
The plasma technique offers a clean, dry approach that uses considerably less energy
than the traditional wet treatments. Depending on their nature, plasma treatments
can render changes in hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity (Coulson 2007), assist dyeing
(Thomas 2007; Marcandalli and Riccardi 2007), enhance the shrink resistance of
wool (Thomas 2007), and promote flame retardancy, abrasion resistance, ballistic
protection and many other technologically desirable properties (Mather 2009; Sun
and Chen 2012). Plasma treatments can also be used on biomedical textiles: notably,
sterilisation by inactivating infectious micro-organisms present on a fabric surface,
and the adaptation of fabric surfaces so that they can anchor biological molecules to

450
render a textile more biocompatible (Huh et al 2001; Vohrer 2007). Another important
advantage offered by plasma treatments is the increased scope for grafting polymers
onto textile fibre surfaces (Wei et al 2005; Rosace and Massafra 2008). Grafting permits
the nature of the surfaces to be altered to suit the application for which the textile is
intended.
The nature of the modification of a textile surface by a plasma treatment depends
on a number of control factors. These include the composition of the gas, the type
of textile, the power and frequency of the electrical supply, and the temperature
and duration of the treatment. Nevertheless, despite all these factors, several effects
can be broadly identified. One of these effects is the etching of fibre surfaces, from
which arise changes in surface texture and wetting properties. Another effect is
modification of a fibre’s surface chemistry, through the introduction of particular
chemical functional groups. A third effect is plasma polymerisation, whereby very
thin polymeric films are formed on the fibre surface. These polymeric coatings possess
highly cross-linked structures.
Table 1 shows the effects of some commonly applied gases (Mather 2009). Whilst
knowledge of the effects shown in Table 1 is clearly useful they are, arguably,
hardly surprising. It should also be noted that after a low pressure plasma treatment,
subsequent exposure of the treated sample to the atmosphere may trigger further
changes to the fibre surface.
Table 1. Effects of some gas plasmas on textile surfaces
Gas plasma Effect

Argon Increased surface roughness
Fluorocarbons Fluoropolymer films on surface
Increased hydrophobicity
Oxygen Oxygen-containing groups on surface
Increased hydrophilicity
Nitrogen Nitrogen-containing groups on surface
Considering the advantages that plasma technology offers in terms of a processing

strategy that consumes less energy, that is more environmentally and medically
acceptable, and that is extremely versatile, there is a clear need for much more
detailed knowledge of how the technology functions. What actually takes place
inside a plasma chamber during a particular plasma treatment? At the moment in
textile technology, plasma treatments are far from well understood at a mechanistic
level and are to a large extent “recipe” based. There is a clear need for improved
understanding of plasma treatment processes for textiles, so that processing conditions
can be better formulated, especially on an industrial scale, and fewer trials are needed
to achieve a desired result. This improved understanding of the mechanisms can
come from a combination of advanced spectroscopic and microscopic techniques,
statistical experimental design and analysis and computer modelling.

451
SOME PROPERTIES OF PLASMAS

To better understand plasma treatment processes, we need to consider the nature of
plasmas. In fact, gas plasmas are highly complex. When a sufficiently large voltage
is applied across a space containing a gas, the gas will break down into a mixture
of ions, electrons and excited neutral atoms and molecules. The interactions of these
species with one another and with the textile to be treated are consequently highly
numerous. In addition, a thin neutral sheath is created between the plasma and the
textile fibre surfaces, with the result that electrons tend to be reflected back into the
plasma and ions are accelerated towards the surfaces (Graham 2007).
It is not surprising that, given the complexity of the species comprising a plasma, a
huge number of reactions between them are possible (Graham 2007), and just a few
of these are shown in Table 2. In addition, a large number of reactions between the
plasma species and the textile fibre surface have to be considered (exemplified in
Table 3), as it is these that govern the nature of the treated fibre surface. Differences
of behaviour between the plasma species in the gas phase and at the fibre surface
have to be taken into account (Abugalil et al 2013). The topographical and chemical
heterogeneity of the fibre surfaces, particularly in most natural fibres, will also have
significant influences, and the effect of a plasma treatment can be more pronounced
at the edge of a fabric than elsewhere on it (Verschuren and Kiekens 2005).
Table 2. Examples of reactions of plasma species in the plasma chamber
Ionisation e + A → 2e + A∙
Dissociation e + AB → e + A + B
Dissociation AB + M → A + B + M
Electronic excitation e + A → e + A*
Energy transfer A* + B → A + B*
Relaxation A* + B → A + B
Neutralisation A- + B+ → A + B
Charge transfer A+ + B → A + B+
Dissociative charge transfer A+ + BC → A + B + C+
e represents an electron and * an electronically excited state.
Table 3. Examples of reactions of plasma species with a surface
Adsorption A + (s) → A(s)
Desorption A(s) → A + (s)
Reaction at surface A + B(s) → AB (s)
Reaction on surface A(s) + B(s) → AB(s) + (s)
Sputtering A+ + e + B(b) → A + B
Electron emission A+ + (s) → A(s) + e
e represents an electron, (s) an open surface site, A(s) a species A bound to the
surface and B(b) a species B in the bulk phase.

452
It is clear, therefore, that a quest to elucidate so many reactions for every individual
plasma treatment applied to a textile fabric would be highly impractical. However, in
practice a full elucidation is unlikely to be required to gain a sufficient understanding
of the important mechanisms at work. Some of the reactions will have a much more
significant role than others. The level of understanding necessary in practice is one
that ensures that treatment conditions can be better formulated, with consequently
fewer trials to achieve a particular desired result.
PRACTICAL APPROACHES
Analysis of the fibre surface
The aims are to identify plasma species within a plasma chamber, follow changes
in their concentration during plasma treatment, and monitor directly chemical
and topographical changes to the surface of the textile being treated. To achieve
these aims, a number of techniques can be applied. Changes to the physical and
topographical properties can be identified using scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
and atomic force microscopy (AFM) (Neville et al 2007). However, it should be borne
in mind that microscopy involves highly localised analysis that is confined to a small
area of single fibre. The analysis of this area may not therefore be representative of
the whole fibre, and still less of the fabric of which the fibre is a constituent. SEM is well
established, having been commercially available for about 50 years. An important
advance in SEM has been the development of environmental scanning electron
microscopy (ESEM), where in contrast to SEM evacuation to very low pressure is not
required and there is less need for a metallic coating on the sample. Thus, changes
in the wetting behaviour as a result of plasma treatment can be directly observed.
AFM, being a probe microscopy, has the clear advantage that it can image fibre
surfaces without the need for evacuation or pretreatment of the surfaces. Imaging
can even be done in water. Unprecedented levels of the detail of fibre surfaces
can be observed. In other fields AFM has also been used to provide quantitative
assessments of surface mechanical properties by use of so-called “force-distance”
curves, yet this use appears so far to be limited with textiles. One example, however,
of the use of force-distance curves in textile science comes from the work of Huson
and his co-workers for analysing wool surfaces (Gibson et al 2001; Dai et al 2009).
Plasma treatments are very likely to change surface mechanical properties, and AFM
provides a possible means of assessing these changes. Such changes could affect
sensory aspects of fabric handle, for example.
Changes to a fibre’s surface chemistry can be followed using mass spectrometry
(MS), and particularly secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), X-ray photoelectron
spectroscopy (XPS) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) (Sodhi 2004; Neville et al 2007;
Delcorte et al 2015). SIMS is a valuable technique for identifying the individual chemical
constituents of a textile surface, although the textile must first be evacuated. However,
SIMS is less reliable for determining their relative proportions, as the proportion of ions
discharged from the surface during a SIMS analysis will vary from one type of ion to
another. In this respect, XPS is a useful adjunct to SIMS in that it provides a quantitative
measure of the elemental composition of a textile surface, and surface chemical
groups can be identified. As with SIMS, samples have to be evacuated before
analysis. By contrast, FTIR spectroscopy is performed under atmospheric conditions.

453
The presence or absence of surface chemical functional groups can be detected,

and specific bonding characteristics at the surface can then be determined. Recently
a technique combining AFM and IR has been developed, from which AFM images
together with nanoscale IR can be displayed (Dazzi et al 2012), The technique is being
applied for example to the characterisation of single polymer nanofibres.
Changes within the plasma chamber
Despite the useful information that can be gained about plasma processes from direct
examination of plasma treated fibre surfaces, much additional insight would be gained
if a plasma treatment were followed during the actual treatment process. Techniques
to do this are available, but so far the use of these techniques, and combinations
of them, seem to have made little impact on textile science and technology. One
particularly important technique that can be applied to in situ analysis of the contents
of a plasma chamber is MS, notably quadrupole MS.
The characterisation of species within a plasma chamber goes back 20 years. In
a paper by Alexander et al (1997) for example, hexamethyldisiloxane, HMDSO,
was subjected to low pressure plasma treatments, and thin films were deposited
onto silicon substrates. The species within the plasma chamber were analysed by
quadrupole MS. It was found that cationic oligomers of HMDSO were formed in the
gas phase, and indeed the deposited material appeared to possess a structure closer
to these oligomers than to the original HMDSO. Since then, there have been many
other papers on analysis of plasma species during low pressure treatments. More
recently this approach has been extended to atmospheric plasma treatments. As
an example, the plasma treatments of a series of polyolefins, including polyethylene
and polypropylene, have been studied in this way (Beck et al, 2009). Characterisation
of plasma species in situ is therefore well established and could be more widely
extended to textiles.
STATISTICAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
As mentioned in the Introduction, there are a number of control factors determining
the effect of a given plasma treatment on a given textile substrate. It would therefore
be beneficial in practice to design experiments on a sound statistical basis using
factorial experimental design, so that the key factors for a particular treatment, and
any interactions between them, can be reliably evaluated, using recognised statistical
tests. Not only can optimum treatment conditions be better formulated, but insights
into the mechanisms behind the treatments are also likely to be gained.
This approach has also been usefully applied to analysis of SIMS data. An example
was recently published by Delcorte et al (2015). They describe a comparison of
plasma polymer films of polystyrene, formed under different conditions of plasma
treatment. Two commercial polystyrene samples were also included in the study: one
linear and the other cross-linked. Using principal component analysis, a recognised
statistical method, they established that just two components contain nearly all the
information in the SIMS analyses. The first of the components revealed that for the
plasma polymers, the protonated styrene monomer and some oxygen-containing
fragment ions dominated. For the two commercial polystyrene samples, the tropyllium
ion, C7H7+, stood out. The structural differences between the plasma polystyrene

454
samples and the commercial samples are highly significant. The second component
clearly revealed differences in the chemical nature of the plasma polystyrene films,
depending on whether the films had been obtained above or below a power of
50-60W. Films formed at powers above this threshold possessed less aromaticity and
greater cross-linking and oxidation. Below this threshold aromaticity was retained in
the films. The power applied is therefore particularly significant in determining the
plasma polymer structure.
COMPUTER MODELLING
Computer modelling is another approach with the potential to assist our understanding
of textile plasma processing. Some interesting examples have been published
by Bogaerts and her colleagues (Bogaerts et al 2010). They point out that several
modelling approaches for plasmas are available, including fluid models, Monte
Carlo (MC) models and a combination of these models. Reactions in the gas phase
at atmospheric pressure within a plasma chamber can be modelled using fluid
modelling, and the densities of reacting species and species formed in the chamber
can be calculated as a function of time. So too can the densities of intermediate free
radicals. For low pressure plasma reactions, Bogaerts et al emphasise the importance
of the densities of electrons within the chamber and argue that, whereas a fluid
modelling approach can still be applied to the other plasma species present, it is
advisable to treat electrons with an MC model. They combine the electron MC model
with a fluid model for the other species, using a so-called hybrid plasma equipment
model (Grapperhaus and Kushner 1997).
These types of computer modelling approaches to gas phase reactions in the plasma
chamber are now gaining some traction. However, in the case of plasma treatments
of textiles, or of any other materials, their presence in the chamber obviously has to
be taken into account. A computer model also needs to accommodate reactions
of plasma species with the textile. This input can, for example, be satisfactorily
obtained from molecular dynamics simulations, in which the behaviour over time of
a few thousand atoms within a few nm3 volume is followed (Bogaerts et al 2010).
Successive impacts can also be modelled, as the nature of the surface changes.
Therefore, whilst computer modelling may seem highly theoretical to the practical
textile technologist, it may well have its place as an adjunct to actual experimental
approaches, provided the boundary conditions by which all modelling approaches
are limited are recognised.
CONCLUSIONS
Plasma technologies are beginning to make huge impacts on commercial textile
processing. As noted above, very many useful application properties can be
obtained in textiles under environmentally and medically acceptable conditions.
Consequently, we need to underpin the growth of plasma technologies with a much
improved understanding of plasma processes at a mechanistic level. In this paper we
propose a number of approaches that in many cases can be used concomitantly,
especially when their use in other material technologies is considered.

455
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EFFECTS OF LIQUOR RATIO, TIME, AND CONCENTRATION OF DYE ON MERCERIZED 100% COTTON DYED WITH REACTIVE OR VAT DYES
EFFECTS OF LIQUOR RATIO, TIME, AND

CONCENTRATION OF DYE ON MERCERIZED
100% COTTON DYED WITH REACTIVE OR VAT
DYES
AZEEZ MUTIU O.
Department of Polymer & Textile Technology, Yaba College of Technology ,Yaba, Lagos Nigeria.
(Presenting author E-mail: azeemone@yahoo.co.uk)
ABSTRACT
Generally, in textile dyeing of cotton, vat dyes have been proven to have excellent
fastness properties over other dyes. Reactive dyes are the next to the vat in the rating.
To have an efficient dyeing operation, dyer has responsibility of controlling his system
variables such as temperature, time, liquor ratio, dye concentration, PH, chemicals,
salt and so on.
Aim
To evaluate dyeing variables such as liquor ratio(30:1,40:1& 50:1), dyeing time
(30,45,60 & 75 minutes) and dye concentration(4,8 & 12 % o.w.f) at constant range of
temperature(50-60◦C).This is to determine economical and optimum application of
reactive and the vat dyes on mercerized 100% cotton fabric.
The sample was subjected to preparatory processes: desizing, scouring, bleaching
and mercerization. Dyeing of the sample took place in 6-cylindrical dyeing machine.
Method of analysis
Random visual assessment by four different people (observers) in which the samples
were arranged according to intensity or value. Three out of the observers followed
similar arrangement independently. This caters for differences in individual’s power
of vision.
Results / Findings
The intensity of the reactive showed significant difference at different liquor ratios
and the results increased in descending order (30:1, 40:1, 50:1), while vat dye in
ascending order (50:1, 40:1, 30:1). Also, at different dyeing time, reactive dye showed
highest intensity at first 30 minutes and least at 45 minutes while vat at 60 and 75. And
intensity increased in proportional to the concentration of dye in solution of both dyes
respectively.
Keywords: mercerization, reactive dye, vat dye, intensity.
INTRODUCTION
In textile dyeing, it is the responsibility of the dyer to identify fibre composition (for
instance: cotton, polyester or nylon fibres) before taking decision on the type of dye
to be applied out of the available dyes at his disposal. It is not enough to discern
dyes with good fastness properties like vat or reactive dyes only. But it is of paramount

457
importance to select the optimum and the most economical application conditions
which may be reproduced at any convenient time.
Textile dyeing is an application of colourant: usually dye to the textile material in an
aqueous solution or medium of dye and other additives. Effective and efficient dyeing
requires an appropriate monitoring of system variables which include: temperature,
time, liquor ratio, dye concentration, pH, and chemicals. All these variables exercise
considerable influence on dyeing in terms of exhaustion and colour intensity of dyed
sample.
Materials : mercerized100% cotton (plain weave fabric), reactive dye (Cibacron yellow
F-4G), common salt (50g per litre of bath), sodium carbonate(10g per litre of bath),6-
cylinderical dyeing machine, beakers, stirrer, measuring cylinder, weighing balance,
thermometer, stop wash, anthraquinone vat dye (yellow), sodium hydrosulphite (5%
o.w.f), caustic soda (20% o.w.f), common salt (10% o.w.f).
Sample was subjected to preparatory processes which include: desizing, scouring,
bleaching and mercerization before being dyed at restricted temperature of 50 -600C
for seven different baths as in table 1 below. Non-parametric statistics techniques
were adopted in analysis of the dyed samples and ordinal scale rating was used to
express relative degree of intensity of the dyed samples (strongest = 5, stronger = 3
and strong = 1).
Procedure
Reactive dye was weighed, pasted and mixed at room temperature with water
and added to the dye bath. Subsequently, the mercerized samples were immersed
and agitated for 5 minutes in different baths. Later, the samples were removed and
50g/l of common salt was added to each baths separately. The samples were later
reintroduced into the baths and the temperature was raised to boiling within a period
of 30 minutes. Thereafter, the samples were removed from the baths and 10g of
sodium carbonate was added to each bath respectively. And dyeing continued at
temperature range of 50-600C.
For vat dye, it was pasted and dissolved in hot water about 50ml. The dissolved caustic
soda and the sodium hydrosulphite were added to each bath separately. Moist
mercerized cotton samples were immersed in the dye liquor and dyeing continued
with an agitation at temperature ranges of 50-600C. At the completion of dyeing,
samples were hung in the air for 10-30 minutes to allow dye air oxidation. Subsequently,
the samples were rinsed in diluted acetic acid (concentration: 0.1%) before the hot
and the cold water rinse.

458
Table 1: variables and their values with reactive and the vat dyes in different dyeing
baths.
Reactive Reactive Reactive dye Vat dye Vat dye Vat dye
dye dye
Liquor Dyeing Concentration Dyeing Concentration

Baths ratio time(min) of dye (% Liquor ratio of dye (%
shade) time(min) shade)
1 30:1 30 4 30:1 45 4
2 40:1 30 4 40:1 45 4
3 50:1 30 4 50:1 45 4
4 30:1 30 8 30:1 45 8
5 30:1 30 12 30:1 45 12
6 30:1 45 4 30:1 60 4
7 30:1 60 4 30:1 75 4
RESULTS
Table 2: Reactive dye (Cibacron F-4G) yellow, variables & the colour intensity rating
Baths /s/n Liquor ratio Dyeing time Concentration of dye Corresponding colour
(min) (%shade) intensity rating
(ordinal scale)
1 30:1 30 12 5
2 40:1 60 8 3
3 50:1 45 4 1
Graph1 Graph 2
Graph 3

459
Table 3: Vat dye (anthraquinone) yellow, variables & colour intensity rating
Corresponding colour
Dyeing time Concentration of dye
Baths / s/n Liquor ratio intensity rating
(min) (% shade)
(ordinal scale)
1 30:1 75 4 1
2 40:1 45 8 3
3 50:1 60 12 5
Graph4 Graph5
CONCLUSIONS
From the experimental results obtained, the tables (2& 3) and graphs (1-5) suggest how
dyeing variables under investigation influence colour intensity of the dyed samples as
shown below:
(1) Liquor ratio
The reactive dye, Cibacron Yellow has maximum colour intensity at low liquor ratio,
30:1 and least at 50:1 provided the rest of dyeing variables remain unchanged .These
results are evidences for the fact that there is less reaction between dye molecules
and water than it is with dye-fibre interaction to form a covalent bond at low liquor
ratio. This suggests that reactive dyeing is ideal with dyeing equipment using short
liquor ratio such as Jiger. Part of the advantages of reactive dyeing is therefore energy
cost, water, dye and additives economy as well as low effluent discharge.
For vat dyeing, the colour intensity on the other hand relatively showed direct
relationship .It increases as the liquor ratios increases provided that other dyeing
variables remain constant. It has highest value at 50:1 and least at 30:1 respectively.
This indicates that at high liquor ratio, solubility of leuco compound increases and the
tendency for fabric parts protruding outside the dyeing bath reduces .This prevents
pre -oxidation which might take place if it were short liquor ratios .The advantages
include: uniform dyeing, and bath exhaustion economy.
(2) Dyeing time
The time of dyeing against colour intensity for both dyes showed nonlinear relationship.
Reactive dye has highest colour intensity at first 30 minutes and least at 45 minutes.
460
The maximum turning point of the graph (2) corresponds to 60 minutes of dyeing.
This suggests that rate of formation of covalent bonds and reactivity between dye
molecules and fibres are more active at early dyeing time before optimum exhaustion
rather than prolonged time. The findings showed that dye- fibre interaction reduces
as concentration of reactive dye in bath reduces and there is a point during the
dyeing that it increases again after number of available water molecules that can
react with the dye reduces.
In case of the vat dye, however, the intensity shows highest value (5) at 60 minutes and
finally dropping to least value (1) at 75 minutes as dyeing continued .The minimum
turning point of the colour intensity corresponds to 45 minutes range of dyeing. This
reverse in the process occurred because oxidation-the fixation means for vat dyes,
had not taken place immediately after the optimum exhaustion. This indicates that
there is time limit for the application of vat dyes, beyond which the colour drifts back
to the solution.
Therefore, an observable change in colour intensity is possible within interval or range
of 15 minutes in dyeing with either reactive or vat dyes.
(3) Dye concentration
In respect of dye concentration, the intensity increased as depth of shade increased
from 4 to 12. This is in line with the theory of isotherm. These findings shows that both
reactive and the vat dyes have linear relationship between concentration of applied
dye and colour intensity before equilibrium exhaustion provided that other dyeing
variables remain unchanged.
Finally, this study generally indicates higher sensitivity of colour intensity to liquor ratio
and time of dyeing than it is to concentration provided that other dyeing variables
remain constant during the operation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I sincerely show my gratitude and appreciation to the Management of Yaba College
of Technology, Yaba, Lagos and the entire staff, Department of Polymer and Textile
Technology for their immense positive contribution towards attainment of my academy
pursuit.
Lastly, I am very grateful to the Textile Institute and all the authors whose reference
had been made to their works in this study for making available their knowledge for
the benefit of humanity.
Indeed, these efforts are unquantifiable and I pray success for all in all endeavours.
Azeez Mutiu O (author)
REFERENCES
1. Azeez Mutiu O. (2008), An Evaluation of Dyeing Variables: time, liquor ratio and dye concentration
on dyed cotton material with vat and reactive dyes (unpublished project), Lagos.
2. Debbie Ann Givello (1982) Understand Fabrics: from fiber to finished cloth, New York, Fairchild
publication.
3. Gohl E.P.G and Vilenskey L.D (1963) Textile Science: India, CBS Publishers and Distributors
4. Kirk Othmer (1980) Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology (3rd edition), vol. 8. P 159,169, New York
W iley Interscience Publication.

461
5. Peter Obinna N. (1987) Fundamental Principles of Textile Dyeing, Printing and Finishing, Zaria,
Ahmadu Bello University.
6. Peter J. Dolby (1987) Dyeing of cellulose and other natural blends (AATCC workshop) Charlotte ICI
Americas Inc.
7. Trotman E.R (1984) Dyeing and Chemical Technology of Textile Fibre (6th edition), London, Edward
Arnold .
8. Trotman (1968) Textile Scouring and Bleaching, London: Griffin.
9. United Nigerian Textile Mill, Ikorodu, Lagos (source of the 100% cotton fabric sample used).

462
INKJET PRINTING CHOLESTERIC LIQUID CRYSTALS ONTO TREATED POLYESTER WOVEN TEXTILE SUBSTRATES
INKJET PRINTING CHOLESTERIC LIQUID

CRYSTALS ONTO TREATED POLYESTER WOVEN
TEXTILE SUBSTRATES
Celina Jones, Gabriele Wortmann, Franz J Wortmann
The University of Manchester, School of Materials,
Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
(Corresponding author E-mail: celina.jones@manchester.ac.uk)
ABSTRACT
Cholesteric liquid crystals produce a wide colour gamut and provide angular colour
effects that would be a welcome addition to the ‘toolbox’ of a Textile Designer. The
concept of applying structurally coloured materials as opposed to conventional
coloration techniques, such as dyes and pigments, has been explored (Picot
et.al.2013). In this study, cholesteric liquid crystals have been applied to specifically
pre-treated textile substrates, using a piezoelectric inkjet printer. Solvent-based ink
formulations have been deposited onto black polyester woven textile substrates,
which had been UV-cured. Different ink formulations, with varying concentrations of
nematic liquid crystal and chiral dopant, have been investigated to create a range
of coloured films. Research has been carried out to determine whether film thickness,
fabric structure and surface treatments have an impact on the colour perceived
by the observer. The quantity of solution deposited has been varied to produce
colourant films of different thicknesses. These investigations have been carried out on
treated and untreated plain woven structures with different thread densities. From the
findings it is concluded that alterations to these variables change the alignment of
the molecules in the solutions, and subsequent films, affecting the colour perceived
by the observer.
Keywords: (cholesteric liquid crystals, coloured films, surface treatment)
INTRODUCTION
Spray coating a solution of cholesteric liquid-crystalline monomers onto a melt-
processed and oriented polyamide-6 substrate has been explored (Picot et.al.2013).
Reflectivity measurements and optical microscopy showed that a well-defined liquid
crystalline film was obtained (Picot et.al.2013).
The aim of this research is to create a range of colourful cholesteric liquid crystal
(CLC) films onto black polyester woven textile substrates with a fluorocarbon based
treatment, applied not using a spray coating method, but ink jet printing.
The treatment enables the CLC solution to remain on the surface of the textile
substrate and for the molecules within to align in a manner that enables the selection
of a specific wavelength of light. Using a Fuji Dimatix printer (DMP-2800) three solvent-
based ink formulations with varying concentrations of nematic liquid crystal and
chiral dopant, are deposited onto a plain woven polyester textile substrate. These ink
formulations are referred to as Blue, Green and Red CLC solutions as these are the

463
colours that should be perceived by the observer. The reflectance data is measured
and compared with that of films printed onto untreated substrates, substrates with
different thread densities and with films of varying thickness, to establish if this alters
the colour perceived by the observer.
White textured polyethylene terephthalate yarns (intermingled 1/167/48) were used
to produce the plain woven structure, sourced from J.H. Ashworth and Son Ltd. Two
pick densities were used, to alter the thread density of the fabric. Plain Weave A
contains 30 picks per centimetre and Plain Weave B 15 picks per centimetre. As CLC
films produce vibrant colours when on a dark background, the white woven cloth
was dyed black with a disperse dye, 6% Dispersol Black XF. After dyeing, a solution
of water containing the fluorocarbon based treatment is applied to textiles samples
for comparison with those without. The ratios of Paliocolor LC756, (chiral dopant)
Paliocolor LC242, (nematic liquid crystal) Irgacure 127 ® (UV initiator) and methyl ethyl
ketone (solvent) were used to create Blue (3), Green (2) and Red (1) CLC solutions
are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 – Quantities for Experimentation
Initiator
LC756 LC242 20% Stock Solvent
Solution
(1) 0.3g 9.3g 0.4g 24.3g
(2) 0.3g 6.4g 0.3g 16.9g
(3) 0.3g 5.6g 0.3g 15.0g
A layer of solution is deposited, where the term layer is used to describe one passing
of the inkjet head, depositing between 1-10 picolitres of solution. The droplet spacing
was set to 30µm. The substrate and printing head were also heated to 53°C. The inkjet
cartridge temperature is set to 32°C. The head angle of the cartridge is 6.8°C and
with 7 jets selected in the print head. The jetting voltage used was 35-40 khz with 1
volt increment. A cleaning cycle was also implemented every 100 band to ensure a
homogeneous print was produced. The thickness of the fabric substrate was set to
520 µm.
One layer of three individual square prints measuring 10 mm2 were deposited onto
the textile substrate. The fabric was then passed through a UV curing machine (Fusion
Systems Corporatation I300MB - now produced by Heraeus Noblelight Fusion UV -
containing a standard BF9 style bulb) for 30 seconds to initiate polymerization.
This procedure was then repeated to produce prints with 5, 10, 15 and 20 layers, onto
Plain Weave A and B, with and without the fluorocarbon based treatment.
The reflectance spectra is measured using Spectrophotometer MF(Microflash) 45 by
Techkon GmbH from random points on the 10 mm2 prints. All readings will be taken at
a 90° angle. The reflectance spectra of Plain Weave A is measured without treatment
and without fluorocarbon treatment, before any CLC films were applied. The spectra
are displayed in Figure 1.

464
Figure 1 – Reflectance spectra of Plain Weave A with and without fluorocarbon

treatment.
RESULTS
FABRIC STRUCTURE AND FILM THICKNESS
Experiments were carried out on Plain Weave A and Plain Weave B, untreated with
the Blue CLC solution, to establish if fabric structure would impact on the reflective
properties of the film and the alignment of the polymerised mesogens. SEM observations
of the cross section of Plain Weave A with a 20 layered Blue CLC film revealed the film
was approximately 100µm thick, residing within the fabric structure, as opposed to on
the surface (shown in Figures 2 and 3).
Figure 2 – SEM cross section of 20 Layers of Blue CLC solution on Plain Weave A

465
Figure 3 – SEM cross section of 20 Layers of Blue CLC solution on Plain Weave A showing
film thickness within fabric structure
According to the work carried out by Roberts N.W. (2003) (developed from the works
of St John et al.1995) the thickness of the chiral nematic liquid crystal film influences
the reflectance spectra produced and optimum film thickness is approximately 5µm.
SEM cross section shown in Figure 3 shows the CLC solution is absorbed by the fabric,
resulting in a mixture of fibres and CLC film.
The reflective properties of the films containing 20 layers of Blue CLC solution on Plain
Weave A were compared with those on Plain Weave B. The spectra are given in
Figure 4.
Figure 4 – Reflectance spectra of 20 layers of Blue CLC solution on Plain Weave A and B

466
SURFACE TREATMENTS
Experiments were carried out on Plain Weave A with a fluorocarbon treatment and
without, depositing Blue, Green and Red CLC solutions to achieve a variety of coloured
films.
SEM observations of the cross section of Plain Weave A with a 20 layered Blue CLC film
revealed the film was approximately 50µm thick, residing on the surface of the fabric
structure, (shown in Figure 5).
Figure 5 – SEM cross section of 20 layered Blue CLC film on fluorocarbon treated Plain
Weave A
The reflective properties of the films containing 15 layers of CLC solution on fluorocarbon
treated Plain Weave A were compared with those on Plain Weave A without. The
spectra are given in Figures 6, 7 and 8.
Figure 6 – 15 Layers Blue CLC solution on Plain Weave A with and without fluorocarbon
treatment
467
Figure 7 - 15 Layers Green CLC solution on Plain Weave A with and without fluorocarbon
treatment
Figure 8 - 15 Layers Red CLC solution on Plain Weave A with and without fluorocarbon
treatment

468
CONCLUSIONS
Fabric structure has an impact on the colour perceived by the observer. The
experiments performed on Plain Weave A and B showed that thread density impacts
on the reflectance spectra produced by the Blue CLC film. The higher the thread
density and tighter the weave structure, the higher the reflectance spectra of the film
in the desired reflectance band. This is illustrated in the spectra results in Figure 4.
A fluorocarbon surface treatment will also generate a greater reflectance factor of
Blue and Green CLC films on these surfaces than those without. A reflective bandwidth
of 457nm is predicted for films produced with the Blue CLC solution, and 523nm for
those with the Green CLC solution. Reflectance spectra for both 15 layer Blue CLC films
on fluorocarbon treated (470nm) and untreated (430nm) Plain Weave A displayed a
reflective bandwidth in this region; however a greater reflectance factor was given
for those on fluorocarbon treated substrates. The spectra for a 15 layer Green CLC
film on fluorocarbon treated Plain Weave A (550nm) is within the region expected, in
comparison to those without treatment (410nm). The reflectance factor is also greater
with the fluorocarbon treatment than without.
SEM observations concluded that this was in part related to the film thickness and the
film residing on the surface of the textile substrates, compared to those without the
treatment.
The spectra graph for 15 layers of Red CLC on Plain Weave A showed no defined
peak within the visible spectrum for both fluorocarbon treated and untreated
substrates. Variables affecting the alignment of the mesogens in the Red CLC film
requires investigation in future work.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge EPSRC for funding these investigations.
REFERENCES
Journal
Olivier T. Picot, Mian Dai, Dirk J. Broer, Ton Peijs, and Cees W. M. Bastiaansen, (2013), ACS Applied
Material Interfaces, 5, (15), pp7117-7121
John, W. S.; Fritz, W.; Lu, Z. and Yang, D.-K. 1995, Bragg reflection from cholesteric liquid crystals Physical
Review E, APS, 51, 1191
PhD Thesis
Roberts, N.W. (2003) Optical Properties and Polarization Sensitivity of Self-Assembled
Systems, University of Manchester - Department of Physics and Astronomy.

469
Testing and education
THE INFLUENCE OF DISTRIBUTION AND DEPOSIT OF CONDUCTIVE COATING ON SHIELDING EFFECTIVENESS OF TEXTILES
THE INFLUENCE OF DISTRIBUTION AND DEPOSIT

OF CONDUCTIVE COATING ON SHIELDING
EFFECTIVENESS OF TEXTILES
Vitalija Rubežienė1, Aušra Abraitienė1, Julija Baltušnikaitė-Guzaitienė1,
Sandra Varnaitė-Žuravliova1, Žilvinas Kancleris2, Paulius Ragulis2,
Gediminas Šlekas2
1
Textile Institute, Center for Physical Sciences and Technology, Demokratų 53, Kaunas LT-48485,
Lithuania
2
Semiconductor Physics Institute, Center for Physical Sciences and Technology, A. Goštauto 11, LT-
01108 Vilnius, Lithuania
E-mail: vitalija.rubeziene@ftmc.lt
This study presents the investigation of electrically conductive fabrics with low resistivity,
coated with formulation containing the conjugated polymer system – poly(3,4-
ethylenedioxythiophene)-polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT-PSS). The samples of fabrics
were coated with PEDOT-PSS, using screen printing method, by different patterns or
coating their surface fully with different coating deposit (g/m2).
Methods for measurement of electrostatic properties, reflection and transmission
as well as the assessment of EMR shielding effectiveness (SE) were used for the
characterization of electrical properties of developed samples.
EMR shielding properties were investigated within 2GHz – 12GHz frequency bands.
The highest attenuation of the electromagnetic energy among tested fabrics was
obtained for the fabrics fully coated with paste and it depends on deposit considerable.
To evaluate the surface conductivity of coated fabrics the electrostatic charge
dissipation properties were measured and from the obtained decay curves the
resistance for inhomogeneous materials (Ri) was calculated.
Two aspects of the coating process were studied in detail: the distribution of coating
on the fabric’s surface (partly or fully covering) and deposit of coating in the case of
fully coated fabrics.
The influence of distribution and deposit of conductive coating on shielding
effectiveness of textiles was determined.
Correlation between the shielding effectiveness and the investigated electrostatic
properties of developed coated fabrics also was discussed.
Keywords: Electromagnetic radiation, shielding effectiveness, conductive textiles,

coatings

470
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT

METHODS USED FOR COTTON COLOR
GRADING
Nayab Khan1, Michal Vik2, Martina Vikova2
1
Faculty of textile engineering,Technical University of Liberec, Liberec, Czech Republic
2
Faculty of textile engineering,Technical University of Liberec, Liberec, Czech Republic
(Presenting author E-mail: knayabrpm@yahoo.com; Corresponding author email: knayabrpm@
yahoo.com)
ABSTRACT
The value of cotton fiber is far more superior to any other natural fiber. And when it
comes to trade the cotton fiber and its value added products the grading of cotton
fiber is of very important which depends upon different properties. Color is one of
those important properties which play a vital role in the cotton selection. Currently,
used system in the cotton world for the color classificationis not that much reliable if
keeping in view the importance of fiber. Mostly before the buying of cotton fiber a
professionally trained visual cotton inspector gives grade to the cotton which is later
on confirmed in the mills by HVI which measures Rd and +b values to grade the cotton
fiber. The grade given by visual inspection not only varies from the HVI grading but,
also has contradiction with the cotton classers which are professionally trained. In this
study we will try to find out the relationship between the visual classification and the
instrumental classification of cotton fiber by keeping in view the universal standards
for cotton grading. So, different instrumental methods for color measurements will be
used and their relationships will be main objective of the study.
Keywords: cotton, HVI, Visual inspection, Rd,+b
INTRODUCTION
Globally the classification of cotton is done by the AMS of the United States department
of Agriculture (USDA) by using the HVI. Although there are different parameters
measured by HVI unit like fiber length, length uniformity, micronaire, trash content
and color. The properties of color which are measured by the HVI are Rd and +b. For
the color analysis of cotton fiber the HVI unit uses the camera based system, with two
broad band filters (two wavelengths) to determine Rd and +b. The AMS supplies two
set of cotton standards for the HVI color measurement – a set of five ceramic tiles and
a set of 12 uniform cotton batts. There is no doubt that HVI does a very good job but
it is also true that the parameters of cotton measured by the HVI are specific to the
cotton only. And the origin of these values is back in 1930s. (Nickerson, Hunter and
Powell 1950)And these parameters of cotton do not relate to the other well-known
and globally recognized color systems like CIELAB, where L* is the lightness, a* is
the redness/greenness and b* is the blueness/yellowness of the sample. As a two
wavelength based system the HVI does not include information about other regions
of the color space which might play a vital role in the cotton color measurement.
And the values of the specific wavelengths used are proprietary to Uster and it was

471
not possible for the others to have access to these values. If these improvements
can be added into the HVI then this system will be much improved color analysis
system for the color evaluation of the cotton fiber (Nickerson, New automatic cotton
colorimeter for use in cotton quality specification 1951). Modern spectrophotometers
and colorimeters include diffuse reflectance measurements of the sample over the
full visible spectral region of the electromagnetic spectrum (at a minimum, 400-700
nm) use globally recognized color systems and units, and use an NIST traceable white
standard.
The Nickerson equations for Rd and +b are:
Rd = 100Y (1)
+b = 70fy (Y- 0.847Z) (2)
Fy = 0.51[(21+20Y)/ (1+20Y)] (3)
Where Y and Z are the tristimulus color parameters Y and Z (Illuminant C, 2o Observer).
So, the direct use of color spectrophotometer for the cotton color measurement
parameters Rd and +b is not that much simple because the advances
spectrophotometer is capable to examine the entire visible region (400-700 nm) while
on the other hand the HVI is only two filters colorimeter as we mentioned earlier. So,
direct measurement of Rd and +b is not possible so, the internationally recognized
three dimensional color space system have been used. Primarily the color system
based on tristimulus color (XYZ) (Cheng , et al. 1999).
There are some problems connected with color measurement using the HVI, which
uses a two-dimensional system: the (Rd) and (+ b) to assess the color of a sample
and the color grade. However, the HVI approach is insufficient in comparison with
visual human perception. HVI color results are correlated with the visual grading, but
an agreement between the HVI and the classer grading is not satisfactory. Although
the HVI is used all over the world for the grading of cotton whether is it color property
or other properties of the cotton fibers but as far as the color property is considered
the final grading of cotton was performed by the grader till the end of 2000. Using
standard tiles and cotton batts provided by the Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS)
of the USDA, color results on a series of color spectrophotometers established good
correlations between standard CIE color parameters and HVI colorimeter color
parameters (L* ↔ Rd, b* ↔ +b) (Matusiak and Walawska 2010). L* is normally higher
than Rd, whereas very good agreement is observed between b* and +b. Good to
excellent agreement was observed between the bench and portable color units
but the color agreement was decreased when the glass is used. The use of non-
contact method for the color measurement of cotton fiber is not still use in the cotton
industry. In the previous study a comparative evaluation was performed to establish
a relationship between the HVI Rd and +b and portable spectrophotometer L*a*b*
and XYZ color parameters with Illuminant D65 and C and at degree of observer 10o
and 2o (Matusiak, Digieye application in cotton color measurement 2015). And it was
found that there was an excellent linear relationship between the given parameters
(Guild 1931).

472

Turkish Cotton samples and also ceramic tiles used for the evaluation. AMS standard
ceramic tiles (2 boxes, n=10) one box is been provided with the xenon flash light
standards and the other one is provided with the Incandescent light source standards
and the HV standards are provided by the AMS. These standards ceramic tiles are well
prepared possess a smooth surface for the evaluation. White, Brown, yellow, Grey and
Central, these five colors for each set of box were provided with the standards readings.
The Fig (1) shows the standards and samples used for the measurement. The ceramic
tiles were measured with the HunterLab MiniScan portable color spectrophotometer.
As discussed earlier that AMS provided with the HVI Rd and +b values as reference
values the data obtained from the HunterLan MiniScan is compared with the provided
data. For all the measurement five replications were made and average per sample
was taken then average HunterLab values were compared with the HVI values. All
the measurements were performed at the laboratory conditions conditions (70 ± 2 °F
and 54 ± 2% RH).
For the visual grading of cotton samples in a light cabinet AT Color used and common
observer were invited for the color measurement of cotton samples instead of
professionally trained cotton classer. And these observers are been asked to grade the
cotton samples by taking the ceramic tiles as reference measurement. Five replications
again were taken from each observer for five different days. Each observer was fully
aware of the international cotton grading system but, they never performed the cotton
grading so they were just common people. This phenomenon was performed for
set of standards (xenon, incandescent). To measure the non-contact method color
measurement. Konica Minolta CA-210 is used for the telescope measurement in the
Laboratory of Color and Appearance Measurement, Technical University of Liberec.
An illuminant D65 is used at the 10 degree observer. As this is non-contact method
so, the distance from probe of the telescope and the sample is 7cm. A light cabinet
as mentioned earlier again used to illuminate the sample and the readings of x, y
and Lv were taken. We used some color space conversion calculations to convert
these readings into the Rd and +b value and then the relationship between the visual
grading and non-contact method was studied. So, two relationships are studied here
in the first relationships it was studied that whether the HVI standard provided by the
AMS, Memphis TN have relationship with the non-contact measurement method and
then the visual inspection was compared with the instrumental color measurement
taken in the laboratory by taking the AMS standards as reference standards. The
spectral values of the cotton samples were taken from the HunterLab and these
spectral values used for the conversion of Rd values in the color space conversion
formulas. The new telescopic method is never used in the cotton color measurement,
which can be called as Non-contact method.
RESULTS
For the AMS standard ceramic tiles the reference Rd values were obtained from the
master HVI-1000 colorimeter in Memphis, TN. The HVI colorimeter uses two filters to
measure the samples diffuse reflectance at the two visible spectrum regions and the
value of Rd and +b obtained from the Uster algorithms. In the Laboratory of Color
and Appearance measurement in the Technical University of Liberec, two sets of tile

473
were measured again with the Non-contact method. One set for incandescent and
the second with the xenon light source. Then the value of Rd and +b were compared
between the HVI-1000 and with the Non-contact method.
Fig 2(a). AMS standard ceramic tiles (xenon). HVI Fig 2(b). AMS standard ceramic tiles (xenon). HVI +b
Rd Vs Non-Contact method Rd. Vs Non-Contact method +b.
In the table it is clearly visible that there is a strong relationship between the HVI
measurement and with the Non-contact method measurements. In both the
parameters (Rd, +b) the values are very close to each other with R2 value of (0.99,
0.98) respectively.

474
Table 1. Comparison of Classer with the Non-contact method as well as contact

method.
No. Classer Grade Non-Contact method Contact method
Rd Rd
1 Y 69.94 69.38
2 Y 64.63 64.07
3 B 67.49 66.83
4 C 56.96 56.48
5 C 56.87 56.36
6 C 65.86 65.23
7 C 56.54 56.05
8 C 63.58 63.08
9 C 56.75 56.24
10 C 55.14 54.65
11 W 60.78 60.32
12 C 58.24 57.79
Fig 3. Relationship between the contact and Non-contact methods in Rd values of

cotton samples.
The cotton samples which were examined by the three methods visual inspection,
contact method and the non-contact method. The above Fig 3. shows that the
comparison between the contact method and the non-contact method is a great
result and indicated that the relationship between these two methods is very
strong under the same illuminant D65 (Rodgers, et al. 2009). Although the Rd values
decreases when measured through the contact method as compared to the non-
contact method. It shows us that this method is usable for the measurement of color
property of cotton fiber. The values obtained through visual inspection data although
are not very well trusted and we can not say anything authentic about these values
because these values are taken by the common inspector. But, still the contradiction
between the visual inspection data and the other instrumental methods is present in
the cotton grading during our research work.

475
Fig 4. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient. Non-contact method Rd Vs Visual

Inspection Rd. Rs=0.26.
CONCLUSIONS
The color standards provided by the AMS for the cotton color measurement confirmed
through non-contact method and it was confirmed that the results shows strong
relationship between the two methods.
The measurement of Rd values of cotton samples with the two methods mentioned
above also shows strong relationship between two methods but contradiction with
the visual inspection.
Dis-agreement between the visual inspection and the instrumental grading continues
as presented before this research articles.
The new-method (telescopic measurement) for the cotton color measurement can
be implemented with some more focus in this method.
REFERENCES
Cheng , Luo, Hossein Ghorashi, Kermit Duckett, Terezie Zapletalova, and Michael Watson. “Color
Grading of Cotton Part II: Color Grading with an Expert System and Neural Networks.” Textile Research
Journal 69, no. 12 (1999): 893-903.
Guild, John. “The colorimetric properties of the spectrum.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical or Physical Character 230 (1931):
149–187.
Matusiak, Małgorzata. “Digieye application in cotton color measurement.” Autex Research Journal
15, no. 2 (2015): 77–86.
Matusiak, Małgorzata, and Anetta Walawska. “Important aspects of cotton colour measurement.”
FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe 18, no. 3 (2010): 17-23.
Nickerson, Dorothy. “New automatic cotton colorimeter for use in cotton quality specification.” Textile
Research Journal 21 (1951): 33-38.
Nickerson, Dorothy, Richard S Hunter, and Marshall G Powell. “New automatic colorimeter for cotton.”
Journal of the Optical Society of America 40, no. 7 (1950): 446-449.
Rodgers, James, Jacqueline Campbell, Xiaoliang Cui, and Devron Thibodeaux. “Feasibility of
traceable color standards for cotton color.” AATCC Review, 2009: 42-47.

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NATURAL FIBERS, TEXTILES AND EDUCATIONAL GRADUATE PROGRAMS AT THE RUSSIAN STATE AGRARIAN UNIVERSITY
NATURAL FIBERS, TEXTILES AND EDUCATIONAL

GRADUATE PROGRAMS AT THE RUSSIAN STATE
AGRARIAN UNIVERSITY
Presenting Author Belopukhov Sergey1,
1
Timiryazevskaya st., 49, Moscow, Russian Federation, 127550
(Presenting author E-mail: belopuhov@mai.ru)
ABSTRACT
Since the 1865 in the Timiryazev Academy scientists and students doing research on
breeding, seed production and cultivation of flax and other fibrous plants. Since 1912 in
the fields of the Academy there is a long steady experience, where more than 100 years
of flax grown at various agro-chemical and agro-technical conditions. Department of
Physical and Organic Chemistry has been actively working in the field of education
and training in the field of technology of production and processing of chemicals,
textiles, development of agricultural technologies and cultivation of agricultural crops:
flax, hemp, essential oil cultures. We have experience in solutions of environmental
problems in connection with quality control of agro-industrial enterprises and textile
industry. In the study of the educational programs of undergraduate, graduate and
post-graduate students study physiology and biochemistry of fibrous plants, chemical
and physic-chemical methods of analysis of soils, plants, foods, industrial and textile
materials. Research made over the last 10 years by Prof. Belopukhov S.L. is done on
development of protective-stimulating complexes of the next generation, which by
use in the agro-technology of cultivation of flax and hemp allow obtaining a high
quality fiber for production of fabric and textile products. Since 2010 he has been
developing and managing the Master’s program “Chemical-Toxicological analysis
and assessment of agricultural objects” in the course “Agro-chemistry and Agro-
ecology”.
Keywords: Education, agricultural technologies, agro sphere
INTRODUCTION
At present in Russian Federation Russian State Agrarian University - Timiryazev Moscow
Agricultural Academy is the oldest and internationally renowned university of higher
education.
During its 150-year history of the Russian State Agrarian University were formed leading
Russian scientific schools of agricultural sciences and higher agricultural education.
Research and teaching staff of the University have achieved national and international
fame in the field of higher agricultural education.
For a century and a half over two hundred thousand highly qualified specialists
have been trained both for domestic and cross border agriculture. More than 20,000
master’s and doctoral theses have been defended successfully. Thousands of foreign
citizens from Europe, Asia, Africa and America have completed their training at the
academy.

477
Today RSAU - TMAA is a leading educational, scientific, methodical and consulting

center of agricultural education in Russia carrying out its innovative activities.
Leading faculty in the University - a Faculty of Soil Science, Agricultural Chemistry and
Ecology.
The Faculty of Soil Science, Agricultural Chemistry and Ecology provides training in
two specialties and with qualification of an agronomist:
- Agricultural Chemistry and Agricultural Soil Science with specialization in quality
expertise and certification of agricultural objects and production; agro-ecological
and economic land evaluation; forest melioration of agro-landscapes and planting
of greenery;
- Agro-ecology with specialization in ecological expertise; ecological safety in
agro-industrial complex.
Scientists of the Faculty pay great attention to problems of recovery of land from
radioactive and heavy metal contamination and chemical pollution. Problems of
ecologically safe production and work safety at agro-industrial enterprises are also of
great importance
Every year about 1,100 students, including international students, study at the Faculty.
Graduates of the Faculty are known for their proficient basic knowledge. They are in
great demand in management bodies of agricultural production, design organizations
of land development, land banks, agro-chemical services, and agricultural firms where
they can work as expert-ecologist, quality expert of agricultural and food production,
specialists in ecological expertise of land resources, as well as research scientists of
scientific and research institutes and educational institutions.
The Faculty conducts the research in the following directions: geography, genesis
and soil fertility; agro-ecological land expertise; organic matter in soil; optimization
of plant mineral nutrition; study of migration processes, transformation and uptake of
macro-and micro elements in a system of soil-plant-biosphere; effect of heavy metals
on crop yield and produce quality, soil fertility and environment; nuclear diagnostics
and mobilization of biophilic elements from difficult to access soil forms; molecular
acoustics of biological objects; and efficiency improvement of reclaimed land.
The master program in RGAU-MSHA: «Chemical and toxicological analysis and
assessment of objects of the agro sphere» - is one of the most promising directions of
development of agricultural education (Belopukhov S., 2012).
Head of the program professor Belopukhov S.L.
The materials they work with students - a flax plant, industrial hemp, kenaf, jute and
others. Students conduct research flax fiber and chemical analysis in the research
laboratories at the Department of Physical and Organic Chemistry and other
departments of the Faculty of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry and Ecology.
The master program encloses the information about standardization and certification
of feeds, additives foods and food-stuffs. The author explains importance of using
identical terms, definitions, estimates, standards and criteria in modern agro-

478
technology. Furthermore this program explains how essential it is to implement

minimum quantity of pesticides and agrochemicals, to carry out quality control of
food, additives foods and food-stuff and to measure concentration of chemicals very
precisely.
Certification of agricultural products is a critical theme in Russia and former CIS
countries since Russia has become a member of the World Trade Organization.
Russian products should compete with technically advanced agricultural markets
using international quality standards. The head of program highlights significant role
of quality assurance system - both Russian and international, - to control production
of feed and food of high quality. This system is represented by the organization of
inspection and certification, it issues specific standards and controls its execution
during the whole process of agricultural production starting from processing of
agricultural raw materials until ready products of high quality, including its packaging
and labeling.
The master program is focused on certification of agricultural products in ways and
means as the agricultural production and processing of raw materials, manufacturing
of food products and its delivery to the final consumer. With help of materials form this
book agricultural specialists can produce internationally qualitative products when
following system standards and getting an appropriate certificate and prepare them
for export procedures for the European (EU) and other countries.
Food additives are contained in many foods and are integral part of our everyday
life. This program provides data from the International Numbering System of food
additives (INS) and the system of codification of the European Union (E) to give the
reader understanding of variety of existing food additives and permitted levels of
their content in food products. This knowledge can help to increase living standards
of consumers.
In current economical environment application of unified international terminology
and quality standards it is a key to produce high-quality and competitive products
and to be successful on global market. Use of international standards and certificates
is an important tool to improve efficiency of economic, scientific and technical
cooperation between global partners and countries. Therefore it is very important
to fix uniform terms and regulations in the regulatory and normative documents,
technical standards and requirements. All this may lead to better quality facilities in
agro sphere in Russia.
Author of program has worked for many years in the field of certification and
controlling content of chemicals, he carried out measurements of physical and
chemical parameters basically in flax and hemp. The main part of this work on quality
control of flax and hemp is also presented on the author’s website www.rosflaxhemp.
com and will be also useful as example and illustration source.
RESULTS
Purpose of the master program: training of the master for professional activity in the
field of modern quality control and an assessment of objects of the agrosphere,
including production of plant growing at all stages from a field to end products,
acquisition of the practical skills of independent work necessary at use of the gained

479
knowledge in studying of special disciplines and in further practical activities.

Degree (qualification) of the graduate – the master.
Short characteristic of the program: the master program “Chemical and Toxicological
Analysis and Assessment of Objects of the Agrosphere” is focused on training of highly
qualified specialists in the field of the chemical, biochemical, microbiological, physical
and chemical analysis for quality control of objects of the agrosphere, production
of plant growing at all stages of the technological scheme of production, storage
and processing, formation of quality in the course of growth and development of
plants, an assessment of quality of production of plant growing on the level of the
contents macro - and microcomponents, toksikant taking into account requirements
of ecological safety and features of qualitative and quantitative structure, of the
organization of scientific work in the field of quality control and certification of
production (Belopukhov S., 2012).
Disciplines:
General scientific cycle of disciplines:
Basic unit: Foreign language; Information technologies; Mathematical modeling and
design.
Variable part: Metrology, standardization and certification of crop production;
Processing of vegetable raw materials and introduction to the production technology
of food; Bases of environmental assessment and audit; Methods and technologies of
teaching special disciplines.
Elective courses: Speech communication in the agrarian and industrial complex
sphere; Speech culture of business communication; Communication Psychology;
Conflictology; Human resource management Bases; Work with small groups.
Professional cycle
Base (professional) unit: History and methodology of soil science, agrochemistry and
ecology; Innovative technologies in soil science, agrochemistry and ecology; Methods
of researches in agrochemistry, soil science, agrochemistry and ecology.
Variable part: specialization chemical control - Control of structure of production of
plant growing at storage; Control of biochemical and microbiological indicators of
quality of foodstuff; Standardization and certification of forages and food additives
from vegetable raw materials; Processing of vegetable production on the basis of
biotechnologies; Nanotechnologies and materials in quality control of production of
plant growing; Physical and chemical methods of research of production of plant
growing.
Specialization biochemical control - formation of quality of grain; formation of quality
of olive raw materials; formation of quality of potatoes, root crops and fruit and
vegetable products; merchandizing of vegetable products.
Specialization microbiological control - Microbiology of the soil, water and air,
Microbiology of production of agriculture.
Elective courses: specialization chemical control - Soil environmental monitoring;
Chemistry of natural vegetable raw materials and food; The Organization of the

480
test centers and control services of quality at the agrarian and industrial complexes
enterprises; Safety of food staples and food.
Specialization biochemical control - toxicological control of grain and olive raw
materials; toxicological control of potatoes, root crops and fruit and vegetable
products; radiological control of grain and olive raw materials; radiological control
of potatoes, root crops and fruit and vegetable products; examination of quality of
grain and olive raw materials; examination of quality of potatoes, root crops and fruit
and vegetable products; microbiological control of grain and olive raw materials;
microbiological control of potatoes, root crops and fruit and vegetable products.
Specialization biochemical control – Sanitary microbiology of objects of environment
and production of agricultural production, Fundamentals of toxicology, Routine
methods of detection and identification of microorganisms, Tool methods of an
assessment of activity of microorganisms, Molecular and biological methods of
detection and identification of microorganisms, Immunodiagnostika, Bacteriology,
Virology, the Mycology, Parasitology, Microbic biotechnologies of environment.
Microbiology of the soil, water and air, Microbiology of production of agriculture.
Tasks of the master program:
Within each type of professional activity the graduate of a magistracy is capable to
solve the following problems:
- the production and technological:
- an assessment of influence of economic actions on soil fertility, ecology, efficiency
of crops, quality of production of plant growing at storage and processing of raw
materials, food;
- control of observance of the technological scheme of cultivation of field cultures,
production schedules of storage and processing of production of plant growing;
- the organizational and administrative:
- planning of production and technological activity in the field of quality control of
production of plant growing on the technological scheme of production;
- the organization and control of quality of production and supervision of observance
of the state norms also I governed all agricultural producers;
- the organization of work of group of performers, adoption of administrative decisions
in the conditions of various opinions;
- finding of a compromise between various requirements (costs, qualities, safety and
dates of performance) both at long-term, and at short-term planning and definition
of the optimum decision;
- implementation of technical control and product quality control of plant growing;
- the research:
- receiving new knowledge of objects and methods of researches, carrying out applied
researches in the field of quality control of production of plant growing according to
the technological scheme of production;

481
- studying and analysis of scientific and technical information, domestic and foreign
experiment on scope of research;
- the analysis of a state and dynamics of indicators of quality of production of plant
growing with use of necessary methods and means of researches;
- creation of the theoretical models allowing to predict processes and the phenomena
in forest and forest-park economy;
- development of plans, programs and techniques of carrying out researches.
- development of the general and theoretical questions of the chemical, physical
and chemical, biochemical, microbiological analysis;
- application of methods and the principles of nanotechnologies in the analysis of
biological objects;
- carrying out sample preparation of various biological objects taking into account
their features when using various tool methods of the analysis;
- carrying out metrological providing tool and other methods of the analysis;
- development of modern devices and the equipment at quality control of production
of plant growing, chemical certification of agricultural production;
- ability to carry out an assessment of applicability existing and to develop new
techniques for tool and other methods of the analysis of samples taking into account
specific features of controlled raw materials and production.
- the design:
- formation is more whole than the draft (program) of the solution of tasks, criteria and
indicators of achievement of the objectives, creation of structure of their interrelations,
identification of priorities of the solution of problems of design taking into account
moral aspects of activity and optimization of a condition of the surrounding natural
and urbanized environment;
- organization of carrying out technical calculations for projects, technical and
economic and functional and cost analysis of efficiency of designed projects and
actions;
- development of the generalized options of a solution, the analysis of these options,
forecasting of consequences, finding of compromise solutions in the conditions of a
mnogokriterialnost, uncertainty, planning of implementation of the project;
- development of projects of the organization of activity of control services of quality
at the enterprises and at all stages of the technological scheme of production taking
into account ecological, economic parameters;
- development (on the basis of the existing standards) methodical and normative
documents, technical documentation, and also offers and actions for implementation
of the developed projects in system of agrarian and industrial complex.
- the pedagogical:
- distribution of the gained knowledge and skills by teaching, individual and group
consultation of experts of the monitoring system of quality;

482
- consultation on questions of optimization of technological schemes of use and

reproduction of forest resources in system of complex forest division into districts;
- consultation on questions of monitoring procedure of quality of production of plant
growing by tool methods of the analysis with application of modern information
technologies.
Training term: on the basis of a bachelor degree of 2 years.
CONCLUSIONS
Every year we develop new disciplines for students, for example «Standardization
and Certification of feed, food additives and food». These training courses are part of
the master’s program «Chemical and toxicological analysis of objects in agricultural
sphere». Students acquire basic knowledge about features of standardization of feed,
food additives and food as the process of establishing rules, regulations and standards
for agricultural products, works and services, assess certification of conformity, learn
requirements of normative and technical documentation. Students can use gained
knowledge in soil, agro-chemical and agro-ecological studies to evaluate quality of
analyzed samples of agricultural products, textile fiber materials of flax and hemp.
Progress in implementing the program and the new information is located on the site
www.rosflaxhemp.com.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The study was performed by a grant from the Russian Science Foundation (project
№14-16-00046).
REFERENCES
Belopukhov, S.L., Buriakov N.P., Schnee T.V. 2012. Chemical certification of agricultural products.
Moscow: Publishing House RGAU-MTAA.
Belopukhov, S.L. 2012. Protective-stimulating complexes agrotechnology cultivation of flax. Germany,
LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing GmbH & Co. KG.

483
STUDENT LEARNING AND ENGAGEMENT IN

FASHION MARKETING
Priscilla Y. L. Chan
Manchester Metropolitan University, Department of Apparel, Righton Building, Cavendish Street,
Manchester, M15 6BG, United Kingdom.
(Presenting author E-mail: p.chan@mmu.ac.uk)
ABSTRACT
‘Constructive alignment’ is used to plan relevant learning activities for students
learning fashion marketing. Students may take surface or deep approach in their
learning and tutors/instructors were suggested to pay attention to the differences
in student attention during lecture and whether they are effectively learning. In
Higher Education, active learning as received considerable attention and ‘game-
based digital learning platform’ (GDLP) is available nowadays. This paper aims to
explore students’ perception of the use of active learning strategies with ‘constructive
alignment’ system and ‘game-based digital learning platform’. Students enrolled in
the Fashion Marketing unit are the targeted respondents. Aligned with the intended
learning outcome and assessments, different active learning activities were planned
and implemented for the term started September 2015. Kahoot, the ‘game-based
digital learning platform’ was employed, and students’ learning approaches were
collected using Revised Two Factor Study Process Questionniare (R-SPQ-2F) and
students’ perceptions were collected.
Keywords: (learning styles, game-based digital learning platform, students
engagement, active learning and constructive alignment)
INTRODUCTION
‘Constructive alignment’ is a system that facilitate the learner constructs his or her
learning through relevant learning activities (Briggs 2003). This means learners are
creating the meaning/ knowledge themselves, instead of transmitted from teacher to
learner. Teaching is just a catalyst during the process.
Shuell (1986) proposed teacher’s fundamental task is to get students to engage in
learning activities that are likely to result in their achieving desired learning outcomes.
As a result, the tutor/instructor has to set up a learning environment with supportive
learning activities appropriate to achieving those desired learning outcomes. It is of
crucial importance that the teaching methods used and the assessment tasks are
aligned with the learning activities, as well as aligned with the intended learning
outcomes. So that the learner is ‘trapped’ in the environment and finds it difficult to
escape without learning what he or she is intended to learn.
Before setting up the environment, it is important to specify the level of understanding
we want students to achieve. Then set up the environment that maximises the likelihood
students will engage in the activities designed to achieve the intended learning
outcomes. Follow by selecting assessment tasks that will show how well students have
attained these learning outcomes in terms of graded levels.

484
Active learning instructional strategies proposed by Bonwell and Elson (1991) have
activities that involve students in doing things and thinking about the things they
are doing. They can be created and used to engage students in: critical thinking or
creative thinking; discussion with a partner, small groups or with the entire class; idea
expression through writing; or feedback and reflection upon the learning process.
These activities can be completed by students in-class or out-of-class, individually or
in groups and with or without other technologies.
Tutor/instructor employing active learning strategies will spend more proportion of
time helping students developing their understanding and skills (promoting deep
learning) and a lesser proportion of time transmitting information (ie, supporting
surface learning). In addition, students are given opportunities to apply or demonstrate
what they are learning and to receive immediate feedback from peers and/or the
tutor/instructor.
Marton (1981) argues learning researches should be from the perspective of the
learner, not from that of the academic researcher. Focus should be on how much
students know and able to apply to interpret the reality. Shuell (1986) agreed and
mentioned human learner should be the ‘self-determining agent’ that actively selects
information from the environment and construct new knowledge in the light of what
that individual already knows.
For students, assessment is the curriculum (Ramsden, 1992), they focused on the
assessments required and put their efforts onto achieving them. Biggs (2003) mentioned
in curriculum planning, assessment should align with intended learning outcomes
and learning activities. With these, students can construct their own learning.
There are three common approaches in students learning identified: surface, deep
and achieving (Biggs, 1979, 1987; Entwistle and Ramsden, 1983; Watkins, 1983).
SURFACE is characterized as having extrinsic motive to avoid failure but don’t work
too hard. The learning strategy for surface learning is to focus on selected details
and reproduce accurately. DEEP is characterized as having intrinsic motive to satisfy
curiosity about topic. Deep learner try to maximize understanding by reading widely,
discuss and reflect. ACHIEVING is characterized as focusing on achievement and
compete for highest grades. They optimise organisation of time and efforts. Biggs
(1989) mentioned surface approach is effective for recalling unrelated detail, which
frequently leads to low grades, whereas deep approach leads to structurally complex
performances that usually lead to high grades. Therefore, good teaching should
minimize those factors the lead to surface learning and to maximize those leading to
deep and achieving.
Biggs and Telfer (1987) after surveying a number of studies, found deep learning
contained in one or more of the following. (1) An appropriate positive feelings
motivational context, meaning with a warm classroom climate first and then attempt
to get the student interested in a particular task, learner is actively involved in the
planning and delivery of the task, they have some ‘ownership’ in it. (2) A high
degree of learner activity; ‘the more the way the learner is involved, the more the
interconnections, the stronger the learning’ (Biggs, 1989). (3) Interaction with others,
both peers and teachers; hierarchical interaction involved one-to-one interaction
with a responsive expert, as well as, lateral interaction with peers realizing goal-setting

485
and self-monitoring. And (4) a well-structured knowledge base.

The Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ) (Biggs, 1987a, 1987b) was developed from
a 10 scale Study Behaviour Questionnaire (SBQ) (Biggs, 1976) which could be
interpreted in three higher order factors: surface, deep and achieving under the
‘student approaches to learning’ (SAL) conceptual framework. Each of these factors
has two kinds of items, namely those relating to a motive and those relating to a
congruent strategy. Marton and Sȁljȍ (1976a and 1976b) pointed out that a student
handled a reading task according to his or her intentions prior to engaging the task.
Biggs (1989) mentioned motive for surface approach students is ‘to keep out of trouble
with minimal effort’ with congruent strategy of ‘selective memorising’; motive for deep
approach students is ‘to engage the task appropriately’ with congruent strategy of
‘seeking for meaning’; and motive for achieving approach students is ‘to maximize
grades’ with congruent strategy of ‘optimal time and space management’.
In his Presage-Process-Product (3P) model (Biggs, 1987a, 1993a, 1993b), students
factors, teaching context, on-task approaches to learning, and the learning outcomes,
mutually interact and form a dynamic system. Presage stage refers to what exists prior
to engagement that affects learning. On the student side, this includes their ability,
prior knowledge and their preferred approaches to learning. On the teaching context
side, this includes methods of teaching and assessment, the nature of the content
being taught, and the institutional climate and procedures, and so on. These factors
interact to determine the on-going approach to a particular task (process), which
in turn determines the outcome (product) and each such factor affects every other
factor. Student’s preferred approach will adjust to the particular context and course
being taught, and to the success or otherwise of the outcome. It is therefore important
to understand student’s preferred learning approaches so as to plan appropriate
learning activities to encourage students to develop deep learning skills. A student
who typically picks out likely items for assessment and rote learn them will find that
strategy won’t work under portfolio assessment, so goes deep. Another student who
normally interacts deeply may decide to go surface in a module that is overloaded
with content and assessed by multiple choice questions. This showed assessment
methods should also planned to encourage deep learning.
Kember and Leung (1998) found achieving motive and strategies subscales aligned
with both deep and surface approaches, after using confirmatory factor analysis,
the SPQ can be conveniently be described in term of two factors: deep and surface.
Biggs, Kember, and Leung (2001) developed a Revised Two Factor Study Process
Questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F) which as two main scales Deep Approach (DA) and Surface
Approach (SA) with four sub-scales, Deep Motive (DM), Deep Strategy (DS), Surface
Motive (SM) and Surface Strategy (SS).
Karhoot is a “game-based digital learning platform”, it can be used to gamifying
the class and make it more engaging. Students can use their nickname to answer
the questions and this is a great opportunity for them to test their knowledge and
understanding. It is free of charge and easy to set up. Students can enter a game
PIN showed on the screen into their mobile devise and then select multiple choice
answers as the class plays the game together. The quickest correct responses
answered are also showed on the screen. This act as a competitive incentives and
motivated students to participate.
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This paper aims to explore students’ perception of the constructive alignment with
intended learning outcomes, incorporating with active learning activities and Kahoot
online gaming platform.
METHODS
The unit Fashion Marketing, which lasted two terms, was selected as the unit to apply
these learning teaching strategies. Four learning outcomes were determined for this
unit and appropriate assessments methods were determined by applying constructive
alignment principles. The curriculum of weekly learning schedules were planned and
determined by using the Active Learning principles. Students were asked to do the
online Revised Two Factor Study Process Questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F) set up in Moodle
in the beginning of the term so as to calculate their scores to find out their preferred
learning approach. Students’ feedback were collected after each Active Learning
activities, as well as through internal student survey.
RESULTS
The unit Fashion Marketing has four learning outcomes, they are: LO1: Demonstrate
an awareness of Fashion Marketing Principles; LO2: Examine the nature of fashion
brands and their marketing mix; LO3: Identify the elements required for developing a
fashion brand; and LO4: Evaluate how fashion is communicated in a visual context
fashion brands and their marketing mix.
Using the constructive alignment principles, two summative assessments were
designed to align with the intended learning outcomes. Summative Assignment One
was designed to test students’ ability of achieving the first two learning outcomes
LO1 and LO2. Students were asked to write individually a 2000 words illustrative
report that identifies and discusses the marketing mix of a selected fashion brand
or company. This was supported with different active learning activities, such as
going out to different shopping districts in Manchester City Centre in groups, explore
the assigned area and identified different fashion brands in the area, select one
fashion brand and do observational research of the brand and customer profile and
report back as formative assignment and present their findings during class to their
classmates. Another active learning activity include searching company information
with different databases. Students were having a special session in computer room
with our library colleagues showing them how to use and search databases such
as Drapers, Passport, Business Source Premier and Mintel to find information related
to their selected fashion brands for their Summative Assignment One and received
immediate support if they faced difficulties to do the search.
Summative Assignment Two was designed to examine students’ ability to achieve
the last two learning outcomes LO3 and LO4. Students were asked to do a group
assignment. In the allocated team of 4 to 5 members, students were required to develop
a new fashion brand, the brand can be for any sector of the market, womenswear,
menswear, children’s wear, and at any market level, value, middle or luxury. Each
group is required to prepare a 10 minutes presentation that outlines the rational of
having this new brand, the four elements of marketing mix for the new brand, and
paid special attention to shop design, promotion and the launch party. Presentation
material includes PowerPoint, and all promotional materials (videos, web-link, etc).

487
Then they present this to the class. This was supported with different active learning
activities, such as visiting shopping malls in Trafford Centre to investigate why fashion
brands of a particular market segment are located in that area, and to Liverpool
One to observe how other brands selected the shop location and design the shop, as
well as the promotional means they used. In addition, students can identified which
ones will be the potential competitors of their designed brand and draw the brand
positioning maps (formative assignment). Other activities include attending Google
Digital Garage to learn how to tell your story online, and protecting IP and creating
trademarks workshop from the Central Library. All these activities provided insights for
students to work on their newly developed brand. Students were also given a chance
to have mock presentation as formative assignment so that they can prepare the first
part of their assignment and received comments for it, and also observe what other
classmates have done.
Results from the Revised Two Factor Study Process Questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F) showed
over 90% of the responded students took deep approach in their learning. Over 25%
of them took extremely deep approach in their learning. As a result, during delivery of
the unit, case studies and many supplementary materials were also used and posted
onto Moodle for students to explore in their spare them. Kahoot was employed as
an online game using class as a revision tools after different concepts and contents
delivered.
Responses and perceptions from students were very positive, they like the approach
of delivery and enjoy the contents and active learning sessions.
“The best thing about this unit are, I am enjoying learning about how brands market
their product and the whole story behind how they do it. I also like the fact that we got
to pick our own brand to research rather than getting given one.”
“Like doing formative assignments to get you prepared for what you need to do for
the summative assignment”
“I have been given a good insight into the world of fashion marketing, I have been
introduced to lots of different marketing concepts which I was not aware of before.”
“Learning about the business side of fashion, the various roles in the fashion industry
and what fashion marketing is about. I enjoy the lectures as I learn a lot from them
and they are informative and interesting. The teaching style keeps me interested in the
topic as there is a good combination of a powerpoint and general communication
about the topic.”
“I have enjoyed learning about the marketing mix concept and it has given me
an insight of what kind of attributes retailers/brands have to really think about. It is
interesting.”
“I like hoe informative it has been and that I have learnt what is needed for the
assignment”.
“I like how the tutor involves games and videos to make learning more interesting”.
“I like the active learning week in which we created customer profile by studying
shops in the Arndale.”
“Really good activity, I understand how important customer profiling is in fashion
488
industry. It was fun to learn outside of the classroom and research into different
companies’ customer profile.”
“Was a fun activity, nice to be able to see more of Manchester and do learning
outside of classroom. Also have more knowledge of companies and customers.”
“Observing the customers and creating a customer profile made me realise that
merchandisers actually perform these tasks in the industry.”
“Did a task that encouraged me to work independently and use my own judgement.”
“I am so intrigued by marketing and her lessons go very in depth to each part of
promotion and marketing. I use the information she has taught me to analyse more
advert within fashion, but also within other products whenever they pop up. I tend to
look at stores differently now, such as the environment or how they pack purchases.”
“The activity was enjoyable and got me thinking where a certain product should be
sold, I enjoyed seeing baby-wear within a specific area in Trafford Centre and looking
into the reasons why it should be placed there.”
“Was good taking part in a task that I haven’t done before and made me think more
why brands pick their locations carefully.”
The activity helped in analysing skills of brand location and placement.”
The activity put me out of my comfort zone with the product of children’s wear, but I
enjoyed the challenge and learnt more about family stores.”
“I liked the fact that we went to the Trafford Centre so we could actually see first-hand
where it would be good to place our brand.”
“I have enjoyed marketing because the assignments have been fun and
straightforward. It has also been interesting to learn about the basics of how businesses
work and how important the marketing mix is.”
“This unit is interesting and extremely informative. Many of the skill taught can be
transferred into many aspects of business and not just the fashion industry. The projects
have helped me develop skills within brand research and consumer studies.”
CONCLUSIONS
Aligning assessments with intended learning outcomes and incorporating different
active learning activities and formative assignments aligned with intended learning
outcomes and final summative assessments helps students to actively learn and
engaged with the lessons. They enjoy the learning and have the ownership of their
learning. Through different active learning activities, they progress and achieve
different in-stage tasks before they approach the final one. Incorporating games and
videos in classroom enhance their engagements and concentration during class as
well. The Study Process Questionnaire revealed students’ learning approaches and
this facilitated planning of appropriate activities to their style of learning. Perceptions
and comments from students’ survey showed students highly enjoyed and found
being able to learnt in this environment. Will continue using this strategy for future
years and apply to other units.

489
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Author would like to acknowledge Manchester Metropolitan University to support this
study and provide funding to attend this conference.
REFERENCES
Biggs, J.B. 1979. Individual Differences in Study Processes and the Quality of Learning Outcomes.
Higher Education, 8, 381-394.
Biggs, J.B. 1987a. Student Approaches to Learning and Studying. Hawthorn, Vic: Australian Council for
Educational Research.
Biggs, J.B. 1987b. The Learning Process Questionnaire (LPQ): Manual. Hawthorn, Vic: Australian Council
for Educational Research.
Biggs, J.B. 1987c. The Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ): Manual. Hawthorn, Vic: Australian Council
for Educational Research.
Biggs, J.B. 1989. Approaches to the Enhancement of Tertiary Teaching, Higher Education Research &
Development, 8:1, 7-25. DOI:10.1080/0729436890080102
Biggs, J.B. 1993a. What do Inventions of Students’ Learning Porcesses Really Measure? A Theoretical
Review and Clarification. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 1-17.
Biggs, J.B. 1993b. From Theory to Practice: A cognitive Systems Approach. Higher Education Research
and Development, 12, 73-86.
Biggs, J. 2003. Teaching for Quality Learning at University. Buckingham: The Society for Research into
higher Education and Open University Press.
Biggs, J. B., Kember, D., and Leung, D.Y.P. 2001. The Revised Two Factor Study Process Questionnaire:
R-SPQ-2F. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 133-149.
Biggs, J.B. and Telfer, R. 1987. The Process of Learning. Sydney: Prentice-Hall of Australia.
Bonwell, C. and Eison, J. 1991. Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom (ASHE-ERIC
Higher Education Report No. 1) Washington, D.C: George Washington University.
Entwistle, N. and Ramsden, P. 1983. Understanding Student Learning. London: Croom Helm.
Karhoot, http://getkahoot.com.
Kimber, D. and Leung, D. Y. P. 1998. The Dimensionality of Approaches to Learning: an Investigation
with Confirmatory Factor Analysis on the Structure of the SPQ and LPQ. British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 68, 395-407.
Marton, F. 1981. Phenomenography – describing conceptions of the world around us. Instructional
Science, 10, 177-200.
Marton, F. and Saljo, R. 1976a. On Qualitative Differences in Learning – I: Outcome and process. British
Journal of Educational Psychology, 46:4-11.
Marton, F. and Saljo, R. 1976b. On Qualitative Differences in Learning – II: Outcome as a Function of
the Learner’s Conception of the Task. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46:115-27.
Ramsden, P. 1984. The Context of Learning. In The Experience of Learning, ed. F. Marton, D. Hounsell
and N. Entwistle, 144-164. Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press.
Shuell, T. J. 1986. Cognitive Conceptions of Learning. Review of Educational Research, 56, 411-436.
Watkins, D.A. 1983. Depth of Processing and the Quality of Learning Outcomes. Instructional Science,
12, 49-58.

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Transition into University – Fashion and Materials SOC – Case study
TRANSITION INTO UNIVERSITY – FASHION AND

MATERIALS SOC – CASE STUDY
Gianpaolo Vignali1, Rachel Studd2 (12 pt, bold)
1
Director of Teaching and Learning, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
2 Senior Lecturer , University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
(Gianpaolo.vignali@manchester.ac.uk; rachel.studd@manchester.ac.uk)
ABSTRACT
The problematic transition for 14-17 year olds in secondary education through to
tertiary education requires both social and academic support (Chambers et. al.,
(2002) (Cohen et. al., (2012). Building bridges of understanding with this age group
requires clear linkages from their academic discipline to their future working careers
by conveying employability as a key skill, whilst all stakeholders understand the
transition bridge (Briggs, et. al., 2012). Embedding this linkage would be through
the use of a free Small Online Course (SOC) to aid in the ‘demystifying’ of university
education (Vinson et al. 2010) whilst creating a sense of belonging for the prospective
student before they apply to university (Cohen et. al. 2012). The following case study
will investigate this journey in a non-traditional academic discipline of Fashion and
Materials at The University of Manchester (UoM).
The students’ journey with the University, using this new interactive tool, will start off their
student experience with a very positive relationship. It will also acknowledge that the
UoM delivers a unique World leading and innovative, suite of Material Science and
Fashion Business related BSc. courses. This case study aligns itself with Manchester
2020 Goal Two, key strategy of providing prospective students with a, “motivating
environment that encourages curiosity driven enquiry and a critical approach to
learning.” (Manchester 2020 Strategic Plan) This will be achieved through an enriched
e-learning environment.
The SOC will be an innovative pedagogical development. The interactive SOC would
be the perfect tool in confirming a students decision to make the transition to study
at University starting their student experience at an early stage. The SOC address the
current issue of continuity (from A-Level subject to university curriculum content) by
allowing the prospective student an opportunity to, “explore the content, feel, and
opportunities they offer in a more personalised way.” Marland (2003).
The pedagogy behind the SOC will be to prepare the prospective student for their
transitional journey from a narrative to learning to a more independent, analytical
approach (Marland, 2003). Investigation will also consider Kolb’s (1984) learning styles
inventory based on experiential learning to give students a personalised journey
through the topic area.
The Project will be disseminated through outreach activities but also as a University
WebAPP, where the end user is comfortable. The outcomes from this research
and development will be disseminated throughout the university to highlight the
importance of this target age group and their transition journey. Ambition would also
be to disseminate through publication to highlight the pedagogic development.
Keywords: small online course, transition into university, learning, application
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INTRODUCTION
The problematic transition for 14-17 year olds in secondary education through to
tertiary education requires both social and academic support (Chambers et. al., 2002,
Cohen et. al., 2012). Building bridges of understanding with this age group requires
clear linkages from their academic discipline to their future working careers by
conveying employability as a key skill. Embedding this linkage would be through the
use of a free Small Online Course (SOC) creating a sense of belonging (Cohen et.al.,
2012) for the prospective student before they apply to university. The following case
study will investigate this journey in a non-traditional academic discipline of Fashion
and Materials at the UoM.
The motivation of the initiation of this project came from a need for knowledge of the
discipline area following an internal re-brand of UG programmes within the School
of Materials due to the University portfolio review. There was a need to develop a
deeper awareness developing an awareness for a higher education and academic
approach to the subject and to “pass on a spark of inspiration,” to all students including
(WP) allowing access and transition to university (Manchester 2020 Strategic Plan).
Experiences gained during previous years and internal studies also suggest a need
for the greater management of students expectations and a move towards better
student integration considering engagement and empowerment (Holmegaard,
Madsen & Ulriksen, 2013).
Aim of the research:
Currently the 14-17 year old age group is engaged at school in a ‘narrative’ to learning
where as university follows a more independent, analytical approach (Marland,
2003). Fostering this change is problematic. There is also a requirement to understand
the need for a relationship between the students and the culture of the programme
they enter whilst increasing a sense of identity related to this (Ulriksen Madsen &
Holmegaard, 2010). However the key to all of these are that successful transition
requires both social and academic support (Chambers et. al., (2002); Cohen et. al.,
(2012)). From this background the aim of the project was established:
• to develop a short on-line course (SOC) for pre enrolment students to assist in
their decision making of choosing their course in Higher education.
In addition to this aim there are several key themes that required deeper exploration
in order to information appropriate depth and knowledge to the project including:
• understanding the target audience (14-17 year olds) and their behaviours on-
line
• developing ‘snackable’ content in an appropriate language
• evaluation of the success of the SOC and its positioning as part of the students
transition into higher education
The proceeding methodology will outline how the aim and themes were developed.
A mixed method approach was adopted for this project split into collecting both
quantitative and qualitative data. To initiate the project initial market (desk) research

492
was carried out to provide an outline to the characteristics demonstrated by our

target sample of users of the SOC (14-17 year olds). The results from this background
research assisted in setting the scene for the project and facilitate the storyboard
development and planning of the SOC.
The foresight of these results provided suggested pathways to explore and focussed
efforts on the SOC construction. After this stage of the research and planning of the
future activities, a pilot SOC was created to gain feedback through user testing. The
results from this user testing allowed for the evolution of the final SOC.
A sample of 116 user tests was elicited from our target sample. The sample presented
a broad range of responses and specific events were targeted as to gain a true
reflection of users at their various stages of preparing for transition into higher
education. The questionnaire used for the user tests can be found in Appendix A.
The following events were specifically targeted to gain a cross section of these key
transition stages.
• Prospective UCAS applicants on Visit/Interview Days (17-18yrs)
This group of students have already chosen fashion specific courses as part of
their transition into university. The results from this sample group were important in
determining if the content of the SOC is at an appropriate level and seen as good
for confirming if the course is right for them. Measurement of this can be found by
looking at UF and CF admission figures and enrolment of this sample group onto
our fashion courses at UoM. This target sample is already considering application to
fashion courses at university.
• ‘Discovery Day’ (16yrs)
The characteristics presented by this target sample at their stage of transition are
at the research and choice stage. The Discovery Day allows potential applicants to
sample a day in the life of a student studying at UoM with seminars and activities
conveyed on each of the Fashion courses. This target sample would be potentially
considering studying a fashion course at university.
• ‘Step into the Future’ (14-15 yrs)
Mainly geared at WP students, this event presented an opportunity to interact with a
target sample at the start of their journey. This target sample as a group are unlikely
to know which course to study or if university is part of their thoughts. Results from this
sample help to distinguish if the SOC is positioned properly.
As all these target samples spend time surfing between sites, the design of the user
testing only allowed for a maximum of five minutes to be spent by each user on the
pilot site to gain their initial impressions of what they were viewing and the relevance
to them in relation to their stage of the transition.

493
RESULTS
Initial findings:
The initial results from the desk research conducted externally found that there were
four main categories which classified this target sample including what they want
(Needs), what they do (Behaviours), what they think (Attitudes) and what will move
them (Motivate). A summary of this can be found in figure 1.
Figure 1: 14-17 year old considering university profile
These initial results helped the researchers to gain an understanding of what is

necessary and applicable to this target sample when managing the transition into
university. One of the key findings suggested that in a digital narrative you only have
three seconds to hook this target sample before they move on to the next website
or webApp. The results also provided an outline as to the pedagogic support and
reasoning already outlined in the literature. In particular there needs to be clear
linkages from their academic discipline to their future working careers as supported
by Briggs, et. al., (2012). It was important that being able to ‘demystify’ university
education (Vinson et al. 2010) and therefore creating a sense of belonging for the
prospective student before they apply to university was essential (Cohen et. al. 2012).
The storyboard and planning that followed these initial results then allowed for the
creation of a pilot site for testing the SOC with the target sample as presented in
Figure 2.
With the initial results indicating that ‘snackable’ content be created for this quick
finger-clicking generation, the pilot SOC provided a platform that was easy to follow
with an inspirational film to keep the target sample hooked and to move on through
the site.

494
Figure 2: The pilot SOC
The highlights of the user testing provided some insights not only with regards to the
content currently on the pilot but also for future developments too. A summary of the
results found that the school /tutor are very influential in assisting the students in making
their decision on entering higher education and the courses too. The implication of
this suggests that a strategy for outreach activities is essential in the recruitment of
students but also brand awareness not only to the prospective student but also their
tutors too.
Analyses:
The average planning age for considering a move into higher education is 15.75
years of age and the suggested age for the SOC to target prospective students is
16.16 years of age. Although the SOC is deemed to be more beneficial after the
student has commenced their transition journey this supports the earlier notion that
the school/tutor initiates the process. Successful management of targeting the target
sample with the SOC is imperative. Successfully targeting this group of prospective
students will aid in the success linked with recruitment but also essential that this is in
a digital language.
Following the research this confirmed the sources of information that were identified
when searching for the right course, the target sample ranked the following:
1. University Website (95)
2. UCAS (76)
3. University Prospectus (59)
Again this implies that the brand and the digital narrative plays a significant role in
the decision making and therefore any future SOCs should display the brand of the
university that it is associated with.
With reference to how they found out about courses at the UoM the results were:
1. UCAS (63)
2. University Website (54)
3. School/Tutor (45)
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Again the digital narrative is the only vehicle here that the University can control and
influence.
A large proportion of the users tests were agree/strongly agree with SOC elements
more details are listed below in Table 1. The mean is displayed based on a scale of
1-5 from 1=Strongly Agree to 5= Strongly Disagree.
Table 1: SOC Statements
%Strongly Agree/
Mean
Agree
I could navigate my way through the WebApp course easily 1.51 92.5
I could find my way through the information easily 1.56 93.2
The WebApp has changed my perception of the fashion industry 2.74 35.0
The opening clip set the WebApp into context 1.86 86.3
I have a clearer understanding of the fashion industry and the variety it
2.11 72.7
offers
I have a clearer understanding of what is involved within the academic
2.01 80.3
university system
I understand what might be expected when entering higher education 1.92 80.3
The WebApp has given me a good understanding overall 1.78 88.0
The WebApp has helped with my decision-making / planning 2.41 51.3
The WebApp would have made it easier for me to decide on which course
1.99 75.2
to apply to if I had seen it at the start of my journey
From the user testing it was highlighted (in the red and amber sections) that more of
an industry focus was required for the SOC for this particular target sample to truly see
how the transition pays off after graduation. There were also suggested improvements
from the free text comments of the questionnaire focussing on the following, which
aimed to address the red and amber areas above:
1. More career insights job variety & salaries
2. Alumni destinations
3. Day in the life of existing students
4. Examples of University type projects/work
5. A-Level subjects commonly chosen
In support of qualitative data above a principle components factor analysis was
conducted to seek the relationships between the SOC statements (as presented in
table one) to distinguish if there are any components that fit with one another. A
KMO and Bartlett’s test was completed to test the significance of the data and this
is presented in Table 2. From this you can see that the Chi-Square is at good level
and p<0.05. The KMO score of 0.763 places the data between the meritorious and
middling categories suggesting that the data is of an adequate level and that an
anti-image correlation matrix is not required.

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Table 2: Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin and Bartlett’s Test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of
.763
Sampling Adequacy.
Approx. Chi- 296.320
Square
Bartlett’s Test of
Sphericity df 45
Sig. .000
The resulting principal component analysis revealed that there are three components
associated with this data as presented by the total variance explained and scree plot
in Appendix B. Appendix C presents the Component Matrix. From this matrix it is clear
to see the variables that have a primary relationship (green) to each component and
secondary relationship (yellow).
These results suggest that when designing a SOC the following key attributes should
be considered as presented in Figure 3. The methodology applied and the results
analysed have followed a robust process collating data from all key identified transition
stages. The data has been evaluated to present the needs and requirements of this
group whilst establishing a generic academic framework as seen in figure 3.
Figure 3: SOC Framework
CONCLUSIONS
The outcomes of this project aligns itself with Manchester 2020 Goal Two’s key strategy
of providing prospective students with a, “motivating environment that encourages
curiosity driven enquiry and a critical approach to learning”, (Manchester 2020
Strategic Plan), whilst closely fitting into the CHERIL centre’s board aim of Strategic
Advice and Educational Research to “promote inquiry into practice in HE teaching,
through an evidence-based approach exploring particular issues and creative
responses, evaluating the impact of interventions” (CHERIL Centre Aims 2015).
The project aligns itself with these two key university objective as it has created a
tangible output which is already being used successfully within the School to support
outreach activities and admission activities to the target audience with positive
497
feedback. It has enabled a basic framework to be developed in order to support

dissemination of the SOC for others to apply when considering an overall design of a
SOC. From the results the following improvements were considered and planned into
the final construction of the SOC, which include:
• Academic Theory Pods (Academic Content)
• Career Maps (Employability)
• Interactive Tasks (Academic Content)
• ‘Fashion Snap’ for personal engagement (Personalised Learning)
• Quiz with SoA Certificate (Achievement)
Following this SOC construction and content for the specific audience target it is
perceived, from the primary research carried out, that this webApp/Digital resource
is innovative in its construction and content. Feedback from the careers teachers and
the audience highlight this and requesting access to detailed information that can
support and guide through educational transition.
The vision of this project therefore is to act as a guide for students pre-entry into the
university to support early knowledge of the transition to university. It then aims to help
develop those transition skills in order to understand requirements for independent
learning and the progression in the university system. The SOC is therefore something
that has potential to be rolled out across the university.
Further Research:
As a trigger of pedagogic change from this project ‘Transition into University’, there is
an opportunity to further research and develop the SOC transition resource to help
support transition, bridging the gap between the two sectors, as referenced by Briggs
et. al. (2012); (Chambers et. al. (2002) and Cohen et.al. (2012)). Mapping this project
against the research carried out by these academics the project embeds itself and
highlights a practice approach in pedagogic development.
Moving this transition project forward ‘demystifying’ university education (Vinson et al.
2010) the project could start to progress into a more longitudinal approach providing
an opportunity to monitor student engagement with autonomous and self-directed
learning. It is seen as important to support the development of self-reliance in order
to progress successfully through their transition into higher education. Increased self-
reliance needs to be one of the aims of a successful transition from school to higher
education. Bingham and O’Hara (2007) cited in Beaumont et al (2014), confirm
the difficulty that students experience in becoming autonomous learners and the
importance of exploration into effective approaches to ‘scaffold the development of
self-regulated learning skills’.
The follow on project will aim to develop ‘bolt-on’ activities within the SOC, which
presents concepts and interactive tasks directly supporting the content aligned
with the University first year, first semester units. These bolt-ons will support students
by creating a bridge that they can self-navigate through and enhance their Self-
regulated learning (SRL).

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The project has been developed in partnership with both the Faculty of Engineering
and Physical Sciences’ e-learning team and marketing team, which has ensured the
project, has been aligned with working processes and structures in both teams. The
webApp has been created using the University required ‘T4’ digital data management
system therefore allows for continual updates maintaining its long-term sustainability
and functionality.
REFERENCES
Briggs, A. R. J., Clark, J., and Hall, I., (2012) Building bridges: understanding student transition to university.
Quality in Higher Education Jan 12
Chambers E., Parker, J., and Gregory, M. al., (2002) ‘Editorial’ Arts and Humanities in Higher Education
June 2002 1 (1): 5-9
Cohen, L., Ferguson, C., Harman, B., Boyce, M., Harris, A., and Le Clus, M., (2012) The Development of
a Student Focused Model for Transition to University, eCulture Vol. 5 [ 2012], Art. 6., Berkeley Electronic
Press
Marland (2003) The Transition from School to University: Who prepares whom, when, and how? Arts
and Humanities in Higher Education June 2003 2: 201-211
McMillian (2014) ‘They have different information about what is going on’: emotion in the transition to
university. Higher Education Research and Development May 2014
Vinson, D., Nixon, S., Walsh, B., Walker, C., Mitchell, E., and Zaitseva, E., (2010) Investigating the relationship
between student engagement and transition, Active Learning in Higher Education 2010 11: 131

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Design, fashion and retails
CONTRIBUTION TO AN EFFICIENT TRANSMISSION OF INFORMATION TO THE TEXTILE FASHION CONSUMER AND THE INFLUENCE IN SUSTAINABLE ATTITUDES
CONTRIBUTION TO AN EFFICIENT
TRANSMISSION OF INFORMATION TO THE
TEXTILE FASHION CONSUMER AND THE
INFLUENCE IN SUSTAINABLE ATTITUDES
Carneiro N. 1, Refosco E. 1, Soares G. 1
1
Centro de Ciência e Tecnologia Têxtil – Universidade do Minho – Guimarães - Portugal
(Presenting author E-mail: noemiac@det.uminho.pt: Corresponding author email: noemiac@det.
uminho.pt)
ABSTRACT
The concepts involved in sustainable textile fashion, demanding good knowledge
about raw materials, processes, end use properties and circuits amongst others,
are able to determine the way the textile product is designed and the behavior of
the consumer, regarding life style and buying decisions. The textile product`s life
integrates raw materials, their processing, distribution, use by the consumer and
destination of the product after useful lifetime, this is, his complete life cycle. It is very
important to recognize the power of the consumer to influence parameters related to
sustainability, namely when he decides how, when and why he buys and afterwards
by the attitudes taken during and after use.
The conscious act of consumption involves ethical, ecological and technical
knowledge in which the concern is overall lifecycle of the fashion product and not
exclusively aesthetic and symbolic values strongly related with its ephemeral nature.
The present work proposes the classification of textile products by means of an
innovative label aiming to establish a rating related to the Life of Fashion Products,
by using parameters considered with especial impact in lifecycle, as textile fibers,
processing conditions, generated wastes, commercialization circuits, durability and
cleaning procedures. This label for sustainable fashion products aims to assist the
stakeholders with informed attitudes and correct decisions in order to promote the
objectives of sustainable fashion near designers, consumers and industrial experts.
Keywords: Textile Fashion, Sustainability, Consumer, Communication, Ecological Label
THE PROCESS OF CREATION OF TEXTILE FASHION
The work involved into making textile fashion to be purchased by a huge amount of
consumers all over the world is almost unknown and out of comprehension of the
public. This means a wide gamut of activities and a very large involvement of raw
materials, processes, technologies and decisions from designers, industrial engineers,
and finally buyers.
Research and development form the basis of an evolution towards a new model
of work for concept and textile product construction, where the knowledge about
raw materials namely fibers, the processing into yarns and fabrics, the finishing
treatments, the packaging operation, the circuit of distribution, amongst others, must
be reflected in the sustainable nature of the final product. The form and value of the

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relevant information given to designers, technicians, industrials, retailers and finally

the consumer is discussed, aiming to influence sustainable decisions including the
attitude at the buying moment and even a new life style.
Inputs for the sustainability in fashion design
According to Manzini and Vezzoli (2002), Design for Sustainability result in products with
high social quality with minimum waste and damage to nature producing positive
impacts on society and environment. Therefore, methods for the development of
a sustainable product should be associated with Life Cycle Design (Vezzoli 2008).
Companies that eager to offer customers a sustainable textile product should, in
the pre-production and production phases, select textile fibers or mixtures which
are organic and sustainably produced, and choose optimized materials processing
technologies that reduce levels of solid waste and effluents that are eliminated through
the water, such as products used in washing and cleaning, printing or dyeing. In the
production phase, the company must excel to maintain the labor laws demanded
standards, to preserve the social welfare and to ensure respect for workers’ rights. The
best available techniques should be chosen in order to ensure the reduction of the
impact of production process. The value assigned to the product must be opposed
to the so called textile trash that has been widely produced in order to make the final
product cheaper, choosing low-cost raw materials and a disqualified production
process. In the distribution phase, the package must be biodegradable and, as
far as possible, gradually minimized. Furthermore, with the lack of geographical
boundaries, the products travel thousands of kilometers during their industrialization
and distribution, causing very high levels of pollution and high fuel consumption,
which will vary according to the chosen way of transportation. The destination of the
product at the end of its useful life, if properly planned, can be used in part or totally
to the confection of other products and restart another cycle. It becomes imperative
the choice of more easily biodegradable materials, that tend to have a life cycle
more compatible with the rules of respect for the preservation of the environment.
(Refosco, 2011)
The design project, building a new sustainable approach, tends to create new
opportunities and approaches, with the challenge of minimizing the impacts of
production and consumption to sustainability of the planet (Fuad-Luke 2004). Some
argue that design is remarkably tied to aesthetic functions, fashion and style, in
detriment of the sustainable aspects, showing a lack of commitment to ecological
concepts.
The fast fashion is situated between the luxury market and the mass market and
offers products with short life cycles. It aims to achieve an insatiable public, informed,
lacking in novelty and variety. Usually, fast fashion is based in chains of stores
worldwide, with several brands commercialized. The products can be industrialized
in their own units or even produced in underdeveloped countries. An efficient system
of production and distribution is settled and quickly spray the new products around
the world, causing the impression that there is a small supply of products by model. In
addition, the clothes are made with low production costs without prioritizing aspects
of quality of raw materials and finishing, factory conditions and the distance that the
product travels throughout the life cycle. Fast fashion is being challenged by a new

501
contradictory movement, the slow fashion. It is a concept that derives from slow design
connected to the deceleration of fashion, with perennial pieces, and aesthetically
absorbed in more than one season. It is antagonistic to the impersonal and uniform
products offered by fast fashion. It’s a classic and durable fashion, therefore with
higher quality. Another important factor is the respect for ethical and organic sources,
trying to preserve local traditions. This is a different approach in which all stakeholders
in the production cycle are more aware of the impacts of the products on workers,
communities and ecosystems. (Refosco, Oenning, Carneiro 2011) In addition, the time
factor does not weight as much because the planning is done in long term, avoiding
subcontracting, temporary workers or overtime to rush urgent production (Fletcher
2008). So, consumers will be provided with timeless and long life cycle pieces, which
bring the certainty of an environmental protection policy.
The challenge is obviously very hard, because it confronts an important and successful
business paradigm of very fast moving fashion, with high financial results, offering
regular quality products at competitive prices, launched in very short periods of time
with more than twelve collections annually, in absolute contrast with the definition of
an environmental sustainable lifecycle of the fashion product.
Decision about ecological and sustainable nature of a textile fiber
The answers to very precise questions about textile fibers are shown as an example of
how to collect important data to take well informed decisions. The discussion should
be made considering different aspects: environmental impacts, energy consumption,
and use of natural resources, ability to be reused, recycled or biodegradable.
ORGANIC VERSUS NATURAL AND NATURAL VERSUS SYNTHETIC FIBERS
The use of natural cellulosic fibers has significant impact on the environment. Cotton,
the most representative fiber of this group certainly due to a very convenient set of
properties, requires enormous amounts of pesticides and water during the cultivation.
Their preparation, dyeing and finishing require large amounts of water, chemicals
and energy. Environmentally speaking, “organic or biologic” fibers are in general
considered much better than conventional natural fibers due to the absence of
chemicals in cultivation and processing. In terms of Global Warming Potential
expressed in CO2 emissions, as a Life Cycle Analysis component, organic cotton is 46%
better, according to a study of the group Textile Exchange. (Textile Exchange 2014)
However, organic cotton is identical to conventional cotton in terms of quality and
performance, but more expensive and so needing some kind of conscious attitude of
the consumers towards the problem of the impact of fibers in ecological terms.
The recycled cotton fabrics are generally a bit weaker and a bit shaggier than virgin
fiber equivalents but with sufficient quality for some applications. Similar approach
can be made for recycled wool fabrics. They are not as smooth as virgin wool fabrics,
but they are interesting for many end uses. Recycling must be evaluated and used
whenever this option is possible.
Viscose and bamboo artificial fibers are made by renewable raw material, are
biodegradable, with low durability and difficult to be recycled. The problem of
bamboo forests destruction is mandatory as a reflexion subject. Besides, their
production releases toxic gases, CS2 and H2S. Nevertheless, the solutions coming up

502
of other artificial cellulosic fibers like Tencel or Lyocel can be regarded as much more
ecological even when compared with natural fibers, in despite of low durability of the
final product because a reusable solvent is used instead of hazardous solubilization
of cellulose.
The production of synthetic fibers depends on non-renewable resources. Their
discharge has strong impact on the environment since they are not biodegradable.
Nevertheless, polyester has a great potential for PET recycling, mainly from bottles,
and the difference between recycled and original polyester is almost undetectable,
which is a huge opportunity to get lower environmental impact. As polyester,
polyamide has high durability, is a non-biodegradable fiber and his production has
high environmental impact due to toxic emissions release. Despite the higher energy
consumption for fiber production when compared to the natural fibers, this problem is
offset throughout the life of the article by the less waste in the chain and the possibility
to produce products with much easier maintenance (washing easier, faster drying
and no ironing). When the comparison of synthetics is made with conventional cotton,
the chemicals and water spent during cultivation have a deep negative impact,
although the organic fibers can make a big difference in reducing the environmental
footprint of a product or textile collection. However, the criterion of choice is normally
based on performance and aesthetic needs. Depending on the application, there
is a different selection of suitable fibers to be chosen, making absolute sense to look
for low-impact alternatives, such as organic or recycled fibers, or even to biosynthetic
fibrous solutions being the price and availability other important questions to be put.
Blends of fibers can contribute to balance properties and environmental footprint,
and the challenge is now to develop new yarns, fabrics and other textile materials
having in mind the minimization of impact, controlling price and technical properties
by means of their equilibrated fibrous composition.
The investment to reduce ecological impact of textile processing
The impact of textile wet processing must be highly considered and efforts must
be made in order to alert to important changes in industrial processes, deserving
investment and research. The technical information must be very close to product´s
design, because it means a way to have a deep knowledge of impact factors and
how to control them. (Refosco 2012)
The best available techniques in textile wet processing are promoted in governmental
documents as for example in Portugal, Spain or Brazil, (Roque 2005), (Canales 2004),
(Bastian & Rocco 2009), namely integrating restrictions to the use of hazardous
products, selection of industrial equipments and processes, control of emissions, or
savings of water and energy, such as:
• Information and training of professionals about good environmental practices;
• Adequate conditions of the machinery;
• Good stocking and dispensing conditions of chemical products, dyes and
printing pastes in order to guarantee workers safety;
• Complete characterization of textile fibers, yarns, fabrics, knitted fabrics, in order
to adopt convenient processes for the removal of added impurities like lubricants
and sizing agents;
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• Selection of biodegradable auxiliaries as for example, wetting agents, detergents,

complexing and anti-foaming products;
• Use of equipment with reduced liquor ratio;
• Re-use of cooling and rinse waters as processing waters;
• Use of heat recovery systems in effluents;
• Washing of wool with recoverable organic solvents replacing detergents
• Combination of cotton preparation steps as desizing, alkaline treatment and
bleaching;
• Option for enzymatic processes for the preparation of natural fibers;
• Recovery and re-use of sizing agents by ultra-filtration processes;
• Use of hydrogen peroxide as bleaching agent;
• Re-use of alkaline baths from cotton mercerization
• Selection of machines with water filling control, systems to minimize heat losses,
and adequate size regarding batch size;
• Use of washing processes with minimum water consumption;
• Implementation of faster dyeing processes;
• Use of high yield dyes, without ecological restrictions to their use;
• Minimization of printing pastes volume and their re-use;
• Use of digital printing techniques;
• Minimization of energy consumption in drying machines and stenters;
• Use of formaldehyde-free finishing agents with low emission of volatile products
• Use of plasmatic discharge and other radiation techniques in order to get
advantages in preparation, dyeing, printing and finishing;
• Use of finishing nanotechnology in order to get more efficiency.
These topics include a large amount of technical possibilities available for the
enterprises which aim to invest in sustainable production ways, and so obtaining
final products with lower environmental impact. The attention of the producers must
be focused in the integral control of raw materials and processes, without forgetting
the dynamic of research and development, in order to take the right decisions and
prepare the enterprise for the risk of the adoption of emergent techniques in one
given moment, but conventional and established in the following moment as it is the
case of enzymatic textile processing, irradiation techniques or nanotechnology.
STRATEGIES TO GET AN INFORMED CONSUMER
The proposal of this work is to get a better information level transmitted to the final
consumer, in order to allow a conscious decision at the buying moment. Nevertheless,
the aim would be incomplete if all the stakeholders in design and production of the
textile fashion product wouldn`t be aware of technical data concerning origin and
properties of raw materials, description of processes and equipment, geography of
the production and distribution circuits. Designers, industrial technicians and retailers
504
must be informed about sustainability items described in manuals, conceived to be

a tool for informed design, production and distribution. The textile fashion project is
shared, followed and fully understood, especially in what concerns all the sustainability
parameters. These manuals must be simple, accessible to different categories of
stakeholders and clearly explaining the concept of sustainability related to textile
fashion products.
FASHION ECO-LABELING FOR FINAL CONSUMERS
The following aspects were considered in order to illustrate the degree of sustainability
of a fashion textile product: certification of raw materials, certification of industrial
processing, wastes generated in clothing manufacture, Global Warming Potential in
Life Cycle Analysis (CO2 emissions) related to the complete production and circuit,
durability of the product, type of maintenance during use and life post-use (Refosco
2012). These seven parameters can be summarized as follows, taking a textile product
as jeans 100% cotton, as an example:
• Raw materials can be certified to ensure that they are free of harmful substances
and produced using fair and collaborative means concerning local communities.
This certification can be as GOTS system or Öeko-Tex® Standard 100.
• Environmentally friendly production can be certified with labels as Öeko-Tex®
1000.
• Generation of wastes in clothing manufacture is evaluated being zero wastes
the objective to get sustainability of fashion products.
• Global Warming Potential is evaluated by means of CO2 emission integrated in
Life Cycle Analysis of the fashion product during production, distribution, use and
post-use, where the distances traveled by raw materials and final product will be
evaluated and the incorporation of the best available techniques in processing
will be taken in due account.
• Durability of the fashion product involves timeless design and also a fibrous
composition able to guarantee long use.
• Maintenance of the fashion product will be considered more favorable and
consistent with a good rate if it demands easy washing and ironing.
• Life post-use of the fashion product is programmed and a new life cycle begins,
being the enterprise responsible for this follow-up.

505
Table 1 – Definition of criteria for ecological labelling of textile products

A B C D
With ecological With ecological Sustainable raw Conventional raw

Raw materials certification certification materials without materials without
certification certification
Industrial With ecological With ecological Without certification Without
processing certification certification certification
Solid wastes
(clothing Zero waste - 5% 5 - 10% 10 - 15% More than 20%
manufacturing)
CO emission
(a 2scale must be * ** *** ****
defined)
Durability 5 years or more Up to 3,5 years Up to 2 years Up to 1 year
Maintenance Strategy for water Strategy for water and No plan for water No plan for water
during use and energy savings energy savings and energy savings and energy
savings
Post-use New product and New product and new Donation Waste
new cycle cycle
When a piece of jeans, a textile fashion product, is classified as class A using the Ecological
Fashion Label criteria (table 1), certification GOTS (Global Organic Textile Standard) or
equivalent is attributed, the textile processing is certified by Öeko-Tex® Standard 1000 or
equivalent, approximately zero waste is generated in clothing manufacture, the model
has a classic timeless design with a durability prevision of five years or more, it will be
washed once a week without ironing in order to save energy and water during use, in
post-use a partnership is formed in order to receive back old used jeans and children`s
tennis will be produced to enter a new life cycle, being CO2 emission calculated for a
circulation of raw materials inferior to 5.000 km, textile processing integrating 80% of Best
Available Techniques and the distribution of the product until the final consumer being
confined to a perimeter up to 2.000 km.
The label will incorporate the ecological classification directly resulting of the seven
criteria. These will be graphically explained, being easy to read and presenting an
attractive design in order to get the attention of the consumer who will absorb a lot of
useful information and so, will be able to think, reflect and finally decide with much more
conscience of the role he plays in the future of our planet.
CONCLUSIONS
This work intends to contribute to get a new paradigm: to design, to produce, to sell, and
to buy, to use, re-use or discard being fully aware of overall ecological impact of textile
fashion products.
It is important that concepts concerning sustainable textile fashion become perfectly
understood and absorbed by stakeholders of creation, production and consuming, so
generating mutual influences and diffusion of ecological objectives. The fashion product
begins with design decisions, goes through the selection of raw materials, textile processes
and circuits of distribution until the buying moment where the product influences the
consumer and drives him to a decision. This works intends to improve the communicational

506
link between the fashion product and the consumer in order to transform the buying
action into a reflexive option with impact in further attitudes of the consumer during the
use and post-use of the product. The life cycle of the product involves the team who
creates it, who produces it, who distributes it, who buys, who uses and decides what will
be the end of it. The connection must be established and surely is the guarantee to have
logic behind the fashion product supporting its good or bad ecological position.
The consumer has a determinant role in what regards the sustainability of the planet
when he uses his rationality and conscious of duty to decide what to buy and what to do
after the useful life of the product. The conscious consumer proposes more human and
sustainable values, for whom the concern at the buying moment exceeds the ephemeral
nature of a conventional fashion product and becomes really interested in the impact of
the entire life cycle of the product. The consumer will act as a link to diffuse the message
of environmental sustainability in textile fashion.
As an important result of this analysis, a tool has been proposed to be offered to the
consumer in order to facilitate a conscious decision. An ecological label with four levels has
been constructed using seven criteria, namely certification of raw materials, certification of
textile processing, generation of wastes in clothing manufacturing, emission of CO2 during
entire life of the product, its durability, type of maintenance during use and destination
after use. This proposal integrates ecological information which can be comparable
and universal, able to give the consumer the knowledge about the investment made
towards environmental sustainability of the fashion product. So, the consumer assumes
an ecological compromise, acts in conformity, diffuses the information and at term will
positively influence the success of ecological fashion products.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work has been funded by FEDER through Programa Operacional Factores de
Competitividade -
COMPETE and by the National Science and Technology Foundation (FCT) through Project
No. through Project UID/CTM/00264.
REFERENCES
Bastian, E.Y.O., Rocco, J.L.S. 2009. Guia Técnico Ambiental da Indústria TêxtilSérie P+L. Governo do Estado
de São Paulo, Secretaria do Meio Ambiente, CETESB and SINDITEXTIL. Biblioteca CETESB, São Paulo.
Canales, C. 2004. Guia de Mejores Técnicas Disponibles en España del Sector Textil. Ministerio de Medio
Ambiente Centro de Publicaciones, Secretaria General Técnica, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, España.
Fletcher, Kate. 2008. Sustainable Fashion and Textiles: Design Journeys. Earth Scan, London, England.
Fuad-Luke, Alastair. 2004. Slow Design: A paradigm for living sustainably? Slow Design.
Manzini, Ezio, Vezzoli, Carlo. 2002. O desenvolvimento de produtos sustentáveis: os requisitos ambientais
dos produtos industriais. Editora da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil.
Refosco, E. 2012. Estudo do ciclo de vida dos produtos têxteis: um contributo para a sustentabilidade da
moda. 117 f. Dissertação de Mestrado em Design e Marketing para Têxteis de Moda. Universidade do
Minho, Guimarães, Portugal
Refosco, Ereany, Oenning, Josiany, Carneiro, Noémia. 2011. From fast fashion to slow fashion: a challenge
to design. In: VI CIPED - Congresso Internacional de Pesquisa em Design. 10 -12 october. Lisboa.
Roque, M. J. S. 2005. Documento de Referência sobre Melhores Técnicas Disponíveis no Sector Têxtil.
Ministério do Meio Ambiente, Lisboa, Portugal.
Textile Exchange. 2014. Organic Cotton Market Report
Vezzoli, Carlo. 2008. O cenário do design para uma moda sustentável. In: Pires, Dorotéia Baduy. Design de
Moda: olhares diversos. Estação das Letras e Cores, Barueri, SP, Brasil. p.197-205.
507
CELEBRATING LINEN: COLLABORATIVE DESIGN

PRACTICE
Professor Jane McCann
Visiting Professor, University of South Wales, Newport, Wales, UK.
jane.mccann47@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This practical research aims to communicate the value of textiles, eroded through
globalisation, by encouraging design that emphasises the longevity, durability and
timeless quality of linen. The objective was to produce innovative design outputs as
prototypes that offer the potential to inform future commercial product developments.
The manufacture of linen was once Ireland’s most important industry. Today, when
little linen is made in Ireland, the industry’s reputation remains the envy of other linen-
producing countries. However, the use of linen is often associated with ‘old money’
and predictable design. The author has recognised the need for fresh approaches to
applications for linen for the development of stylish, non-transient, designs. Practical
research and development has been based on collaboration linking twenty textile-
oriented practitioners between Northern Ireland and Wales. Design practitioners
shared traditional and novel processes that include knit, weave, print, felt making,
natural dyeing, jewelry, digital finishes and garment design. Prototypes have been
created through the sharing of concepts and expertise. Collaboration has created
links between designer/makers, museum curators, and galleries, and attracted
support from local and international linen companies. The work has led to the author,
being invited to curate an exhibition, “Linen Futures”, to disseminate practical outputs
from this collaboration.
Keywords: Collaborative design, Design longevity, Sustainable fibre.
INTRODUCTION
The aim of this collaborative project has been to celebrate craft and design practice
based on the past, current and future landscape of Irish linen. Northern Ireland has
significant heritage in the production of linen materials with the brand “Irish Linen” still
recognized internationally despite little flax being grown or processed in the province
today. The local community, however, tends to take the wealth of traditional home-
ware heirlooms for granted, with quantities of damask and white work often hidden
in attics. The fashion industry continues to use linen for elite international designer
fashion for men and women, but, as the value of textiles and clothing has been
eroded through the global sourcing of transient fashion ranges, the lay community
has little knowledge of textiles and, in particular, the distinctions between linen, cotton
and other fibres and their blends.
In this paper the author reports on her initiative, during 2015, to elevate the profile of
linen by means of collaborative design in the development of value-added product
concepts as prototypes for potential future commercialisation. The project described
has been made possible through the vision of R-Space Gallery, situated in Lisburn,

508
a city at the heart of the original linen industry in Northern Ireland. The author, when
invited to be the curator of the exhibition “Linen Futures”, facilitated partnerships
between ten makers from the MaP group (Makers and Practitioners) in South Wales
and ten independent practitioners based in Northern Ireland. In responding to a
perceived gap in the market for design based on the use of linen within Northern
Ireland, the author proposed the focus of the collaboration to be on prototypes as
concepts for new product development as opposed to one-off textile art works. The
selected designer / makers liaised over a six month period in the development of new
approaches to the use of flax fibres and linen materials. The resulting prototypes were
exhibited at R-Space Gallery as part of Northern Ireland’s Craft Month, 2015.
1. Preparatory research
R-Space Gallery, the host venue for the exhibition, is committed to staging exhibitions
associated with linen. The gallery directors’ eventual aim is to promote Lisburn, County
Antrim, as a potential location for a Linen Biennale. The author liaised closely with
the directors, Robert Martin and Anthea McWilliams, in carrying out initial research
to identify a network of support for the selected designer makers. Her investigatory
visits and discussions resulted in commitments for input from experts in linen heritage,
at the Lisburn Museum, value-in-kind sponsorship from within the linen trade for
the sourcing of fabrics, and the value of promotional materials and events to be
provided by the creative industries. Craft Northern Ireland agreed to list the “Linen
Futures” exhibition in their publicity for “August Craft Month” and Ards and North Down
Crafts promoted associated workshops, led by some of the makers, in their “Creative
Peninsula” brochure and website of activities that was to take place during the first
week of August, 2015.
2. Partner liaison
The author, with her background in collaborative research and design practice, built
on previous associations with designer makers as well as developing new partnerships.
Twenty textile makers were linked, through their Celtic, roots, between individual
practitioners in Northern Ireland and the MaP Group (Makers and Practitioners) in
South Wales. The author, wearing ‘two hats’, as a member of the Welsh MaP Group
but recently relocated back ‘home’ to Northern Ireland, researched and coordinated
appropriate liaisons between the Welsh practitioners and representatives of the Irish
design and craft community.
The MaP group, constituting up to twelve members, has been established in South
Wales since 2001, initially formed by a group of makers and practitioners who had been
drawn together by the common thread of working as lecturers in Cardiff School of Art
(now Cardiff Metropolitan University) on the Degree in Contemporary Textile Practice,
and supplemented with a few mature students. The author was invited to become a
member of this group while working in academic research in South Wales over a nine
year period up to 2012. During this time MaP members have contributed to group
exhibitions based on projects that include “La Rencontre”, “Enchanted Heritage”, and
“Pinnies from Heaven”. “La Rencontre”, that was based on an exchange of ideas in
sharing craft and design heritage between South Wales and the Diagonal Group

509
of makers in Montreal and Quebec, resulted in exhibitions in Wales at the Craft in

the Bay gallery, Cardiff, and in travelling venues in Canada, including Quebec and
Montreal. The theme of “Enchanted Heritage” focused on design research at the
Roman Museum in Caerleon, South Wales, where the textile makers took references
from ancient artifacts to inspire their interpretations in embroidery, felt work, natural
dying and other techniques. These outputs were exhibited both at the museum and
then at Llantarnam Grange Gallery, Wales.
A more recent MaP exhibition, “Pinnies from Heaven”, constituted individual
interpretations of aprons. Recognised international textile artists were invited to lead
preparatory workshops and to give talks at “Craft in the Bay”, Cardiff, and to contribute
to the resulting exhibition. The visiting practitioners included Tillika Schwarz from the
Netherlands and Jamie Chalmers (alias Mr X Stitch). For this exhibition, the author
worked in Irish linen to produce three aprons that spanned work wear, an artist’s
smock and a pink damask pinafore. The fabrics for these three outputs came from
the damask producer, Fergusons, in Northern Ireland. This exhibition opened at Craft
in the Bay, Cardiff, in 2014 and has since travelled extensively in Wales. A “Pinnies
from Heaven” catalogue was produced with the introductory section providing a
brief history of aprons, followed by introductions to the work of the Map group and
the visiting practitioners. This catalogue format, including a brief history, was later
adopted for “Linen Futures”.
3. Identifying Irish partners
As curator of “Linen Futures” the author began to research potential practitioners in
Northern Ireland to liaise with the MaP group. The starting point was to identify those
who already had an interest in flax fibre and linen and to embrace the potential for
a range of design-led outputs to give a fresh perspective to the image of “Irish Linen”.
Researching new applications for linen and flax fibre necessitated making contact
with both independent practitioners from within the craft community as well as liaising
with long established companies involved in the production or sourcing and marketing
of linen materials and products. The author visited both Craft NI and Ards and North
Down craft representatives that stage lively programmes of events with gallery spaces,
open studios and workshops. Within Ards and North Down, the author had already
identified the artist, Cecilia Stephens, a weaver, printmaker and paper maker as well
as a member of Seacourt Print Workshop, Bangor. New contacts included a specialist
in the reuse of vintage linen, Fiona McKelvie, of McBurney and Black, and Johnny
Andrews, of Clattering Ford, who represents both linen manufacturing heritage as
well as his family link to the designer of the Titanic.
Belfast’s “Space Craft” shop, gallery and exhibition centre is an impressive outlet that
represents the outputs of their Craft and Design Collective with over 125 members. This
Craft & Design Collective is the largest Craft Network in Northern Ireland dedicated
to the promotion, representation, understanding and development of craft, applied
art and design in Northern Ireland and beyond. Here the author found the work of
the weaver, Louise Hardman, who produces wonderful scarves and throws in colours
evocative of the Irish landscape under her label Wove in Hove. Another designer
/ maker is Sue Cathcart whose work includes satirical prints under the name “Mr.
Papers” and papier-mâché dolls dressed in exotic fabric mixes. Sue communicates

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clear messages in a decorative and colourful format. It was a bonus to find that her
“day job” is with the education department at both the Ulster Museum and at the
Ulster Folk Museum.
Other Northern Irish makers invited to join Linen Futures included Trish Belford, who
works both in academia and with her spin out company “Tactility Factory”. She has
evolved innovative techniques for the production of decorative interior tiles and large
scale panels where printed linen is embedded in concrete. Jackie Sleator, a felt maker
who produces garments and accessories, was willing to experiment with felting wool
into linen wovens. Penny Patterson, from a family background in hand woven Irish
tweed that produced for outlets such as Liberty of London, produces textural dog
portraits and was interested to see how her work might translate into textiles. Mario
Sierra, of “Mourne Textiles”, an internationally recognised hand weaving company
established by his grandmother, Gerd Hay-Edie, works with his mother, Karen Hay-Edie,
to refresh and perpetuate a range of interior textiles, with linen content. Key designs,
developed in the 1950s, were initially exhibited by Gerd Hay-Edie while working in
collaboration with the furniture designer Robin Day. A celebration of design longevity
is echoed by the author, as curator, in inviting a guest designer /maker from Finland,
Sirpa Morsky, who elected to work with the damask designs of Dora Jung which are
still produced by the Finnish company, Lapuan Kankurit. Both Gerd Hay-Edie and
Dora Jung won medals for their enduring designs in Milan in the 1950s. The modernity
of these materials supports the concept of ‘slow’, enduring design.
4. Establishing design-led partnerships:
The strategy of developing partnerships at a distance was informed through a previous
MaP project, “La Rencontre”, where makers in Wales were partnered with makers
from the Diagonale Group of textile practitioners in Canada. This led to two phases of
exciting collaborative work with the first exhibited in Wales and the subsequent phase
in a traveling exhibition in Canada. This tried and tested culture of teamwork gave the
author the confidence to embark on a collaborative project to celebrate linen. The
“Linen Futures” partnerships were established to cross boundaries between maker
disciplines for the sharing of specialist skills and expertise that included felt making, a
variety of embroidery techniques, weaving methods, natural dyeing, digital finishes
and garment making in design aimed at addressing a range of product end-uses.
While embracing both textile heritage and modern innovation, a prime focus was
on the development of new approaches to the development of prototype concepts
with potential to inform the production of future multiples rather than presenting one-
off, ‘final’ designs. Emphasis was put on longevity of design with the ethos of a ‘slower’
more responsible approach to the development of value-added product as opposed
to adopting comparatively transient fashion themes.
5. Collaborative development
As curator of Linen Futures, the author instigated meetings with the makers, the gallery,
museum curators and the industry. Welsh and Irish practitioners were linked according
to prevalent themes within their work as well as their particular skills. Introductions were
made by a variety of means from phone calls and emails to Skype and face-to-face
meetings. Some MaP group members came to Northern Ireland in the spring of 2015
to meet their partners as well as to carry out research at the Irish Linen Centre and

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Lisburn Museum, the Ulster Folk Museum, the Titanic Museum, and with the industry as
relevant. Through brain-storming, a list of existing product categories and/or processes
appropriate to linen was drawn up as a starting point. This was to include clothing,
scarves, aprons, tableware, tea towels, handkerchiefs, cushions, dolls, jewelry, bags,
rugs, as well as cloth books. Techniques for embellishment included combinations
of hand and digital embroidery, weaving, felting, print and natural dyeing. Despite
little flax processed in Northern Ireland, the project benefited from the value-in-kind
sponsorship of woven linens sourced from Ulster Weavers as well as donations from
McCaw Allan, Samuel Lamont and Stoker Mills. Through international contacts, woven
linen was donated by the Institute of Natural Fibres, and Medical Plants, Poland, and
a knitted quality from Zhejiang Meisheng Industry, China.
6. Sustainable considerations:
In terms of sustainability factors, project partners became increasingly aware of
the positive story associated with flax fibre by comparison with other fibres. The
message is made clear in a recent publication “The Barometer of European Flax/
Linen 2015” emanating from the European Confederation of Linen and Hemp (CELC).
This organisation is said to be “the specialized spokesperson for 10,000 European
companies from 14 countries, overseeing the fibre’s development from plant to finished
product.” (CELC, 2015) Their report begins with the fact that “flax fibre is the only plant
fibre originating in Europe” and that, in 2014, 81,300 hectares were cultivated that
represented 80% of global production. Clear information graphics communicate that
the growing of European flax captures 250,000 tons of carbon dioxide per year and,
with flax cultivation dependent on rainfall, there is no need for additional irrigation. In
terms of employment, the flax industry contributes to maintaining the economic and
social fabric in rural areas with 12,000 direct jobs in the growing and scotching sector,
representing a workforce said to be five times greater than that for growing wheat.
The publication goes on to elaborate on the relatively good sustainability message
associated with flax in terms of social, economic and ecological criteria. Consumer
research indicates that six out of ten respondents are willing to pay more for a product
with a certified European flax origin. (CELC, 2015)
RESULTS
The “Linen Futures” exhibition was hung by Robert Martin, director of the R-Space
Gallery, and opened during Northern Ireland’s August Craft Month 2015. The speaker
at the opening was Bruce Clark, a writer, journalist and expert on the heritage of flax
fibre and linen production. The project partners introduced them selves and provided
an overview of their work in the “Linen Futures” exhibition catalogue where one page
is devoted to each partnership. The catalogue begins with a brief but comprehensive
introduction to the history of the linen industry in Northern Ireland with text and
illustrations provided by the Irish Linen Centre and Lisburn Museum. Then follows the
partner entries as well as a page representing an invited designer maker from Finland,
Sirpa Morsky. Drawn images, representing a range of generic applications and craft
techniques, identified as applicable to linen by the project partners, contributed to
the design of a linen tea towel that was printed by Ulster Weavers. This design is also
on the “Linen Futures” catalogue cover.

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As envisaged, the resulting practitioners’ exhibits represent prototype designs at

various stages of readiness for market. For example, Cecilia Stephens produced a
unique and highly sophisticated hand woven length, with areas of relatively dense
and more open cloth, where Claire Cawte applied naturally dyed leaf imagery.
Mandy Nash felted linen fabric that was subsequently overprinted with a foil design
by Trish Belford, presented in a limited edition of cushions. Lynda Shell produced a
commercially oriented range of bags based on her Titanic print that was inspired
by references to the ship’s interior decoration, while Johnny Andrews displayed his
commercially available reproductions of original Titanic damask table napkins.
Illustrator, Sue Shields, developed a near-market tea towel design with the image
of an Irish dancing girl including printed guidance on how to cut out and made a
doll while her project partner, Sue Cathcart, clothed a range of papier-mâché dolls
from linen remnants embellished with embroidery. Mario Sierra, of Mourne Textiles,
displayed the company’s Milano Rug, with wool fleece inserted across a linen warp,
while Alison Taylor produced appliquéd and embroidered interior textiles, shown as
cushions.
The work of other practitioners included Penny Patterson’s animal illustrations translated
into digital print by Elspeth Thomas. Pauline Hearn created subtle printed texts on
fine handkerchiefs communicating poignant statistics as to the numbers of emigrants
obliged to leave Ireland. Jackie Sleator encrusted linen weave with wool felting in
elegant clothing while Stella Jose produced embroidered aprons for both men and
women. her pretty layered aprons made references to the flax flower and to blue
crockery patterns while her male Barista apron and waistcoat displayed embroidered
images of Belfast bars. Blue was also prevalent in Cath Lewis’s Shibori dyed linen and
handmade paper made into a book. Louise Hardman’s indigo scarf cloth was hand
woven to a specified width from which the author engineered a simple kimono jacket,
with no waste. The issue of waste reduction was intentional and has permeated much
of the exhibition outputs from aspects of reuse, to the recycling and reimagining of
linen in timeless design. The reuse of linen is specifically the focus of Fiona McKelvie’s
business (McBurney and Black) where she rescues vintage damask and white work
from disparate sources, some of which she dyes to rich colours. Her project partner,
the stitcher Susan Smith, created heirloom pin cushions from vintage linens. Further
information on Fiona’s work, as well as that of Mourne Textiles and Tactility Factory,
may be found in a report by the author on the use of Irish linen for interiors featured in
the Textile Institute’s “textiles” magazine, (Issue 1, 2015, pages 12-14).
The author, as a clothing designer, resolved to celebrate the heritage of shirt making
in Northern Ireland through the development of a range of prototype garments
that focus on the durability of linen and the need for enduring styling. She adopted
the theme of mass-customisation, linked to the concept of the ‘home-coming’ of
manufacture. In creating one basic shirt pattern block she adapted individual
variations with each of the project partners in mind. In altering lengths, proportions,
fabric weights and fastenings, she produced classic shirts, shirtdresses, smocks and
shirt jackets with embellishment informed by the work of the project partners. For
example, a lightweight shirt’s handkerchief pocket was printed by Pauline Hearn, a
simple mid-weight shirtdress displays the natural dying techniques of Claire Cawte,
a hooded shirt jacket, in fabric woven by Flax Mill Textiles, has a foil print by Trish

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Belford, while a mix of linen weaves, in different shades, constitutes a shirtdress in

the proportions of a doll’s dress by Sue Cathcart. Her shirt for Fiona McKelvie reuses
vintage damask napkins while a shirt jacket has a digitally embroidered pocket by
Elspeth Thomas that interprets a dog illustration by Penny Patterson. The philosophy
behind this experimentation is that, despite the limitations of a straight stitching
domestic sewing machine, derivations of a simple shirt block may promote value-
added product, with design longevity. The author suggests that Irish linen may be
celebrated through revisiting traditional shirt making skills in styling that is unrelated to
transient fashion swings.
CONCLUSIONS
Despite the fact that Northern Ireland no longer produces flax, except on a very
small scale, there is potential for perpetuating the brand “Irish Linen” as a symbol of
innovative and enduring design that offers fresh approaches to the creation of value-
added product. The “Linen Futures” collaboration, made possible through the vision
of the directors of R-Space, and the commitment of the makers, and their enthusiasm
for the sharing of cultures, language, materials and processes, has led to a range of
prototypes representing new ideas, for both traditional and novel applications for linen
textiles, that may inform the development of new commercial products. Readiness for
the potential manufacture of multiples varies according to the products, materials,
and processes of the different makers. Some partners have experience of scaling up
for production while others would normally produce unique craft works.
The range of design categories, from clothing and accessories to homeware, fits
well with the theme of the Textile Institute’s World Conference 2016 in that ‘textiles
are inseparable from the human environment’. With the value of textiles eroded
through the cheap sourcing of fast fashion, the public needs to be made aware
of the environmental and social issues associated with textile production. A clear
message needs to be communicated to lay audiences, by means of innovative and
enduring design, that the processing of linen has a relatively good story, especially
when compared with that of cotton. The “Linen Futures” exhibition has attracted on-
going interest with the opportunity to communicate to wider audiences in Northern
Ireland, Scotland and England. Following the initial venue at R-Space, the exhibition
then moved to the Lisburn Museum in August, 2015. During 2016, it is to be staged at the
Ulster Museum, Belfast in May, at Gayfield Creative Spaces in Edinburgh, with dates to
be confirmed, and in England at the Wirksworth Festival, Derbyshire, in September. It
is hoped that these venues will provide opportunities for engagement with the wider
public, the industry and present future retail opportunities.
The author’s vision for the future is to follow up an opportunity that has arisen from
“Linen Futures” to co-curate an exhibition with the aim to promote the emergence
of linen and flax fibre in relatively sustainable materials for a wider range of product
design innovations. Few members of the lay community are aware of the importance
of textiles in our everyday lives and that flax fibre, in composite materials, may be
used in, for example, boat building, surf boards, tennis racquets, and automotive
applications as well as musical instruments. Invited by the director of Gayfield Creative
Spaces, Edinburgh, the intention is to find strategies that will raise the importance of
textiles in general, and the attributes of flax fibre and linen materials in particular,

514
within male as well as female design communities. The planning of a future exhibition
represents an exciting challenge as it will take the author out of her comfort zone,
beyond her current understanding of textiles for fashion and functional clothing. She
and another practitioner from “Linen Futures” are encouraged in attracting modest
funding to support an initial investigation into innovative linen / flax fibre end-uses.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
R-Space Gallery: www.rspacelisburn.com
Craft Northern Ireland: www.craftni.org
Ards and North Down: http://www.ardsandnorthdown.gov.uk/news/celebrate-the-art-and-craft-of-
ards-and-north-down-at-the-creative-peninsula
Seacourt Print Workshop: www.seacourt-ni.org.uk
Ulster Weavers: www.ulsterweavers.com
Stoker Mills: www.stokermills.com
Flax Mill Textiles: www.flaxmill-textiles.com
Institute of Natural Fibres, Poland: http://stara.inf.poznan.pl/english.php?item=000000
Knitted linen, China: www.globalsources.com/si/AS/Zhejiang-Meisheng/.../Homepage.htm
Lapuan Kankurit: http://www.lapuankankurit.fi/en/designers/dora-jung
History of Linen: Linen Centre and Lisburn Museum: www.lisburnmuseum.com
Catalogue Designs: Brian Shields, Email Contact: b.shields51@yahoo.com
Linen Futures “LF” logo: Paul Morris, Email contact: paulmorrisnow@gmail.com
Linen tea towel design coordinator: Sue Shields, Web address: AOI Sue Shields
REFERENCES
MaP Group: www.mapgroup.org.uk/about.html
“Pinnies from Heaven” Catalogue: ISBN 978-0-9566868-6-2
“Linen Futures” Catalogue: www.rspacelisburn.com/past-exhibitions/linen-futures/
Textile Institute “textiles”: “Adding a modern twist to tradition”, Issue 1, 2015, pages 12-14
Space Craft: http://craftanddesigncollective.com
Mourne Textiles: www.mournetextiles.com
Tactility Factory: www.tactilityfactory.com
McBurney and Black: www.mcburneyandblack.com
Cecilia Stephens: craftanddesigncollective.com/members/cecilia-stephens/
Sue Cathcart: www.mr-papers.com
Clattering Ford: www.clatteringford.com
CELC, Masters of Linen, Journals: http://www.mastersoflinen.com/eng/outils
The Barometer of European Flax / Linen 2015: http://www.mastersoflinen.com/eng/outils
Ulster Museum: http://nmni.com/um
Gayfield Creative Spaces: www.gayfield.co.uk
Wirksworth Festival: www.wirksworthfestival.co.uk

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VISUAL MERCHANDISING: AN INDESPENSIBLE

TOOL IN INTEGRATING DESIGN, FASHION AND
RETAIL
Vishaka Agarwal
National Institute of Fashion Technology,(Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India) , MP Bhoj Open University,
NIFT Campus, Kolar Road, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh ,India
(Presenting author E-mail: vishaka.agarwal@nift.ac.in)
ABSTRACT
Design is a creative output having uniqueness and functionality. Fashion is what
people like to wear. Every year there are fashion trends forecasted for each season
–Spring Summer, Autumn Winter and Fall Winter thereby putting design concepts
to a unified platform worldwide. The garments silhouettes, materials, look, trims and
accessories are detailed for designers to develop fashion products accordingly.
These products reach the customers from production houses through retail outlets
.The ultimate aim of all these processes is to attract and satisfy the customers so that
they do purchase. In order to accelerate the process of customer purchase decision,
‘Visual Merchandising’ is an indispensible tool in integrating the process of Design
with Fashion and retail so that it reaches its ultimate end –‘ Selling The Merchandise’
by attracting the customer to the store and tempting them to do purchase.
The aim of the research is to find out what are the elements of Visual Merchandising
which influence the buying behaviour and the factors involved in the selection of the
brand by the consumer. Field visit to various malls was undertaken and questionnaire
was developed . The conclusion shows that certain elements of Visual merchandising
‘definitely’ effect purchase decision of consumers.
Keywords: Fashion, Retail, Visual Merchandising, Elements of Visual Merchandising,
Consumers, Purchase Decision
INTRODUCTION
Visual merchandising is a tool to display the products –Apparels and Lifestyle
Accessories in an organised manner so that the costumer may be attracted and
tempted to buy. The main aim of Visual Merchandising is to attract the customer to
the store and excite them to do purchase. The fashion products which are developed
in reference to the fashion forecast and trend are marketed under different brand
name which are associated with the brand image .The customer as per the needs
then chooses a brand for the purchase of the product in association to the Brand .
The Fashion forecasted each season every year gets interpreted in the form of fashion
products which include Apparels, Lifestyle accessories, Home furnishings, Electronics
goods etc. in terms of Style, colour, form and shape, materials and patterns by the
Designers which reach out to the consumers through the Brand. The Brand is a window
through which Designers sell the products designed by them to the consumers and
have their Brand identity.

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As the Mall Culture is hitting across the world bringing the numerous multinational
brands under one roof, the customer has a choice to choose the products from
numerous brands available. The customer then is influenced by the store window
displays, layout and ambience within the store which may attract him/her within the
store. The various elements of visual merchandising play a significant role in attracting
the customer within the store and ultimately inducing to do purchase is said to be the
success of Visual Merchandising.
With the growing availability of goods and services there is stiff competition among
brands .There are a wide number of brands offering the same product range at
the same price and of same quality. So under these conditions one of the factors
which influence the customer to buy a product is the way it is “displayed”. Hence
Visual merchandising of the store plays significant role in influencing the purchase
decision. Point of purchase material play a significant role in creating an appeal
and effectively influencing purchase decision. In the prevailing highly competitive
business environment where there are so many brands offering the same product
“Differentiation “ from others plays a significant role in influencing customer decision
to purchase. With the widespread use of self-service as a tool for retail selling which
gives the customer to touch, feel and understand product features well, therefore the
retail spaces needs to be organised well and displayed well thereby accelerating the
importance of Visual merchandising in the retail world.
The main objective of marketing is to sell products effectively while merchandising
aims to present the products and the services to the buyer in the best possible way
so as to induce purchase. Most of the time it is ‘unplanned buying or impulse buying’
which happens inside the store which reflects the impact of elements of visual
merchandising and Point of purchase material in increasing the unit purchases .
Eyelevel displays are the most stimulating displays as it excites impulse buying. As
human eye represents 85% of the information that the brain receives and is responsible
for 78% of the purchasing decisions (Soto 2006).Therefore, it is undeniable that visual
display play a significant role in seduction for purchase where touch, sound and smell
add to the vision stimulation for processing millions of sensation in a splıt second to
make decisions.
(Grays 1992) in his book “Men Are from Mars and Women Are from Venus” states
that the male and female genders differ in their actions, perspectives and decisions.
Though both have intellectual brains but anatomically the composition of brain of
male and female varies.. The size of the men’s brain is 10% bigger than the women’s
brain but women have more nerve endings. Women have thicker corpus callosum
and they use both side of the brain to take decision while men use only the left side
of the brain to take decision. To solve problem, the two gender uses different areas
of the brain .Women use the organised cerebral cortex to take decision while male
uses the grey portion of the left hemisphere to take decision. Hence women are able
to control emotion better while men are more focused. Men do not change decision
to purchase as rapidly as women.

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Review of Literature
The earlier works of all the national and interantioanl researchers , books and
journals have been reviewed to undersatand the reserach conducted in the field of
fashion,brands, consumer buying behaviour , Impact of visual merchandising and
retail marketing.
1) In his study of shoppers buying behaviour in terms of selection of outlet and the
impact of visual merchandising (Panda 2011) states that before selecting an outlet
shoppers go through a complex selection process. The key factors that influence in
the selection of the location of the store ,store image ,the layout of the outlet , the
merchandise inside the store and attribute like Lighting, Display ,signages and variety
and assortment in Pune where the research was undertaken.
2) (Bhasin 2009) in her research study of Visual Merchandising in Retail Industry in
Mumbai with special references to cosmetics and perfumes concludes states that
Visual merchandising provides stress free ambience to shoppers
3)(Moarery, Zamani and Vazifehdoost 2014, 360-366.) in their research on effect of
Visual Merchandising in Apparel Impulse bu ying on young Iranian women concludes
that the Visual merchandising factors which influences the impulse buying behaviour
of young Iranian women are window Display, In store display, mannequins and
Promotional signage.
4) In the study on the role of Visual Merchandising on Apparel Purchase Decision
(Krishnakumar 2014, 37-54) states that majority of the buyers are affected by color and
quality . Also light music influences purchase decision.Attributes like Occupation and
Qualification has a significant influence on purchase decision taken by the customer.
5) (Shepard 2012) in her book talks about how the displays can effect the shoppers
sensibility and induce the shopper to return to the same store again and again. To
achieve this, the Visual merchandising has a significant role to play . Creativity mingled
with technology can do wonders to influence the buying decision of the consumers if
the right Visual merchandising is done.
6) In his work Point of Sale Merchandising (Hawver 2007) explores the ways by which
the product can move out of the shelves in the fastest way, else it should not be
placed in the store.
7)In the book Visual Merchandising (Bhalla and Anuraag 2012) emphasis that one of
the key factors in retail venture is Location. Also understanding the Demographics and
psychographics of the customer are important factors to be considered for retail. If an
analysis of customer of what they buy and how it fits into their lifestyle is done clearly
then the half battle of retail is won.He further states that window is the most important
aspect of the store and the display done communicates the product range, style and
price point of the merchandise within the store.
8) (Loudon and Bitta 2002) in their book Consumer Behaviour states that the factors
that the factors that affect the store choice are store location, merchandise, store
design, Advertising and sales promotion.Referring to results obtained from several
studies mentions that 33% of all purchases in the variety store are unplanned.50% of
the buying decisions in the supermarket is impulse buying .62% of shoppers in discount

518
stores buy at least one product which is not planned.

9) (Sheikh and Fatima 2008) in their book Mall Management mentions that about the
key factors which needs to be considered by mall developers for the success of the
mall are site planning ,internal design-visibility, circulation, layout and finishes.
10) In the article titled visual merchandising- the changing scenario (Dua and Karolia
2008)states that Visual merchandising is a way of creating appeal to the consumer
which stimulates purchase while retail is the process of actually making a sale. Further
they state that Point of Sale (POS) is making a great impact on the buying decision.
11) (Virdi 2012) in his research titled Malls & hypermarkets: perspectives of contemporary
shopping states that the golden days of malls and supermarkets are over. High rentals,
merchandise oversupply and stiff competition are some of the severe problem facing
the Malls/Hypermarket. In his conclusion states that the behaviour of the salesman
and store behaviour effect the buying behaviour of the shopper therefore they should
be trained and discount offers as important promotional tools.
12) (Tinne 2011) in her research tilted factors affecting Impulse buying behaviour
of consumers at super stores in Bangladesh states that Impulse buying behaviour
is affected by Store image, promotional activities ,window displays, in store display,
layout and the behaviour of the store personnel.
Objectives of Research
After reviewing the previous works of researchers ,the following research objectives
were formulated:
1)To find out the impact of Elements of Visual Merchandising on the consumer in
making purchase decision of males and females
2)To determine the factors determining the selection of the particular Brand store for
purchase of garments and lifestyle accessories by the consumer.
In order to research the impact of Elements of Visual Merchandising on the customer
in making the purchase decision by male and feamle buyers specifically ,as not much
research has been done on genderwise response. A structured questionnaire with
open ended , closed ended,dichotomous , Likert scale and multiple choice questions
was formulated . Malls were visited in Bhopal and Indore to collect the response from
the people of age group 20-35 years visiting these malls during New year .
To research the factors determining the selection of the particular Brand store for
purchase of garments and lifestyle accessories by the consumer, a questionnaire with
multilple choice and likert scale was developed and administered to respondents to
collect the data.
Two questionnaires were used to collect data which included both demographic
and psychographic information like age, gender , income , shopping behaviour
and also factors of Visual merchandising which influence or attract the consumer
inside the store and motivate to do ‘ predetermined buying’ or “spot buying”. Also
data was collected on the factors which affect the choice of the “ brand “ store to
do purchase of Apparel or lifestyle product. To collect consumer response, potential

519
consumers coming out particularly after purchasing from the store were administered
the questionnaire. The demographic factors like the age, gender and income group
selected was appropriate sample for this study as this age group is a frequent visitor
to the malls and spend a major portion of there disposable income of purchase
of apparels and accessories.Also around New Year lot of offers and sale/discount
scheme are floated by various brands was good time to do the survey.
Around 96 respondents were administered the questionnaire to the collect data .
RESULTS
The results from the research on the impact of the elements of visual merchandising
on the customer in the purchase of Apparel and Lifestyle Accessories through the
intercept survey conducted in malls in Bhopal and Indore is presented.First the sample’s
demographic factors like age , gender and income and impact of elements of Visual
merchandising on the buying behaviour specifically genderwise –male and female
would be analysed.Also the analysis of the factors which influence the purchase of
Apparel and life style accessories from a particular Brand store would be done.
Sample Demographic factors and Buying Behaviour analysis
Data was collected from 96 shoppers who were exiting the stores after doing purchase
in the mall.The sample included 44 males and 52 females.The respondents age
ranged from 20 to 34 years with the mean age of 27 years.
The buying behaviour was analysed by the amount invested in the purchase of
Apparel and lifestyle products per year and frequency of shopping Apparel and
lifestyle products.Around 54(56.25%) respondents did purchase of Apparel and
life style accesories ‘once in few twice months’ while 22 (22.91%)respondents did
purchase ‘once in a month ‘ and while 20(20.83%) respondents had ‘varying purchase
behaviour’. Most of the respondents in varying purchase behaviour were males.The
amount spent in purchase of Apparel and lifestyle products per year is between
Rs.10,000-Rs 25000 by 18 (18.75%)respondents while Rs 26000-Rs 34,000 by 22(22.91%)
while above Rs.35,000 by 56(58.33%) respondents. Among the respondents who do
purchase above Rs. 35,000 ,44 (80 %) were females and only 11(20 %)are males .
Impact of element of Visual Display on the Buying Behaviour in the store
The response for the elements of Visual Dsiplay which affects the walk –in to the store
was that 45(46.87%) respondents were attracted into the store by seeing ‘only’ the
window display while 51 (53.12%)were attracted by the other factors of Visual Display
like lighting, ambience,layout of the store and offer/scheme/discounts along with
window display. 62 (64.58%)respondents were fully satisfied with display of Apparels
and accessories inside the store while 34(35.41%) respondents were partially satisfied
with the display .
63(65.62%) respondents ‘strongly agree’ that the purchase inside the store done was
influenced by the visual display and the behaviour of the salesperson while 23 (23.95%)
respondents ‘ Agree’ that that the purchase inside the store done was influenced by
the visual display and the behaviour of the salesperson while 19 (19.79%)respondents
‘neither agree nor disagree’.

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The purchase in the store by 54(56.25%) respondents was ‘spot buying or impulse buying’
while 42(43.75%) respondents were predecided to do purchase. For the 32 (59.25%)
respondents the factors which affected ‘spot buying or impulse buying’, were Window
display,Sale/Discount/Season offer ,Display inside the store,behaviour of salesperson and
ambience while 22(40.74%) respondents were affected by Sale/Discount/Season offer
‘only’ for doing ‘spot buying or impulse buying’ .Out of the 54 respondents who did ‘spot
buying’ , 44(81.48%) of them were females and 10(18.51%) were males.
The response to question that if the purchase was done as per budget or high, 76 (79.16%)
respondents said that it was on the higher than budgeted while 20(20.83%) said it was
within budget.
Factors determining the choice pf particular Brand store for purchase
From the response to the preference for selection of a particular Brand for purchase is
Style, range of colors, Fit and Price range by 63(65.62%) respondents while 13 (13.54%)
respondent choose a particular brand for Style and Fit , while the rest 20 (20.83%)
respondents choose a particular brand for style and price .
From the research findings on the selection of the ‘Particular Brand store ‘, the criteria which
affect the choice of the consumer, 20(20.83%) respondents regarded Brand loyalty as
the prime criteria while 52(54.16%) respondents Window Display, Sale /Discount/Scheme
offer and Style is important while for 24(25%) Respondents location . Style .size and price
were deciding factors. The response to the benefit of purchasing the Branded Apparel
to non branded /local manufacture , 90(93.75%) respondents expressed that branded
clothes are more trendy, fashionable, good fit, no color bleeding, quality Assurance while
6(6.25%) respondents expressed that branded clothes are Trendy and no color bleeding.
The 72(75%) Respondents are satisfied with the price of the branded Apparels while 24
(25%)are not satisfied with the price.
CONCLUSIONS
After review of response from the respondents, the extent of research objectives met can
be determined. The results revealed that women indulge more often in shopping and are
fashion driven and tend to change their wardrobe more frequently than males.. From the
findings of the study it is clear, that there is an impact of elements of visual merchandising
like window display, lighting, layout of the store on the consumer .Most of the respondents
who were fully satisfied with the inside store display were women end up with more than
budgeted purchases.
From the findings, most of the purchases done in the store are influenced by the Visual
merchandising. ‘Spot Buying ‘ or Impulse buying is mostly indulged by women under the
influence of Display inside the store, sale/discount/season offer schemes .
From the findings it is also clear that the consumers who are brand loyal are majorly men
while women tend to more guided by criteria like Window display, Sale /Discount/Scheme
offer and Style while some low income group are guide by price along with style/ size and
location. It is also clear from the findings location of the store-proximity to residence also is
important for some consumers for taking buying decision.
From the research findings it is clear that consumers are ready to pay more price for the
Branded garments because they are more are trendier, fashionable, good fit and no
colour bleeding .Also occupation and income has an influence on the choice of the brand.
521
From the results it is also clear that Visual merchandising, display and various offers and
discounts make a great impact on impulse buying and consumers most of the time end
up spending more than budgeted. Hence the Visual merchandising plays a very vital role
in attracting the customer to the brand store and instigating to do purchase of the fashion
apparel and lifestyle accessory and thereby affecting the increased retail sale.
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Sheikh, A. I. and Fatima ,K. 2008.Mall Management. Mumbai: Himalaya Publishing House Pvt.Ltd.
Bhalla,S. and Anuraag,S.2012. Visual Merchandising. NewDelhi: Tata-Mcgraw Hill Education Pvt.Ltd.
Pegler, M. M. 2006. Visual Merchandising.Newyork: Fairchild Publication.
Murphy,J. A.1986. Visual Merchandising-the best designs from leading designers .Newyork:Fairchild
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Shepard, J. 2012. New Trends in Visual Merchandising-Retail display ideas that encourage buying.
Newyork: Rsd Publishing House Inc.
Moayery, M.,Zamani,S.,and Vazifehdoost,H. 2014. Effect of visual merchandising on apparel Impulse
buying behaviours among Iranian Young adult females. Indian Journal Of Science And Technology,
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or an Unnecessary Burden for Apparel Retailers. International Business and Economics Research
Journal, 12(10 sep) :1217-1224.
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Management Research.
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predicament faced by apparel retailers. Journal of Business & Retail Management Research.
Chaudhary , P. V. and Jadhav, R. A.2014. Visual Merchandising in Retailing: Influencing Consumer
Buying Behaviour towards Apparels with Special Reference to Pune City in India. International Journal
of Marketing and Technology, Vol. 5(4).
Dolan, T. G. .2012. Is Visual Merchandising necessary? Absolutely. Today’s Garden Center,9(18):18-20.
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Poojari, A. S. 2013. A study on changing consumer behaviour towards emerging shopping malls.
(Ph.D), Shri Jagdish Prasad Jhabarmal Tibarewal University.
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‘impact of visual merchandising’.(PhD), Symbiosis International University.
Tinne,W.S..2011.Factors affecting Impulse buying behaviour of consumers at super stores in
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Bhasin, H. K..2014.Study of visual merchandising practices in retail industry in Mumbai with special
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Sharmila D and Anjali K 2008, “Visual Merchandising: The Changing Scenario”, July 2.
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scenario3.asp,.

522
A REVERSE APPROACH TO VIRTUAL SHIRT

PROTOTYPING AND PATTERN CUTTING
Abu Sadat Muhammad Sayem
Department of Apparel, Hollings Faculty, Manchester Metropolitan University, Righton Building,
Cavendish Street, Manchester, M15 6BG, UK
(Presenting and Corresponding author E-mail: asm.sayem@mmu.ac.uk)
ABSTRACT
Traditional virtual clothing prototyping is achieved by wrapping 2D pattern pieces
on virtual mannequins. This paper describes a reverse approach that develops 3D
garments first and unwraps 2D pattern pieces out of them. To achieve this, a 3D
drawing board for men’s upper body outerwear was developed from bodyscan
data by employing reverse engineering and geometric modelling techniques. The
drawing platform was made scalable by integrating 12 size parameters that were
found appropriate for loose-fitting shirt so that 3D grading in space can also be
realised. This 3D platform can easily be used by fashion designers to develop virtual
shirts by drawing simple lines and curves and by applying mesh generation tool,
and to extract 2D pattern pieces automatically if an appropriate flattening engine
is available within a 3D CAD environment. It has been found that a variety of shirt
and jacket designs can be developed on this 3D platform. However, difficulties were
faced with raglan sleeve and one-piece collar. This paper also describes the effects
of technical parameters on mesh generation and pattern flattening processes.
Keywords: Virtual clothing, Pattern Cutting, Pattern Flattening
INTRODUCTION
The earliest records of clothing pattern illustration date from the pattern manuals
published by a few eighteenth-century tailors (Aldrich 2007). Although computer
graphics technology began to evolve in the middle of the 1950s and was already
used in a wide range of industrial applications by the 1970s (Machover 1978), it
was only in the 1980s when commercial computer aided design (CAD) systems for
drafting and grading flat patterns were introduced into the clothing (Burke 2006).
In recent years, three dimensional (3D) CAD systems for virtual clothing prototyping
have started to become available on the market. These systems allow the wrapping
of 2D pattern pieces onto a virtual mannequin to facilitate the evaluation of clothing
fit, fabric drape and ultimate decision making (Sayem et al., 2010). Digital reverse
engineering of clothing patterns, which means the extraction of flat pattern pieces
from 3D virtual clothing, is an emerging concept in clothing technology. It has the
potential to combine fashion design and pattern creation into a single step; but
an efficient technique and a suitable CAD system for doing this is yet to be made
readily available to the clothing industry. This paper describes the development of an
anthropometric CAD technique for creating a resizable design platform for reverse
engineering and 3D grading of men’s outerwear.
Hinds et al. (1992) and Okabe et al. (1992) established the concept of creating clothing
designs on virtual mannequin. McCartney et al. (2000), Kim and Kang (2002), Wang et
523
al. (2002a, 2000b), Petrak and Rogale (2006), Petrak et al. (2006), Decaudin et al. (2006),
Kim and Petrak (2007) and Fang et al. (2008a, 2008b) demonstrated various ways
of extracting flat pattern pieces from 3D designs. Their work provides a particularly
useful resource for software developers but will continue to be of little interest to end-
users and designers until a suitable software package becomes available. Among
the available clothing software packages, 3D Interactive software from TPC (HK) and
the flattening tool of 3D Runway from OptiTex (USA) provide the capability to execute
pattern unwrapping in a very limited context, mainly for close-fitting garments. The
DesignConcept software from Lectra (France) is capable of executing 2D pattern
unwrapping from 3D designs, but it is not intended by its supplier to focus on clothing
product-development. Thus it is not currently supplied with any appropriate design
platform for 3D clothing design.
One of the early methods of 2D sketch-based 3D design using a virtual human model
and subsequent pattern flattening and also including a concept of 3D grading was
presented by Wang et al. (2002a, 2002b). For 3D grading, they proposed to construct
the same garment repeatedly on different-sized virtual models, which is a time-
consuming and repetitive process. A more efficient alternative would be to convert
the virtual model from one size to another after designing a garment only once. This
approach requires the use of a virtual model which has been parameterised with the
size data. A process of developing such a parametric model was proposed by Sayem
(2004) but the model was only suitable for close-fitting garments. The research project
‘AiF-1454 BG’ from the German Federation of Industrial Research Associations which
was concluded in 2007 also followed a similar approach for creating 3D designs of
close-fitting garments on parametric virtual models and 2D pattern flattening (Roedel,
2008). However, close-fitting garments represent only less than 20% of our total
clothing consumption as reported in the CBI Trade Statistics for Apparel (CBI, 2014).
Techniques of developing loose-fitting virtual trousers and pattern unwrapping were
demonstrated by Sayem et al. (2012), Tao and Bruniaux (2013) and Hlaing et al. (2013).
Sayem et al. (2012) considered the ease distribution over the girth measurements as
it is done traditionally in the pattern industry, however, Tao and Bruniaux (2013) and
Hlaing et al. (2013) took a complicated route of ease distribution by defining several
offset points on each girth. This paper demonstrates a combined technique of 3D
design, 3D grading and extracting 2D patterns for men’s loose-fitting shirts in a usable
and practicable format for the clothing industry.
A) Development of Resizable 3D Shirt Template
Today’s body scanning technology makes it possible to capture Point-Cloud data
from the surface of a human body, and this may be processed using a suitable
modelling software package to produce a realistic virtual model. Such a virtual model
can serve as a ‘3D design platform’ for close-fitting garments in a CAD system, but not
for loose-fitting garments, unless it is subjected to further modification. In order to
realise the required adaptation to obtain a resizable ‘3D design platform’ for a loose-
fitting men’s shirt, a set of closed curves in the horizontal plane were extracted from a
virtual mannequin generated from body scan data. These extracted curves were
modified bearing in mind the geometrical structure of an outerwear garment and

524
TIWC
A REVERSE APPROACH TO VIRTUAL 2016,AND25-28
SHIRT PROTOTYPING April,
PATTERN CUTTING 2016, Poznan, Poland
from then
body parameterised TIWC 2016, 25-28 April, 2016, Poznan, Poland
scan data. These extracted
were with size data incurves
order towere
create modified bearing
a resizable in mind
design the
platform
geometrical structure of an outerwear garment and were then parameterised with size data
which will provide the basis of 3D grading. In next step, using appropriate 3D modelling
in order to create a resizable design platform which will provide the basis of 3D grading. In
from body scan
procedures, a 3D data. These
structure wasextracted
regeneratedcurves
out were
of themodified
modifiedbearing in mind the
and parameterised
next step, using appropriate 3D modelling procedures, a 3D structure was regenerated out
geometrical structure of an outerwear garment and were then parameterised with size data
scaled curves. The resulting structure was suitable for use as an outerwear design
of the modified and parameterised scaled curves. The resulting structure was suitable for
in order to create a resizable design platform which will provide the basis of 3D grading. In
platform. The process is summarised in Figure 1 and further described in the following
use as an outerwear design platform. The process is summarised in Figure 1 and further
next step, using appropriate 3D modelling procedures, a 3D structure was regenerated out
described in the following sections.
sections.
of the modified and parameterised scaled curves. The resulting structure was suitable for

use as an outerwear design platform. The process is summarised in Figure 1 and further
Bodyscan CAD Model
described in the following sections. Sectional curves representative
to size parameters

Bodyscan CAD Model Sectional curves representative
to size parameters
Parametric 3D Programmed curves for Modified and Symmetric Curves
Template Auto-grading
Parametric 3D Programmed curves for Modified and Symmetric Curves
Figure 1: Work-flowAuto-grading
Template for 3D Drawing Board for Virtual Men’s Shirts
i)i) CAD Model
CAD Figure
from Point-Cloud
Model 1:from Point-Cloud
Data: In order
Data: In
toto capture
order capture
the actual
the
human
actual human
anthropometry Work-flow for 3D Drawing Board for Virtual
into the target 3D drawing board, an adult male subject was scannedMen’s Shirts
anthropometry into the target 3D drawing board, an adult male subject was scanned by a
by a [TC]² NX-16 body scanner and the scanned point-cloud data was used as the
[TC]² NX-16 body scanner and the scanned point-cloud data was used as the raw material
i) CAD Model from Point-Cloud Data: In order to capture the actual human
raw material
for the for the
next steps. next then
It was steps.converted
It was then converted
from from
point phase to point phase
polygonal to polygonal
phase
anthropometry into the target 3D drawing board, an adult male subject was scanned by a using the
proprietary NX16 software to obtain a body model in ‘.obj’ format which features a surface
phase using the proprietary NX16 software to obtain a body model in
[TC]² NX-16 body scanner and the scanned point-cloud data was used as the raw material ‘.obj’ format
network of adjacent triangles, created between every three data points. The body model
which
for the features a surface
next steps. network
It was then of adjacent
converted triangles,
from point created
phase between
to polygonal phase every three
using the
was imported into a reverse engineering and modelling software “Geomagic
proprietary NX16 software to obtain a body model in ‘.obj’ format which features a surface
data points. The body model was imported into a reverse engineering and modelling Studio 11”,
which is capable of converting polygonal meshes into digital CAD models. A surface of
network of adjacent triangles, created between every three data points. The body model
software “Geomagic Studio 11”, which is capable of converting polygonal meshes
Non-Uniform Rational B-splines (NURBS) was applied over the polygonal mesh and finally
was imported into models.
a reverse
into digital CAD A engineering and modelling Rational
surface of Non-Uniform software B-splines
converted into a CAD model in ‘.igs’ format, as shown in Figure 2.
“Geomagic Studio was
(NURBS) 11”,
which is capable of converting polygonal meshes into digital CAD models. A surface of
applied over the polygonal mesh and finally converted into a CAD model in ‘.igs’
Non-Uniform Rational B-splines (NURBS) was applied over the polygonal mesh and finally
format, as shown in Figure 2.
converted into a CAD model in ‘.igs’ format, as shown in Figure 2.
Lower neck girth
Chest girth at
armpit level Lower neckShoulder
girth girth
Chest girth at
armpit level Chest girth at
Horizontal Plane Shoulder girth
the fullest area
for sectional curve
extraction Chest girth at
Horizontal Plane the fullest area
for sectional curve
extraction
Figure 2 CAD Model and the Positions of Chest Girths, Shoulder
Girth and Lower Neck Girth
Figure 2 CAD Model and the Positions of Chest Girths, Shoulder
ii) Sectional Curve Extraction: As the 3D template or the drawing platform is intended to
Girth and Lower Neck Girth
be used for 3D grading using size data-base, it is required to programme the template for
auto-scaling up and down when an appropriate size data-base will be linked. This can only
ii)
ii) Sectional
SectionalCurveCurveExtraction:
Extraction: AsAs the 3D template or the drawing platform is intended to
the 3D template or the drawing platform is intended to
be
be realised if a set of sectional
used for 3D grading using size data-base, curves can itbe extracted
is required to from
be used for 3D grading using size data-base, it is required to programme the template for programme the CAD themodel
template and
programmed with size parameters before re-building the 3D
auto-scaling up and down when an appropriate size data-base will be linked. This can only
for auto-scaling up and down when an appropriate size data-base will be linked. This model out of them. A set of
sectional curves at pre-determined horizontal displacements, as illustrated in Figure 3, was
be realised
can only be if a set ifof a sectional
realised curves curves
set of sectional can be can extracted
be extracted from from the CAD the CAD model model and
extracted from
programmed the size
with digital body model
parameters using
before the “curves
re-building the by
3D section”
model command
out of them. within
A the
set of
and programmed
“Geomagic” software. with size parameters before re-building the 3D model out of them.
sectional curves at pre-determined horizontal displacements, as illustrated in Figure 3, was
A set of sectional curves at pre-determined horizontal displacements, as illustrated
extracted from the digital body model using the “curves by section” command within the
in Figure 3, was extracted from the digital body model using the “curves by section”3
“Geomagic” software.
command
within the “Geomagic” software.
3

525

Lower neck girth Neck girth

Shoulder girth

Lower shoulder girth

Lower neck girth Neck girth
Upper chest girth
Lower shoulder girth
Chest girth at armpit Shoulder girth

Arm girth at lower Chest girth
Upper chest girth
Chest girth at armpit
chest level Lower chest girth
Chest girth
Arm girth at lower
chest level
Lower chest girth

Forearm girth

Waist girth
Forearm girth

Waist girth
Hip girth
Wrist girth

Wrist girth
Hip girth

Figure 3: Sectional Curves Extracted from the Body
Model

Figure 3: Sectional Curves Extracted from the Body

Model
the
First ‘landmark’ positions of the neck girth, chest girth, waist girth and hip girth

First the ‘landmark’ positions of the neck girth, chest girth, waist girth and hip girth were
were identified on the body model following the European standard EN 13402-1:2001.
Inidentified
First addition
the
on
to the
‘landmark’ the body
positions
model following
four primary sectional
of the neck
the European
girth, curves,
standard EN 13402-1:2001.
six secondary
chest girth, waist girth curves
and hip (three for the
girth were
In
addition to the four primary sectional curves, six secondary curves (three for the “neck to
“neck on to shoulder”
identified the body area
model and three for
following the the chest area)
European standard were found
EN to be necessary
13402-1:2001. In
shoulder” area and three for the chest area) were found to be necessary to accurately
addition to the four primary sectional curves, six secondary curves (three for the “neck to
to accurately reproduce the geometry of upper body garments. These girth
reproduce the geometry of upper body garments. These girth measurements are not
shoulder”
measurementsarea and are three
notfor traditionally
the chest area) were
usedbecause
as sizefound to be necessary to accurately
parameters,
traditionally used as size parameters, they do not because
correspond they doeasily
with not
reproduce
correspond the geometry of upper body garments. These
with easily identifiable anatomical landmarks. The shoulder girth curve girth measurements are not
identifiable anatomical landmarks. The shoulder girth curve was located at 1 cm below the
traditionally
was located atas
used 1 cmsize parameters,
below the crown because they do not
of the shoulder correspond
on either side ofwith easily The
the torso.
crown of the shoulder on either side of the torso. The lower neck girth and lower shoulder
identifiable anatomical landmarks. The shoulder girth curve was located at 1 cm below the
girth were
lower neck designated
girth and lower as being 3 cm above
shoulder girth were and below
designated the shoulder
as being girth
3 cmrespectively.
above
crown of the shoulder on either side of the torso. The lower neck girth and lower shoulder
Three
and belowsecondary girth
the shoulder curves
girth selected
respectively. to rebuild
Three the chest
secondary area were:
girthgirth
curves the upper
selected chest
to
girth were designated as being 3 cm above and below the shoulder respectively.
girth, taken as being 9 cm above the chest girth;; the chest girth at the armpit, 6 cm above
rebuild the chest
Three secondary girth area were:
curves the upper
selected chestthe
to rebuild girth,
chest takenarea aswere:
being 9 upper
the cm above chest the
the chest girth;; and the lower chest girth, 3 cm below the chest girth.
chest girth; the chest girth at the armpit, 6 cm above the chest girth; and the lower
girth, taken as being 9 cm above the chest girth;; the chest girth at the armpit, 6 cm above

the chest girth;; and the lower chest girth, 3 cm below the chest girth.
chest girth, 3 cm below the chest girth.
In order to develop the sleeves of the proposed 3D template, four curves, namely: the

Inupper
order
In order
arm girth, the
to develop
to develop the the
arm
sleeves
girth at
sleeves of lower
the
of the
chest level,
proposed
proposed 3D 3D
the forearm
template,
template,
girth
four
four
and the
curves,
curves,
wrist the
namely:
namely: the
girth
were
upper used. Of these, only the wrist girth is sometimes used as a size parameter girthin
upper arm arm girth,
girth, the the
arm arm
girth girth at lower
at lower chest
chest level,
level, the the forearm
forearm girth
girth and and
the the wrist
wrist girth
traditional pattern cutting systems.
were used. Of these, only
were used. Of these, only the the wrist
wrist girth
girth is sometimes
is sometimes used
used as as a size
a size parameter
parameter in in


Figure 4a: Drawing B-spline Curves Figure 4b: Drawn B-spline Curves
on the Sectional Curves
Figure 4a: Drawing B-spline Curves Figure 4b: Drawn B-spline Curves
on the Sectional Curves
4

4

iii) Modified B-spline Curve Generation: The sectional curves in ‘.igs’ data format were
imported into “DesignConcept TexTech (DCTT) V4R1c1” which is a CAD software suite
with tools for surface regeneration, digital drawing and for flattening 3D surfaces into
2D.iii)Naturally,
Modified these
B-spline Curve
curves Generation:
represent The sectional curves in ‘.igs’ data format were
the surface geometry of a scanned subject,
imported into “DesignConcept TexTech (DCTT) V4R1c1” which is a CAD software suite
butwith tools for surface regeneration, digital drawing and for flattening 3D surfaces into 2D.
do not necessarily provide a satisfactory shape for the surface geometry of an
outerwear
Naturally, garment. Furthermore,
these curves represent these were found
the surface to be
geometry of broken in some
a scanned places
subject, but due
do not
to necessarily
limitations ofprovide
the scanning and modelling processes.
a satisfactory shape for the surface geometry of an outerwear
Forgarment. Furthermore, these were found to be broken in some places due to limitations of
the body section, using the curve drawing tool of the CAD system, closed B-spline
the scanning and modelling processes.
curves were generated from each of the sectional curves, as demonstrated in Figure
4, by avoiding
For thethe body protruding
section, parts (for example in the neck girth and lower neck
using the curve drawing tool of the CAD system, closed B-
girth duecurves
spline to the laryngeal prominence)
were generated and of
from each bythe
smoothing
sectional out the concave
curves, segments in
as demonstrated
at Figure
the front and
4, by back ofthe
avoiding the torso. Forparts
protruding the lower shoulder
(for example in girth, the girth
the neck upper chest
and girth
lower neck
andgirth due to the laryngeal prominence) and by smoothing out the concave segments at the
the chest girth at the armpit; modified curves are drawn without considering
thefront
armand back which
sections of the torso. For the
lie on either sidelower shoulder
of each girth, the
extracted upper
chest curve.chest
Forgirth
the and
waistthe
chest girth at the armpit;; modified curves are drawn without considering the arm sections
girth and hip girth, efforts were made to achieve an elliptical shape as closely as
possible,lie
which byon either side
controlling theof interpolation
each extracted chest
points of curve.
the drawn For the waist closed
B-spline girth and hip girth,
curves to
efforts were made to achieve an elliptical shape as closely as possible, by controlling the
resemble the lower shaping of classical outerwear garments. The human body is not
interpolation points of the drawn B-spline closed curves to resemble the lower shaping of
a symmetrical object, so the curves that are derived from it inevitably lack symmetry.
classical outerwear garments. The human body is not a symmetrical object, so the curves
However, mass-produced clothing lack
that are derived from it inevitably is expected
symmetry. to However,
have a symmetrical
mass-produced structure if is
clothing
intentional
expected asymmetry is not introduced
to have a symmetrical by if
structure designers.
intentional This required is
asymmetry the curves
not to beby
introduced
designers. This required the curves to be modified to meet the purpose. The body curves
modified to meet the purpose. The body curves were split into two halves based on a
were split
vertical plane. into
Thetwo halves based
individual halves on
ofa the
vertical
bodyplane.
curvesThe were individual
duplicatedhalves asof the body
a ‘mirror
curves
image’ towere duplicated
generate fully as a ‘mirror image’
symmetrical to generate
body curves. Thesefully symmetrical
symmetrical body were
curves curves.
These symmetrical curves were used in the subsequent steps of the process.
used in the subsequent steps of the process.
For during
For sleeves, sleeves, during the processing of the scan data to form a triangulated surface
the processing of the scan data to form a triangulated surface
mesh, the arms became merged with the upper body part of the model as can be seen in
mesh, the arms became merged with the upper body part of the model as can be
Figure 3. To 3.address
seen in Figure this this
To address problem, the upper
problem, arm girths
the upper had to
arm girths had be to
separated from the
be separated
larger central section from which the modified chest girth at armpit level was drawn. This
from the larger central section from which the modified chest girth at armpit level was
procedure is illustrated in Figure 5.
drawn. This procedure is illustrated in Figure 5.
Upper arm girths

Chest girth at armpit

Figure 5: Drawing upper arm girth

Small
Small sections
sections fromfrom
thethe furthest
furthest endsends
of of
both both sides
sides of the
of the shoulder
shoulder girthgirth curve
curve were
were
separated as
separated as two
two closed
closed curves
curvesto todefine
define the the
upper part part
upper of each arm/sleeve,
of each hereafter
arm/sleeve,
mentioned as ‘Tip of Sleeve’. Modified closed curves for the arm girths at the lower chest
hereafter mentioned as ‘Tip of Sleeve’. Modified closed curves for the arm girths at the
lower chest forearm
level, the level, thegirth and the
forearm girthwrist
andgirths were
the wrist drawn
girths following
were drawna following
similar technique
a similaras
was used to create the body curves shown in Figure 4. In order to ensure symmetry of the
technique as was used to create the body curves shown in Figure 4. In order to ensure
proposed 3D design platform, the arm curves from one side were copied and used in
symmetry of the proposed 3D design platform, the arm curves from one side were
‘mirror image’ to build the other side, hence creating symmetrical curves for the right and
copied and used in ‘mirror image’ to build the other side, hence creating symmetrical
left sleeves.
curves
for the right and left sleeves.
5

527
iv) Programming for 3D Grading: The scaling process involved selecting anchor points
for each of the curves from which they would enlarge or diminish themselves; it also
required the incorporation into the software of a scaling factor, so that the programme
would be able to determine the extent of the enlargement and diminution of each
curve during grading. The middle point of the lines joining the front and back part of
each curve were selected as scaling points for all the body girth curves. Similar scaling
points were used for the arm girths at the lower chest level, the forearm girth and the
wrist girths. In next step, the lengths of the closed curves were first set as parameters in
order to scale them. A scaling factor of A’/A, where:
A’ = the value of a desired size of girth curve; and
A = the existing circumferential value of that girth curve;
was formulated as a parameter for each of the curves in the set. The value of the
desired size for each curve equates to the size measurement for a particular type of
clothing. All curves except the hip curve and wrist curve were scaled on the horizontal
plane. The hip curve required to be scaled in horizontal plane to ensure the change
in girth measurement and also in vertical plane to ensure the change in shirt length as
described in Sayem et al. (2014). This required top include shirt length as an additional
parameter. Similarly, the wrist curve was scale din horizontal plane and vertical plane
taking sleeve length as an additional parameter.
At the end of the scaling process, using the appropriate “Excel Link” command
from within the DCTT software, an option for importing given values from an external
database was programmed for all scaled curves except the lower neck girth, the
lower shoulder girth, the upper chest girth and the curves representing the upper tips
of the sleeves, to facilitate 3D grading. For these four curves the following relationships,
which are calculated based on the size ratio of the modified curves achieved, had
been programmed:
Lower neck girth = 1.65 x Neck girth;
Lower shoulder girth = 1.2 x Shoulder girth;
Upper chest girth = 0.99 x Chest girth at armpit level;
Tip of sleeve = Shoulder girth / 21.2.
Hence, these four curves will follow these pre-determined relationships in every case
of resizing the “3D design platform”. Finally, the target 3D template was scaled with 12
size parameters, namely, neck girth, shoulder girt, chest girth at armpit, chest girth at
the fullest area, waist girth, hip girth, upper arm girth, arm girth on bicep, forearm girth,
wrist girth, shirt length and sleeve length. Appropriate size data based from shirt sizes
37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44 and 45 were developed in excel sheets for the purpose of
automatic grading.
v) Generation of 3D Template as Drawing Platform: A new surface was developed
by combining all the scaled curves, employing the “curve to curve” matching and
parametric synchronisation options within the 3D modelling function of the DCTT
software, as illustrated in Figure 6. The newly-generated surfaces for the body and
sleeves form the desired “3D design platform” on which the virtual cloth will be created,
and on which 3D grading may be performed.

528

Figure 6 New Surface Generation out of Scaled Body and Sleeve Curves

B) Testingthe
B) Testing the3D3DShirtShirtTemple
Temple
Once the 3D template was ready, its functionality was tested by drawing shirt outlines and
Once
by the 3D template
generating was
virtual shirt by ready, its functionality
using the wasgeneration
relevant mesh tested by tools.
drawing Once shirt
a outlines
drawing
has
and been completed, virtual
by generating an area
shirtof triangulated
by using themesh is created
relevant meshon the template
generation using
tools. Oncethe
“create region” tool within the DCTT software, as may be seen in Figure 7. Similarly, it was
a drawing has been completed, an area of triangulated mesh is created on the
tested
template with different
using shirt and
the “create jacket tool
region” designs. The
within theresizability
DCTT software, of the as
shirt
may template
be seen was
in
checked by varying the values of different size parameters individually and collectively
Figure 7. Similarly, it was tested with different shirt and jacket designs. The resizability
using external size charts. The changes in the size and position of the scaled curves and
of the shirt template was checked by varying the values of different size parameters
the corresponding shape of the body and sleeves were observed. Variable combinations
individually
of technical and collectively
parameters namely using externaland
link-length sizevertex
charts. The were
angle changes tried induring
the size and
clothing
position of the scaled curves and the corresponding shape of the body and sleeves
design to examine their effects of mesh generation and pattern flattening.
were observed. Variable combinations of technical parameters namely link-length
Using the flattening
and vertex angle were tool provided
tried during by the software
clothing used,
design tothe front part,
examine theirback
effectspart of
and
meshthe
sleeves for size 38 were flattened into 2D pattern pieces as may be seen in Figure 8. A 1
generation and pattern flattening.
cm seam allowance was added to the pattern pieces before printing them. A physical
Using the of
prototype flattening tool provided
an easy-fitting tee-shirt bywas
theprepared
softwareusing
used,100%
the front part,single
cotton backjersey
part andknit
2
the sleeves for size
fabric of 180 g/m 38 were flattened into 2D pattern pieces as may be seen in Figure
based on the printed pattern pieces.
8. A 1 cm seam allowance was added to the pattern pieces before printing them. A
physical prototype of an easy-fitting tee-shirt was prepared using 100% cotton single
jersey knit fabric of 180 g/m2 based on the printed pattern pieces.
RESULTS
RESULTS
i) Virtual Clothing
i) Virtual Clothing Generation
Generation
It was found that the newly-created design platform can function as a 3D drawing board
It was found that the newly-created design platform can function as a 3D drawing
which allows sketching and development of virtual clothing on its surface. As the template
is
board a model
which of allows
the upper body surface
sketching to which operational
and development levels of on
of virtual clothing ease have been
its surface. As
appended, drawing on the template effectively defines the 3D outlines of an appropriately
the template is a model of the upper body surface to which operational levels of ease
sized garment. Tee-shirts with regular and raglan sleeves could have been designed on it
have been appended, drawing on the template effectively defines the 3D outlines
with no problem. For dress shirts, standard straight collar and 2-pieces collar could easily
of an appropriately sized garment. Tee-shirts with regular and raglan sleeves could
be designed on this. Even it was found possible to design suit Jacket on it. However, it is
have been designed on it with no problem. For dress shirts, standard straight collar
not possible to develop a one-piece shirt collar on the shirt template, as any overlapping
and 2-pieces collar could easily be designed on this. Even it was found possible to
surface cannot be flattened into a single 2D component using the existing flattening tools.
design suit Jacket on it. However, it is not possible to develop a one-piece shirt collar
on the shirt template, as any overlapping surface cannot be flattened into a single 2D
component using the existing flattening tools.
7
Figure 7 Examples of Different Designs developed on the 3D Shirt Template

However, as the sleeves were created as separate parts of the 3D shirt template, a
However, as the sleeves were created as separate parts of the 3D shirt template, a design
design limitation
limitation wasprevailing
was found found prevailing in it. For example,
in it. For example, the raglan the raglan
sleeve sleeve
design design
could still be
could still be visualised on the shirt template but could not be flattened as a single
visualised on the shirt template but could not be flattened as a single pattern piece as can
be seen in Figure 9. A modified shirt template with sleeves merged with body parts may be
pattern piece as can be seen in Figure 9. A modified shirt template with sleeves
developed to address this problem. If the sleeves can be seamlessly merged with the body
merged with body parts may be developed to address this problem. If the sleeves
of the
can shirt template,
be seamlessly merged it will
with not the
be body
a problem to develop
of the shirt template, a itraglan sleeve
will not on it and
be a problem
subsequently flatten it into 2D.
to develop a raglan sleeve on it and subsequently flatten it into 2D.
ii) Grading in 3D
ii) Grading in 3D
The virtual garments using this technology are found resizable, by incorporating values
The virtual garments using this technology are found resizable, by incorporating values
from the appropriate size databases developed previously. Hence, this facility provides
from the appropriate size databases developed previously. Hence, this facility provides an
an opportunity
opportunity for for successfully
successfully executing
executing 3D 3D grading.
grading. After
After drawing
drawing the the virtual
virtual shirt,
shirt, the
the garment may also have its size varied by changing the size of the design platform.
garment may also have its size varied by changing the size of the design platform. It has
Itbeen found found
has been that size
thatparameters
size parameterscan be
can changed individually
be changed or in group.
individually or in The
group.process
The
requires to design a virtual garment only once on the
process requires to design a virtual garment only once on the platform and thenplatform and then conversion from
one size to
conversion fromanother
one sizeis carried out through
to another is carriedsimple excel-linking
out through simpleof pre-developed
excel-linking size
of pre-
database.
developed size database.
TIWC
iii) Pattern Flattening 2016,
and 25-28 Prototype
Physical April, 2016, Poznan, Poland
iii) Pattern Flattening and Physical Prototype

Using a flattening tool, it is possible to extract flat pattern pieces from the virtual clothing

designed on the shirt template. When a half of the front shirt panel was flattened into 2D, it

was found that the centre front line was curved inside the chest area as can be seen in the

Figure 8. However, this problem can easily be overcome by flattening a complete front
panel and then dividing it into 2D halves using 2D cut tool. The physical prototype made

based on the flattened pattern pieces also exhibited acceptable fit when tried by live
model.

Figure 8 2D Design and Flattened Pattern Pieces

Flattened patterns
of sleeve and
shoulder parts for
Raglan Sleeve 8
Figure 9 Visualisation of Raglan Sleeve and Flattened Patterns
iv) Effect of Technical Parameters

530
It has been found that link-length significantly affected the meshing quality and time. The
Using a flattening tool, it is possible to extract flat pattern pieces from the virtual clothing
designed on the shirt template. When a half of the front shirt panel was flattened into
2D, it was found that the centre front line was curved inside the chest area as can be
seen in the Figure 8. However, this problem can easily be overcome by flattening a
complete front panel and then dividing it into 2D halves using 2D cut tool. The physical
prototype made based on the flattened pattern pieces also exhibited acceptable fit
when tried by live model.
iv) Effect of Technical Parameters
It has been found that link-length significantly affected the meshing quality and time.
The bigger the link-length selected for a mesh structure, the smaller the mesh surface
area and the higher the meshing and flattening speeds. However, a commensurate
deterioration in the quality of the pattern pieces is also experienced. Any link-length
below 5 mm is technically not feasible for computers offering conventional level of
processing capability. The optimum link-length has been found to be between 10
mm and 15 mm. It has also been found that the vertex angle does not influence
the surface quality of the generated mesh, but affect the segmentation around the
boundary line. For clothing pattern generation, a vertex angle between 120º and 160º
was found useful.
v) Combining Fashion Illustration and Pattern Creation
Within the environment of 3D CAD system in use, it is possible to render a virtual shirt
developed on this design platform with different graphical surfaces, as is shown in
Figure 10. This facilitates fashion illustration in a 3D format. As 2D pattern pieces can
be extracted directly from virtual clothing by utilising the flattening mechanism, no
additional effort in respect of pattern drafting is necessary. However, it has been found
that multi-layer fabrics could not be visualised properly using the existing capability of
the CAD system used in this work.

Problem
with
multilayer
illustration

Figure 10 Physical Prototype and Illustrations
CONCLUSIONS
CONCLUSIONS
A technique for applying digital reverse engineering to derive flat pattern pieces for
A technique for applying digital reverse engineering to derive flat pattern pieces for men’s
upper body
men’s upper outerwear based on based
body outerwear a resizable
on a3D design platform
resizable 3D design had been demonstrated
platform had been
within the extent of this research work. The resizable 3D platform, which can work as a 3D
demonstrated within the extent of this research work. The resizable 3D platform,
which can work asdesigners,
drawing board for was developed
a 3D drawing using a set was
board for designers, of body-scanned
developed using data aand
set by
of
following a novel technique within an available 3D CAD system.
body-scanned data and by following a novel technique within an available 3D CAD This platform has been
scaled with twelve size parameters and may thus be converted from one size to another
system. This platform has been scaled with twelve size parameters and may thus be
using the size databases developed to facilitate the 3D grading. Using the resizable design The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:
platform, it was found possible to combine the fashion design and pattern creation into a
531
single step. The virtual clothing drawn on it changed its size with the size change of the
converted from one size to another using the size databases developed to facilitate
the 3D grading. Using the resizable design platform, it was found possible to combine
the fashion design and pattern creation into a single step. The virtual clothing drawn
on it changed its size with the size change of the design platform, which ensures
automatic 3D grading. Integrating such a resizable design platform into 3D CAD
systems will have significant implications for the fashion industries.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks to Lectra (UK) for technical co-operation.
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533
THE JEANS IN THE POPULAR BRAZILIAN

PANORAMA
Iara Braga12, Maria José Abreu2
1
University Federal of Piauí, Brazil
2
2C2T-Centre for Textile Science and Technology, Department of Textile Engineering, University of
Minho, Azurém, Guimarães, Portugal
(Presenting author E-mail: josi@det.uminho.pt; Corresponding author email: josi@det.uminho.pt)
ABSTRACT
In recent years the jeans industry in the Brazilian market has shown growth (3.9% per
year) (SEBRAE 2013a), expansion of production (365.1 million pieces of jeans) (IEMI 2013)
and commercialization, highlighting the popular markets (Oliveira and Braga 2015).
This article presents an investigation about the production and commercialization
practiced by Brazilian households jeans production enterprises, through the following
methodological procedures: bibliographic rescue and direct observation (Saunders
et al. 2011), visits to popular fashion centres in the regions of Southeast: São Paulo and
Rio de Janeiro and the Northeast: Agreste Pernambuco and Fortaleza, Ceará. The
goal is to collect information that allows characterizing the methods of production
and commercialization of the popular segment of women’s jeans. The data collected
demonstrated that in both regions the popular household enterprises, despite having
manufacturing practices based on empirical knowledge, in precarious physical
structures and equipment, workers are mostly of the same family and/or neighbours,
have shown positive economic income growth productivity and expansion in trade,
being the main selling point the fairs and shoppings. Although this sector is relevant
to the jeans segment in the Brazilian market, it has not been explored, highlighting the
unprecedented aspect of this research in Brazil and even in a global context.
Keywords: women’s jeans, popular households enterprises, popular fairs and shopping
INTRODUCTION
The popular market in Brazil, specifically the fashion market, has been showing great
economic movements in several regions. (Appel 2012)
These movements are due to the increasing in the number of domestic and casual
clothing, when it comes to the extension of marketing spaces and the expansion of
clothing production. Mainly about manufacturing jeans parts, being women’s pants
one of the most produced and wanted by consumers in popular markets. (Alves 2009)
For these considerations, this article brings up a survey about the outlook of production
and trading practiced by Brazilian domestic jeans pants producers.
In order to carry out this research, it was applied the combination of the following
methods(Saunders et al. 2011): bibliographic rescue and field observation about the
popular jeans trading markets, with visits to popular Brazilian fashion centers in the
regions of Southeast (São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro) and in the Northeast region
(Toritama in Agreste Region of Pernambuco, and Fortaleza, Ceará).

534
This study aims to collect information, which allows characterizing the modes of
production and trading applied on the popular Brazilian segment of women’s jeans.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC RESCUE
The establishment of jeans manufacturing centers in informal home clothing units was
given to the implementation of the popular market of garment production process.
According to Abreu, Jorge, and Sorj (1996) and Araújo and Amorim (2002), it was
driven by economic instability context, where the industry looks for cost savings and,
consequently, to layoff workers.
Therefore, these “unemployed” workers from the clothing industries were organized
and started working at the informal economy in garment manufacturing, with similar
features to those ones presented by the big brands, being more accessible because
of the lower prices. (Araujo and Amorim 2002)
According to Silva (2008) the flow of the garments manufactured in home clothing
manufacturers from the suburbs firstly intended to source multi-brand companies
that supplied the big magazines, but due to the instability and lack of payment, they
started to sell to traders from fairs held in city centers during the night, that’s why
theses places are called “feirinha da madrugada” (dawn fairs).
Since then, these businesses have been progressing with significant increasing on
production, and expansion of marketing, giving rise to great popular fashion marketing
centers in Brazil, with a moving of thousands of buyers, such as dawn fair in Brás, at
São Paulo’s downtown, the SAARA region at Rio de Janeiro’s downtown, the Sulanca
fair at the Agreste region, in Pernambucano, and the dawn fair at José Avelino Street
in Fortaleza, Ceará.
In São Paulo, the dawn fair in Brás receives about 15,000 shoppers daily (Sobrinho
2013), at the Sulanca fair there are 60,000 people that run almost R$ 1 million (€ 226,000)
and at José Avelino’s, in Fortaleza, we can register about 20,000 customers each fair,
and according to the Executive Secretary from the downtown’s executive center of
Fortaleza (SERCFOR) the estimative of business transactions is from R$5,000 (€ 1,130) to
R$20,000 (€ 4,530).(Braga, Abreu, and Oliveira 2015)
Such cities, besides holding the main centers for clothing trade, they are also
considered the biggest denim producers in the country
Some researches (SEBRAE 2013; IEMI 2013) point out that these regions in recent years,
the jeans industry, the Brazilian market has shown a growth of 3.9% per year (SEBRAE
2013th), outstanding the expansion of production and marketing, especially related
to the popular markets. (Oliveira and Braga 2015)
According to carried out studies during the year 2012 and presented by SEBRAE
(2013b), the Agreste region in Pernambuco is one of the major production and
marketing center of denim in Brazil, it’s due to its representation in the segment,
featuring about 20,000 enterprises, generating more than 100 000 jobs for the whole
region and producing 900 million pieces per year.
In Brazil, according to the scope IEMI (2013), in 2012, 349.8 million pieces were
produced, presenting an increase of 27%, comparing to 2008.
535
It was used a combination of methods for the building and designing of this research:
bibliographic rescue and observation field. It’s started with a survey about scientific
publications and economic reports, which present information about the Brazilian
popular fashion market, focusing on the denim production and trading, what has
shown relevant economic happenings in some regions of the country.
The direct observation field with visits to popular Brazilian fashion centers in the regions
from the Southeast: São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro; and the Northeast: Agreste region
in Pernambuco and Fortaleza, Ceará. This is a method described by authors as Gil
(2008) like an important way for anchored data collection because they allow direct
contact with the venues of the popular denim business.
Data collection is oriented from the determination of a specific plan for observation
and recording information, in order to establish categories for the examination of
selected areas. According to Provdanov and Freitas (2013) through a script you can
get a conscious observation, directed and ordered for a particular purpose.
During the visits to São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Fortaleza and Toritama, it was used an
observation script as described below, on Table 1:
Table 1: Observation Script
TRADING CENTER
1 – Observation of trading center’s neighborhood
2 - Trading center’s physical structure
3 - Outlets’ Structure
4 - Observation of sold pieces
5 – Origin of Clothing Manufacturer
6 - Production Mode
7 - Buyers
RESULTS
Field observation
The visits to popular denim fashion trading centers, as described above, was carried
out following a plan based on the objectives for data collection in order to confirm
the information collected in the bibliographic rescue and seeking to respond to the
object aimed by this research.
The presentation of the data is organized regionally, starting with the cities from the
southeast and then the cities from the Northeast.

536
Southeast Region: São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro Cities

Table 2: Observation Script of Southeast Region
O B S E RVAT I O N
SÃO PAULO RIO DE JANEIRO
SCRIPT
Next to the main business centers in the
1.Observation of
Street sellers on sidewalks and in front of city in the, and also to the National Library
trading center’s
the subway station. and several historic buildings, as the first
neighborhood
Civil Engineering University in Brazil.
Two-floor building connected by escalators, SAARA is a neighborhood whose streets
each floor divided into picture galleries concentrates several types of popular
of outlets. Lighting and ventilation under products stores and which has the largest
nice conditions and with wide space for number of retail outlets that offer clothing at
shoppers’ walking. low prices
2.Trading center’s
physical structure
The outlets are organized with the using of

3.Outlets’ furniture, designed with a part for storaging There are three types of outlets: shops,
Structure and another with shelves, which shows off metal boxes and stands.
the main products.
We can find four models: high-waist pants,
closing with buttons and zipper, simple
washing, keeping the blue jeans, just
There were two models: high-waist pants,
modeling and skiny legs; pants with rib
closing with buttons and zipper, simple
mesh applications, closing with laces and
washing, keeping the blue jeans and
4.Observation of zipper, destonado wash with light colors
modeling of skinny-legs; and pants, with
sold pieces and modeling with straight legs; pants with
destroyer wash, torn effects on the front
side applications knit rib, zipper closure
and bottom black and fair modeling, skinny
and buttons with sparkles, modeling with
legs.
straight legs; and pants with destroyer
washing, torn effects on the front and black
background modeling and fair-skinny legs.
5.Origin of
They are manufactured in domestic From clothing workshops of Brás and from
Clothing
workshops in the region Bras factories at Agreste region, in Pernambuco.
Manufacturer
Production fragmented - each part of the Production fragmented - each part of the
6.Production
manufacturing step is carried out in a manufacturing step is carried out in a
Mode
different workshop different workshop
80% are wholesaling buyers in cities in the 75% are local consumers of tfrom Rio de
state of Sao Paulo and Brasilia to other Janeiro, 15% of buyers who retail in other
7.Buyers
states, Minas Gerais and Goiás and 20% cities from the state of Rio de Janeiro and
of consumers in São Paulo other states such as Minas Gerais

537
Northeast Region: Toritama and Fortaleza

Table 3:Observation Script of Northeast Region
OBSERVATION TORITAMA FORTALEZA
SCRIPT
1.Observation of It sits on the banks of the road that give On the neighborhood of the Centro Cultural
trading center’s access to the city of Caruaru. Several Dragão do Mar, the Central Market, the
neighborhood street sellers. Metropolitan Cathedral of Fortaleza and
several Popular Fashion malls.
2.Trading center’s A large shopping mall, popular shopping Free Street Fair, without a fixed structure.
physical structure with wide space for walking through the
corridors between the stores; there’s no
good lighting conditions and ventilation,
there’s a food court and an area with
banking service.
3.Outlets’ Structure The outlets are small shops, the main The outlets have various models: tarps on
ones feature air conditioning, window, the ground, stands in table format and metal
the minors are already assembled and wood structures with deposit boxes and
with metal structures, which house the stands to serve customers
counters of visits to customers and
at the bottom shelves are fixed for
displaying the products.
4.Observation of There are different models of jeans, and The most common jeans are the pants with
sold pieces the most frequent models are the pants destroyer wash, torn effects on the front
with destroyer wash, torn effects on the and a black background; about modeling,
front and a black background; about skinny legs and high-waist pants, closing
modeling, skinny legs and high-waist with buttons and zipper; simple washing,
pants, closing with buttons and zipper; in several shades, from the darkest to the
simple washing, in several shades, from brightest of indigo blue, fair modeling and
the darkest to the brightest of indigo skinny legs too.
blue, fair modeling and skinny legs too.
5.Origin of Clothing All parts are manufactured in familiar All parts are manufactured in familiar
Manufacturer garment from Toritama and some towns garment from Fortaleza and from cities at its
close to there. the metropolitan area.
6.Production Mode Fragmented production. Each piece of Fragmented production. Each piece of
clothing step is performed in a different clothing step is performed in a different
workshop, even reaching to rural areas workshop. Female jeans pants in the
of the city. production process can reach several
districts of the city and metropolitan area of
Fortaleza.
7.Buyers All buyers are dealers came from 95% are buyers for reatling in cities from
neighboring cities and other states from the state of Ceara and other states, Brasilia,
different regions of Brazil. Minas Gerais, Goias, and most of these are
from other Northeast states such as Bahia,
Piauí, Maranhão, Rio Grande do Norte and
to the North: Pará, Amazonas and Roraima;
and 5% of consumers from Fortaleza and
tourists who are in town on vacation

538
CONCLUSIONS
The data collected shows that both regions, Southeast and Northeast, the production
of the popular denim is made by household income projects, confirming the data
submitted by the previous research (Silva 2008).
It can observe that the production of jeans features mainly designed models, applying
professional techniques, abandoning empirical knowledge and offering well-made
products whose quality can be related to complex washes and finishes. Nevertheless,
the manufacturing practices continue to be produced through poor equipment and
physical structures, workers are of the same family or neighbourhood.
Only in Toritama we found that the production involves people from more distant
places, such as its rural areas.
It was found that despite the economic crisis currently experienced in the country,
Brazilian popular fashion trades, specifically in jeans marketing, positive economic
returns, presenting production growth and expansion in the market, mainly disposing
its fairs and malls.
Based on bibliographic rescue and the intersection of the data collected, it was
revealed that despite the business expansion and economic growth developed by
these popular markets, publications and developed investigations into the popular
fashion universe have few representation in academic environments and research
institutes, and existing publications can’t be considered enough as broadcasting
information from the scene at all.
Although this sector is relevant to the jeans segment in the Brazilian market, it has not
been explored, highlighting the unprecedented aspect of this research in Brazilian
and even global context.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank the Federal University of Piauí for giving opportunity the completion and
conducting of this investigation.
This work is supported by Portuguese National Funding, through FCT - Fundação para
a Ciência e a Tecnologia, on the framework of project UID/CTM/00264/2013.
REFERENCES
Abreu, Alice R de Paiva, Angela Jorge, e Bila Sorj. 1996. «Projetos de geração de renda para mulheres
de baixa renda.» Estudos feministas 4.
Alves, Rosiane Pereira. 2009. «Moda e desenvolvimento local: reconversões culturais na criação
do jeans em Toritama – Pernambuco.» 200.17.137.108. Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco.
http://200.17.137.108/tde_arquivos/13/TDE-2002-01-01T230644Z-814/Publico/Rosiane Pereira Alves.
pdf.
Appel, Polyanna Brandão. 2012. «Consumindo moda, estilos e individualidades: um estudo
etnográfico das práticas de consumo de moda em grupos populares.»
Araújo, Angela Maria Carneiro, e Elaine Regina Aguiar Amorim. 2002. «Redes de subcontratação
e trabalho a domicílio na indústria de confecção: um estudo na região de Campinas.» Cadernos
Pagu, 267–310. doi:10.1590/S0104-83332002000100010.
Braga, Iara, Maria José Abreu, e Madalena Oliveira. 2015. «O mercado de moda popular brasileira :
os centros de comercialização de vestuário popular na região Nordeste do Brasil.» Em 3o Congresso
Internacional de Negócios de Moda. Vol. 1. Porto, Portugal.
IEMI. 2013. «Jeans cresce mais que total de vestuário.» Inteligência de mercado. http://www.iemi.
com.br/jeans-cresce-mais-que-total-de-vestuario/.
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Oliveira, RV de, e BM Braga. 2015. «Território comercial de Toritama: persistência e metamorfoses

da informalidade.» Revista Política & Trabalho, n. 41: 193–225. http://www.ies.ufpb.br/ojs2/index.php/
politicaetrabalho/article/view/21820.
Provdanov, Cleber Cristiano, e Ernani Cesar De Freitas. 2013. Metodologia do trabalho científico:
métodos e técnicas da pesquisa e do trabalho acadêmico. Novo Hamburgo: Feevale. Novo
Hamburgo/RS: Universidadde FEEVALE. http://www.feevale.br/Comum/midias/8807f05a-14d0-4d5b-
b1ad-1538f3aef538/E-book Metodologia do Trabalho Cientifico.pdf.
Saunders, MNK, M Saunders, P Lewis, e A Thornhill. 2011. Research methods for business students. 5a
ed. Edinburgh: Pearson Education Limited.
SEBRAE. 2013a. «Moda Jeans: mercado cresce reinventando tradição.» SEBRAE. http://
softcomunicacao.com.br/oficina/sebrae/blog-mercados/category/consumidor/page/11/.
———. 2013b. Estudo econômico do arranjo produtivo local de confecções do Agreste.
Silva, Carlos Freire da. 2008. «Trabalho Informal e Redes de Subcontratação: Dinâmicas Urbanas da
Indústria de Confecções em São Paulo.» Universidade de São Paulo. http://medcontent.metapress.
com/index/A65RM03P4874243N.pdf.
Sobrinho, Wanderley Preite. 2013. «Feira da Madrugada completa 12 anos com polêmicas e lucro
de 400% em SP.» IG. http://ultimosegundo.ig.com.br/brasil/sp/2013-01-24/feira-da-madrugada-
completa-12-anos-com-polemicas-e-lucro-de-400-em-sp.html.

540
KHADI IN KIDS WEAR: ANALYZING PARENTAL

VIEWS
Priti M. Gadhavi
Assistant Professor, Department of Fashion Management Studies, National Institute of Fashion
Technology, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India.
(E-mail:pritigadhavi@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT
Khadi, the Indian origin yarn and cloth initiated by Shri M.K.Gandhi (Father of India),
is fully hand crafted textile. It has gained a remarkable name across the world as
it is naturally processed fabric without using pesticides or harming nature. Khadi is
environmentally friendly as well as socially sustainable fabric that does not pollute the
environment, also supports the livelihood of many artisans. The versatile fabric Khadi
has distinctive trait of keeping wearer warm in winter and cool in summer (Upadhyay,
2013).
Khadi in fashion has got significant recognition, prominent brands and designers have
adopted Khadi to produce range of apparels in both menswear and womenswear
with positive response from consumers too. Kids wear is the unexplored area where
the use of Khadi is comparatively less. Very few designers, brands and researchers
have contributed in this area.
This research paper aims to delve into the scope of Khadi in kids wear. The objective
of the study is to investigate views of parents on Khadi as a sustainable fashion option
in kids wear. The structured questionnaire will be administered to get insights of the
research. Analysis will be done using statistical tools to know parental opinions and
acceptance for Khadi in kids wear.
Keywords: Khadi, Sustainable Fashion, Kids wear, Parental views
INTRODUCTION
Clothing has been worn by humans since times immemorial for numerous reasons.
Role of clothing is recognized as a communicator of information during communal
interactions, an aid in establishing self–identity, and to survive during extreme weathers.
The way of dressing often describes about the persons, their beliefs, their origin, etc. The
need of clothing led to discovery of various fibers, their spinning techniques, weaving
techniques, as well as converting them into a wearable garment. The advancement
continued and a revolution came when the machines had taken over the hand
spinning and weaving. Majority of markets were captured by power loom from the
reigning handloom. Power loom woven fabrics became the undisputed winner due
to its multiple advantages. Fabrics, the base of clothing whether woven on handloom
or power loom are main important aspect. According to Dickens (1944), “Clothing
serves the social purpose same as food serves the health purpose. Ryan (1965) rightly
stated that “there would not be any need for clothing if human beings were not
reacting to each other in social surroundings, beyond, perhaps the protection from
extreme weather conditions. Without the urge of having one style of garment over

541
another, there would be no scope for fashion or any change of fashion. Both the
man and woman are judged from the way they dress up and their socio-economic
image is built accordingly, it implies to kids segment as well. Parents these days are
conscious about the appearance of their kids; they want unique clothing their child
which shall be comfortable, easily manageable, skin friendly and above all the child
should look beautiful in that. Clothing simplifies the perception of people, and KHADI;
the hand woven cloth is a class apart.The fashion industry is going through a transition
and importance of natural fabrics like KHADI is having an edge (Joshi, 2002). Range
of KHADI clothing is available for both man and woman category whereas kids wear
section is not in very good shape. It is observed that a few efforts have been made on
studying various elements of KHADI but hardly any effort has been made in KHADI in
kids wear. This study aims to explore the scope of KHADI in kids wear. The objective of
the study is to investigate views of parents on KHADI as a sustainable fashion option in
kids wear. Further, scope of KHADI in kids wear category is also identified.
About KHADI
Khadi means “a hand- woven cloth which is made from hand-spun thread”. “Khadi”
a word of Hindi, which means the Indian hand spun and hand woven cloth which is
made on a Charkha – a special machine. Charkha is used by hand to weave cloth
for people living in the villages (Joshi, 2002).
In 1920, KHADI was perceived as a symbol of Swadeshi movement and self-reliance
of the villages. It is based on the Gandhian concept of swadeshi spirit, simplicity; and
decentralization. It was initiated to relieve the poverty and improve the standards of
Indian village people. Khadi was introduced as a political weapon for the boycott
of overseas goods in general and fabric in particular; it further stimulated a desire
for independence as well as attitude of self-discipline in every Indian. Khadi was a
vital part of non-cooperation movement. However, Gandhiji was always alive and
conscious about the economic aspects of Khadi. He, therefore, emphasized the
economic value of Khadi, as a means of employment for spinners and weavers, as a
measure of relief from evil of predominant unemployment. Gradually in December,
1923, a separate Board called “The All India Khadi Board” was established. Later in
1925, “The All India Spinner’s Association”, also known as “Akhil Bhartiya Charkha
Sangh”, was formed. The Association concentrated its activities on propagation,
production and sale of Khadi till 1935. With the vision of having village upliftment or
village reconstruction, Khadi got a permanent recognition worldvide. (Nanda,1935).
Post-independence as well, the support of the National Government for the promotion
of Khadi was readily forthcoming. The All India Khadi and Village Industrial Board was
formed which was succeeded later by The Khadi and Village Industry Commission.
The Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) is a statutory body established
in 1956 with objective of creating self-reliance amongst the poor and building up of
a strong rural community spirit. The main functions of KVIC are planning, promotion,
organization and implementation of program for the improvement of Khadi and
other village industries in the rural areas.
Importance of KHADI
Mahatma Gandhi believed that hand-spinning and hand weaving will contribute
largely to the economic and the moral regeneration of India. One of the most beautiful

542
hand spun and hand woven Indian fabric, Khadi has the added value of allowing
more air penetration.The hand woven fabric forms air pockets in the fabric due to the
thick and thin places created during hand spinning and is therefore, cooler, softer,
more absorbent and breathes better than highly uniform and compact machine
made fabrics. The added breathability means the fabric will stay cooler in summer and
warmer in winter. Manufacture of Khadi fabrics is considered to be heritage based
production activity. based on human skill, Khadi provides employment to a large
section of the population. Khadi yarn has got a unique appearance as compared to
mill yarn. Due to unevenness and imperfections present in the yarn, the Khadi fabric
gives unique look and texture. Man’s progress and the road to development have
led to the deterioration of nature. In his quest for fulfilling his needs, he has exploited
nature to its maximum. If environment is to be saved from degradation we have to
limit the use of machine, therefore Gandhi’s promotion of Khadi and Village Industries
has become more relevant today.The importance of KHADI is mentioned in figure 1.
The Technique of Khadi

The essential processes in production of Khadi includes cotton growing, picking,
ginning, cleaning, carding, slivering, spinning, sizing, dyeing, preparing the warp
and woof, weaving and winding. Khadi is the finest example of hand spinning and
hand weaving. From the picking of cotton to the hand-weaving and finishing of
cloth, there is a series of delicate operations, calling for varying degrees of dexterity
and experience. The character, shape and handling of tools, the class and pattern
of goods differ widely in different parts of the country. The differences depended
on variety of tastes, aptitudes, habits, customs and social and economic conditions
generally in the various tracts. Fine varieties of Khadi are woolen Khadi, Muslin is a
cloth of very fine count known from historical era, Panduru- fine Khadi is one of the
unique textile produced from 40 counts to 120 counts, Silk Khadi- silk yarn is used to
weave fabric.
Studies related to Khadi and Customer Preferences
According to Dr.Padmasani, (2012), “knowing the customers’ attitude is important for
the marketing managers to understand preference and buying behaviour”. In this
study he found that rural and urban customers not significantly differ in attitude and

543
satisfactions towards Khadi product. Moreover, the attitude towards Khadi products
has significant positive relationship with the customers’ satisfaction. Dr.D Mahesh
(2012) Conducted “A Case Study on Customer Attitude and Preference towards the
Brand of Khadi and Village Industrial Products in Coimbatore District”. The Researcher
studied the opinion of the customers’ reaction towards the pricing and awareness
about the usage of the products in terms of productivity, quality, profit and better
customer orientation. It also aimed at helping the District Supply and Marketing society
a marketing retail outlet aids in improving the sales and various other promotional
activities. Kumar (2013) is of the view that Khadi wasn’t just about a bolt of course,
rough-spun cloth, it was a movement. These days Khadi imparts a very elegant
and a sober look. Indian fashion Designers use Khadi for the international market.
Today, as it gets set for the runway again, the question is not so much whether it
has arrived but whether it lends itself to variety and innovation. The another study by
Manoj (2014), The contending hegemony Gandhi’s Khadi and growth of consumer
culture, 1915-1945, provides an insight into a single man’s obsessive pursuance of
his conviction that brought not just ‘truth and non-violence’ into the common man’s
parlance but also gave, in the evocative phrase of Nehru, a ‘livery of freedom’. M.H.
Ahsaan(2009) reported that the Khadi has always been a fabric with attitude. Khadi
in the past was claimed to be the status as a symbol of resistance against British rule,
has now become a fashion statement. Its journey from its eventful birth as the fabric
favored by revolutionaries, to designer boutiques and elite consciousness has been
an exciting one. At one time coarse and dull, Khadi’s latest avatar is brightly coloured
and delicate fine fabric to seek attention on the ramp. Many renowned designers like
Rohit Bal, 11*11, Jatin Kochchar, Rajesh Pratap Singh, Malini Ramani, Bhavna Thareja
and many more with famous brands like Fabindia and Anokhi have contributed a
lot to give the traditional handspun fabric a modern and contemporary look. With its
stylish cuts and innovative colors, Khadi has come to define the trendy ethnic look.
According to M.H. Ahsaan(2009) there are two kinds of buyers. The first kinds of people
buy Khadi for a reason. This group is inspired by the way Khadi was promoted by
Gandhiji. It was to promote village economy, to stop the migration from villages to
cities. Khadi was promoted comprehensively to make people economically more
self-sufficient and morally robust. One reason why some people wear Khadi is the
feeling that by wearing Khadi they are supporting the population engaged in KHADI
production.
The second kinds of people wear it because of the inherent properties of Khadi. This
group buy Khadi because it is one of the finest and comfortable fabrics for both
summer and winter. It remains cool in summer and warm in winter. Moreover the
availability of variants of Khadi like muslin Khadi, matka Khadi and hand-woven
Khadi provides the freedom of experimentation to the designers and makes it a really
suitable buy for all kinds of occasions. Designers take advantage here by promoting
KHADI clothing with contemporary motifs and silhouettes.
Kids wear Market in India
The market size and growth of kids’ wear in India remains one of the most promising
markets for apparel due to the ever escalating economic activities and ever widening
consumer base. According to Technopak Report 2009, the Indian apparel market is

544
expected to grow at a CAGR of 9%, from USD 41 billion in 2013 to USD 102 billion in
2023. In 2013, kids wear, at USD 8.3 billion, alone contributed 20% of India’s apparel
market, but given its higher growth rate, this share is expected to increase to 22% by
2023. Denims and T-shirts in boys wear segment are expected to register CAGRs of 15%
and 11%, respectively due to the high growth categories. On the other hand, ethnic
wear category is having high growth potential along with western wear categories
like Denims and T-shirts within the girls wear market.
The growth drivers of Kids wear Market could be some distinct factors such as
changes in the family system, increased spending on children, and growing brand
awareness among kids, these factors have contributed significantly. Subsequently
the expenditure on children’s apparel, with better brand image and quality has
received a boost. At the same time, Indian kids in both urban and semi-urban India
are increasingly exposed to various media and are thus aware about brands. The low
average lifespan of children’s apparel, a result of the growing height of children, this
has increased the frequency of purchase of kids apparel. This has enforced many
price conscious parents to hold back on spending on children’s apparel. Organized
retailers and brands have also contributed enormously to the growth of this market by
attracting kids through the right product assortment, better visual merchandising, and
focused advertising and promotional strategies. Most of the organized players in the
kids wear market initially focused only on western wear categories like denim, shirts,
T-shirts, etc. However, brands and organized players have now started foraying into
children’s ethnic wear categories and are offering ethnically styled products for kids.
In fact, various designers and retailers have even begun catering to the demand for
kids’ bespoke apparel. Although the branded kids wear segment has observed higher
growth in recent years, it still remains a largely unbranded market, with products sold
mostly through unorganized retail channels.
Online retailing has been able to to penetrate into the kids wear segment as well.
With the hasty acceleration of Internet penetration, India’s consumers have several
reasons to select online retailing as their preferred channel for fashion purchases,
both for themselves as well as their children. Online fashion stores offer the ultimate
ease of shopping using user-friendly interfaces, extensive product varieties, shorter
delivery cycles and lucrative options like cash-on-delivery, free shipping, etc. in order
to attract consumers to their portals. In addition to kids wear specific online shopping
stores, several kids wear brands also offer online shopping facilities. Even fashion
focused online retailers have dedicated a substantial share of their websites to the
kids wear segment. Kids’ apparel market is a price sensitive segment where higher
input costs add to the prices of the apparels. With the increase in the purchasing
power of parents, kids wear clothing business is expected to sustain extensively.
As kids have the tendency to grow up very quickly, new offerings are required; this
raises two concerns product range, and pricing. Determining the price of the apparel
mainly depends on defining the target group and identifying buyer behavior. Kids
wear market is classified as Infants (0 - 6 months) wear market, Toddlers (7 months - 2
years) wear market, Kids (3 - 8 Years) wear market, and Pre-teens (9 - 12 Years) wear
market. Cotton is the most preferred material for kids’ wear due to its easy caring,
comfortable, and non-allergic virtues. However, with the advent of growing fads in the
market, this fibre faces competition with other synthetic ones, which are favoured for
its wash ability, and non-creasing abilities.
545
METHODOLOGY
Clothing is the basic necessity of human beings, as it provides basic protection to the
skin of the body. Special care in fabrics for kids wear is essential, and parents of today’s
era are more conscious than before. They look for safe and skin friendly clothing
options for their little ones. Clothes made up with natural fibres are comfortable,
skin friendly as well as suitable for Indian consumers as summer season is observed
maximum in the nation. Khadi as fully hand crafted textile possesses a distinctive trait
of keeping the wearer warm in winter and cool in summer (Upadhyay, 2013). Khadi
is environmentally friendly as well as socially sustainable fabric that does not pollute the
environment, also offer the source of revenue to many artisans. The present study aims to
identify view of parents on Khadi in Kids wear, an empirical study was undertaken to fulfil
the objectives. To carry out the study both primary and secondary data were collected.
Elements related to khadi were identified from an extensive literature review. Various
websites, journals, articles, research thesis, newspaper articles, were studied to gather
secondary data for the study. The first hand data was mainly collected from parents
through survey method. The study was carried out in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India. Total
no of sample collected were 143, size for this study is 124. Respondents were parents in
age group 25-45 years. Data collected from structured questionnaires was analysed
using SPSS tools. Factor analysis was done to figure out the significant determinant
that explains parental interpretations and opinions about Khadi in Kids wear.
Objective of study:
1. To find out parental interpretation about Khadi in Kids wear.
Results and Analysis
Demographic profile of parents
Almost 49 percent of the parents surveyed were in the age group of thirty-to thirty five
years, 35 percent were in thirty five-to-forty years. Around 49.2 percent parents were
post graduate, 27.4 percent parents were PhD qualified. 46 percent parents were
professional by professions and almost 38.7 percent were working or jobber. Out of
124 parents surveyed, nearly 60.5 percent parents’ annual income was between five
–to-ten lakhs, 17.7 percent with two and half-to-five lakhs and almost 14.5 percent
parents with more than ten lakhs of annual income. The demographic profile of
parents is mentioned in Table1.
Characteristics n (frequency) Percentage
Age group
40-45 years 1 0.8
35-40 years 43 34.7
30-35 years 61 49.2
25-30 years 19 15.3
Qualification
PhD 34 27.4
Post graduate 61 49.2
Graduate 29 23.4
Occupation
Professional 57 46
Service/Jobber 48 38.7
Student 7 5.6
Home maker 12 9.7
Annual income
Above 10 lakhs 18 14.5
5-10 lakhs 75 60.5
2.5-5 lakhs 22 17.7
1-2.5 lakhs 9 7.3
Table1. Demographic profile of parents

546
Results of Factor Analysis

The primary data obtained from the survey was analysed in different steps. To test
the validity of the instrument, Cronbach alpha and Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of
Adequacy (KMO) test were computed. To measure internal consistency and reliability
of the instrument Cronbach alpha was calculated. The Cronbach alpha value for the
second part of the questionnaire was 0.940 and total items were 38, thus this part of
questionnaire was considered reliable for the study. KMO value for the instrument
was 0.754 (0.754 > 0.5), which is acceptable and the Bartlett’s test (0.00) showed a
significant level, hence the data was considered appropriate for factor analysis.
KMO and Bartlett’s Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .754
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 4069.894
df 703
Sig. .000
Table2. .KMO and Bartlett’s Test

Factor analysis
Factor % of Total
Factor Items Factor name
loading variance variance
Unique Finish .828
Unique Statement .826
Premium Product .825
Khadi is pride .818
Fewer Brands Available .655
Lifestyle .630
More Bright Colors Needed In Khadi .588 Fashionable 32.235 32.235
1
Exclusive fabric .583
Light Weight .538
Distinct Look .506
Limited Designs .460
Chemical Free .411
Look stylish .408
Worn Daily .772
Durable .762
Less maintenance .755
Prints are accepted .748
Washed Easily .745
Resistant To Pilling .744
2 Manageable 11.095 43.329
Suitable For Playwear .731
Cheap Solution .694
More Designs Required .667
Dries Faster .658
Ideal For Summers And Winters .498
Skin Friendly .751
Resistant To Heat .735
Organic clothing .674
Ecofriendly .629
3 Sustainable 6.260 49.590
Ideal for Kids wear .575
Fabric Becomes Soft After Washes .554
Prevent From Rashes And Allergies .480
Patriotic Feeling .788
Feel Special .730
Versatile .715
Symbol of Heritage .711 6.172 55.762
4 Valuable
Should Be Saved .526
Respect Khadi .482
Everyone Should Start Using Khadi .481
Table 3. Factor analysis
547
FINDINGS AND RESULTS

Factor analysis was done to identify the significant determinant that explains parental
interpretations and opinions about Khadi in Kids wear. Using Principal component
analysis, thirty eight items were extracted by four factors. Factors with Eigen value less
than one were discarded. All the four factors together accounted for 55.762 percent
of the total variance, which can be regarded as sufficient. Items having factor loading
more than 0.4 were included in the interpretation. Figure 1 represents the reduced
factors. Each factor is listed in ascending order from most important to least important
following its explanation.
Fig.1.reduced factors
1. Fashionable: Fashionable is identified through factor analysis, the name given
to the fist interpretation about Khadi in kids wear. As shown in table 3, this factor
comprises thirteen products/items: Unique Finish, Unique Statement, Premium Product,
Khadi is pride, Fewer Brands Available, Lifestyle, More Bright Colors Needed In Khadi,
Exclusive fabric, Light Weight, Distinct Look, Limited Designs, Chemical Free, Look
stylish. All these items have a factor loading of more than 0.4. All the interpretations in
this cluster have some commonalities. They talk about distinctiveness; they talk about
exclusivity and trendy.
2. Manageable: Manageable is the name given to second interpretations. As
shown in table 3, this factor comprises eleven products/items: Worn daily, Durable,
Less maintenance, Prints are accepted, Washed Easily, Resistant To Pilling, Suitable
For Playwear, Cheap Solution, More Designs Required, Dries Faster, Ideal For Summers
And Winters. All the interpretations in this cluster have some commonalities. They talk
about durability; they talk about maintenance and usage.
3. Sustainable: Sustainable is the name given to third interpretations. As shown
in table 3, this factor comprises seven products/items: Skin friendly, Resistant to heat,
Organic clothing, Eco-friendly, Ideal for Kids wear, Fabric Becomes Soft After Washes,
Prevent from rashes and allergies. All the interpretations in this cluster have some
commonalities: They talk about protective, healthy and safe.
4. Valuable: Valuable is the name given to forth interpretations. As shown in table
3, this factor comprises seven products/items: Patriotic Feeling, Feel Special, Versatile,
Symbol of Heritage, Should Be Saved, Respect Khadi, and everyone should start using
Khadi. All the interpretations in this cluster have some commonalities: They talk about
tradition, inheritance and admiration.
Khadi in kids wear is untapped market, opportunities may be explored in this clothing
sector. By utilizing latest trends in fashion kids wear in Khadi might induce sales in kids
wear segment. Quality apparels at reasonable price might create a niche and more

548
parents might be attracted to buy Khadi in kids wear. Khadi has been interpreted
as fashionable clothing; opportunities for upcoming designers in kids wear might be
enhanced. Since Khadi clothing requires less maintenance and it is easy to manage,
chances of Khadi in Kids wear are prominent. The concern for environment is shown
by parents’ appreciation for eco-friendly apparel for their kids. The feeling of patriotism
and inheritance is given least importance as compared with other elements. Though
parents are fashion conscious, look of less maintenance and are environment
conscious, concern about basis of khadi or Khadi motive is not disregarded. Parents
value Khadi and want to reflect it through kids wear. According to parents Khadi is
fashionable, manageable, sustainable and valuable.
CONCLUSIONS
From the above study it can be concluded that Khadi bears a high credibility
among people, form the survey it is observed that there are remarkable chances
of acceptance of khadi in kids wear. Due to the growing age of children, the life
cycle of kids clothing is short and demand is more, Khadi in Kids wear will have
lucrative potential. Khadi in Kids wear will bring a refreshing change among parents.
There were times when knit wear and tight fitted synthetic apparel dominated the
kids’ wardrobes; Khadi in Kids wear might encounter new hopes of parents. Khadi,
the hand woven textile imparts an elegant and a sober look in Kids wear. With the
concerns about the environment, parents like to opt for organic clothing for their
kids. It has been observed that parents these days are more fashion-conscious than
environment conscious. Moreover, clothing management is given more importance
as compared to environmental concern and patriotic feelings. It can be inferred that
majorly parents in all age-groups are more “fashion conscious”; they look for ease in
handling kids’ clothing. Khadi has been conceived as an alternative modernity and
the desire for Khadi in kids wear demonstrates it. Khadi could neither be abandoned
nor overlooked.
REFERENCES
Journal:
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WOVEN MULTILAYER MULTILEVEL MODULAR TEXTILE ‘VERTABRAE’: AN OVERVIEW OF WOVEN NODAL’S TO VERTEBRAE DEVELOPMENTS
WOVEN MULTILAYER MULTILEVEL MODULAR

TEXTILE ‘VERTABRAE’: AN OVERVIEW OF WOVEN
NODAL’S TO VERTEBRAE DEVELOPMENTS
Dr. Lindsey Waterton Taylor1, Dr Xiaogang Chen2
1, 2
The University of Manchester, Engineering and Physical Sciences, School of Materials, Sackville
Street Building, Manchester M13 9PL
(Presenting and corresponding author E-mail: lindsey.taylor@manchester.ac.uk)
ABSTRACT
The conventional weaving principles allow for the interlocking of two directional
yarns, the warp (layer) and the weft (level). Adding further layers-levels concludes in a
multilayer multilevel woven which when compounded on loom within the fabric plane
produces a two-dimensional (2D) form. To enable the transition from 2D into a three-
dimensional (3D) woven structure the 2D woven once removed from the tensions of
the loom is pulled/formed into a 3D shape; further supported by the combination of
solid and hollow weave architectures. Incorporating the performance characteristics
from woven technical textiles within multilayer multilevel 3D forms enables the interior
to act as a structural support system, a concluding ‘vertebrae’ mechanism. An
integral outer tailored responsive shell to this woven ‘vertebrae’ combines technical
and aesthetic considerations in one. The 3D woven nodal structure (3DWNS) with
their configuration developed from the concept of the 2D planar truss framework
and associated generic production principles founded the development of the
woven multilayer multilevel modular textile ‘vertebrae’. This development stems from
the performance issues encountered when cutting away the majority of the integral
outer seam of the 3DWNS and to scope greater end applications requires the seams
to be both aesthetically and functionally part of the end form.
Keywords: Weaving; Multilayer Multilevel; Three-dimensional (3D); Nodal; Textiles.
INTRODUCTION
Truss configurations provide a reinforcing structure from the inherent geometrical
assembly of its strut members. The truss configuration, the truss framework, strut
dimension, number of struts and orientations of struts to one another are established
through the required integrity of the truss according to the end application (Packer
and Henderson, 1997). In a truss structure, strut members of either hollow or solid forms
are joined together to either form an integral node (Laforge, 2004) or fit into and/or
over a separate node via a chosen joining and/or bonding process . The current state
of the art for truss assemblies evidences a variety of innovative designs in joining struts
together (Osterberg, 2003 and Junjiro and Kiyoshi, 1990). The variability of the number
and angle orientations of adjoining struts are due to the adaptability of the node.
The 3DNWS’s are developed from the concept of the 2D planar truss frameworks and
3D weaving based on the principles of conventional weaving technology. Combining
solid (compound weave architecture) and hollow (inner woven pockets) weave
architectures allows the 3DWNS to be designed and produced. The 3DWNS comprises

551
of an assembly of hollow 2D planar truss configurations (inner woven pockets) (Taylor,

2007) within a given integral woven wall thickness (compound weave architecture).
This generates a 2D woven planar truss configuration (Taylor and Chen, 2015). The
solid compound woven outer nodal wall provides integrity, due to the combining of
all the levels-layers within the weaving cycle to the inner hollow pocket truss formation
of the 3DNWS. The nodal truss configuration is produced on loom within the 2D fabric
plane. Once completed and removed from the loom it is pulled/formed into shape
to form the 3DNWS. Due to the tailoring of weave architectures, inherent fibre/yarn
properties and integral strut-to-node the 3DNWS is an important type of 3D textile for
various end market applications requiring planar truss configurations.
The strut-to-strut intersection of a T-shaped 3DWNS (T-3DWNS) formulates a hollow node
point. There is a range of nodes requiring inner segmentations for varying weave
architectures to allow numerous 3DWNS configurations to be formed when pulled
into shape once removed from the loom. The 3DWNS’s placement within the present
2D and 3D classification system outlined by Taylor and Chen (2015) and previously
discussed by Chen et al. (2011) is established from conventional 2D-to-3D weaving
principles. Understanding the yarn intersections within t he X weft, Y warp and Z
through the thickness directions enables the weave architecture to be optimised for
the production of a T-3DWNS. The locating of warp and weft interlockings are co-
ordinated and represented within a 2D graphical nodal template, and this comprises
all the levels-layers of the 3DWNS’s compounded woven wall thickness.
To achieve the successful opening of the T-3DNWS’s struts produced on conventional
weaving technology, the trialling of design and production variables includes:
• the translation of 3D-to-2D nodal strut geometries;
• the utilisation of a cross-sectional weave process and a 2D graph template to
provide a co-ordinate system for multilevel multilayer weave architectures;
• formulating nodal boundary definitions and associated inner segmentations in
the fabric plane;
• varying child strut dimensions, number of child struts and child strut angle
orientations to varying main/parent strut dimensions and resulting node area.
The translation process of the 3D-to-2D-to-3D T-3DWNS and opposing parallel 3DWNS
and associated parameters for on loom development, design and production
will be outlined in this paper. This provides insight into their successful manual and
semi-automated production (Taylor, 2007). Limitations to the 3DWNS are the integral
outer nodal wall. To utilise the outer nodal wall provides opportunity for derivative
3D nodal shapes that combine aesthetics and function. This opens opportunities for
a new combined solid hollow 2D-to-3D shape to be generated from the series of
generic 3DNWS’s and associated production processes for 3D-to-2D-to-3D woven
forms. This leads to the development of the woven multilayer multilevel modular
textile ‘vertebrae’. Tailoring the weave architecture of the inner hollow strut and node
generates a supporting inner core. This is enhanced by material investigations in yarn
form to enable this structural inner core to support an outer textile ‘skin’. The outer
textile ‘skin’ requires differing materials in yarn form to enhance the forming of the
inner core, the ‘vertebrae’ whilst enabling subtle movement on the outer surface. The

552
explorative developments of the 3DWNS derivatives of the modular textile ‘vertebrae’

will be discussed.
Weaving technology
In the production of the 3DWNS and development of the generic production process
the utilisation of two different jacquard weaving technologies were employed. This
allowed variation in production principles to be taken into account (Taylor and Chen,
2016). The justification to the development of the 3DWNS on two varying jacquard
weaving technologies, differing weft insertion mechanisms was to enable the generic
production process to be based upon the production of a nodal with both shuttle
and shuttles weft yarn interlockings within a strut. It was also a requirement to ensure
that the 3DWNS could be formed from one type of fibre/yarn (or combination of yarns
with the same inherent extensibility) to ensure the potential for technical textiles /
composite components could be established. Therefore, no combinations of differing
fibre/yarn types were permitted in the work (Zheng, 2012).
3DWNS fabric formation: 3D-to-2D-to-3D
The range of information, before the flattening stages commences, includes all known
dimensions, such as: the number of struts; angle orientation of struts; strut diameter and
length; wall thickness; density of fabric; the proximity of the individual woven hollow
struts to one another. The flattened 2D nodal configuration is established from an
approximation of the 3D nodal structures geometry. The relationship of the 3D struts
to each other is altered when flattened in a theoretical state, due to the impossibility
of flattening a curved surface without deformation. Within the flattening stages the
struts take on an oblong form adhering closely to the 3D structure within the resulting
flattened 2D dimensional configuration. This is known as the 3D-to-2D approximation.
Segmentations are applied when the outline of the flattened 2D nodal structures
configuration and placement within the fabric plane and wall thickness are known.
The finalised nodal and inner and outer segmentations are then transferred into a
graph format, either on paper or within a CAD programme; allowing the process to
be treated as a 2D graphical nodal configuration. The combination of segments and
insertion of inner weave architectures generates a fully integrated nodal component
and large scale weave plan for production.
The node point geometry and inner and outer segmentation is dictated by the
number, dimension, and orientation of the struts. It is the node point that establishes the
transition zones within the defining boundaries of the segmented areas with regards
to the combination of one weave architecture to another. Therefore, the positioning of
boundary lines to enclose each segment provides a range of areas that work on the
relationship of its neighbouring defined space. Changing the orientation or geometry
of each boundary will impact on the whole fabric area by altering the direction of
yarn movement within the numerous fabric levels-layers via the application of weave
architecture and when the nodal structure is pulled into shape (once removed from
the loom).
The node point is the crux of the 2D nodal format in achieving a successful 3D nodal
structure. The variables to achieve this key area within the 2D-to-3D transformation are
extensibility, and drapeability, derived from the correct percentage of crimp, defined

553
as the crossover of warp and weft. In order for the yarn extensibility to take place the
inner node segmentations defining boundaries are enclosed by two upper and lower
curved boundary lines, and further inner node segmentations are then required.
The defined boundaries within the 2D schematic also provide opportunity for the
modification of weaves within the transition zone (as one boundary stops and
another starts). The insertion of weaves into designated boundary zones allows the
tailoring of yarn locations that will accommodate the external forces applied within
the 3DWNS’s opening stages. When strategically placing the correct warp and weft
yarn interlocking in the 2D format the 3D woven nodal transformation can take place.
This allows all adjoining struts to open and maintain their 3D circumference at the
node point and along their length without any distortion within the interlocking of
yarns. The success of the 3DWNS in the joining of two hollow tubular struts to one
another without deformation at the node area is achieved by understanding the
range of relationships: fibre type; fabric geometry; weave architecture; wall thickness;
manufacturing route. Within the process of the 3D-to-2D nodal format in the graphical
template, the multiplication of pixels is generated from the total number of warp and
weft levels-layers from the dimensions of the 3D nodal forms total width, length and
depth. The required wall thickness is the interlocking of the warp levels. For example
whereby, one warp level equates to a single wall thickness and two integrated warp
levels results in a double wall thickness. The individual strut may consist of a balanced
number of integrated levels within the top and bottom wall, or by decreasing, or
increasing the top wall thickness to that of the bottom for an unbalanced construction.
The disadvantage of the approximation process within the flattening stages of the
3DWNS is the end woven product may be slightly out of the engineered calculated
range. This is due to a variety of uncontrollable variables, which includes the desired
Tex count and resulting pick and end density (fabric sett), the weave cycle influences,
and relaxation of the fabric once removed from the loom. The geometrical structuring
and relationship between the defined boundaries is vital in allowing all the struts
positioned at a node point to open fully without distorting the surrounding areas. The
original 3D specification, 2D approximation, wall thickness and nodal boundaries and
segmentation outline the parameters that form the generic production principles for
the weaving and production of a 3DWNS.
Nodal configurations
There are a range of generic nodal configurations including: T-shaped; K-shaped;
Combined T and K-shaped; Opposing parallel T-shaped. With each classification the
re-designing of the struts orientations to the node point line establishes the inner node
boundary, and the relationship of numerous hollow tubular pockets to one another
within a surrounding outer solid panel. The established nodes generally maintain their
individual definition when incorporated into further complex strut-to-strut intersections.
This is due to the elementary nodal’s, the T, K and combined T and K defining the
basis of the strut dimension, orientation, and proximity for future nodal derivatives. The
nodes are categorised within four elementary configurations, which are a node area
for the following: a single strut; multiple parallel struts; opposing parallel struts; offset-
opposing struts.
Multilevel multilayer weave architectures: nodal to textile ‘vertebrae’

554
Deriving from the principles of technical and compound weave structures, the
multilevel multilayer weave architectures entails the through the thickness yarn to act
as a stitching yarn, interlocking all or part of the structure together. The methodology of
pile fabrics (Watson, 1947, Neville, 1987 and Posselt, 1917) and adapting these allows
for an optimised through the thickness yarn direction (Harper, 1994, Boettger 2000,
Soden 2000). The use of an existing stitching yarn allows consideration to imparting
the crimp within the weft direction, typically from the tailoring of this as an extended
through thickness yarn (Chen et al., 1992). The weave architecture and method of
integrating the fabric levels-layers together establishes the level of crimp, and in-plane
properties (Tung et al., 1991 and Bannister et al., 1998). In essence, using the weft as a
through thickness stitching yarn within each level-layer can minimise the crimp in this
direction. Employing a non-uniform approach to stitching locations, and designing
the yarns to have minimum cross-over points will allow the extension of the yarns when
under pressure (Kuo et al, 2003). Therefore, multilevel multilayer weave architectures
entail a combination of any yarn directional placement and interlocking of all, or part
of the warp and weft levels-layers. This allows for a combination of flexible, elongated
yarns with also stiffness characteristics when required in designated areas facilitating
engineering requirements associated to technical textiles (Horrocks and Anand,
2000 and Taylor and Chen, 2015). When utilising the multilevel multilayer technique,
yarns can be applied to specified areas to aid the required end woven shape. Also,
extra weft yarns and an increase of density via weft cramming are applied to certain
areas, but this must not affect the surrounding area in terms of wrinkling, or poor fibre
distribution. The interlocking yarns must not be affected by each other in order to
prevent distortion (Sondhelm, 1941). Providing enough space around the warp and
weft yarns is essential within each level-layer, to establish the 2D-to-3D transformation.
Typically within the manufacture of textile preforms aesthetics is not the priority but the
overall performance. With the 3DWNS’s explorative derivates the multilevel multilayer
textile ‘vertebrae’ aesthetics and performance are integral to one another.
The cross-sectional weave aids the manual tailoring of warp and weft yarn locations
for the production of 3D woven’s. The weave architecture is generated in slices,
whereby, the number of warp and/or weft yarns within a column is classified as a
linear end and linear pick. This linear warp-weft column is translated from the cross-
sectional slice. The cross-sectional weave provides a manual weave generation
process for the visualisation and tailoring of the yarn locations (Taylor, 2007). Once
one weave slice, needed to complete the weave unit cell is created the next slice
can be generated when applying the desired step sequence to ensure the warp/
weft interlock correctly; the step sequence to achieve both the second and third
linear warp end is typically one. This aids the textile designer’s awareness of each
linear end and linear picks relationship to one another. The completion of all the
segmentations into a whole 3DWNS or textile ‘vertebrae’ through the combination
and visual capabilities of varying numbers of warp and weft levels-layers allows large
scale non-repetitive weave generations to be created with ease. It is imperative to
understand the individual yarn locations within a 2D/3D weave visualisation via a
warp or weft cross-sectional view. The cross-sectional process generates a co-ordinate
system to form the weave generation within the 2D graph template, ensuring all yarns
are accounted for within the length, width and depth of the intended 3DWNS and/

555
or textile ‘vertebrae’. The associated 2D large scale weave generation within the
graph template is the combination of the entire required number of segments cross-
sectional weave architectures translated into linear warp/weft lifting plans – Building
the 2D nodal/’vertebrae’ graphical schematic via a whole completed lifting plan.
Transition Zones
The boundary definition of the three key areas nodal, woven seam and outer solid
wall within its simplest form has two transition zones: woven seam to outer nodal wall;
woven seam to inner nodal wall. Modification of the weave architectures are needed
to obtain a clean separation at the inner and outer transition zones. The 2D-to-3D
opening can successfully occur whilst remaining intact within the outer solid wall.
This is due to the minimisation of floats that stem from one weave architecture into
another within the transition zones (Taylor, et al 2016).
Strut dimensions
Due to the flexibility within the weaving process it is feasible to generate a range of
strut-to-strut intersections and configurations within the 2D fabric plane and alter the
nodal’s parameters. The nodal parameters include: strut-to-strut proximity; strut length;
strut wall thickness; number of adjoining struts; strut angle orientation to the node; strut
diameter (the same or variable within the 3DWNS). Maintaining the circumferential
dimension, both continuously down the strut length and at the point of strut-to-strut
intersection at and along the node point line can be achieved. The variables that
impact upon each struts opening, 2D-to-3D is the nodal fabrics sett, the number of
linear warp and weft yarns per cm, per level; with the sett being restricted only by the
jacquards harness configuration.
T-3DWNS
The preliminary investigations in the production of a T-3DWNS identified commonalities
within the variety of nodes required for future elementary and derivative nodal
configurations (Taylor, et al 2016). The trialling of the T-3DWNS ascertained the
required growth formation through the employment of the segmentation process
and its associated weave architectures. The initial developments of the inner node
segmentation were driven by the most common strut-to-strut intersection, the T-3DWNS.
Limiting the inner segmentation produced a node that hindered the opening of the
adjoining child struts circumference at the node point line. This concluded in only
one of the struts achieving its full 3D circumference due to the minimum number
of weave combinations concluding in a non-formable 2D-to-3D fabric. Maintaining
the individual 3D geometry and circumferential dimension of the strut(s) particularly
along the node point line required both inner node segmentation and outer node
segmentation.
Opposing parallel 3DWNS
Within the opposing parallel strut configuration the adjoining child strut continues
through in the opposite direction on the other side of the main/parent strut. This style
of nodal configuration creates two opposing node point lines. These result in the
requirement of four inner nodes in both the vertical and horizontal directions. If the
inner node segmentation of a T-3DNWS was utilised in the opposing parallel 3DWNS
then it would create conflicting boundaries of inner node segmentations. Theoretically,

556
the inner node of the T-3DWNS would create an overlap of inner node segmentations
if used in the opposing parallel 3DWNS (Taylor and Chen, 2015) resulting in a limited
growth within the node area. A series of oblong shaped boundaries were employed,
extending from one struts inner node area to another. This enabled each strut to form
into the desired circular cross-section and in association to the 3DNWS’s original 3D
geometries at the node point.
Nodal to textile ‘vertebrae’ explorative developments
Through the development of the T and opposing parallel 3DWNS’s the elimination
of woven seams would permit a greater range of end applications and will be part
of continuing research within the field of 3D woven hollow and solid textile preforms.
However, the outer nodal solid panel permitted the exploration of this area as an
aesthetic textile outer skin enabling an inner supportive core, such as the nodal
configurations to open into their desired 3D configuration whilst being concealed
– This transpired into the multilayer multilevel textile modular ‘vertebrae’. This would
also permit the angle orientation of a child strut to a main strut other than 90o to the
warp direction for technical applications; due to the length of warp/weft yarn in the
angled adjoining child strut continuing integrally from the inner to outer nodal wall.
With the employment of one yarn type per 3DWNS, in this instance either cotton, glass
and/or carbon, the aesthetics can be introduced within the outer skin to retain the
desired performance of the inner nodal form. This is achieved from a combination
of appropriate multilevel multilayer weave architectures and also the combination
of yarns with varying extensibility. The exploration of textile ‘vertebrae developments
require dissimilar fibre/yarns and consideration to their inherent characteristics.
Combining varying yarns to work harmoniously together so when the textile ‘vertebrae’
are formed into shape, 2D-to-3D once removed from the loom the yarns permit a soft
and hard woven 3D form. The evolving tactile outer skin enhances the opening of
the node whilst also generating a stiffened supporting inner textile core. The textile
‘vertebrae can be considered for architectural-interior (Mcconnell, 2014) to fashion
applications.
Conclusion
The established generic process for the design and translation of 3D-to-2D-to-3D and
resulting production of the T-3DWNS and opposing parallel configuration has been
presented. The classification of the struts, node and other inner nodal segmentations
together with the cross-sectional weave process (Taylor, 2007, and Taylor and
Chen, 2015) allows the ‘building’ of a 2D structure within a 2D graph template. The
disadvantage of the approximation process within the flattening stages, 3D-to-2D is
the end woven product may be slightly out of the engineered calculated range.
This occurs not only in the manufacture of the 3DWNS and textile ‘vertebrae’ but in
the production of other 3D textile preforms. This is due to a variety of uncontrollable
variables within the weaving process and principles of, such as: yarn type; fabric sett
(ends per cm, per level); characteristics of the weaving technology; relaxation of the
fabric once removed from the loom. The required weave architecture combinations,
ensuring a successful transition of 3D-to-2D-to-3D formation once removed from the
loom are also the current inhibitors to some technical end applications – This will be
overcome via the future works and data collection of multilayer multilevel weave

557
architectures for 2D-3D woven’s and their subsequent tailoring to achieve both
technical performance and aesthetic considerations to truss forming configurations
off loom, in particular the modular textile ‘vertebrae’.
Acknowledgement
The work of the 3DNWS was supported by the Engineering and Physical Sciences
Research Council through an EPSRC CASE (02303669) project.
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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GARMENT

TECHNOLOGY AND BRAND LOYALTY
Maxwell Arnold1, Zhimin Chen2
1 and 2
Manchester Metropolitan University, Hollings Faculty, Cavendish Street, Manchester, UK, M156BG
(Presenting author E-mail: maxwell@maxwell.me and T.Chen@mmu.ac.uk)
(Corresponding author email: maxwell@maxwell.me)
ABSTRACT
The main aim of this research is to highlight the correlation between an apparel brand’s
use of wearer-relevant garment technology, and a consumer’s loyalty to that brand,
as a result of their confidence in and satisfaction with these technologies. The initial
phase of the study concluded that brands can no longer differentiate themselves
solely on the basis of style, in the light of how rapidly knock-offs can reach the market.
Garments with unique technologies, such as sweat-wicking fabric, aside from being
more difficult to duplicate, were found to be purchased on a basis of quality, as
opposed to price - with over 54% of survey respondents indicating they had paid
more for a garment specifically because of a technology they desired. This same
notion was shown to be responsible for repeat purchases of products from the same
brand, with over 87% of respondents stating that they had made such purchases as
a result of their confidence in that brand’s product. An analysis of secondary data
on Tommy Hilfiger’s customer base demonstrated that their most loyal customers are
responsible for 2.59 times more sales revenue than first-time customers, suggesting
that there is great financial incentive to cultivate brand loyalty, through such methods
as incorporating garment technologies.
Keywords: Garment Technology, Consumer Loyalty, Profitability, Technical Fabrics,
Wearer Experience, Product Development
INTRODUCTION
In today’s fashion world, visual elements of designs can be “knocked-off” (i.e. duplicated
by competitors) in a matter of days after being exposed to the general public, even
on the runway. Visual designs are typically relatively easy to duplicate from as little
as a sketch – and an analysis of copyright law shows that fashion designs are not
afforded sufficient protection to prevent knock-offs. Functional details, such as those
conferred by technical fabrics cannot be duplicated in the same manner, nor with
the same ease – and in fact, are often a very distinctive feature of a garment’s appeal
to the wearer. The improvement that such details have on the wearing experience
resonates well with consumers, as primary research in this report demonstrates – which
is conducive to creating brand loyalty, as a 2010 study of Tommy Hilfiger’s strategy has
shown.
The main aim of this research is to articulate the relationship between garment
technologies, how they benefit the wearer, and how this creates consumer loyalty to
a specific brand. The objectives of this research are:
• To identify what factors keep, lose, or have no effect on, brand loyalty;

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• To analyse the attributes that customers truly seek when making a purchase decision;
and,
• To evaluate whether these attributes, if attractive, will create profitable brand loyalty.
LITERATURE REVIEW
GARMENT TECHNOLOGY AND FASHION PRODUCT LIFECYCLE/LEADTIME
Advancements in manufacturing technologies and innovations in supply chain
planning have allowed new designs to reach the market much more rapidly than
previously. Traditional timeframes had once prescribed a lead time of anywhere
from six to nine months for garment design, development, production, and delivery
(Rigoglioso, 2011). Since then, the turnaround time from concept to finished product
has decreased considerably, especially in the case of vertically-integrated fast-
fashion retailers such as Zara, whose production times can be as little as three to four
weeks (Chu, 2014), allowing designs to reach the mass market much more swiftly.
In a study of designer knockoffs, Tu (2010:422) states that ‘Where it once took several
years for fashion to descend the price line to low-priced production, this progression
is now nearly immediate’. With this in mind, clothing producers must assume that any
design can become available to the public in a short period of time, as lead times
are no longer a barrier to a style’s availability – and in fashion, neither are copyrights.
FASHION BRAND PROTECTION
In most other industries, copyright law would protect the unauthorized usage of one’s
proprietary material. For instance, American energy drink manufacturer Monster was
found in 2014 to have illegally used multiple songs by the rock music group Beastie
Boys in commercials that they had produced in 2012, without seeking the group’s
permission to do so. The matter was litigated, and in 2014, the Beastie Boys were
awarded US$1.7 million (approximately GB£1.12 million) in damages, as the court had
found that Monster had, in fact, used the songs without the necessary permissions to
do so (Raymond, 2014). This is symbolic of the general enforceability of intellectual
property rights that are available to protect unique creations - and may serve to act
as a deterrent to parties who consider infringing the intellectual property rights of
others, where copyright law is applicable.
Fashion designs, however, almost never receive the same protection. Courts have
repeatedly held that clothing designs are almost impossible to protect, as decisions
have been reached in the light of a legal doctrine that prevents useful articles from
being copyrighted (Devore, 2013). Taking into consideration the demonstrated
vulnerability of aesthetic designs to copycat reproduction, such design elements
alone can no longer be relied upon to provide a brand’s competitive edge – since
another brand can legally release the same design a matter of weeks, or even days
later. Therefore, it could be argued that simply creating garments that “look nice” is
not a sufficient business strategy in itself in today’s fashion world. This calls for other
types of distinguishing factors to be used in a garment that a brand can exclusively
offer as a unique attribute of its product, distinctive to that brand, in such a way that
customer loyalty can be developed.
CONSUMER PREFERENCE AND CLOTHING COMFORT/FUNCTIONS

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Changing fashion ideals seem to have driven consumer preference towards being
based upon comfort, as opposed to style alone. In 2010, a physiological analysis of
the comfort of sportswear cites that comfort is, in fact, a major sales aspect, aside from
being a medical necessity for some individuals. The study mentioned the following
quote from World Sports Activewear Journal, describing the connection between the
comfort of sportswear and the preference of consumers (World Sports Activewear in
Shishoo, 2005:177):
“Comfort is the most important thing in clothing... and it is coming from sportswear
where consumers have become accustomed to the comfort”.
This notion could, in fact be responsible for an increase in the popularity of athletic
wear being used for everyday purposes. According to a 1993 Mintel study, a significant
percentage of consumers in the GB£1.2 billion active sportswear market purchase
such goods for casual wear. Referring to the data in Table 1, the study concluded that
over 50% of UK adults wear active sportswear as casual attire in at least some way –
and this trend was even more prominent in 15-24 year olds, with some 74% having this
preference (Mintel in Hewitt-Jones, 1993).
This preference might be more than just a trend, however. Yoga apparel items,
especially yoga pants, have proven to be extremely popular throughout the 2010’s in
womenswear. In 2013, yoga wear sales were up by 45%, whereas yoga participation
had increased by only 4.5% (Germano, 2014). This is indicative of a tendency for
consumers to gravitate towards “garments with a purpose” - and in the case of yoga
apparel, that purpose is comfort. It would seem that this is becoming acceptable in
the realm of style - as Greenberg was quoted in the Daily Mail saying that “it is almost
cooler to be comfortable and athletic and feel like yourself than to be overly glam”
(Daily Mail, 2013).
The comfort of clothing, especially in the case of athletic wear, can be attributed to
technology that allows the garment to behave in a certain way. For example, the
Nike Airmax shoes have a number of technologies that can justify the price of US$220
(approximately GB£150). There is cushioning built into the inner sole of the shoe for

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added comfort – in addition to a unique mesh upper that makes the shoe remarkably
lightweight (Nike, 2014). Nike’s proprietary Flywire Technology is also built into the shoe,
providing targeted support with a mechanism that is similar to a suspension bridge.
This type of preference for purposeful garments is becoming more evident, and it is
supported by the development of technical textiles engineered specifically for the
purpose of enhanced comfort and performance.
A long-standing example is GORE-TEX® lining, used to make garments waterproof by
using a sophisticated series of layers of technical fabrics that enable GORE-TEX® to
protect its wearer under foul weather conditions. Apparel with GORE-TEX® lining is not
always, nor necessarily designed to be aesthetically appealing, but such garments
serve their purpose well - and accordingly, appeal to a range of customers who are
willing to pay for that particular functionality. The sustained success of such products
could be taken to indicate the emergence of a niche market where consumers care
about more than just looking good - other factors are at play that affect their purchase
decisions – and ultimately, what brands they become loyal to.
In a study of the outerwear brand Ex Officio, Garner and Keiser (2008) identified that
the core customers for Ex Officio’s womenswear (married women at a median age of
39 who travel three or more times per year) tend to pack light, and place emphasis on
easy care, versatility, and comfort when it comes to buying travel clothing. Given their
typical travel activities, consisting of active pursuits, urban exploration, and exposure
to potentially wet or cold situations – such garments must be engineered to help
the wearer withstand these conditions, while keeping in mind the core customer’s
preference to pack light - which demands versatility, which goes beyond just value
for money.
In cases such as these, while a perfectly functional outdoor jacket can be purchased
at a fast-fashion retailer for about GB£15, it will not have any particularly exceptional
properties to it. By contrast, the Storm Logic jacket from Ex Officio’s 2014 womenswear
collection costs US$160.00 (approximately GB£106.00). While this may seem expensive,
the Storm Logic jacket has many advantages over the average puffer coat. In the
materials, the outer fabric is treated with a DWR (Durable Water Repellent) - and the
lining is made of PrimaLoft yarns; said to have similar insulation ability to down, while
still retaining 96% of its insulating capacity when wet (Donovan, 1985). This jacket is
also made as such so that it can also be rolled up to become a neck pillow – which is
not only a useful item while travelling, it is also a unique way to store a jacket while not
wearing it. These features distinguish Ex Officio’s product from that of its competitors by
adding technical features that specifically address the needs of the core customer.
GARMENT TECHNOLOGY AND BRAND LOYALTY
An Ernst and Young report from 2010 analysed Tommy Hilfiger’s customer segmentation
strategy and its relationship with product development. The aim of the exercise was
to invest in product development to create more relevant clothing and accessories
for Tommy Hilfiger customers, and to observe what effect this had on sales. Figure 1
shows that the most loyal customers represented 259% more sales revenue, when
compared to first-time buyers as they remained purchasers of the brand (Blicharz,
et al., 2010). This shows the significance of customer loyalty from a financial point of
view – and the study as a whole supports the notion that after Tommy Hilfiger sought

563
to develop more relevant products, it improved customer loyalty as greater value was
ultimately delivered to them.
Figure 1 Customer Loyalty and Sales Revenue of Tommy Hilfiger (Blicharz, et al., 2010)
The data demonstrates that there is a relationship between customer-oriented
product development and increased revenues from customer loyalty. The primary
data to be shown in the results and discussion will further prove this point, by displaying
consumers’ survey responses about their own experiences with garment technology.
METHOD
In order to achieve the main aim and objectives of this research, both secondary and
primary research methods have been used. Secondary research was conducted to
discover what factors may truly be prompting a consumer’s decision to purchase a
given garment in relating the garment technology, how technology can improve the
clothing product lifecycle/lead-time, and how consumer preferences such as comfort
or outdoor durability can be satisfied by new clothing product development. Further
secondary data was sought to determine what sort of features tend to attract customers,
specifically relate to customer loyalty, and the corresponding revenues. This was then
followed-up with primary research conducted by a quantitative questionnaire survey
in spring 2015, querying respondents as to their general experiences in purchasing
and wearing clothing, as well as specific thoughts that pertain to their attitudes
towards garments with distinctive technological features, and how it affects what they
purchase. The survey sample consisted of 100 participants, whose responses were
collected electronically by SurveyMonkey. Of those who provided demographic
data, 43 indicated male, and 42 indicated female. The average age reported was
23.8 years. The two sets of research were then compared against one another, to
ensure accuracy and draw conclusions for this study. Two semi-structured interviews
were conducted in winter 2015 to obtain the qualitative information, which related to
the garment technology and brand loyalty; one interview was with Taravat Rahmati
(a product development specialist in a Canadian Fashion Company), and one
interview with a Senior Garment Technologist in a UK Fashion Company.
RESULTS

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The results of this study are summarised below under the individual headings of
question types, relating the findings of the primary research to the data retrieved from
the literature.
IMPORTANCE OF COMFORT
The results of the questionnaire survey convincingly indicate the importance of garment
technology when it comes to earning the loyalty of customers. An overwhelming
94% of respondents in the survey agreed that discomfort of some sort will generally
deter them from making a clothing purchase. The interviewed Canadian Fashion
Practitioner stressed that one of the best selling denim brands uses contouring seam
technology to favourably shape the wearer’s body in a way that eliminates the need
to try on many pairs of jeans in different sizes and cuts in hopes that the “perfect
shape” will eventually be found – as the contouring seams create this “perfect shape”.
Although the actual sales figures cannot be revealed, these are consistently among
the best-selling jeans in womenswear for the company.
The UK Senior Garment Technologist also pointed out that “giant fashion brands,
such as the sportswear firms Nike and Adidas, always carefully select materials for
their products and use advanced technology to enhance their product quality and
standards to satisfy customer requirements for clothing comfort and function”. As
stated earlier, comfort can be attained through the use of garment technologies
and whilst these findings do not directly establish a correlation, they do point to an
apparent consumer preference for garments that incorporate technology in some
way.
A NATURAL INDIFFERENCE TO BRANDS
Another overwhelming majority of those surveyed (at 87%) agreed with the statement
“independent of cost and distinct visual brand icons, as long as it looks good and
feels good, to me, one brand of clothing is not really different from another.” The
interviewed Canadian Fashion practitioner claimed that fast-fashion goods in their
rudimentary and cost-oriented form only serve a purpose of feeding the trends; which
does not in any way create brand loyalty. She also stressed that the lower quality fast-
fashion garments not only lack the ability to retain customers in the long term – but
are actually capable of repelling customers once the absence of value is realized
as the effects of wear become noticeable. When shopping purely for trends, there is
very little if any brand loyalty. The UK Senior Garment Technologist stated that some
of the fast fashion companies pay more attention to following fashion trends than
on product quality, causing customer dissatisfaction and damage to any customers’
loyalty to that brand. As loyalty is not an apparent priority for fast fashion retailers, this
suggests indifference as to the brand of clothing one purchased in the absence of
any unique elements that will incline a customer towards a particular brand – which
is the opposite of brand loyalty.
AN INCLINATION TOWARDS TECHNOLOGY
The Canadian Fashion Practitioner stated that “based on professional experience at
Canadian fashion brand Mia Melon, it was their use of a unique layering technique
in their outerwear line that was largely responsible for the company’s success by
balancing fashion and function as a unique use of garment technology that one

565
could not find from other brands”. She suggested that “brands should make a vigilant
effort to educate their prospective customers on any benefits that their garment
technologies have to offer, as these are often undetected by, or unknown to, the
average consumer”.
The UK Senior Garment Technologist confirmed that “advanced garment technology
such as GORE-TEX® should give customers confidence and result in them being
willing to pay extra for its products”.
According to the questionnaire survey, the presence of a technical feature changed
the brand-indifferent mindset; over 54% of respondents indicated they had at some
point purchased a garment specifically because of a technical feature. The most
commonly mentioned features were SPANX® and GORE-TEX®.
The most important result to this research, however, was the response to the question:
“Have you ever made a repeat clothing purchase from a specific brand as a result
of your confidence in their ability to produce product that caters specifically to your
needs and desires?” An impressive 87.1% indicated that they had made a repeat
purchase specifically on this basis – a behaviour that is very much the basis of brand
loyalty, the very kind that Ernst and Young had profiled in their analysis of Tommy
Hilfiger.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on both primary and secondary data sources, the brand of clothing is not
typically so important to a consumer, without distinguishing technical features. As
brand loyalty has been proven to be immensely profitable, causing consumers to
prefer one brand over another is a business goal for fashion labels. The primary
research reported here has shown that other factors such as comfort are of extreme
importance – and the study of Ex Officio’s customer base shows that there is a case
to be made for the technology-assisted versatility of garments, especially in niche
markets. Garment technologies that appeal to such preferences are shown to be
successful both in commanding a higher price point, and securing loyalty to that
brand. The positive link between enhanced garment technology and brand loyalty is
a strong one – and therefore should not be overlooked in product development and
business management.
REFERENCES
Blicharz, K., Gelsumino, A., van der Beek, B. (2010). How Tommy Hilfiger capitalizes on its most profitable
customers. Netherlands: Ernst and Young [Online] [Accessed on 15th January 2015]
http://performance.ey.com/2010/11/12/how-tommy-hilfigercapitalizes-on-its-most-profitable-
customers/ [Chart used in Figure 1]
Chu, K. (2014). Why Zara is a ‘Fast Fashion’ Pioneer. 24th June. The Wall Street Journal [Online]
[Accessed on 10th January 2015]
http://blogs.wsj.com/corporateintelligence/2014/06/24/why-zara-is-a-fast-fashion-pioneer/
Daily Mail. (2013). ‘Are yoga pants the new jeans? How trend-led workout clothes are making fashion
statements outside the gym.’ Daily Mail [Online] 25th November. [Accessed on 14th January 2015]
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article- 2513436/Are-yoga-pants-new-jeans-How-trend-led-
workout-clothes-making-fashionstatements-outside-gym.html
Devore, A. (2013). ‘Battle between the Courthouse and the Fashion House: Creating a Tailored Solution
for Copyright Protection of Artistic Fashion Designs.’ Thomas Jefferson Law Review, 35:2 pp.193-228.
Donovan, J. (1985). Synthetic Down (United States Patent US4588635A). Norwell, MA:

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United States Patent and Trademark Office.

Ex Officio (2014). Women’s Storm Logic Jacket [Online] [Accessed on 10th January 2015] http://www.
exofficio.com/products/details/womens-storm-logic-jacket-f14
Garner, M. and Keiser, S. (2008). Beyond Design. 2nd ed., New York: Fairchild Publications
Germano, S. (2014). ‘Yoga Pants Without the Yoga.’ The Wall Street Journal. p19.
Hewitt-Jones, S. (1993). ‘The Rise and Rise of Active Sportswear.’ Fashion Weekly (1737) p6. [Mintel
Study in Table 1]
Nike (2014) Nike Air Max 2015 iD Running Shoe Nike [Online] [Accessed on 18th January 2015]
http://store.nike.com/us/en_us/product/airmax2015id/?piid=39158&pbid=139256011#?pb
id=139256011
Nike (No date) What is Nike Flywire? Nike [Online] [Accessed on 18th January 2015] http://help-en-us.
nike.com/app/answers/detail/a_id/56792/~/what-is-nike-flywire%3F
Raymond, N. (2014). Beastie Boys win $1.7 million in copyright case vs. Monster Beverage. 5th June.
Reuters. [Online] [Accessed on 10th January 2015] http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/06/05/usbe
astieboysmonsterbevidUSKBN0EF2BK20140605
Rigoglioso, M. (2011). Outsourcing May Hurt Fashion Manufacturers’ Bottom Line. 1st April. Stanford
Graduate School of Business. [Online] [Accessed January 21st, 2015] http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/
insights/outsourcing-may-hurt-fashion-manufacturersbottom-line
Shishoo, R. (2005). Textiles In Sport. Woodhead Publishing.
Tu, K. (2010). ‘Counterfeit Fashion: The Interplay between Copyright and Trademark Law in Original
Fashion Designs and Designer Knockoffs.’ Texas Intellectual Property Law Journal, 18(419) pp. 419-449.

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An auto ethnographic review of 48 pieces from the Emmeline 4 Re collections; Defining barriers and opportunities leading to successful upcycling
AN AUTO ETHNOGRAPHIC REVIEW OF

48 PIECES FROM THE EMMELINE 4 RE
COLLECTIONS; DEFINING BARRIERS AND
OPPORTUNITIES LEADING TO SUCCESSFUL
UPCYCLING
Emmeline Child
1
The University of Northampton, St Georges Avenue, Northampton, NN2 6JD. UK
(Emmeline.child@northampton.ac.uk)
ABSTRACT
Using 48 pieces from the Emmeline 4 Re (E4Re) upcycled collections from 2004-2009,
an auto ethnographic review was conducted at product level. Seeking to understand
and reflect on successes and pitfalls of the collections to draw insights into potential
models and methods for design, for upcycling in the future. Working through pieces
chronologically, observations were made based on material selection, design,
manufacture and ease of sortation.
Emmeline 4 Re was an upcycled fashion business spanning five years, 2004-2009. The
business began as a Knowledge Transfer Partnership (KTP) scheme in collaboration
with the Salvation Army Trading Company with a research aim ‘to develop and
implement new manufacturing and marketing processes for the sales of novel fashion
products from textile waste’. After the KTP the business then developed independently
while still sourcing materials from SATCOL, the biggest collectors of waste textiles in
the UK. The business had a concession in TOPSHOP’s flagship store in Oxford Circus,
through boutiques nationally and internationally, and had one dedicated retail store
in Princes Street W1. The paper reviews designs produced throughout this period and
offers observations and recommendations to practitioners wanting to use upcycling
as a sustainable design strategy.
Keywords: Up-cycling, Sustainability, Textiles, Fashion, Materials, Circular Economy
INTRODUCTION
By analysing 48 pieces from the E4Re collections by garment type, taking into
consideration the key elements involved with making each item, there exists the
potential to extract data that will highlight key considerations when working within the
circular economy. The garments have been analysed using a range of information
collected including the base material, amount of fabric required, and ease of sortation
of the base component. In addition the review looks at elements that encompass
the potential success at the point of sale - this includes the price point and design
aspects. By analysing the data from this it is possible to determine patterns; those
which lead to successes in both sales and production, enabling us to determine if
there are key methods to employ which could lead to greater success when working
with upcycled material in the future.

568

In preparing to review the collection, each item was brought to the table and observed
through sight, touch and memory of experience to collate the information. Other data
collected required the production and sales lists from 2004-2009. The figures collected
were inputted into a table to enable the use of methods of content analysis to extract
the patterns presented here.
RESULTS
When reviewing the original material type we can see that cotton and wool prove the
most popular choices of base material selected by E4Re, with a total of 69%1 of the
garments made from these materials. Of these, 81% went on to be ‘best sellers’- In the
top ten most sold items for the company overall. Highlighting that for this company
and the mid market, these materials are the most effective to use for upcycling. These
material types were intentionally used by the company - they were easily sorted and
selected due to the abundance of the material found at the recycling resource.
Emmeline 4 Re was also keen to upcycle materials that proved problematic in the
waste chain. For example, although wool is a natural material it emits methane from
landfill when decomposing (Themelis 2006). Cotton was often originally sourced from
curtain materials, which were abundant in quantity, bulky and had little re-sale value
relative to space required to store them. Thinking about the environmental principles
throughout the waste chain was also a key driver, and was the ethos that Emmeline
4 Re was founded on.
Looking further into this, we can see that 75% of the garments made from these
materials have an easy sortation process within the warehouse environment, as
materials were sorted by material type. When utilising waste material, accessibility
is key. Ensuring abundant base material at the sortation point will ensure a flow of
useable fabrics. This observation has been acknowledged by other designers working
in the circular economy, such as Goldsworthy and Politowicz (Earley & Goldsworthy
2015). The most effective strategy for upcycling is to work in collaboration or build
partnerships with charities, which process waste material, such as The Salvation Army
Trading Company (2015), Oxfam (2015), or privately owned sortation sights such
as Chris Carey Collections (2015). This will enable ease of collection, allowing the
designer to request particular materials or fabric types, which in turn will speed up
your own sortation process and reduce the amount of manual labour required in
house. Overall these materials contributed dramatically to the business income, and
highlight how selecting the right base materials are key to the development and
success of the brand.
As well as material types, there are also particular garments that were regularly used
by E4Re, again due the accessibility. As previously mentioned, curtains proved to
be the most popular material type, due to the material width and length, and the
selection of prints. Large fabric lengths proved easier to process, which then led to
working with other large material lengths such as sari fabrics. However, the saris are
a lighter material weight which didn’t always demand the high value price points
that were required to cover the processing costs. As a result, saris only accounted for
8% of designs made with this material. The second most sought after garments were
woollen jumpers and cardigans, which accounted for 24% of the garments selected.

569
These were in abundance, and were often not fit for re-sale due to damaged cuffs,
elbow and holes; however the body of the material was often sound. Wool would also
come in multiple colours and patterns and allowed for flexibility depending on the
seasonal trends and customer demands.
Despite the blanket coat selling well, access to quantities of material required was
an ongoing issue meaning re-run lead times increased, and therefore sales declined.
Had E4Re not relied on recycled material, this garment had the potential to become
a good seller. This coat capitalised on the large material lengths method, however
the base material was not donated on the same scale as, for example the woollen
jumpers, making it more difficult to source.
Design ability alone is not the key to success when working within the circular economy.
It is essential to research the fabrics and garment types that can be accessed easily,
ensuring ease in the production cycle. Some designs had both a difficult sortation
process and additionally required a labour intensive second sortation process. This
was needed as the designer was required to use their material and design knowledge
to make decisions based on commercial appeal. This is a skill that is difficult to train for
the initial sortation process, which is often completed on the sortation line by unskilled
workers. Although this doesn’t impact on the customer, it creates barriers that potentially
slows down the production process. When these garments take longer to produce
they cost more to process. When scaling up, minimizing the barriers means changing
the systems to support the designer; or changing the design itself to accommodate
the existing systems. The designers knowledge is key here, in understanding which
are the most effective barriers to make changes to. Failure to do this can reduce
the potential longevity of the business, as flow of the production will slow, causing a
reduction in sales and loss of essential cash flow for the business.
It is necessary to review the garments that were made, to see if there are any patterns
forming in the types of designs that were most popular. Of the garments reviewed, the
most frequently designed garments were skirts, followed by jackets and then dresses.
Of the best sellers, 20% were jackets, 16% were dresses and 25% were skirts, making
61% of best sellers from these items. If we also take into consideration that two of the
best sellers were gender neutral, this equates to 71% of the best sellers consisting
of these particular garment types when looking at the women’s clothing made. This
suggests that when upcycling, due to the lack of jersey materials used, it can be more
beneficial to create garments that traditionally work well with outer garments such as
quality skirts and dresses.
Another area that has been reviewed in this study is the time taken for the garments
to be manufactured. In observing if items that were quicker to make were then more
successful in terms of quantity of sales it was noted that the two top best sellers had
a quick turn around, with little resource blockages or barriers. This meant that the
company could respond quickly to peaks in sales. However, it is also noted that there
were popular styles that additionally took a long time to re-manufacture. The Jacket
was labour intensive in the manufacturing process, yet was one of the key sellers. This
would suggest that a streamlined production process does not lead to the success
of a design, and it is more likely that the desirability of the design and evidence
of a good range is needed in the collection in order to make an upcycled brand

570
successful. However being able to respond to sales, and repeat production runs, is
key to working in an upscaled environment, while considering items with minimal
sizing issues could also assist with these successes.
When developing designs for upcycling, the patterns need careful consideration
when in the augmentation process. Pattern cutting is an important aspect in the
design cycle as it can assist in minimising the fabric lengths that are needed. This is vital
when much of the base material is nominal in scale. Optimised pattern cutting can
help create garments with a finished look, despite sometimes using minimal lengths.
Greater numbers of pattern pieces means greater resourcefulness is required when
utlising pre-existing garments. Although there is no correlation between the quantity
of pattern pieces, and best sellers from the 48 garments selected, it is worth noting
that some of the garments such as the Bow Dress, would have been difficult to create
had it had minimal pattern pieces. This is due to the limitations in width and length
of the base materials, despite using relatively larger curtain lengths. Adopting these
methods of practice resulted in dresses becoming a good seller for the company.
However as a result of the base garment size restrictions, creating separates like skirts
and tops prove easier to assemble.
Trousers were very difficult to produce with a finished look due to the lengths of material
required, and was only trialled once throughout the period observed. The trousers did
not become a good seller for the company, however they could be tested further
as there is not enough data here to suggest successes either way. Other ways to
overcome these barriers could have been by mixing the type of materials within the
designed garment, although this required a labour intensive process of sifting through
sorted material types to locate complimentary prints and colours creating additional
supply chain issues for the company.
Despite the waste material having low purchase cost, the time intensive re-processing
and re-manufacturing of the garment to a new form is expensive. It’s the process,
not the material that creates cost implications. Using high value materials such as
leather, wool or silk adds greater perceived value to the product range from a user
perspective, allowing for greater competitiveness when aligning price points with the
rest of the UK fashion market. Of the best sellers, 100% of these were made from quality
materials. This includes, leather, silk, 100% wool, and thick cotton twills. Although cotton
is included in this list, it is essential to note that cotton used in these garments came
from twill curtain fabric, selected due to its weight, superior quality and print. This also
allows for more realistic price points in relation to the time taken to produce. The
consumer will associate certain materials with quality, so high quality luxury material
selection is key.
Summer collections were harder to design for, as material selection has to compete
with low-grade jerseys, which is an abundant material used on the high street, yet
difficult to upcycle in it’s current form due to the low durability. One of the responses
to this was to mimic the success that was experienced with the winter wools, by using
lighter knits to create cardigans and tank tops. These generated sales in the summer
period, however of the E4Re designs, only 12% of best sellers were sold in the summer,
both of which were utlising the secondary sales model. This showed how much the
business success was seasonal, and how essential it was to look at a different business

571
model throughout the summer periods, to compensate for this. It also suggests that
the consumer is generally happier engaging with upcycled garments that don’t sit
directly with the body, in the way that the high summer garments inevitably tend
towards. Creating collections that transcend seasons could be one way to resolve
these issues. Using different business models, depending on the season, could be one
way to resolve these barriers to success. Trying to conform with current fashion systems
in place do not necessarily work when designing with the circular economy in mind,
so new systems need to be developed. Another successful way in increase levels of
recycled material used would be by mixing virgin materials with up-cycled materials
in the summer period that would make for a more viable upscaled model.
Of the designs selected 75% of the best sellers were made from mono materials. This
was a strategy that was used for the business in order to create ease when labelling
for re-sale. Overall, 67% of designs were made utilising mono materials, proving that
mono materials did prove slightly more popular overall. This reduced the time in
processing and the time taken to select the appropriate materials for the individual
design, which accounts for much of the labour intensive, and expensive processing.
However, some of the key best sellers such as The Jacket used a mixture of easily
sourced materials at the recycling resource, while being desirable from an aesthetic
point of view. This proved especially prevalent when making garments retailing at a
higher price point, suggesting that combining different materials contributed to the
perceived value of the garment.
When reviewing the quantities of ‘base’ material required to create a particular
design, the data suggests little repetition, making it difficult to ascertain patterns.
Some popular items, like the Leather Jacket, required 3-4 leather coats and a fake
fur coat as the ‘base material’ to make one finished design, while other items such
as The Jacket only required two metres of a mono material which was much more
resource minimal. This is reflected in the price that the item was sold for, but didn’t
directly have an impact on the success of the designs - this was assigned to the design
itself, suggesting that despite utilising mono materials as a design strategy, it does not
exclusively dictate the success of an item especially when at a higher price point. THIS
IS CONFUSING TO READ
Investment pieces proved popular; these don’t have to be expensive but should be
items that will transcend fast fashion trends. The wool cuff jacket was successful as
there was an abundant supply of cable knit jumpers; whilst the cord in burgundy
and black had come from factory end of line rolls. End of rolls were ideal to use as
although small runs, the design could go through the traditional Cut, Make and Trim
(CMT) process where the cutting was completed at the manufacturers and laid up in
multiples rather than individually. This would greatly reduce the time taking to process,
and therefore reduce the garment cost. This enabled the business to produce repeats
easily, while the buyers of the boutiques were able to merchandise these jackets
effectively and bought into them due to their quality of material, make and uniformed
look.
In order to upscale, creating unity assists as buyers and retailers struggle to create
hanger appeal with un-uniformed garments. With e-tailing, it cuts down the
administration of uploading different styles. Creating unity through style or colour can

572
assist with streamlining the marketing and promotion of a product. Consumers would
often see an advertised garment and want that particular one. Due to the nature
of upcycling, that was often not possible, which meant it was hard to profit on Press
received. If this style was available but in a different colour or material, consumers
were more cautious about purchasing, as they had already made the decision
that they wanted the advertised garment. Out of the six jackets that made the top
table, four became best sellers. Overall that makes 66% of the jackets sold becoming
best sellers, reinforcing the point that investment pieces could prove popular when
upcycling. In addition, many of these were of a higher price point, proving a high
value can be added to considered design pieces.
The scarf was the best seller for E4Re - the appeal was not restricted by age, and
as a result it became a best seller in all the retail outlets. Additionally the scarf was
not restricted by sex or size and so became a good seller to men too. They were
made out of 100% wool only, due to the superiority in touch and feel, compared to
acrylic mix wools. This would also make it easier at the sortation process. Wool would
come in in vast quantities and held little value once they had holes in the elbows
or cuffs, as they would not be re-sold in the charity stores in this state. The Salvation
Army was phasing out sending the wool back to India to be respun and dyed due to
the minimal financial gain. Material at this point, if not resold, would be bagged up
and sent by container to Africa predominately, an area of the world, that also holds
little demand for the woollen product, due to the climate (Paulicelli and Clark 2009).
Therefore this style maximised on the waste, making it an extremely accessible fabric
stream to upcycle.
As accessibility is such a key driver, the scarf was developed further. Mitten and hat
sets were also made. These were sold as sets and individually, and crossed over into
the gift market. The patchwork design meant I was able to cut out any bad material
and wasn’t reliant on good quality lengths. Colour was also not an issue, as customers
would be adventurous with choices when selecting for accessories. Due to the lack of
size issues these items were often bought as gifts and sales in the run up to Christmas
were buoyant with this product range. Looking in more detail at this product, we can see
that is contains many of they key observations of success when dealing with recycled
products. It contained mono materials that were easy to source; it transcends gender
and lacked sizing issues; in addition it didn’t require a second sortation process and
was efficient to make. It will be essential to test out if other designs using this method
could also be as successful.
Inspired by the positive sales for this range a strategy of introducing other low cost
items was developed. The Tote Bag was designed as it was easy to make and utilized
off cuts from other good sellers such as the Box Pleat Skirt, as they only required ½
metre of fabric to produce, yet exploited the popularity of the vintage prints used in the
skirt design. The bags were quick to make, keeping the processing low and allowing
for high turn over with a lower price point. Additionally, the bag was not restricted to
season or gender. Designs that transcend trends and seasons are cheaper to make,
and allow a brand to build a core product range. These often utilized the cotton
curtain material, as the patterns and prints acted as a draw for customers who may
have not been confident to wear a pattern all over. Understanding your customer
and appeal of the print is essential. Working with the sortation sights on colour and
573
print appeal can be challenging as the designers tacit knowledge of trend, colour
and print appreciation is something that is hard to train. To respond to this, often a
second sortation process will have to take place, which is why using off-cuts from
other designs can work well.
E4Re utilised prints in a number of items. Although the design was simplistic in form, the
prints added appeal to create individuality and interest. Selection of the prints was
key, and would often require a second sortation process. Although this could be time
intensive, the process was sped up as soft furnishings, such as vintage curtains that
were often used in these designs, could be rolled up. These were then taken to the
manufacturers who would then layup in the traditional method. However, E4Re came
across downsides to using print. As the individual print is limited in quantity, often only
one garment could be made from each printed length. A decision was then required
as to what size the garment would be made in, this was measured based on the size
of the material, but otherwise a random decision. When the garment was at the point
of sale, you needed someone to be drawn to the print as well as it being the size
required. This greatly reduced the audience for each patterned garment. This also
caused barriers to sales, as customers often requested alternative sizes in particular
prints, but due to the nature of the material availability, this was not possible. This
resulted in only 31% of the best sellers relying on printed material. Of that, the tote
bag was one of the items that utilised the printed fabric, however it didn’t have the
restrictions of size. As a result, when upscaling the recommendation would be to
reduce or minimise the amount of print use, unless ‘runs’ were available from end of
rolls or sizing wasn’t a consideration within the design, in which case it could act as a
successful way to add originality to the design.
The best sellers overall were the scarfs and tote bags, both the cheapest items from
the reviewed items. Through direct customer feedback and from buoyant sales
around the Christmas period, implied these items were popular as gifts, and the quick
turn around that was possible made it easy to manufacture additional quantities if
required. This would suggest that simplistic silhouettes may be a better design strategy
when designing for upcycling. Despite there being a number of heavily contributing
factors, which can lead to the success of upcycled material, there is still a need to
carefully consider the design, fit and feel of the garment, suggesting that the design
element is in fact more of a contributing factor to the success of the product, over
and above the price point. The design element is difficult to measure but is a key
component to drive the successes for upcycling.
CONCLUSIONS
When upcycling, fabric type and selection of print is key, due to time intensive re-
processing and re-manufacture, care needs to be taken to select the best possible
base materials. By working closely and implementing systems into sortation sights you
can build up relationships and receive good quality materials. This is key in increasing
the quantities of materials selected, ensuring a consistent supply chain. Simplifying
the palette is another way to ensure a flow of usable materials, as it’s easier to train
sortation staff with easy keys words, such as 100% wool. This will ensure your base
material is accessible in quantities.
Luxury materials enable you to justify the higher price points required when

574
remanufacturing and re-processing, so design with this in mind. Customers are more
inclined to buy into investment pieces that can be worn over time and add perceived
value to these luxury materials despite having little value differentiation when buying
by weight second-hand. Consideration is needed with the summer seasons, as
lightweight fabrics are hard to demand the price points required to maintain a viable
business model. Think about creating bespoke systems for upcycling that allow for
the decrease in sales of summer upcycled materials. Utilising some virgin material in
these ranges would allow you to maintain buoyant sales.
Repeat designs can enable you to upscale production, and therefore easily sell
multiples into retailers. This will then make a more viable business model. Sizing will be
an issue when using printed materials if there is a very limited quantity of the particular
print. Only if there are abundant quantities of a particular print, then you will be able
to overcome the sizing barriers. Alternatively producing items without size constraints
will increase the potential for sales. When designing, be careful to think about the
patterns, as utilising smaller panels will be key to enabling you to use often very small
lengths and widths of base material. These methods were tested out in a prototype
(Child 2014) created for the Textile Toolbox Exhibition (Earley and Goldsworthy 2014).
Working with a range of easily sourced materials can add value to the upcycled
design. This is something that would be interesting to see whether other upcycling
companies use these methods, to reduce the amount of time making their designs.
Overall using these observations will help with the efficiency of upcycling, however
good design is also very central to the success of upscaling upcycling in the future.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks and acknowledgement is due to Professor Rebecca Earley and Dr Kate
Goldsworthy (University Arts London, UK), Dr Julie King (The University of Northampton)
and the Salvation Army Trading Company.
REFERENCES
Child, E. 2014 Redressing Activism, Textile Toolbox http://www.textiletoolbox.com/exhibits/detail/
redressing-activism/ (accessed August 12, 2015).
Chris Carey Collections, Sales, Chris Carey. http://www.chriscareyscollections.co.uk/sales (accessed
August 11, 2015).
Earley, R, and K, Goldsworthy. 2014. Exhibits, The Textile Toolbox http://www.textiletoolbox.com/
exhibits/ (accessed August 12, 2015).
Earley, R. and K, Goldsworthy. 2015. Designing for fast and Slow Circular Fashion Systems: Exploring
Strategies for Multiple and Extended Product Cycles. (Paper presented at the PLATE Conference,
Nottingham Trent University, 17-19 June).
Themelis. N, J. 2006. Methane Generation in Landfills. Renewable Energy. 32 (7) 1243-1250.
Oxfam, What happens to your donations, Oxfam, http://www.oxfam.org.uk/donate/donate-goods/
what-happens-to-your-donation/wastesaver (accessed August 11, 2015).
Paulicelli, E and H, Clark. 2009. Youth, gender, and secondhand clothing in Lusaka, Zambia. The
Fabric of Cultures: Fashion, Identity, and Globalization. (7) 112-127.
The Salvation Army Trading Company, Home, The Salvation Army http://www.wear2bank.co.uk/
(accessed August 11, 2015).
(Endnotes)
1 All percentages have been rounded up or down to the nearest whole.

575
IMPACT OF LIFESTYLE EXPERIENCES ON PURCHASE INTENTION OF FEMALE CONSUMERS TOWARDS BLOCK-PRINTED PRODUCTS
IMPACT OF LIFESTYLE EXPERIENCES ON

PURCHASE INTENTION OF FEMALE CONSUMERS
TOWARDS BLOCK-PRINTED PRODUCTS
Harleen Sahni
Assistant Professor, Department of Fashion Management Studies, National Institute of Fashion
Technology, Gandhinagar, India
(harleen.k.sahni@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT
Customer experiences are the sum of all experiences at various touch-points customers
have with a supplier of goods and/or services, over the duration of their relationship
with that supplier (Roebuck, 2012). Factors such as product features, service-scape,
store attributes, fashion trends, consumer moderators and the social environment act
as determinants of customer experience, and are instrumental in creating different
types of experiences that impact consumer buying behaviour. Lifestyle experiences
emerge due to consumer lifestyle.
The study analysed how lifestyle experiences of modern-day female consumers (age
group: 18-50 years ) affect their purchase intention for Indian hand-block printed
products, in terms of repurchase behaviour, trial & purchase of other products and
more frequent purchase. An empirical study using structured questionnaire was done.
Data was analysed in SPSS 22. The study found that lifestyle factors affect the purchase
intention of female consumers for hand-block printed products. Repurchase intention
for same or similar products was found to be moderate, while intention of trial and
purchase of other hand-block printed products was found to be comparatively
stronger under the impact of lifestyle factors. The study found that lifestyle factors
strongly impact more frequent purchase intention of hand-block printed products.
The study also identified the sub-categories of lifestyle factors that determine the
purchase intentions of female consumers.
Keywords: Customer experience, lifestyle, purchase intention, handicraft, hand-block
printing
INTRODUCTION
An overview of hand-block printing as an Indian craft
Hand-block printing is an ancient Indian hand-printing technique. The craft originated
in India centuries ago in the desert region of Rajasthan. It has also been found to
be practiced in parts of Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat as early as the 12th century.
The craft travelled to other parts of the India as artisans migrated for livelihood. At
present hand-block printing is practiced in Hyderabad and Machalipattnam regions
of Andhra Pradesh, Ahmedabad, Kutch, Porbandar and Rajkot regions of Gujarat,
Bagru, Chittroli, Sanganer, Jaipur and Jodhpur cities of Rajasthan, Bagh, Behrongarh,
Indore, Mandsar and Burhanpur areas of Madhya Pradesh, Benaras, Farrukabad,
Pilakhuan regions of Uttar Pradesh, and, Calcutta and Serampur regions of West
Bengal.
576
Block printing is a technique of stamping motifs on fabric with hand, using wooden
blocks with designs carved on them. Requiring patience, perfection and specialized
skill, block printing is a labour- and time-intensive technique. The craft has been able
to resist industrialization and is still practiced without any mechanization. It’s natural
feel, simplicity and unique creativity has maintained its popularity.
The Process of Hand block-printing
(a) Tools – The tools used in block-printing are carved wooden blocks, fabric, dyes
and a sturdy, waist-high printing table which is generally of dimensions 3 feet wide
and 9 feet long. Blocks are made from teak wood. Block-making is a very important
stage as the intricate carving requires meticulous, patient and skilled craftsmen-ship.
First plain wooden blocks are made and are provided with a wooden handle for
ease of holding while printing. The blocks of different shapes- rectangle, square,
round, elliptical, and sizes, are called bunta. They have several small holes to release
air and excess dye. The block is soaked in oil for 10-15 days before use to soften the
wood. Designs are made on paper and then traced on the surface of the wooden
block, which is then carved with a hammer and chisel by hand. Fabric used is majorly
cotton and silk. Generally teak-wood is used for making blocks. Initially only natural
dyes were used, yellow, saffron, red and blue being the famous colors. Now-a-days
synthetic dyes are also being used.
(b) Technique - The process begins with washing of the raw fabric to remove dirt
and starch. This is followed by bleaching in a gentle solution, and drying in sun. Colors
are mixed and kept in a tray near the printing table on a trolley table that is moved
as artisan prints on different parts of the fabric. The fabric is tightly stretched over
the printing tables to avoid wrinkles and movement. The outline of the design is first
printed by the artisan. This makes the execution of the rest of the pattern easy. The
printed fabric is then dried in sun before a final wash.
(c) Products - Various garments like saris, kurtas, shirts, salwar kameez, dupattas,
skirts, etc. are made from block printed fabrics. Home furnishing items such as bed-
sheets, pillow covers, cushion covers, curtains, quilts, table covers are also made using
block-printing. There is an increasing export demand for block printed garments in
western countries.
Defining Customer Experience
Product consumption has experiential aspects (Holbrook and Hirschmann 1982).
Haeckel and Carbone (1994) define customer experience as the takeaway
impression formed by people’s encounters with products, services, and businesses,
which gets consolidated through the sensory information that consumers gather
during different phases of interaction with product or retailer, such as awareness,
attraction, interaction, purchase, use and post-consumption review. Roebuck (2012)
describes customer experience as the sum of all experiences that customers have
with suppliers of goods and services. This experience get created through the various
touch-points over the entire duration of customers’ relationship with the suppliers.
Customer experience acts as the crucial factor that facilitates building loyalty to
brands, services and channels (Badgett, Boyce and Kleinberger 2007). Berry, Carbone
and Haeckel (2002) suggest that organizations must orchestrate the clues that their

577
customers consider important for satisfactory experience in the buying process;

this provides them with competitive advantage. The current study focuses on the
consumer lifestyle-related clues that create positive and engaging experiences for
the customers in purchase and use of hand block-printed products.
The lifestyle dimension of customer experience: Lifestyle Experiences
Consumer lifestyle influences buying and consumption decisions. It affects consumer
perception, excitement and desire in the pre-experience phase, acceptance and
evaluation during the experience phase, and the psychological (satisfaction, loyalty,
advocacy etc.) and behvaioural (repeat-purchase, more-frequent purchase, reviews
and recommendations etc.) outcomes in the post-experience phase.
Lifestyle is defined as the consistent patterns people follow in their lives. It is an
important element of consumers’ psychographics and relates their activities, interests
and opinions (Kaynak and Kara 1996). Bernd H. Schmitt (1999), in his research on
experiential marketing, associated customer experiences to consumer lifestyle.
Schmitt identified five type of customer experiences, sensorial, emotional, cognitive,
behavioural and social. Sensorial experiences get created through consumer senses,
emotional experiences through customers’ inner feelings and emotions and cognitive
experiences get created through customers’ cognitive capabilities. Experiences
created due to consumer lifestyle and different ways of doing things have been
termed as behavioural experiences. When consumers expand beyond themselves to
relate to social connections, social experiences evolve. From Schmitt’s classification
of customer experiences, the behavioural experiences directly correspond to Lifestyle
experiences. At the same time, it is important to note that consumers are social beings
and so the other four types of customer experiences implicitly get related to lifestyle
experiences as consumer lifestyle cannot be dissociated from sensory, social, cognitive
and emotional values generated from personal and social elements of consumers’
life.
Seth et al. (1999) propound that customers’ attitude or reaction to an event is a
combination of three factors, (i) Stimulus characteristics – Customers perceive a
stimulus differently according to the information or sensory experience received.
Stimuli that differ from other stimuli are more likely to be noticed (Solomon, 1999), (ii)
Context – During the perception of a given set of traits, individuals get affected by
the context of stimuli (Biswas and Blair, 1991), (iii) Situational variables- Information
received through social and cultural environments and past experience with product
or service also shape perceptions and subsequent experiences (Verhoef et al. 2009).
Since, stimuli, context and situation will be related to consumer lifestyle in one way or
the other, this finding again emphasizes that consumer lifestyle impacts buying and
consumption experiences and decision making.
Schmitt’s findings were accentuated in a much recent study by Gentile et al. (2007)
on how to sustain customer experience by identifying experience components that
co-create value with the customer. According to the authors, ‘lifestyle component’ of
customer experience comes from the affirmation of the system of values and beliefs
of the person often through adoption of a lifestyle and behaviours.

578
Consumers’ Purchase Intentions

Purchase intention is the possibility for consumers to attempt to purchase a product
(Dodds, Monroe, & Grewal 1991). Intentions are manifestations of motivational
factors that influence consumer behaviour, and indicate the attempts that they
plan to exert in performing the behaviour (Ajzen, 1991; Samin et al. 2012). Purchase
intention represents what consumers think they will buy, thus, it leads to consumers’
physiological action towards a product (Blackwell, Miniard, & Engel 2001). Purchase
intention can also be defined as the decision to act or physiological action that shows
an individual’s behaviour according to the product (Samin et al. 2012).
Objectives of the study
The specific objectives of the study are given below:
1) To identify the significant lifestyle attributes that influence the purchase intention
of hand-block printed products.
2) To find the impact of lifestyle experiences on purchase intention of female
consumers for hand-block printed products, in terms of repurchase of same or similar
products, trial & purchase of other hand-block printed products and more frequent
purchase of hand-block printed products.
Methodology
An empirical study was undertaken. Attributes creating attachment and longevity for
apparel products and the related customer experience constructs were identified
through consumer survey. Respondents were in age group 18-50 years. Data collected
from structured questionnaires was analyzed using SPSS. Factor Analysis was used
to identify the significant lifestyle factors affecting purchase intention of female
consumers for hand-block printed products. Multiple Regression Analysis was used to
find the impact of lifestyle factors on consumers’ purchase intention.
Table 1. illustrates the lifestyle attributes identified from existing literature (Gentile et al.
2007, Schmitt 1999, Sirgy et al. 2014) at serial No. 1-14, which are being considered as
independent variables in the study. Purchase intention variables listed at serial no. 15-
17 are the dependent variables in the study.
Table 1. Lifestyle attributes identified from existing literature and Purchase Intention variables
S.No. Lifetyle attributes – Independent variables in the study
1 Social groups (Family, Friends)
2 Work groups
3 Reference groups
4 Cultural environment
5 Economic staus
6 Social class
7 Interests
8 Activities
9 Opinions
10 Attitide
11 Values
12 Motivation
13 Self concept
14 Personality
Purchase Intention – Dependent variables in the study
15 Intention of re-purchasing same or similar block-printed products
16 Intention of trial and purchase of other block-printed products
17 Intention of more frequent purchase of block-printed products
579
17 Intention of more frequent purchase of block-
Design, fashion and retails printed products
Reposnes were collected through a structured questionnaire. Purposive sampling was
used as the objective of the study was to collect information from users of hand-block
Reposnes were collected through a structured questionnaire. Purposive sampling
printed products in specific age groups.
was used as the objective of the study was to collect information from users of hand-
block printed products in specific age groups.
RESULTS
RESULTS
Results
Results of Factor
of Factor Analysis
Analysis

Factors Analysis was performed to identify the significant lifestyle attributes that
Factors Analysis was performed to identify the significant lifestyle attributes that influence
influence the purchase of hand-block printed products by female consumers.
the purchase of hand-block printed products by female consumers. Principal Components
Principal Components Analysis using Varimax rotation was done. Result of Bartlett’s
Analysis using Varimax rotation was done. Result of Bartlett’s test of Sphericity was found
testsignificant at 0.00. The value of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy was
of Sphericity was found significant at 0.00. The value of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure
0.755 (greater
of Sampling Adequacythan 0.5)
was and this (greater
0.755 indicated than
that 0.5)
Factors
andAnalysis could be
this indicated thatdone on the
Factors
data. Twelve items were extracted by three factors. Factors
Analysis could be done on the data. Twelve items were extracted by three factors. having Eigen value greater
than having
Factors one were
Eigenconsidered significant
value greater thanfor onethe
werestudy and lower significant
considered values were
fordiscarded.
the study All
three factors together accounted for 56.642 percent of the total variance. In the Rotated
andComponent
lower values were discarded. All three factors together accounted for 56.642
Matrix none of the items were found crossing loading. Tables 2, 3 and 4
percent of the total variance. In the Rotated Component Matrix none of the items
summarize the Factor Analysis results.
were found crossing loading. Tables 2, 3 and 4 summarize the Factor Analysis results.
Table 2. KMO and Bartlett’s Test
Table 2. KMO and Bartlett’s Test

Table 3. Total Variance Explained
Table 3. Total Variance Explained
5

Table 4. Rotated Component Matrix

580



Interpretation of Factor Analysis:
Interpretation of Factor Analysis:
Results of of
Results Factor Analysis
Factor revealed
Analysis revealedthat that
three three
factors relating
factors to consumer
relating lifestyle lifestyle
to consumer are
significant in the purchase intention of hand-block printed products by female consumers.
are significant in the purchase intention of hand-block printed products by female
These three factors can be called, (i) Social Environment, (ii) Psychographic Variables and
consumers. These three factors can be called, (i) Social Environment, (ii) Psychographic
(iii) Psychological Traits. Social Environment comprised of the social groups, which whom
Variables and (iii) Psychological Traits. Social Environment comprised of the social
the consumer is associated and interacts, and the social class to which the consumers
groups,
belong. which
This whom
factors the consumer
explained is associated
the maximum and
variance of interacts, and theThe
27.578 percent. social class to
second
which the consumers belong. This factors explained the maximum variance of 27.578
factor that influences female consumers’ purchase intention of hand-block printed products
percent. The second factor that influences female consumers’ purchase intention of
is Psychographic Attributes. This constitutes consumers Activities-Interests-Opinion (AIO)
hand-block printed products is Psychographic Attributes. This constitutes consumers
6
Activities-Interests-Opinion (AIO) variables and explains 16.308 percent variance. The
third factor, with 12.756 percent variance is called Psychological Traits. This factors
represents consumers’ attitude, values, motivation, self-concept and personality.
Regression Analysis
Three Multiple Regression Analysis were conducted. The three factors extracted
from Factor Analysis, namely Social Environment, Psychographic Variables and
Psychological Traits were considered as the independent variables. The dependent
variables in the study were (i) Intention of re-purchasing same or similar block-printed
products, (ii) Intention of trial and purchase of other block-printed products, and (iii)
Intention of more frequent purchase of block-printed products.
Regression Analysis 1 used Social Environment, Psychographic Variables and
Psychological Traits as independent variables and ‘Intention of re-purchasing same
or similar block-printed products’ as dependent variable. The SPSS regression output is

581
purchase of block-printed products.

Regression Analysis 1 used Social Environment, Psychographic Variables and
Psychological Traits as independent variables and ‘Intention of re-purchasing same or
givenblock-printed
similar in the table below.
products’ Exhibit 1 shows thevariable.
as dependent values ofThe
the SPSS
coefficient of determination
regression output is
of R2 that quantifies the proportion of variation explained by the model. The model
given in the table below. Exhibit 1 shows the values of the coefficient of determination of
R2 that quantifies
shows the proportion
that 9 percent variationof invariation
repurchase explained
intentionby the
of samemodel. orThe model
similar shows
hand-block
that 9 percent
printed variation
products. in repurchase
The Multiple R value intention of same
in the model or percent.
is 30 similar hand-block printed
This is a moderate
products. The Multiple R value in the model is 30 percent.
value in social sciences to explain a phenomenon. The p value of the t test (p=0.000)This is a moderate value in
social sciences to explain a phenomenon. The p value of the t test (p=0.000) and F-test
and F-test value of 4.242 signify that there is significant impact of the independent
value of 4.242 signify that there is significant impact of the independent variables on the
variablesvariables
dependent on the dependent variables
in the phenomenon in the
under phenomenon
consideration. under
It can also consideration.
be interpreted It
can
that alsothe
from bethree
interpreted that from
independent the three
variables, independent
Psychological Traits variables, Psychological
majorly impact more
Traits majorly impact more frequent purchase intention in female
frequent purchase intention in female consumers with beta value of 0.195, followed closely consumers with
by beta
Psychographic Variables
value of 0.195, with beta
followed closelyvalue
by.190, followed by Variables
Psychographic Social Environment.
with beta With
value
beta value of 0.159.
.190, followed by Social Environment. With beta value of 0.159.

Exhibit1.1.Regression
Exhibit Regression Analysis
Analysisoutputoutputfor forLifestyle
Lifestyle factors
factorsas asindependent
independent variables
variablesand
Repurchase intention as dependent
and Repurchase variable
intention as dependent variable

7

Regression Analysis 2 was used with Social Environment, Psychographic Variables and
Psychological Traits as independent variables and ‘Intention of trial and purchase of
other block-printed products’ as dependent variable. The SSPSS regression output is
given Exhibit 2. The output shows the values of the coefficient of determination of R2
that quantifies the proportion of variation explained by the model. The model shows
that 13.8 percent variation in trial and purchase of other hand-block printed products
is explained by this model. The Multiple R value in the model is 37.1 percent. This is
considered as a moderate value in social sciences to explain a phenomenon. The
p value of the t test (p=0.000) and F-test value of 6.059 signify that there is significant
impact of the independent variables on the dependent variables in the phenomenon
under consideration. It can also be interpreted that from the three independent
variables, Psychographic Variables majorly impact more frequent purchase intention
582
hographic Variables majorly impact more frequent purchase intention in fema
umers with beta value of 0.328, followed closely by Psychological Traits and then b
al Environment.
in female consumers with beta value of 0.328, followed closely by Psychological Traits
bit 2. Regression Analysis
and then by Social output for Lifestyle factors as independent variable
Environment.
and Intention of trial &Analysis
Exhibit 2. Regression purchaseoutput of other products
for Lifestyle as dependent
factors as independent variablesvariable
and
Intention of trial & purchase of other products as dependent variable

Regression Analysis 3 was used with Social Environment, Psychographic Variables
ession Analysis 3 was used with Social Environment, Psychographic Variables an
and Psychological Traits as independent variables and ‘Intention of more frequent
hological Traits as independent variables and ‘Intention of more frequent purchase
purchase of block-printed products’ as dependent variable. The SPSS regression
-printed output
products’
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below. Exhibit 3 shows variable.
the valuesThe
of theSPSS regression
coefficient output
of determination of is give
w. Exhibit 3 shows the values of the coefficient of determination of R2 that quantifi
R2 that quantifies the proportion of variation explained by the model. The model shows
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tion in more frequent purchase intention of hand-block printed products is explaine is 45.6 percent.
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that there This is
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of the independent variables on the dependent variables in the phenomenon under
t value of 5.863 signify that there is significant impact of the independent variables o
consideration. It can also be interpreted that from the three independent variables,
ependent variables in the phenomenon under consideration. It can also be interprete
Psychographic Variables majorly impact more frequent purchase intention in female
consumers with beta value of 0.344, followed closely by Social Environment. However,
Psychological Traits were found to be very weak predictors of more frequent purchase
intention of hand-block printed products.

583
xhibit Design, fashion and retails
3. Regression Analysis output for Lifestyle factors as independent variab
and Intention of more freqnet purchase intention as dependent variable
Exhibit 3. Regression Analysis output for Lifestyle factors as independent variables and
Intention of more freqnet purchase intention as dependent variable
terpretation of Regression
Interpretation of RegressionAnalysis
Analysis
esults of Results
Regression Analysis
of Regression Analysis that
that there
there is is moderate
moderate impact impact of the significant
of the significant lifestyle lifes
ctors on factors
purchase intention
on purchase of same
intention of sameor similar
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hand-block printedprinted
products products
in female in fem
nsumers. This purchase
consumers. This purchase intention
intention is found
is found to to be primarily
be primarily driven by driven
consumersby consum
psychological traits. The impact of lifestyle factors on trial and purchase of
ychological traits. The impact of lifestyle factors on trial and purchase of other haother
hand-block printed products was found to be stronger with consumer psychographic
ock printed products was found to be stronger with consumer psychographic variab
variables playing a significant role.The study found a strong impact of lifestyle factors
aying a on
significant role.The
more frequent purchase study found a printed
of hand-block strong products
impact byof lifestyle
female factors on m
consumers.
quent purchase of hand-block printed products by female consumers. This intention w
This intention was found to be primarily driven by consumers’ psychographic variables
und to be
and primarily driven by
the social enironment consumers’
in which consumers psychographic
live. variables and the so
ironment in which consumers live.
CONCLUSIONS
The study concluded that lifestyle factors impact the purchase intentions of female
ONCLUSIONSconsumers for hand-block printed products. This impact is moderate in purchase
intention of same or similar hand-block printed products suggesting that female
e study consumers
concluded seekthat
varietylifestyle factors
in products impact
and even thoughthe
they purchase intentions
are happy with product of fem
nsumers for hand-block printed products. This impact is moderate in purchase intent
performance, they would like to have more options in design, colour, styles, look,
appeal and functionality. The study also found that lifestyle factors significantly
same or similar hand-block printed products suggesting that female consumers se
impact the intention of trial and purchase of other hand-block printed products in
riety in products and even though they are happy with product performance, they wo
e to have more options in design, colour, styles, look, Theappeal 90th Textile Institute and functionality. T
World Conference:
584
udy also found that lifestyle factors significantly impact the intention of trial and purcha
female consumers. Consumers’ attitude, motivation, values, self-concept, personality,

activities, interests and opinions impact this intention in female consumers. The study
found a very pronounced impact of lifestyle factors on more frequent purchase of
hand-block printed products. For this kind of intention consumers’ activities, interests,
opinions along with their social class and social groups act as crucial influencers.
Hence, female consumers in age groups of 18-50 years purchase and consume
hand-block printed products influenced by their lifestyles which is manifested through
their activities and interests, influence of social environment and their attitude,
values, opinion and personality. They are seeking more variety in hand-block printed
products and might depict higher purchase intention for hand-block printed products
if products are designed and crafted according to lifestyle requirements and social
environment of the target consumers.
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and Education, 8(12), 205 – 215.
14) Schmitt, B.H. 1999. Experiential Marketing: How to Get Customers to Sense, Feel, Think, Act, Relate
to Your Company and Brands. The Free Press, New York, NY.
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Customer Experience Creation: Determinants, Dynamics and Management Strategies. Journal of
Retailing, 85.

585
iART: Consumer-oriented ICT Solutions for creative SMEs providing Art in Bespoke Fashion
IART: CONSUMER-ORIENTED ICT SOLUTIONS

FOR CREATIVE SMES
PROVIDING ART IN BESPOKE FASHION
Lidia Zdzieszyńska1, Michel Byvoet2, Fabian Di Fiore3
1
Waszyngtona 98 / 63, 04 – 015 Warsaw, Poland
2
BivolinoServices.com R&I, Wetenschapspark 1/9, 3590 Diepenbeek, Belgium
3
Hasselt University-tUL-Expertise Centre for Digital Media, Wetenschapspark 2, 3590 Diepenbeek,
Belgium
(lidiazdz@gmail.com; byvoet@bivolino.com; fabian.difiore@uhasselt.be)
ABSTRACT
The main objective of the iART project is to bring visual art into bespoke clothing so as
to make apparel products more valuable compared to other garments in the market
and to support artists to exploit their work. To reach this objective a set of innovative
ICT solutions has been developed:
(i) Upgrade of the configuration toolkit from 2.5D to 2.5D/3D by including shadowing
and rotating features without the need of plug-ins and easy extension of the catalogue
to clothing.
(ii) Move to real-time online rendering (fabric draping), so as to speed up and
increase the flexibility of the whole process from artist design over fabric creation to
customized bespoke shirts and other garments (fabric rendering on 2.5D/3D clothing
configurator).
(iii) Building of a B2C platform enabling co-creation and user generated art content,
and development of an Advanced Artist Interface (AAI) with artist cockpit.
As iArt is built upon an existing B2C webshop for bespoke shirts (Bivolino.com), it will be
replicable and so has the potential to create a wide impact.
Keywords: fashion, bespoke fashion, creative fashion, fabric rendering, artist
INTRODUCTION
The creative industry, fashion industry, and clothing and textile branches in particular
are undergoing meaningful changes as the clothing industry in the EU is in crisis. The
production index is only 88.9% of its value from 2010. Revival of the sector should arise
from research and innovative solutions.
Artists are also affected by the crisis and have difficulties in supporting oneself from
their artistic activity. One of the main reasons for this situation is the lack of means to
exploit their work effectively on the market.
The objective of the iART project is to support the clothing and textile industry and
visual artists by providing new technical and commercial solutions which enable
application of art in fashion. The main goal is to bring visual art into bespoke clothing
to make apparel products more valuable compared to other garments on the market,
and to support artists by exploiting their work (works of art).

586
iART: Consumer-oriented ICT Solutions for creative SMEsproviding Art in Bespoke Fashion
To reach this objective a set of innovative ICT solutions has been developed. This
innovative approach will transform the business relations in the clothing sector along
the phase of concept and design, from B2B to B2C, where artists and consumers will
connect through platforms such as iArt.
The ambition of the iArt project is to create tools which help artists in virtual prototyping
or on-line visualizing all over print designs. The results of using the tools should be visible
in a fully automatized configurator. This in consequence eliminates the necessity of an
interactive or manual intervention of the artist. It should enable the artist to evaluate in
real time whether the new pattern design fits the given element. The artist being the
one who generates the content will create and configure the new pattern in a fully
automated model.
The idea of the project is based on a B2C internet shop (Bivolino.com) with custom
made shirts, and its customer oriented web page. New advanced services have
been designed and established in order to further facilitate and expand the scope
of the shops’ applicability. The web page has been enhanced with new 2.5D/3D
functionalities. Easy creation of original patterns with the use of real time rendering
and an innovative artist user interface with advanced artist’s cockpit constitute the
most important ICT iART solutions. The project iART is implemented in the framework
the EU H2020-program.
In particular, the specific ICT developments of the project are:
Move to real-time online rendering (fabric draping), so as to speed up and increase
the flexibility of the whole process from artist design over fabric creation to customized
bespoke shirts and other garments (fabric rendering on 2.5D/3D clothing configurator).
Upgrade of the configuration toolkit from 2.5D to 2.5D/3D by including shadowing
and rotating features without the need of plug-ins easy extension of the catalogue to
clothing accessories and nightwear fitting with the shirts.
Building of a B2C platform enabling co-creation and user generated art content, and
development of an Advanced Artist Interface (AAI) with artist cockpit.
The iART project is based on original Bivolino algorithms, a 2.5D/3D configuration
toolkit, granted patents and consumer data.
RENDERINGS
Before new patterns can be imposed onto virtual pieces of garment, models of the
garments need to be acquired. Bivolino employs a technique that consists of printing
a colour-coded pattern onto a physical copy of a particular garment. A static photo
camera on a tripod, surrounded by studio lighting, is then used for taking pictures of
the garments.
Next, the pictures of the garments are segmented into different pieces and all virtual
dots are identified . Finally a shadow map is extracted.
Using the positional information from the identified dots, a 2D mesh model of the
garment is produced. Now having a 2D-model of the garment available, a virtual
pattern is placed on top of the mesh model by using OpenGL texture rendering
techniques.
587
OPTIMIZATION OF THE COLOR-CODED MODELS

When placing a texture pattern on the virtual model, it will be deformed in exactly the
same way yielding a visually realistic simulation of the garment.
Unfortunately, these renderings do not always deliver visually pleasing results as they
sometimes suffer from jaggedness or aliasing (on edges or close interior lines) and
unwanted moiré patterns.
This depends heavily on the virtual patterns being used; spatial aliasing occurs mainly
when undersampled patterns (e.g., size less than 5 centimetres and pictured in low
resolution) are being used while moiré patterns are imposed during rendering when
patterns consisting of sets of parallel lines are displaced or rotated slightly from one
another .
In order to improve the photorealistic look and feel of the rendered models the quality
(i.e. higher resolution) of the virtual patterns and the photographed color-coded
garments (and derived shadow maps) could be addressed. This, however, would
require to redo the model acquisition step including the photo-shoot process (ranging
from setting up a studio to placing garments on mannequin dolls), the segmentation
and analysis of the dotted patterns, and creating new mesh models.
The option was chosen to only intervene in the rendering process as this can be done
in an automatic (e.g., batch process) way. So, instead of re-shooting all models in a
higher resolution, the application upscales all input (dotted garments, shadow maps
and patterns) by resampling and resizing the pictures and by increasing the size of
the orthographic viewing region. To this end, we employ a Mitchell-Netravali1 bicubic
filter which basically is a compromise between two widely used filters: the B-spline
cubic (which origins as a blending function) and The Catmull-Rom cubic (mainly
used as reconstruction filter ).
Employing these higher resolution versions of the dotted garments improves the dot
analysis (and thus generation of texture coordinates) and shadow maps, yielding a
significantly better image quality of the final renderings.
REAL-TIME DESIGN PREVIEW
In the current setup much manual intervention is required ranging from running the
rendering tool and providing necessary configuration files to post-processing the
results.
Before running the tool, first the patterns and models need to be located following
a consistent folder (one original and one for mipmapping) and file (indicating the
physical dimensions) naming convention. Next, several configuration files have to be
edited indicating which pattern, model and rendering parameters to use. When the
offline rendering process is finished, the resulting images still need to be postprocessed
(image conversion, renaming, compositing…) using batches of commercial software/
plugins before being presented to the customer.
It is only at the end of the reproduction line that the final renderings can be inspected
and, upon approval, be published online. Unfortunately, in case any adjustments
(small or big) are needed the reproduction process has to be done all over again.

588
In order to enable “real-time” fabric rendering and instant visualization several issues
have been addressed: the artist’s interrupted workflow (due to offline rendering,
offline image processing, offline file processing, no instant preview), the cumbersome
manual intervention (due to graphical user interface), the platform dependency
and the use of commercial software/plugins. To this end, a standalone application
has been build that is fully parameterized using a command line approach, which
is platform-independent and does not rely on external commercial tools or plugins.
The other commandline parameters are related to the rendering (e.g., mirroring of
the fabric, upscaling of input pictures) and assembling process. For batch purposes
we also included the option to render models in all available patterns at once (using
‘ALL’ as fabric name).
SERVER-BASED CONFIGURATOR
In iArt artists are not merely creative contributors but also content providers. Hence
we have to come up with a fully automated solution enabling the artist to create,
inspect and publish content online. Exploiting the instant visualization, the platform
independency and commandline approach of our rendering tool, the application
lends itself to be used as a service in a server-based setup.
As for the iArt case artists should be able to create their content online, Bivolino
opted to bring the application as a webservice configuration tool. For demonstration
purposes, we created two different webserver-based configurators, using the same
rendering tool under the hood.
Our new tool is platform independent, eliminates any manual intervention and features
a straightforward workflow including online rendering, in-line image processing and
in-line file processing.
UPGRADING THE CONFIGURATION PANEL FROM 2.5D TO 3D
The prototype of the configurator will enable creation of clothing such as shirts
(currently in Bivolino platform), as well as other customizable apparel and accessories.
The project team explores new techniques for tracking and scanning to improve the
photorealistic look of the simulated result with the use of application in real time. The
2.5D/3D configurator (desktop and mobile-app) for easy generation of new apparel
items will be based on a straightforward technique which consist of printing a colour-
coded pattern onto a physical copy of a particular garment and using 2.5D/3D
image-based feature tracking to obtain a mesh representation of how the piece of
garment has been deformed.
iART will employ an ultrafine grid of coloured dots in order to gain a better perception
of depth, and hence, yield renderings with a better sense of realism.
Multiple cameras will further refine the process of feature identification as the different
camera views can be matched in order to acquire missing image feature positions.
In addition, an interactive 2.5D mesh editing tool will be developed to semi-
automatically refine the mesh representation of the garment model when overlapping
areas of fabric are involved such as permanent and stubborn creases.
The project will develop a new way for placing a texture pattern on the virtual model,
which will be deformed exactly in the same way, yielding a visually realistic simulation
of the garment.
589
In existing setups the creativity and design options are limited to support only ‘all
over print’ designs. Made-to-measure manufacturing processes, however, do not
allow artists or designers to freely influence the placement of (parts of) their designs.
The project will explore free-form design placement on apparel and examine to
what extent artists need to be involved in the manufacturing process in order to not
compromise their freedom of creativity.
A garment interface to control the design placement on apparel will help to create
a garment prototyping tool that assists artists in complex tasks such as pattern
placement and pattern grading. To this end we will introduce a technique for pattern
placement and cutting into the creative process by letting the artist/designer apply
virtual patterns directly on the artistic painting.
We will also have to come up with a fully automated solution regarding offline (back
office) virtual prototyping support as well as online visualization for real-time design
preview. This involves the creative contributor who ideally wants to visually assess in
real-time how a new print design would fit to a given item, and in particular if the
placing of the patterns on the design corresponds to the artistic expression he/she
wants to convey.
B2C PLATFORM
The choice for our iART B2C platform started with the asp.net code from open
source e-commerce software NOP COMMERCE 3.6, embedding a responsive design
template, TIFFANY, bought on http://www.nop-templates.com/ (NOP Template Tiffany
Theme).
Integration with the Tiffany theme is analysed and it was concluded to do the extra
required coding to implement the Vendor application as the theme has a different
layout (html markup changes, css, images, little javascript). The existing 10 available
plug-ins contain ‘Marketplace‘ functionalities. Nop-Templates (www.nop-templates.
com) developed by third-party companies rely on stable code. As hosting provider,
the company Arvixe was chosen. But after 2 weeks we were forced to change due to
issues with Arvixe and finally opted for WINHOST.
The major challenge is to extend the product choice from the multi-vendor application
to an iframe into the product configurator. As the AAI at this stage runs on a staging
environment with local hosting and as the AAI (configurator toolkit) is built on .Net
NOP commerce 1.2 and the platform www.iart.bivolino.com on NOP 3.6, we have
extra challenges concerning the iframe and the publishing.
Following embedded tasks have been performed:
- iframe in vendor application
- add to gallery for publishing products onto www.iart.bivolino.com
For IPR and ethical reasons artists will only be allowed to publish shops after approval
by Bivolino.
The technical challenge is to build webservices/API-PLUG-INS to integrate third party
Galleries. Publishing configured shirts in third party e-commerce platforms is a key
exploitable result and crucial to get impact in the fashion ecommerce business.

590
RESULTS
The new rendering process solutions, upgrading of the configuration panel from 2.5D
to 2.5D/3D and B2C platform developed by iART have contributed to the creation of
advanced yet easily available ICT tools through automated and integrated solutions:
optimisation of the existing color-coded input models and shadow maps; the rendered
results no longer suffer from jagged edges or unwanted moiré patterns when fine
regular patterns are involved;
offline rendering tools and offline batches (rendering, scaling) have been transformed
to independent solutions available as an option of server configuration. The results of
this tool enable the artist to visually assess in “real-time” how a new print design would
fit to a given item;
upgrading of the off-line configurator to a 2.5D/3D optimized and online rendering
tool supporting artists in virtual prototyping as well as online visualization of new ‘all
over print’ designs. The artist visually can assess in “real-time” how a new print design
would fit to a given item; as a content provider, the artist can create and configure
new content in a fully automated solution;
addressing the image quality of the final renderings by optimizing the color-coded
input models and shadow maps being used in the existing setup in an effortless,
automatic and integrated way;
establishment of a B2C platform for creative cooperation (iART Shop – http://www.
iart.bivolino.com) with a user generated content, creating a user interface where the
artist can embed new patterns, create collections, monitor messages, or count the
consumer votes, and a consumer interface with commenting, evaluating and voting
options.
CONCLUSIONS
Innovative iART programme solutions change the bussiness relationships in clothing
industry already at the idea and design phase from B2B to B2C where artists and
consumers cooperate through enabling platforms such as iART.
The ‘European Competitiveness Report 2010 (Büscher 2012) illustrates creative industry
as the most dynamic sector in Europe with a significant capability for growth as the
internet develops. The creative industry is dominated by SMEs. As the EC report states
the future of the business is digital and depends on incorporation and the optimal use
of the potential of ICT tools, which was already achieved in such branches of industry
as design or computer games. This project is directly connected with digitalization.
A development of a new generation 2.5D/3D tools and a virtual B2C platform will
enhance the general industry digitalisation, especially in design, branding and
marketing, which is of crucial meaning when the competitiveness on the market is
concerned. Digital or virtual approaches to production seem to be relatively popular
in many industries, especially those involving inflexible materials. However, textiles
have proven to generate difficulties in design software development. In consequence
not many textile and clothing companies apply digital design schemes.

591
The main influence of this project on the European fashion industry can be therefore
summarized as follows:
Empowering the consumer and producing on demand which results in less waste in
the supply chain.
Reducing the cost of production, in particular the cost of prototyping and sampling
by consumers (Driven Design).
Reducing the cost of promotion and marketing, especially in photography and sales
collections by means of consumers interaction.
Shortening the time of completion of the process from design to market dramatically
by engaging the consumers.
Increasing the number of developed models, and the overall choices for the
consumers.
As far as the world of art is concerned, the arts on the internet seem to have a sizable
potential. One such example being the Deviantart web site with a network of 30 million
registered users and attracting over 65 million viewers every month. A number of 160
art works is posted daily, including a vast range of traditional art, such as paintings,
digital and pixel art.
It leads to a conclusion that the solutions proposed match the trends already
confirmed by the market. The artists on the other hand desire to express and exploit
their creative work in many modes to have the opportunity to create exclusive products
for a wide public. Often they lack both human and financial resources to exhaust the
innovative and advanced ICT services which enable new manners of presentation
and employment of the art work.
It is expected that iART will create extra revenues for artists and the European fashion
and Clothing industry. SMEs take up ICT enabling innovative supply-chains to generate
more revenues through high-margin made-to-order collections which cannot be
imported from mass production countries.
Finally, ICT providers are stimulated to offer innovative tools generating new business
and turnover. As this sustainable business model is supported by easily accessible
advanced ICT tools (through open API’s) it will be replicable and so has the potential
to create a wide impact.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was conducted in view of the iArt-project (H2020-ICT-2014-1) financed by
the EU programme Horizon 2020.
We also gratefully express our gratitude to the European Fund for Regional
Development (ERDF) and the Flemish Government, which are kindly funding part of
the research at the Expertise Centre for Digital Media.
REFERENCES
Büscher, R. 2012. The European Creative Industries Alliance: from concept to reality. http://ec.europa.
eu/growth/industry/innovation/.

592
GROUNDHOG DAY; IS 1970’s COLOUR REALLY BACK IN FASHION?
GROUNDHOG DAY; IS 1970’S COLOUR REALLY

BACK IN FASHION?
Dr Julie A King
The University of Northampton, School of the Arts, St Georges Avenue, Northampton, UK 2
E-mail: Julie.king@northampton.ac.uk
ABSTRACT
Fashion trends have always been transient, it is the intrinsic nature of the industry to
constantly evolve and introduce new ideas. The very meaning of the word trend is an
ancient one and can be traced back to Middle English and High German where its
meaning was to turn, spin or revolve (Raymond, 2010), with many fashion movements
revolving in and out of favour.
The trends for Autumn/Winter 2014/15 demonstrate the cyclical nature of fashion;
the key reference points are the 1970’s in colour, garment silhouette, fabrication and
accessories. But how often can a fashion style, movement or decade be reinterpreted
or revived for contemporary consumers? Is it a true representation of the era?
The paper examines the origins of the current Seventies revival in terms of categorisation
of colour and pattern, mapping the cultural drivers supporting it, using visual and
verbal evidence to construct the timeline for the revival and the frequency of iterations
of 1970’s trends in the last five decades. Examination of garments from the period will
determine how accurate, contemporary colours are in comparison to the original
seventies colour palettes.
Keywords: Seventies, fashion, forecasting, cycles, colour
INTRODUCTION
Fashion is in constant flux, and the adoption of a 1970’s influence for is indicative
of how designers consistently look to gain inspiration from a wide variety of sources
and time periods. Colour is fundamental to the evocation of a specific time period or
fashion movement, with the early 1970’s, is widely acknowledged as being notable for
browns, oranges, avocados, purples and acid shades (Scully, Johnston Cobb, 2010).
Colour and fashion trends are not created overnight and research has shown there
is a slow evolution and adoption of such trends over a period of time, the bell curve
model has been used to illustrate how a trend can be adopted early by a few fashion
innovators, slowly growing until it is accepted by the mass market, reaching its peak
before seeing a mirrored level in decline. Some believe colour cycles can be plotted
and follow specific repetitive patterns (Brannon, 2000, King, 2012), even repeating
on a regular basis over a predetermined number of years, typically a seven year
cycle; the most recent incarnation of the 1970’s in colour and fashion terms was in
the early 2000’s. But if colour is an indicator of the zeitgeist of the era, just how reliable
is this when inspiration is often taken from film or photographic materials which may
inaccurately depict colour of the era?
The methodology for the research was to study garments from the Marks and Spencer
Archive, held at Leeds Metropolitan University, to establish what the mass market colours
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of the era were and how they correspond with contemporary forecasted colours.
Such a comparative analysis provided the key to the research question, whether or
not the 70’s revival is a reinterpretation or a faithful reproduction of the colours of the
original era. These would be subsequently compared with the forecasted colours for
the revival in 2014/15 from two major trend prediction sources.
Drawing on inspiration from a range of eras is not new, the fashions of the Seventies
were in turn influenced by a variety of fashion styles from different eras creating a
number of revivals. The 1950s were revived in the early 1970s (Brannon, 2000), as were
the 1940s and even the 1930s (Wilson:1989). In response the Seventies have witnessed
at least two modern day fashion revivals of their own, prior to the current trend; in the
1990s and again in early 2000s (Brannon, 2000). Clearly some dilution of key elements
of early Seventies style is to be expected, as in turn the designers and retailers of
the early Seventies were selective in their range of influences from diverse eras and
fashion styles.
To appreciate the polarity of the contemporary fashion forecasting industry and that
of its’ 1970’s counterpart, it is essential to understand the fashion industry of the time.
During the period there were far fewer trend forecasting providers in comparison
to the current market, basically there were a few dominant forecasting companies
and fibre companies who also produced colour trends each season, resulting in little
diversity. McKelvey and Munslow (2008:1) suggest that there was a shift from the 1960’s
onwards when the fashion industry moved at a far slower pace.
‘During the post war period, forecasting companies compiled stories and themes
each season that were easier to predict. Themes were also more predictable and
often fell into evolving stories that reflected the slower moving trends of the time’
The world economy was in turmoil, and changing rapidly from the relatively affluent
period of the late 1960’s. In the UK the oil crisis of 1973 and the coal miners strike in 1974
resulted in a power cuts and shorter working weeks. Fashion around the time reacted
to the austerity of everyday life and embraced retro-chic, glam rock and ethnic styles,
resulting in a broad range of colours and fabrics adopted by the fashion industry
(Wilson, 1989). The preconception surrounding the dominant colours employed in
fashion and interiors in the 1970’s often encompass the colours reflected in such
inspirations, browns, oranges, purples, avocado and yellows. Brannon (2000) mentions
a popular sunshine yellow used in 1971, and a range of earthy tones influenced by
the hippy movement, and these are the basis upon which perceptions of original
Seventies colours are based upon.
METHODOLOGY
In order to test the validity of revivalist colours faithfully reproducing the original,
a number of printed dresses from the early 1970’s were selected to view from the
Marks and Spencer archive. These were initially selected using the online catalogue,
and chosen for the diversity of colours within the printed fabrics and the year of
manufacture. The garments were then photographed during visits to the archive, and
referenced against pantone textile colours. The same lighting and positioning was
used for each garment selected, so as to ensure parity across the sample.

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A range of colours were subsequently taken from the garments to comprise a colour
palette for each year from 1970 – 1974, based on the year in which the garments
were on sale in store. The resulting colour palettes were subsequently compared to
palettes forecasted for A/W 2014/15 by Promostyl one of the leading trend and colour
forecasters, ironically established since the mid 1970s, and those of colour specialists
Pantone. Further research indicated clearly the revival of the Seventies in fashion had
started earlier than 2014, as the forecasters would have initially discussed their ideas
for that season up to 2 years earlier (King, 2012). However, the influences of the 1970’s
have continued to be popular although their impact is waning, as all trends eventually
make way for newer, fresher looks.
‘A sea change is in the air. As fashion drifts away from the flower-power boho of the
1970s we are starting to see a new mood come into play.’
Evans (2015)
The era continues to be influential into Summer 2016 and Evans goes on to cite prints as
being a particular area influenced, illustrating recent catwalk collections from Alberta
Ferretti, Valentino and Gucci as brands continue to promote the theme through print,
crochet and silhouette. The key colours were identified as vivid brights, rich darks
including marsala, the Pantone colour of the year 2015, all paired with white.
The influences of the 1970’s evidently started far earlier than summer 2014, with Trend
Analyst Li Edelkoort suggesting that commentators can be mistaken in their rush to
label ideas and in particular, colour combinations, as revivals of specific eras. As early
as 2008 when she noted that traces of the revival were being reported:
‘With a surge of brights parading the catwalk….it is easy to mistake this colourful
movement as a revival. Most fashion magazines have already labelled the colur
comeback as a return to the 60’s and early 70’s.’
Edelkoot (2008)
Online trend specialist WGSN identified the trend for 1970s more specifically in their
Nostalgic 1970s report, first published in August 2014 for the Autumn/Winter 2014/15
season.
‘Catwalk designers look back to give collections nostalgic 1970s silhoutettes featuring
authentic details and colours such as top-stitching and warm browns’
WGSN (2014)
The Promostyl Autumn/Winter 2014/15 trendbook for women published in early 2014,
features four key trends, of which the Curator trend follows the 1970s theme, specifically
mentioning ‘interior decoration of the 70’s with its iconic colours and motifs inspires
edgy elegance.’ Promostyl (2014:73).
Pantone’s colour report for 2015 noted that the season was selecting inspiration from
a number of eras, as the Seventies originally did, from ‘moments in American history
– from the seductive ‘20s to the bohemian hippie and modernists of the ‘60s and ‘70s’
The theme also promotes warm reds and oranges, greens and browns, with base
colours including black, white and ecru. In order to assess the contemporary versions
of the revivalist colours, further work was carried out to identify colours used in the
dresses from the Marks and Spencer Archive, all from the early 1970’s.
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IDENTIFICATION OF ORIGINAL 1970s COLOUR PALETTES

The key elements of the research were conducted at the Marks and Spencer Archive
held at The University of Leeds. A sample of seven printed dresses from 1970 – 1974
were selected and examined. Each dress was photographed, as was the printed
fabric in order to establish a close up detail of the pattern. Each colour identified in
the dress fabrics were then colour matched by eye using the Pantone Textile fan.
In order to maintain the same conditions of lighting, the garments were inspected
in the same position using the same lighting each time. A series of colour palettes
were developed, one from each garment, reflecting the colours identified within the
printed fabrics. The base colour of the fabric was also taken into consideration if it
was visible and integral to the print.
Whilst most dresses were constructed using a printed fabric, one knitted dress was also
selected and the colours examined within the knitted construction of the dress. Other
variables to be considered as a part of the study included the variation in fabrics
and their light absorption and reflection properties, and the potential degradation
of colour over time. It has also to be considered that Marks and Spencer, although a
major UK retailer, would not necessarily represent the full range of colours on offer at
any particular time.
The resulting colour palettes were subsequently compared with the Promostyl colour
palettes and those of Pantone from Autumn/Winter 2014/15 to establish whether
there was any synergy between the original Seventies colours identified and the
contemporary colour palettes of the recent revival of the era. Both companies provide
Pantone colour references for their colour palettes, so there was parity between the
colour naming systems.
RESULTS
As expected, there was substantial variation in the colour palettes created by each
dress. It was impossible to assess the dresses in the context of a full range of coordinated
garments which would have been available at the same time as the archive is not
sufficiently extensive to allow such a study. Had a wider range of garments from the
same season been available for sampling, it would have allowed for a greater range
of colours to be extracted from the year of garment origin. Typically a full garment
range plan would comprise a number of dresses, skirts and tops, utilising knitted and
woven fabrics plus coordinates, which would all complement one another and use
most of the same colours from a particular colour palette. Also of note was the fact
that other than base or outline colours such as white or black, all the dresses had
very different colour compositions, resulting in a range of 33 colours in total across
7 dresses. Both the Promostyl and Pantone colour palettes were far more restricted,
featuring 11 and 10 colours respectively.
None the less it was surprising to find that relatively few correlations could be made
with the contemporary revivalist colours developed for A/W 2014/15 by Promostyl
and the colours from the archive dresses. Promostyl compiled a palette of 11 colours
including white and a dark charcoal grey, plus ecru for their Seventies themed colour
and print story. Although many of the archive dresses did feature either a white or
ecru base, or incorporated black to create outlines for some of the patterns, most of

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the remaining colours predicted by Promostyl did not appear together or as a part of
the various colour palettes generated from the archive dresses.. The original Seventies
colours identified from the archive featured oranges and yellows, plus browns, but
did not accurately match any of the contemporary colours predicted by Promostyl,
whose colours were far lighter than the originals.
There were a significant range of colours in the pink, purple and greens spectrum
discovered from the archive which did not feature at all in the contemporary palette,
although Promostyl did suggest one mid blue, Le Corbusier Blue, however, this could
not be matched to any of the blues found in the range of dresses examined. Pantone
proposed a similar blue, which again did not match any of the blues from the archive
dresses.
When examining the Pantone colours for Winter 2014/15 the results were somewhat
different. Of the ten colours featured many were similar to colours used in the archive
palettes, and one in particular, Radiant Orchid, was an exact match to a violet featured
in Dress 6 from the archive, and many other colours featured in the dresses were close
to 60% of the Pantone predicted colours.. The Pantone colours reflected far more of
the original Seventies archive colours than Promostyl, although browns and oranges
took on a slightly different hue. However, the grouping was close enough to see
immediate correlation to 4 of the dresses from the archive. This could be explained
by several reasons, perhaps Pantone used their own archive to research the original
colours, perhaps their magpie approach to the season resulted in a broader range
of colours being proposed, rather than a more modernist approach to colour palette
development, which Promostyl may have proposed.
CONCLUSIONS
There have been a number of revivals of Seventies influences since the era ended,
and the trend appears set to continue into Summer 2016, despite having been
identified initially as potentially heralding a return to colours of the 70’s as far back as
2008. Therefore the trend has had time to develop and to morph in to an alternative
version of the original colours used. The range of dresses sampled indicated a broad
range of colours were prevalent in a period between 1970 and 1974 in mainstream
fashion of the time, as is the case in contemporary fashion colour. Within the Promostyl
publication used there were four themes promoted, each with 11 colours to choose
from, but only one theme directly referenced the 1970s era.
Nevertheless, the contemporary interpretation of the modern day colours bears
little resemblance to the original colours found from the Marks and Spencer archive
dresses. The sample used was relatively small, and perhaps a better result would have
been achieved by using a larger garment sample, not wholly sourced from the Marks
and Spencer archive but from a range of other brands available on the UK high street
at the time. Conversely, by comparing a broader range of trend predictions for the
season, it may have been possible to identify additional correlations in colour palettes
from the original era and the contemporary revival.
Undoubtedly the vision of today’s designers and trend forecasters refers to original
Seventies fashion colours, but eventually the lack of immediate correlation between
the two periods it could simply be attributed to the changing tastes in fashion and the
adaption of the original colours to suit today’s consumer and market.
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REFERENCES
Raymond, M. (2010) The Trend Forecasters Handbook, London, Laurence King Publishing Ltd.
Scully, K. and Johnson Cobb, D. (2012) Colour Forecasting for Fashion, London, Laurence King
Publishing Ltd.
Brannon, E. L. 2000. Fashion Forecasting, New York, Fairchild Publications Inc,.
Wilson, E. and Taylor, L., 1989. Through the Looking Glass, London, BBC Books
King, J. A. 2012, Colour trends and selection in fashion design In Colour Design: Theories and
Applications, ed. J Best, 535 – 548. Oxford Woodhead Publishing
McKelvey, K. and Munslow, J. 2008. Fashion Forecasting, Oxford, John Wiley & Sons
Ltd.
Evans, S. 2015. Ready to Wear, Textile View, Winter 2015, no 112: 56-101. Amsterdam, Metropolitan
Publishing BV.
Edelkoort, L. 2008. 21st Century Colour, T Magazine, unknown article supplied directly by Li Edelkoort
WGSN, Nostalgic 1970s, http://www.wgsn.com/content/board_viewer/#/55682/page/5, accessed
3.1.16.
Pantone Fall 2014, http://www.pantone.com/pages/fcr/?season=fall&year=2014&pid=3, accessed
3.1.16
Pantone Winter 2015, http://www.pantone.com/pages/fcr/?season=fall&year=2015&pid=11
accessed 3.1.16.

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PRODUCTIVITY IMPROVEMENT OF HOMEBASED

EMBROIDERY WORKERS
Dr.Archana Gandhi1 & Aditi Gangwar2
Associate Professor, National Institute of Fashion Technology, Hauz Khas, New Delhi, India
1
2
Student, National Institute of Fashion Technology, Hauz Khas, New Delhi, India
(Presenting author E-mail:archana.gandhi@nift.ac.in;
Corresponding author email:archana.gandhi@nift.ac.in)
ABSTRACT
Compared with other forms of employment, homeworking presents a particularly
challenging set of problems to any authority involved in addressing their problems.
The hidden nature of the workers, their lack of rights and their heavy reliance on
their homeworking income make them a particularly vulnerable group and therefore
susceptible to exploitation by the people who supply them work. Lack of transparency
leads to the invisibility of the homeworkers in the supply chain which leaves them with
lower wages and social insecurity.
The aim of the research was to devise ways to enhance the productivity of home
based embroidery workers.
The research showed that Homebased embroidery workers in the some villages in
India are paid as less as 40% of the minimum wages.
The key reasons for low productivity were – absence of basic amenities, poor method
of work, uneasy workplace. Analysis of the factory embroidery workers showed
potential areas for homeworker productivity improvement. The improvised work
methods showed a potential to reduce the time of embroidered pieces by 30% which
could increase the monthly income of homeworkers. Parameters of productivity,
quality, and posture were standardised and compiled as a manual for the benefit of
homeworkers.
By the implementation of better working methods there is a potential to improve their
earnings.
Key Words: Global Sourcing, Apparel Industry, Productivity, Hand Embroidery,
Homeworking, Better Practices, Minimum Wages
1. INTRODUCTION
Compared with other forms of employment, homeworking presents a particularly
challenging set of problems to any authority developing consistent guidelines for
good practice. This is because it stands at the intersection of a complex network of
social, economic and legal factors. Attempts to tackle a problem in any one of these
spheres are likely to have repercussions for each of the others. This interplay between
issues normally dealt with at the level of the labour market with those normally dealt
with at the community or household level makes it necessary to develop an integrated
approach to the analysis of homeworking (Huws & Podro, 1995)
In India, about 23% of the non agricultural workers are home-based. Among
these home-based workers, nearly 38% undertake production under some form of
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production from an outside agency. An overwhelming 57% of the workforces of home-

based workers are women. From amongst the women home-based workers, 49% of
the women home-based workers were undertaking production under some form of
subcontracting. This means that nearly half of the home-based women workers in
India are working from home, on a subcontract, for an outside agency (WEIGO , 2010)
Home-based work is common in handicraft production, such as weaving or
embroidery. But it is also found in many modern industries such as garments, footwear,
accessories, electrical assembly and plastic products and non-traditional handwork
is also undertaken for products like footballs(Bajaj, 2000)
1. 1 Problems faced by Homeworkers
Homeworking clearly offers benefits to both the homeworker and the company
sourcing work out to homeworkers. However, the hidden nature of the workers, their
lack of rights and their heavy reliance on their homeworking income make them a
particularly vulnerable group and therefore susceptible to exploitation by the people
who supply them work. The most common concerns related to homework are :
Low pay-most homeworkers are paid low rates and earn less than factory workers
doing the same work. Few homeworkers are paid the minimum wage and even fewer
earn a living wage. Rates of pay decrease with the distance from where work is given
out. Record-keeping is poor or non-existent, so pay is reduced even further through
unfair deductions for quality, miscounting of pieces and so on. Delayed payment
is another serious problem. Wages may be paid irregularly and in some cases only
partial payments are made to keep the worker tied to the contractor.
Insufficient and irregular work-very few homeworkers have enough work to occupy
them on a full-time basis and most are constantly hoping for more work
Unclear or non-existent employment status-most homeworkers do not have employee
status and most legal systems do not recognise homeworkers, which means they are
officially invisible and open to exploitation.
Inadequate social security and benefits-as most homeworkers are not employees,
they do not receive sick pay, holiday pay or maternity pay, and are rarely included in
pension schemes.
Poor health and safety-there are serious health and safety concerns for homeworkers
in some sectors. In other sectors, such as textiles, clothing and footwear, health and
safety is less of an issue, although conditions in homes may be poor, especially lighting
when work with detailing is being done, and ventilation if toxic substances (glue,
soldering) are used.
Discrimination against women-women are often paid lower wages within a particular
sector, with better paying work being given to male workers. Women are often paid
less for the same work than their male counterparts.
Use of child labor-children are often involved in homework. Homeworkers often
receive piece rates which are too low to support their families, and the only way to
make ends meet is through their children helping in production.
Lack of awareness of rights and organisation-homeworkers are usually unaware of
how many or what type of actors are involved in the subcontracting chain, and what
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responsibilities and obligations each of them has. Trade unions’ traditional methods
of organisation cannot be used in these situations, because homeworkers are
geographically scattered, competing for work, not always covered by existing laws
and unable to establish employee-employer relationships (ETI, 2010).
1.2 Factory based workers vs Home based workers
Garment value chains include a wide variety of sizes and types of firms, linked by
both formal and informal relationships. Homeworkers are part of many of these
chains. They do both ‘making through’ of complete garments and ‘section work’, i.e.,
one particular process such as fastening on pockets, collars, or cuffs. Some also do
specialized work, such as finishing, embroidery, quality inspection, packing etc.
Mostly value added jobs like embroidery, bead work, block printing are out-sourced
as these are dependent on seasonal trends and hence are required to be done only
when they are ‘in-vogue’. Apparel manufacturers invest in infrastructure and man
power in operations which are consistent and will always be required to complete/
manufacture a garment e.g cutting, stitching etc. and shy from investing in functions
which are fashion driven/seasonal. Such functions are then out sourced. Another
interesting model is where the business of value added products is so large that an
apparel manufacturer first utilises the in house capacity and any quantity beyond
is sub contracted to be done out of the factory. It is important to mention here that
these models exist for bulk quantities, more often than not, sampling is always carried
out in the apparel manufacturing premises. Sampling room embroiderers share the
problems they faced while making samples with whoever is making the bulk pieces.
The time standards and quality standards are also determined based on the sampling
room embroiderers.
Apparel manufacturers who sub-contract value added jobs then ensure that sub
contractors make samples and only when samples are approved, business with sub
contractor is confirmed. Since the chain is rather long, sub contractor who works
with home based workers gets the sample made from his ‘best’ home worker and
determines his own time and quality standards. While negotiating price with the
apparel manufacturer, the sub contractor has his sample making experience in mind.
Table 1 – Factory vs Home Based Embroidery workers (Source-Authors)
Factory based embroidery worker Home based Embroidery workers
Work in a factory premises/compound Works at home
Work is monitored by supervisor Work is self supervised
Frequent checking of work by quality Work is checked by quality controller only on
controller scheduled visits
Normally work in a group and hence Normally work individually, hence incase of a
solutions to problems are solved by group problem, either the home worker solves the
members or supervisor problem to the best of his/her ability(which leads to
assumptions and hence quality is affected) or waits
for the contractor(which leads to delays)
Trained on regular basis No such provision

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2.0 Objectives
To map the embroidery homeworkers in the existing supply chain.
To analyze parameters of productivity and impediments to Homeworker’s productivity.
To develop methods to enhance their productivity.
3.0 Methodology
The study was undertaken for an international apparel brand which sources
hand embroidered garments from India through it’s own sourcing office in New
Delhi. This sourcing office, sources products from various apparel manufacturing
companies(Suppliers), who sub contract the embroidery function.
The research was initiated by visiting these suppliers and understand the subcontractor
selection method and payment rate followed by the tracking of subcontractor layers
down till the homeworker level.
Interviews with home workers were conducted to understand, the problems that
homeworkers face as regards wages and productivity.
The sampling room of the major suppliers of the sponsoring company was used for
data collection for the purpose of generating a benchmark for the productivity in the
task of embroidery and embellishment (this benchmarking was established as these
workers were trained with experience of no less than 12 years).
The current productivity level of factory based embroidery worker and that of home
based embroidery workers was mapped using time study and their work processes
were assessed through motion study technique. This helped in identifying gaps in the
time and motion of the home embroidery workers vis a vis the factory embroidery
workers. Home based workers were then trained on better methods to enhance their
productivity.
The data collection involved 55 homeworkers in 4 different villages. It should be noted
that the workers studied constituted of a 100% female population and hence the
focus of the study is also directed towards the empowerment and capacity building
of these women workers.
4.0 Mapping Homeworkers and Wage Disparity
4.1 The key findings of data collection were as follows
Type of hand embroidery – All the respondents in these villages do – Adda Embroidery
(embroidery frame is size of a cot, the embroiderers either sit on stool or on the floor
to do the embroidery)
Age Profile-All of the respondents were below 35 years of age. The proportion of women
aged above 35 years was negligible reflecting that home-based work predominantly
engages younger women given the detailed nature and long hours of work involved
in crafts such as embroidery. An overall, of more than 50% respondents were below
25 years of age.
Family Status-50 percent of the respondents are married. Among the married women,
90 per cent of respondents had children, 40 per cent had 3-4 children and 30 per cent
of respondents had more than four children.

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Availability of work – Only half of the home workers got regular work with high variation
among villages. While one village reported irregular work during summers and monsoon
the respondents from the other village said work was fairly consistent all through the year.
Time Spent in Embroidery-Two-fifths of the home workers sit for 4-6 hours a day for work.
Hourly income – 60% of all respondents earned less than Rs. 12-13 per hour.
Earnings from Embroidery – A majority of home workers earned less than Rs. 1500 per month
despite the high levels of skill required, largely attributable to the fact that the work of the
home workers is not valued in terms of skill required but rather is treated overwhelmingly
as labour work. Approximately 40 percent of the home workers were not able to save.
One-fourth of the respondents were able to save between Rs.100-200 a month and had
bank accounts.
Health issues – 40 percent of the respondents indicated severe pain the back during
working hours. Women also reported pain in the eyes and headaches (35 per cent). Few
also indicated shoulder and neck strain.
Productivity – As represented in Figure 1, the homeworkers were producing at significantly
lesser productivity levels than the factory workers. The productivity data collected during the
primary research clearly showed considerable discrepancies between the productivity
of the sampling workers and the homeworkers and also large variations amongst
homeworkers were observed. While the standard time to complete the embroidery on
the given style was 16hrs, 75% homeworkers took more than 20 hours to complete the
piece.
*Standard time: Time taken by a sampling factory embroiderer including personal
allowances
Figure 1 – Time Taken by Home based Embroidery workers to complete an embroidery
job compared to standard time
The type of chain depicted in Figure 1 is the most common in cases where homeworkers
are involved in the process. The buyer(B) gives garment order to an apparel manufacturer/
supplier(S) who subcontracts the embroidery function to 1 or more sub-contractors(S1, S2)
who are present in the same city or another. This sub-contractor further sub-contracts the
work more than 1 agents who directly deal with the homeworkers. These agents are the
residents of the same village as that of the homeworkers, since it is easy to follow up by
regularly visiting the homes.
Figure 2 – Garment Supply Chain involving home workers

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This phase of the project describes the present state of the major stakeholders, which
are the homeworkers in the supply chain. It also, maps the supply chain in terms of
number of links and the payments that each of the link gets out of the chain. The
mapping helps identify the problems that exist in the chain. After collecting the data
from the first contractor, two of their sub contractors were chosen to move down the
chain.
Each sub-subagent was contacted separately, to visit the site of work.
These sub-subagents were asked about the prices that they pay to the Homeworkers
and the process of allocating work to them.
2 sub-contractors of the same supplier are taken up for the base line study, the chains
starting from each of these sub-contractors is named as chain1 & chain 2.
Table 2 – Cost Distribution in Supply Chain
Chain 1 Chain 2
Number of Villages 2 2
Product For Embroidery A dress panel to be embroidered (both chains have the same
product for embroidery)
Work Content (in hours) 18 hours
Payments:
Supplier to Sub contractor Rs. 525/piece Rs. 550/piece
Sub Contractor – Agent 1 Rs.260/piece Rs.250/piece
Agent 1 to HW workers 185 175-185
Sub Contractor – Agent 2 Rs.260/piece Rs.250/piece
Agent 2 to HW workers 180 180
If the supplier is passing the piece to the first sub-contractor at Rs. A then the first Sub-
contractor is keeping about 14.5 % with himself and passing the rest to the next level
and so on. This classification in Table 2 shows how the distribution of money happens
over the supply chain from the supplier to the homeworker.
Of the total cost allocated to embroidery in the cost of the garment, about 40% is
given to sub-contractor. The minimum wages of a skilled labour doing embroidery
work is Rs. 253 per day. As shown in table 2, the homeworker in question receives
about Rs. 70 less than the minimum wages.
4.2 Current Levels of Productivity & Potential for Improvement
Time study is a work measurement technique for recording the times and rates of
working for the elements of a specified job carried out under specified conditions
and for analyzing data so as to determine the time necessary for carrying out the job
at a defined level of performance.
Work measurement techniques find the time required to do a job by a qualified
operator working at a standard pace, using the standard method. The time in minutes
or hours calculated is known as standard time. The study highlights the use of stop
watch procedure of time study, work sampling for the embellishment process.
In order to arrive at the embroidery method that can be used as a standard to do
a particular job, various embroidery methods to do the same job were studied and
the method taking the least time was set as a benchmark. It is to be noted that, the
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workers studied for the time study were all trained and skilled in their work with work
experience of more than 12 years in the trade.
The process of embroidery can be divided into 3 operations, namely;
Assembling: this is the process of storing/collecting the embellishments in a container
close to the work area.
Pick up: This includes the process from picking of embellishments in a needle to the
disposal(i.e. till the needle point reaches the place of actual tacking)
Tacking: this is the process of stitching the embellishments on the fabric.
The opportunity for method improvement lies majorly in the operation of assembling
and pick up as the job of tacking does not involve non-value adding hand activities.
Also, the method of assembling and the method of pick up are closely related. And
this differs greatly with the type of embellishment used. Hence, it is necessary to find
a perfect combination of both the operations in regard to the embellishment in order
to come up with a method that does the same work in lesser time.
Time study was done for all the assembling & pick up operations. The task of bead
picking, has the greatest possibility of improvement, as it has longer hand travels and
other movements.
In Table 3, elements are classified as per the method they can be performed with.
Each method is given a relative code which is referred to in the time and method
study tables below.
Table 3 – Sub Classification of Embroidery Operations (codes are for reference only
and do not represent any standard)
Operation Method Code
In packet AP
Assembling On baithan(on the fabric to be embroidered) AB
In a Thread AT
Circular hand movements PC
Straight hand movements, horizontal to the surface PS
Pick up
Random hand movements PR
Directly from the thread PD
a) b) c)
Figure 3 – Pictures of Assembling Embellishments-a) in packet, b)on baithan, c)in a
thread
(Source of pictures-Authors)
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The time and motion study was conducted for various types of beads and sequins to
identify the best methods.
These include;
1. Flat sequin with centre hole
2. Cut dana
3. Round
beads
Flat sequin with centre hole Cut dana Round beads

(Source of pictures-Authors)
Time and Method Study
The study was conducted for various styles in order to cover the maximum type of
embellishments. Three to five embroiderers working on the same style were studied
performing the same operation in terms of time and method. Then the method which
took the least time was standardized for the rest of the artisans and their timing was
again recorded to rectify the effectiveness of the standardized methods. Tables 4.1-
4.3 show that each kind of embellishment requires a different method of assembling
and pick up.
The time is greatly reduced in flat sequins if they are threaded and then filled in the
needle for tacking. Cut dana on the other hand are oval beads and the volume of
each is more than the flat sequin, so picking them up directly from the container/
packet in which they are kept is difficult. It is more time efficient to assemble cut dana
on the baithan and keep picking a few at a time from the baithan itself.
As regards round beads, the most efficient method was found to be picking up beads
form a packet using circular hand movements.
Table 4.1a) – Time & Method Study Observations for Assembling & Pick up for Flat
S e q u i n
Element Time
E1 E2 E3 E4 E5
Assembling 6 80 5 100 10
Pick up 1104 7 1440 10 1392
Tacking 3216 3072 3360 3360 3168
To t a l ( i n
seconds) 4326 3159 4805 3470 4570
in minutes 72.1 52.65 80.08 57.83 76.16

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Method AP-PC AT-PD AP-PC AT-PD AP-PC
Table 4.1 – b) Time Study for AP-PD Method for Flat Sequin
Time taken
O l d N e w Difference
Worker Operation method method (in sec)
E1 Pick up 1104 12 1092
E3 Pick up 1440 10 1430
E5 Pick up 1392 15 1377
Table 4.2 a) – Time & Method Study Observations for Assembling & Pick up for Cut
D a n a
Process Element Time
E1 E2 E3 E4 E5
Pick up 1340 1240 1440 1160 1540
Tacking 2920 2800 3000 2700 3040
Total 4274 4050 4452 3867 4590
in mins 71.23 67.5 74.2 64.45 76.5
Method AP-PS AB-PS AP-PC AB-PS AP-PC
Table 4.2 – b) Time Study for AB-PS Method for Cut dana
Time taken
E1 Pick up 1340 1280 60
E3 Pick up 1440 1320 120
E5 Pick up 1540 1350 190
Table 4.3 a) – Time & Method Study Observations for Assembling & Pick up for Round
B e a d s
Process Element Time
E1 E2 E3 E4 E5

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Pick up 693 640 773 1347 1400
Tacking 3213 3133 3333 3533 3600
Total 3912 3773 4107 4887 5000
in mins 65.19 62.89 68.44 81.45 83.33
Method AP-PC AP-PC AP-PS AB-PS AB-PS
Table 4.3 – b) Time Study for AP-PS Method for Round beads
Time taken
E3 Pick up 773 700 73
E4 Pick up 1347 850 497
E5 Pick up 1400 820 580
5.0 Training Manual & Pilot Implementation

Based on the analysis of conditions of work, wages and productivity of home based
embroidery a training manual which would serve as a ready reckoner was developed.
The training manual is a guide to the whole embroidery process starting from the
tracing of the motif on the fabric to the stitching of the embellishments. The training
manual consisted of chapters on – Embroidery Work Place Layout, Glossary of Terms,
Tools and Raw Materials, Embroidery Processes and Health & Safety.
One phase of training of homebased hand embroidery workers was carried out to
confirm the efficacy of the manual. These pilot studies were conducted in actual
homeworking environment. Before & after implementation comparisons were then
recorded.
Factors studied to measure the results in terms of method and time were
Productivity factors: Embroidery: Assembling, Pick up, Stitching.
Safety Factors(Posture): Adda height, Adda Inclination, Bent neck, Seat, Curved back,
Hand rest, Lumbar support.
5.1 Pilot Implementation
5.1.1 Productivity Factor: Embroidery(Method)
The table 5 below highlights the methods used by the two workers (1 & 2) in applying
the two types of embroidery material (Round beads & Cut dana). Cells highlighted
red show that the method used by the worker does not match with the manual and
hence was changed to the method written in the adjacent cell which is picked form
the instructions manual.

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Table 5-Embroidery Method, Before & After Implementation of Training Manual

Before After Before After
Worker 1 Worker 2
Embroidery Sequin type
Assembling Round beads Packet Packet Packet Packet
Cut Dana Packet Packet Baithan Packet

Pick up Round beads Circular Straight Straight Straight
Cut Dana Straight Straight One-by-one Straight
Other changes applied during implementation:

Filling of more than one needle at a time(reducing the frequency of pick up operation).
Filling the needles completely.
Both the changes combined impacted in lesser number of thread locking. Resulting
in reduced overall stitching time as well.
5.1.2 Productivity Factor: Embroidery(Time)
The tables below represent the time taken by the 2 workers using round beads and
cut dana embellishments ( time taken is for 100stitches each). Before is time observed
before the implementation of the training manual.
Table 6 – Embroidery Time, Before & After Implementation of Training Manual
Worker 1 Worker 2
Sequin Round Beads Sequin Round Beads
Operation Before After Difference Operation Before After Difference
Assembling 6 6 0 Assembling 5 4 1
Pick up 80 28 52 Pick up 90 30 60
Stitching 150 140 10 Stitching 155 130 25
Total 236 174 62 Total 250 164 86
Sequin Cut dana Sequin Cut dana

Operation Before After Difference Operation Before After Difference
Assembling 7 5 2 Assembling 15 6 9
Pick up 80 22 58 Pick up 110 42 68
Stitching 160 114 46 Stitching 194 165 29
Total 247 141 106 Total 303 204 99
All values are in seconds

5.1.3 Health & Safety
The Table 7 includes factors which are a part of the manual described under Health
and Safety. These factors if corrected lead to a good posture which should be
maintained by the adda workers to avoid long term health issues.
It is important to note that the application of these factors by the homeworkers

609
may reduce the productivity (this will be very insignificant). But the importance of
maintaining a good posture for health related issues cannot be kept at a lower priority
than the productivity measurement.
Adda height was adjusted to suit the worker’s sitting height, and it was observed that
this change did not lead to a significant change in the time taken to complete 100
stitches.
This shows that the worker will take time to become habitual to the changed height.
Also, the posture was corrected on changing the height addressing the problem of
curved back.
The problem of bent neck was corrected on adjusting the frame inclination
Table 7 – Safety Factors(Posture) corrected during the pilot implementation
Before After
Adda height Wrong Corrected
Slightly inclined,
Adda Inclination No inclination, horizontal towards the worker
Bent neck Problem Corrected
Seat Present Present
Curved back Problem Corrected
5.1.4 The Right Hand Left Hand Process Chart
A Two-Handed Process Flow Chart individually shows the movement of each hand in
a manual process. It is typically used when analyzing a manual assembly process, to
help make it easier to perform. The chart is an effective tool to-Balance the motions of
both hands and reduce fatigue, reduce or eliminate nonproductive motions, shorten
the duration of productive motions and train new operators in the ideal method.
This chart gives the details of the movements of the hands of the workers during
working on the same piece before and after the implementation of the manual
Figure 4 Two handed process chart for Flat Sequins

610
6. 0 Productivity Improvement
Based on the training imparted to the hand embroidery workers and the time taken by
the homeworkers after training reduced significantly as compared to before training.
The post training implementation took into account 5 styles divided among 7 workers.
Style C was studied with 2 workers and a prominent difference in the times of both
can be seen, this is due to the lack of experience at work for the worker 4. She was a
young worker who had recently started working on the adda.
Table 8 – Hourly Earnings of Home Workers after Training
Earning per Estimated earning /
Time taken Earning per Time taken Minimum
Piece hour (piece day (Piece rate/
Worker before(b) hour(piece after(a) wage
rate rate/a) a*8hrs)
Hrs:mins rate/b) in Rs. Hrs:mins in Rs.
in Rs. in Rs.
A W1 100 7:05 14.12 4:15 23.53 188
A W2 100 7:20 13.63 4:11 23.90 191
B W3 260 10:00 26.00 7:40 33.91 271
C W4 240 16:26 14.60 13:48 17.40 139
253
C W5 240 7:58 30.13 4:56 48.65 389
D W6 20 1:09 17.40 0:46 26.12 209
E W7 250 9:10 27.27 5:45 43.48 348
As depicted in Table 8, the hourly earnings of workers in of training went up from 20-
75%.The per day earnings for 3 workers were more than the minimum wage.
CONCLUSION
The homebased working has legal, social and economical angles. While a lot is
desired from the government on this sector of the industry, there are issues which
those working with them can start addressing.
The embroidery home workers are a flexible manufacturing option for apparel
manufacturing/exporting industry of India. Many international apparel retailers
who source value added products from India and happy to allow the apparel
manufacturing companies to use this sector. There are so many home based
embroidery workers in India, the skill types available is very varied and in most cases,
they would be more cost effective than in-house embroidery facility. The apparel
manufacturing community, which depends so much on the home based workers
must seriously address issues of low payment and productivity of these workers, if they
want home based working to be a sustainable business segment. Home workers most
of the times are unaware of industry best practices and there is very little effort made
by the apparel manufacturer or the sub contractor to train them on these practices.
Method improvement techniques, might entail a small training and supervision
cost, but are likely to lead to better productivity of home based embroidery workers
and hence may lead to better lead times. Home based embroidery workers would
start earning better and those already in the trade may like to continue to do and
encourage new entrants.

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REFERENCES
Aggarwal, P. S. (2008). Tackling Social and Economic Determinants of Health through Women
Empowerment: The SEWA case study (Draft). New Delhi: WHO-SEARO.
Delaney, A., Burchielli, R., & Buttigieg, D. (2007). Mapping As Organizing: How Mapping Is Being
Used As An Homeworker Organizing Tool: Working Paper. Leeds, UK: Federation of Homeworkers
Worldwide(FHWW).
ETI. (2010, May 27). Indian National Homeworker Group. Retrieved Jan 29, 2014, from Ethical Trading
Initiative: http://www.ethicaltrade.org/in-action/programmes/the-indian-national-homeworker-group
Hiba, J. C. (1998). Improving working conditions and productivity in the garment industry. Geneva:
ILO.
Huws, U., & Podro, S. (1995). Employment Homeworkers. Working paper; Employment Homeworkers:
Examples of Good practise. ILO, Geneva.
McCormick, D., & Schmitz, H. (2002). Manual for Value Chain research on Homeworkers in Garment
Industry. Sussex, England: Institute of Development Studies(IDS).
Mohammad, Y. (2011). The mapping study of homebased workers in Uttar Pradesh. Mirzapur, Banaras,
FIrozabad District.
Muhundhan, M. (2013, May). Apparel industry: Ergonomics for improving productivity. The Indian
Textile Journal .
Narkhedkar, R. N., Dorugade, V. A., & Gupta, P. (2013). Quality and Productivity Enhancement in the
Garment Textile Industry. Fibre2Fashion .
Singh, D. Y. (1999). Training of Trainers Manual. Haryana: Haryana Forest Department.
UNESCO. (2014, February 24). UNSECO thesaurus.
WEIGO . (2010). INFORMAL WORKERS IN FOCUS: HOME-BASED WORKERS. Cambridge, MA, USA: WEIGO.
World Fair Trade Organisation. (2013, October 28). 10 Principles of Fair Trade. Retrieved February 20,
2014, from wfto: http://www.wfto.com/?option=com_content&task=view&id=2&Itemid=14

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Recyclable textile coverings based on an ecodesign methodology
RECYCLABLE TEXTILE COVERINGS BASED ON

AN ECODESIGN METHODOLOGY
Ulrike Rübsam1,, Achim Schröter1, Adjunct Prof. (Clemson Univ.) Dr.-Ing.
Yves-Simon Gloy1, Priv.-Doz. Dr.-Ing. Dipl.-Wirt.-Ing. Gunnar Seide1, Univ.-Prof.
Prof. h.c. (Moscow State Univ.) Dr.-Ing. Dipl.-Wirt. Ing. Thomas Gries1
1
Institut für Textiltechnik der RWTH Aachen University, Otto-Blumenthal Str. 1, Aachen, Germany
(Presenting author E-mail: achim.schroeter@ita.rwth-aachen.de; Corresponding author email: ulrike.
ruebsam@ita.rwth-aachen.de)
ABSTRACT
This abstract deals with a developed method for the production of recyclable textile
floor covering. Based on the result a transfer of the method to the transport sector was
conducted.
The method developed guarantee the analysis of the complete life-cycle of a
product. This enables the identification of the most important influence parameters
and reveals possible improvement potentials. A Life-Cycle-Assessment is to understand
the environmental impact of a product along all its life cycle stages and to improve
strategies for the design of an ecologically product.
Not only the optimization of the currently used materials and their production- as well
as distribution-processes but also the development of new products and processing
concepts is part of the method. Feasibility and practical application of the method
are verified by using carpets.
An examination of the complete process beginning with the production up to
the application of carpets is intended. This includes the spinning of fibres and the
production of carpets by weaving or tufting as well as the subsequent usage of the
products. The examination covers the usage of almost pure PA6 in a mono-material
carpet and also the usage of a new innovative separation layer.
Keywords: ecodesign methodology, recycling, separation layer, textile floor coverings,
Life-Cycle-Assesment
INTRODUCTION
People in Central Europe spend about 90% of their lifetime indoors (Uhl 2004). For this
reason it is important that there is a good indoor climate in these interiors. Carpets have
a positive influence on the indoor climate. They influence for example the acoustics
of a room to the effect that background sounds were insulated or fine dust is bound
(NN 2011, Wilson 2014).
In the carpet industry sustainability gets more and more important in Europe and
in the USA because there are severe sustainable restrictions for carpets. This has an
incentive by the general climate targets as they were taken in Paris 2015 or by the
Federal Government (BMUB 2014). In this way sustainable construction products in
the European Construction Regulations (Construction Product Regulation, PR) are
preferred (EU 2011). This has the effect that sustainable products must be preferred in

613
public buildings. Thus, there are many reasons to engage in sustainable carpets and
one way is thereby the recycling of carpets.
In 2014 more than 2 million tonnes of carpet yarns were produced. This is 5% of the
worlwide fibre production (N.N. 2015). Carpet yarns are only used for the pile yarn
of the carpet. Tufting is the most type of production for carpets. A tufted carpet
consists out of a primary backing, a precoat and a secondary backing. The carpet
construction is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Schematic representation of a carpet (left) cross-section through a carpet

(right)
It is very complex to solve individual materials from such a composite, which is designed
for a use about 10 – 15 years. Because of the combination of different materials,
which are difficult to solve from each other, the recycling of carpets is not worthwhile.
This is the reason why carpets are burned or in some countries even disposed of at the
landfill, although polymeric raw materials could be used in large quantities.
For this reason the EU project “EcoMeTex - ecodesign methodology for recyclable
textile coverings used in the European construction and transport industry” has
occupied with the recyclable design of carpets. The project was focused on carpets
for the object market. Such carpets have a pile yarn out of polyamide, which has
a very good resistance. That’s why it is peculiarly adapted for the high stresses in
public objects like offices or public buildings. Moreover, polyamide is the most
expensive material among the high-volume plastics and can be recycled very well.
Therefore, it is possible to disassemble polyamide 6 by the mean of polymerization
into its component parts, the monomers, and then to polymerize again. The resulting
polymer exhibits even the same properties as polyamide from crude oil.
During the project two different approaches have been investigated to make carpets.
On the one hand the production of a mono-material carpet and on the other hand
the simple separation of individual layers of the carpet. The most obvious approach is
to produce carpets, which are made out of one material. The results have shown that
a mono-material carpet out of PA6 is not possible. Because of the poor dimensional
stability of the carpet. An insufficient dimensional stability leads to the formation
of bulges. The separation layer concept was designed to be able to separate the
individual layers from each other and thereby to simplify the recycling process.
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Within the project two methods have been developed to realize a separating layer.
Firstly a thermally reversible process based on hotmelts and secondly a thermally
irreversible process based on microspheres.
Thermally reversible concept
The separation layer can perform the function of the primary backing. The idea is
shown in Figure 2. First, the primary backing is calendered. This step leads to a fusion
of the pile fibers on the bottom side. On the other hand it also simplifies the task
of the Hotmelts or the thermoplastic powder. The second step is the attachment of
the hot melts and a glas nonwoven. Both together form the separation layer in the
subsequent recycling. This concept is completed by the back, which is applied under
heat input on the glas nonwoven.
Molten Pile yarn
Primary backing
a Pile yarn
Glas nonwoven
Thermoplastic
Podwer
b
Secondary backing
with glas nonwoven
Tufted
primarybacking
with thermoplastic
c powder
Figure 2 Construction of the thermally reversible separation layer

The separation can be done at a relative low temperature of 100 °C.
Thermally irreversible concept
The second technology is also a thermally activated but irreversible separation layer.
The idea is that additives expand by heat and cracks occur in the matrix.
Microspheres can be used as additives in the glue, which expand to 50-times of
their size by the use of thermal energy (Fredlund 2011). These affect allows an easy
separation of the bonded components. In Figure 3 the operating principle of the
microspheres is shown diagrammatically.
The microspheres are combined with a polyolefin dispersion, which is a suitable matrix
for the microspheres and the primary backing for the carpet structure.

615
Figure 3 Operating principle of the microspheres in the primer

The activation of the microspheres can be done by heating the carpet with hot water.
The hot water leads to a complete separation without further mechanical stress.
RESULTS
Both separation layer concepts have been produced on a pilot-plant scale with a
production width of at least 50 cm continuously. Both concepts were examined in terms
of their requirements for carpets. These tests include the safety standards according
to EN 14041(DIN 2006), which examines fire performance, emissions, odor, harmful
components and electrostatic behavior, and the Classification tests according to EN
1307th (DIN 2008).
Furthermore a real life test was conducted. This test should analyze a possible different
behavior in the real usage of the new designed carpets. For this purpose, a test track
was built on a heavily frequented place in the Institut für Textiltechnik der RWTH
Aachen University, Aachen, Germany. The test track is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 Real Life Test Track at ITA

616
The results of the Real Life Test are:

• The recyclable carpets are comparable to industrial carpets.
• The predictions over the life of a carpet from the laboratory tests do not match
with the results in the Real Life Test.
• The carpets in the Real Life Test exhibit a much stronger burden than suggested
by the laboratory tests.
In addition a life cycle analysis (LCA) of the new carpet concepts was done.
CONCLUSIONS
Recycling of carpets is useful not only for environmental but also for economic
reasons. For the economic recycling it is essential that the carpets are designed with
a recycling concept. Mono-material concepts for carpets made from polyamide are
not an option, therefore a simple separation of the different layers by a separating
layer is necessary. There are several approaches to realize such a separation layer.
Two possible ideas were developed in the EcoMeTex-project.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research leading to these results has received funding from the European
Union´s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) [NMP.2011.3.1-1] under
grant agreement n° 280751.
REFERENCES
Uhl Maria, Hohenblum Philipp, Scharf Sigrid, Trimbacher Cristina, Hausstaub - Ein Indikator für
Innenraumbelastung, Wien, Berichte, Band 258; ISBN: 3-85457-753-2; 94 S., 2004
N.N., Zentralverband Raum und Ausstattung 2011, http://www.zvr-info.de/index.php/ kunden-
verbraucher/1657-laermbelastung-in-wohnungen-teppichboden-schafft-abhilfe.html, 2011
Wilson, A., The future for textile-based floorcoverings looks brighter, Technical textiles international
Band 23, Heft 5 Jahr 2014
MUB - Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, Bau und Reaktorsicherheit, 25.08.2014, http://www.
bmub.bund.de/themen/klima-energie/klimaschutz/internationale-klimapolitik/, 2014
Europäische Union (Hrsg.), Verordnung (EU) Nr 305/2011 des Europäischen Parlamentes und des Rates
vom 9. März 2011 zur Festlegung harmonisierter Bedingungen für die Vermarktung von Bauprodukten
und zur Aufhebung der Richtlinie 89/106/EWG des Rates, Brüssel: europäische Union 2011
N.N., The Fiber Year 2015, Worlds Survey on Textiles & Nonwovens, The Fiber Year GmbH, 2015
Fredlund, J., Master of Science Thesis: Synthesis of Thermo Expendable Microspheres., Sundsvall: KTH
Royal Insitute of Technology, Sweden, 2011
DIN EN 1307, Textile Bodenbeläge –Einstufung von Polteppichen, Deutsche Fassung EN 1307:August
2008
DIN EN ISO 14040, Umweltmanagement – Ökobilanz – Grundsätze und Rahmen-bedingungen (ISO
14040:2006), 2006

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in WEB2.0 eRA Development Trend of personal luxury goods in China
IN WEB2.0 ERA DEVELOPMENT TREND OF

PERSONAL LUXURY GOODS IN CHINA
Lisha Hu
Hubei Institute of Fine Arts, Wuhan, China
Presenting author E-mail: lisa_h@sina.com
ABSTRACT
Web 2.0 era marks an Internet upgrading in concept and idea, and the idea of a new
generation consumer has a profound change. China holds the potential to become
the biggest market for virtually everything and e-commerce is no exception. The new
characteristic of consumer market in Web2.0 era is interactivity. E-commerce more
and more becomes essential in the personal luxury goods market. Especially in China,
e-commerce shoppers continue to grow. Nowadays every luxury brands is facing the
“New Normal” challenge, and needing to adopt new marketing strategies. In Web2.0
era, the consumption of personal luxury goods will mature in China. According to the
birth of a New Luxury consumption, young generation consumers want not only to own
personal luxury function, but also to find meaning of goods, to have more personalize
options and exceptional lifestyle. Therefore, to develop “Digital Personal Custom” in
young market; to interactive emotional expression through Online & Offline; to create
a New Luxury for the middle class will be the development trend of the next decade
in China personal luxury goods.
In this thesis, different methods such as comparison, data analysis and example
demonstration is used to take deep insight of the feasibility of the theory proposed.
This article studies the characteristics of the consumer market in Web 2.0 era, and
comparing with difference of global luxury brands recent marketing strategy, and
predicting the next ten years development trend of personal luxury goods in China.
Keywords: Personal Luxury Goods, WEB2.0, China, Marketing Strategy, E-commerce,
Retail
INTRODUCTION
1. New Characteristics of Consumer Market in Web2.0 Era: Interactivity
In the Web2.0 era, the Internet has become an indispensable tool for the consumer
market; the network has become a daily exchange of the main means of
communication. “2.0” represents the user from the “passive acceptance” to “active
participation” of the role change. This reversal in the consumer market to stimulate a
new interactive marketing model, focusing on business and customer communication,
focusing on word of mouth shape. It represents the future trend. Web2.0 is a philosophy
and ideology of the upgrading of the Internet. It increased from a top-down centralized
control system dominated by a handful of Internet resources controller, into a bottom-
up by the majority of users of collective wisdom and strength oriented Internet system.
One of its main features is interactivity.
In this day and age, online consumers are no longer satisfied with mere purpose of
purchase, and pay more attention to the shopping experience. They actively put this
618
experience back to the Internet and affect the behavior of other consumers. In addition,
phenomenon of clustering becomes an important trend of future e-commerce
consumer behavior. Network based on common consumer preferences, formed their
own small groups. Groups of individuals will be bound by the values of the group,
thereby affecting their consumption behavior.
On the other hand, the era of big leading brand declined. Unicity of brand was
broken, and the individualism consumption prevails, customized age is coming. The
younger generation of luxury brand concept is a light, a small minority, self, alternative,
Hyun-rich mixture. The generation prefers a more personalized brand, “Participation”
is the leader and stimulate their consumption. In such an environment，brands and
consumers interact with channels. The more chance interact, the more goods are
sold, and consumers will be more loyal.
2. The Change of Personal Luxury Goods Market: Online
2.1 The Challenge for Luxury Brands in a “New Normal”
Aided by global currency fluctuations and continued purchases by “borderless
consumers,” the personal luxury goods market—the “core of the core” of luxury and
the focus of the Bain Luxury Study—ballooned to more than €250 billion in 2015. That
represents 13% growth over 2014 at current exchange rates, while real growth (at
constant exchange rates) has eased to only 1% to 2%. The slowdown confirms a
shift to a “new normal” of lower sales growth in the personal luxury goods market.
The challenge for luxury brands in this environment is to successfully navigate market
volatility driven by currency swings and fluctuating tourist flows. Europe posted sound
growth, primarily fueled by Chinese and US tourists attracted by a weak euro. Local
spending in Mainland China continued to contract slightly. Chinese consumers play a
primary role in the growth of luxury spending worldwide. They account for the largest
portion of global purchases (31%), followed by Americans (24%) and Europeans
(18%). Obviously, traditional marketing strategies have been unable to meet consumer
demand. In weak market time, how can luxury brands win the chance of interactivity
with Chinese consumers?
2.2 E-commerce Shopper Continue to Grow in China
As is known to all，China surpassed the US as the world’s largest digital retail market
in 2013, and they are purchasing massive amounts of products on overseas sites.
Chinese e-tailers progressively extending their geographic reach and gaining share
on a global basis. Specialized e-commerce players are outperforming the market
globally. According to data，E-commerce grew to a 7% market share in 2015, nearly
doubling its penetration since 2012. In China willingness to buy luxury goods online
is continuously increasing. “2010 China Luxury Report” found that nearly half of
respondents were willing to buy luxury goods online, 54% of Beijing respondents and
47% of Shanghai respondents has been prepared for online shopping luxury goods.
Female consumers are 10% higher than male consumers. Most users are fond of luxury
brands, including Chanel, Gucci, Prada. In addition, Balenciaga, Chloe, Bottega
Veneta, Miu Miu, which rise as a new star, is recognized and accepted by more
consumers. China’s e-commerce platforms now easily facilitate both C2C and B2C
transactions. The largest luxury brands with established direct online and omnichannel

619
platforms are outperforming. The e-commerce sites of worldwide continue to grow, a

response to customers’ demands for an omnichannel experience. Therefore, for luxury
brands, Chinese market has created a best communication platform in Web2.0 era.
2.3 Adopting New Marketing Strategies under WEB2.0 Era
Luxury consumers are craving authenticity as a means to guarantee quality and
distinction. Heritage, fine materials and the utmost attention to detail are vital elements
to draw the consumer into the brand. Brands are also realizing the value of placing
the act of making at the centre of the shopping experience. Now luxury brands can
take advantage of social media as a platform to communicate with consumers.
For example, Christian Dior released a video titled Le Petit Theatre Dior, showcasing
the making of a mini couture dress from S/S 1949. Precision, skilled handiwork and
expertise are expressed through this PR move that reflects wonderfully on the brand.
Van Cleef & Arpels has launched an online 360-degree tour of its workshops, aiming
to display and explain the fine jewelry manufacturing techniques. The interactive
experience immerses shoppers in this secret place where incredibly luxurious jewels
are made. Etro’s e-commerce site includes an art gallery section that features creative
influencers, art and emerging talent. How to communicate with consumers, especially
with young generation consumers? How to increase the chance of interactive with
potential consumers? In addition to the flexible pricing, luxury brands more need a
strong digital strategy and greater focus on interactive experience to win with Chinese
consumers online.
3. The Future of Personal Luxury Goods in China: Maturity
Luxury consumption in contemporary China’s development presents unique Chinese
characteristics, which is the promotion of market economy, social transformation,
rising consumer status and other reasons. There are also the guiding roles of intrinsic
psychological motivation and consumerist cultural values. Meanwhile, China is also
at the “ Substance dependence “ social stage, which with the historical necessity.
3.1 The Birth of a New Luxury Consumption
On the one hand, reform and opening up 30 years of stable and sustainable
economic growth, creating a new class - the middle class. This class includes the
old middle class, the new middle class (senior white-collar workers) and the edge
of the middle class (low-level white-collar workers). With the rapid increase in wealth
and abundant in product knowledge, they are increasingly dissatisfied with common
consumer goods, and turn to luxury goods, especially personal luxury. It makes
China’s luxury consumption not just in minority elite, but forwarding popularization.
Some scholars called this popular luxury consumption phenomenon as New Luxury
Consumption noted mass consumption of luxury goods in China is showing an
upward trend. Including young generation groups powerfully promote New Luxury
Consumption, who was born after reform and opening. “The new generation of luxury
consumers – millennial aged 25-34 – has matured. They’ve given up the logos; they
don’t want to outwardly display their wealth anymore. They like Chinese designers
like Huishan Zhang, Uma Wang and Qiu Hao, and interesting European brands like
Stella McCartney and Rick Owens,” said Jiang Shan, CEO and founder of Prowon
Consulting, at the FT Business of Luxury Summit in Monaco. A lot of these Chinese

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consumers look into luxury brands not based on style, but on the status they get from
owning them. Chinese shoppers have become much more focused on buying for
themselves, rather than for other people. They’re also much more demanding now:
they want to know a lot more about what they’re buying and why they should spend
their money on it.
One the other hand, with the development of the social economy, the New Luxury
concept has evolved from the Old Luxury whose focus on own. The New Luxury
specially focuses on experiencing. The luxury consumption become to show how
confident you are rather than how much money you have. That is to say, the old
luxury is defined from an external perspective while the new luxury is defined from
an internal perspective. In the Web2.0 era, the New Luxury concept has appeared
and become the mainstream in the advanced and mature markets of the luxury
industry. Meanwhile, consumers experience has shown its potential in redefining the
competitive scenario because it helps luxury brands to better and fully understand
their consumers through the perspective of customers. Thus, it is most important that
luxury brand have to innovate the method of interactive with customer. Great customer
experience management can answer how to attract consumers and increase their
loyalty. Because in Web2.0 era, consumers are no longer satisfied by a “thing” but an
extraordinary experience.
3.2 The Growth of Interactivity Consumption Experience
Luxury consumers in mature markets, such as Europe, the US and Japan, tend to
purchase locally. In the decade of future, China luxury consumers will become more
mature, therefore local spending will growth steadily.
3.2.1 “Digital Personal Custom” in Young Generation Market
In the Web2.0 era, mature luxury consumers are demanding greater individualization
from brands, while brands are showing more personality, daring to take a unique
position rather than copying competitors. Luxury consumers want to co-create and
are thrilled to get involved in the design process. Customising products in accordance
with their own tastes sparks a trend for design that can adapt to specific preferences. In
my opinion, these great changes will occur in China. With the growth of digital media
generation receptive to online customization, and China’s e-commerce platform will
be more optimize the online service.
High-end custom luxury in the minds of consumers will become a New Luxury. Because
a commodity in their eyes no longer reflected the value of goods, but would own life
philosophy and values repeat manifest. This model of consumption can give consumers
a perfect, unique interactive consumption experience. In the “personal custom” of
goods and services, they show off their wealth without any ingredients. Consumers not
just to highlight the status, pay more attention to investment in advanced custom time,
emotion and creativity, and so on. And they are eager to pursue “personal custom”
high quality, exquisite craftsmanship and uniqueness of taste and show themselves
to the pursuit of excellence in quality of life attitude. Meanwhile, big web provide
the friendly platform to business and customer. For example, Tinker Tailor is a new
interactive site, which enables consumers to customise offerings from designers such
as Vivienne Westwood, Marchesa and Rodarte for a limited period. Users can dictate

621
hem lengths, sleeve types, fabrics and colours to receive a more bespoke version of
designer fashion. Customers can comment on the luxury goods through the Internet,
and then changing the design or ordering the design. On the other hand, brands
can precisely attract target customers through exceptional consumption experience.
So faced with this upcoming trend, luxury brands should grasp the opportunity to
actively develop its “Digital Personal Custom” market in the Web2.0 era.
3.2.2 Interactive Emotional Expression through Online & Offline
Luxury brand marketing strategy usually was influenced by consumer brand
awareness. At the same time, luxury brand marketing strategy will also affect
consumers’ attitudes and behaviors. Both reinforce each cycle. The mature luxury
consumer spends more on luxury experiences than on products. According to Boston
Consulting Group, experiences account for 55% of the total luxury spend worldwide.
In China, 40% of total luxury is spent on experiences, 35% on cars and 25% on
personal goods. Consumer values are transitioning from owning something with status
to enjoying meaningful experiences. Consumers continue to pursuit self-knowledge
and transformation of luxury. Luxury brands should try to creative interactive model
to express brand identity and brand heritage, to communicate emotional expression
with consumers Online & Offline. Let consumers become brand participants and
interactive with brands, increasing the emotional connection and the stickiness of the
brand. Through the interactive emotional expression, the consumer becomes a part
of the lifestyle of brand. Therefore, whenever, consumers are looking for luxury brands
to give more emotional products or services. The luxury goods lacking of emotional
communication and interactive experience will only make the young generation feel
boring. As part of an omni-channel marketing plan, luxury brands will find novel ways
to enable online users to experience their brands. In the future, the New Luxury which
are those products or services can provide high emotional appeal. In the Web2.0
era, luxury brands can take advantage of social media, word of mouth marketing,
and digital media, allowing consumers to experience the full range of brand identity.
Luxury brands should interactive emotional expression with consumers, and creating
an omni-channel experience through Online & Offline.
CONCLUSIONS
In summary, the new characteristic of consumer market in Web2.0 era is interactivity.
E-commerce more and more becomes essential in the personal luxury goods market.
Especially in China, e-commerce shoppers continue to grow. Nowadays every luxury
brands is facing the “New Normal” challenge, and needing to adopt new marketing
strategies. In Web2.0 era, the consumption of personal luxury goods will mature in China.
According to the birth of New Luxury consumption, young generation consumers want
not only to own personal luxury function, but also to find meaning of goods, to have
more personalized options and exceptional lifestyle. Therefore, to develop “Digital
Personal Custom” in young market; to interactive emotional expression through Online
& Offline; to create a New Luxury for the middle class will be the development trend
of the next decade in China personal luxury goods.
REFERENCES
Journal:
Wang Wan, 2012. New Changing in the new luxury and luxury consumer knowledge Economy:

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Defining the concept

Cheng Dan, and Chen Zhangbin. 2011. Chinese luxury consumer preferences Empirical Study of
Factors Influencing
Yao Zhongjie. 2010. Web2.0 network marketing model to explore
LuoDang, 2011. The Study of the New Luxury Consumption Behaviors and Motivations in Today’s China
http://www.wla.hk
http://fmance.jrj.com.cn/consumer/201 I/01/2816559105491.shtml.
Laura Saunter, 2015. www.wgsn.com/Digital, Discernment & Discount – China’s New Luxury Drivers
http://www.bain.com/publications/articles/luxury-goods-worldwide-market-study-winter-2015.aspx

623
ART IN FASHION: ARTISTIC INTERVENTIONS BRING FORTH INNOVATION AND ENHANCE COMPETITIVENESS
ART IN FASHION: ARTISTIC INTERVENTIONS

BRING FORTH INNOVATION AND ENHANCE
COMPETITIVENESS
Konstantinos Agrafiotis1 , WenYing Claire Shih2
1
Fashion Ventures Consultancy, 42, Caroline House, 135 Bayswater Rd. London W2 4RQ, UK
2
Department of Fashion Design, Hsuan Chuang University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan
(Presenting author E-mail:agrafioteskostis@yahoo.com; Corresponding author email: wycshih@wmail.
hcu.edu.tw)
ABSTRACT
The innovation imperative reverberates across all sectors of the economy of any
country. This is even more pronounced in the creative economy which includes
the fashion industry. Fashion as popular culture has always sought legitimization
from the art world as its ephemeral character runs contrary to the eternal qualities
of art. This division between art and fashion tends to disappear, despite the highly
institutionalized nature of both spheres. Contemporary art has immersed itself into
commerce as the entrepreneurial forces of the aesthetization of commerce have
taken global dimensions due to the global state of culture. Artistic collaborations
between artists and fashion designers are not new, what is new addressed in this
study is the intensification of the crossover between the two spheres as the dynamics
created by collaborations can lead the fashion company to sensational innovation
and new sources of competitiveness. Moreover, artistic interventions can help
address the innovation challenges that fashion companies face. Empirical evidence
from the preliminary stages of this research demonstrates that interventions can bring
forth innovation and enhance competitiveness. Artful ways of working can unleash
the creative potential of people in the fashion businesses in profound ways as they
embrace possibilities and unexpectedness which lie at the heart of the creative
economy.
Keywords: artistic collaborations, innovation, creative economy, competitiveness
INTRODUCTION
The creative economy has become a significant and fast growing economic
sector as it generates jobs, raises incomes and conquers export markets (Lee 2014;
UNESCO 2013). The United Nations (2008) terms the Creative Economy as activities
encompassing creativity and innovation which are found in the two subsets, the
cultural and creative industries (CCIs). Thus, CCIs rely heavily on creativity based
innovation as this forms the foundation of creative businesses’ competitive strategies
(Cox, 2005; Pryce, 2005). CCIs are connected with various interfaces of their activities,
where the unifying force is the commercialization processes of ideas of expressive
value. At present, these ideas are not confined only to the traditional art forms but
spillover to a plurality of sectors in the creative economy (Andari et al. 2007). As a
result, the business core of both industries needs to be visualized within the context of
both high and “low” art for the aesthetization of commerce takes center stage in the
creative value chain Postrel (2004).
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Andari et al. (2007) claim that it is imperative for CCIs to put in place the so-called
effective transmission mechanisms so through cross-fertilization creative ideas may
flourish. The transmission mechanisms can foster the creative capacity of a company
to develop new organizational models and deal successfully with change and
transformation especially in volatile sectors such as fashion (Schiuma and Lerro
2014; Molina, Oliver, and Domenech 2013). The authors argue that the concept
of artistic interventions can be related to the transmission mechanisms because
interventions can foster creativity-based innovation and generate value, which
lead to competitiveness. Studies suggest that companies of different sizes in Europe
which are involved with artistic interventions may contribute to improvements at both
strategic and operational levels (Schiuma and Lerro 2014; Berthoin Antal and Strauss
2013).
In terms of the fashion industry, creativity is central to competitiveness for differentiation
advantages can be built on image, identity and products (Richardson 1996).
Furthermore, creativity-based innovation in fashion is usually non-technological but
stylistic as it depends on style variables (Cappetta, Cillo, and Ponti 2006; Tran 2010;
Cillo and Verona 2008). The transmission mechanisms in their transformative role of
artistic interventions may in turn influence stylistic innovation tactics and may trigger
alternative fashion business strategies of international competitiveness.
Figure 1. The conceptual framework of artistic interventions
ART AND FAHSION INTERRELATIONS

The understanding of art in fashion lies in the fact that both boundaries are porous
thus facilitating the cross-innovation mechanisms. Art, due to its high culture status, is
maybe restricted in its capacity to communicate to a mainstream audience despite
the fact that art is concurrently attracted to the commerciality of fashion, and often
attempts to negotiate this crossover (Taylor 2005). On the other hand, fashion, due to its
ephemeral character, has always sought legitimacy from art as the tension between
art and commerce is a persistent trait of fashion (Aspers and Godart 2013). Geczy

625
and Karaminas (2012) argue that style is possibly the critical overlap between art and
fashion. Style may be the unifying force that links art and fashion. There is no style-less
fashion as the fashion-world strives to imbue clothing collections with style. The same
principle applies to artists who also try to make works of art in a compelling style
(Geczy and Karaminas 2012). Thus, as Taylor (2005) suggests, fashion exists between
high art and popular culture.
The Intervention of the Arts in Business Management
Schiuma and Lerro (2014) state that the cross fertilization of the Arts and management
and its potential for innovation can be founded upon the 4Ps, namely, people,
practices, principles and products. More particularly, once artists (people) enter
a company can bring forth skills and knowledge in the sense that they can foster
refinements and further the development of the company’s soft capabilities through
its workers. Practices relate to creative mechanisms put in place by artists since these
can be incorporated into the traditional business practices. Fresh practices may
influence perceptions on seeing and doing things differently. Principles correspond to
shifting mindsets in the traditional business ecosystem as artists’ worldviews may assist
workers to concentrate on experiential and exciting value creation. Products refer
to the outputs of these cross-fertilized collaborations either in physical form such as
products laden with symbolisms and/or changes in the organizational infrastructure
(Schiuma and Lerro, 2014).
Lehikoinen (2014) defines artistic interventions (AIs) in companies as: “commissioned
artistic processes, which are led by professional artists and take place in organizational
settings….. The outcomes of these processes provide opportunities for the participants
and the client organization to perceive its issues and topics from fresh perspectives- to
see things differently.”
Berthoin-Antal and Strauss (2013) focus on AIs in a number of European organizations.
AIs can differ vastly in duration and also the number of people involved in them. They
are also ephemeral by nature so the responsibility of their contingent lasting effect on
the organization lies in the hands of senior management and its workers. In a similar
vein, Schiuma (2009) referring to art-based initiatives led mainly by businesses, identifies
three types of artistic interventions according to their duration and management
objectives. These are: the intervention the project and the program. He suggests that
AIs may have a more lasting effect, when companies engage either in projects and/
or programs as these can induce a sustained involvement in arts.
Business initiatives on art-based interventions need to be seen more as value drivers
and less in monetary terms for they can influence the formulation of intangible
assets. Therefore, arts-based initiatives, although they do not directly correspond to
commercial activities, can act as proxy for companies because they may develop
products and services by infusing them with artistic inputs, thus increasing their value
in consumer markets (Schiuma, 2009).
Berthoin-Antal and Strauss (2013) identify the following eight impacts: 1.Strategic
and operational impacts, 2.Organizational development, 3.Relationships, 4.Personal
development, 5.Collaborative ways of working, 6.Artful ways of working, 7.Seeing more
and differently, 8.Activation. This is a more technical division since in reality all eight

626
impacts interact with each other. They also argue that the most significant impact
brought forth is the artful ways of working as this can shift mindsets from efficiency
and control values, to leaders and workers re-imagining new untapped areas of
possibilities. This in turn increases the chances for the emergence of innovation.
Stylistic Innovations
Innovation in style is associated less with technological changes and more in symbolic
and aesthetic transformations (Tran 2010). The most important point in this kind of
innovation is the engineering of intangible meanings and symbolisms as this forms
the principle concern of managers in fine fashion firms (Cappetta, Cillo, and Ponti
2006). Stylistic innovation possesses a number of distinctive characteristics, such as
social and aesthetic compatibility among others (Cappetta, Cillo, and Ponti 2006;
Tran 2010). Aesthetic compatibility refers to the visual complementarities of a fashion
collection where all clothing items and accessories match each other, thus generating
a cohesive aesthetic appearance. Social compatibility refers to the system of social
meanings attached to fashion by specific social segments.
CASE STUDY
The authors employ the interpretivist methodology in their research which is inherent
in the qualitative methods tradition. AIs are nearly impossible to quantify, thus the
case study method deems appropriate for this study. The case study refers to a
contemporary menswear company operating in Southeast Europe (Greece) and its
plan to penetrate the Russian market. To be noted, the company already expanded
its retail presence in the Balkans covering nearly all countries in this region. The Russian
market represented huge potential due to its untapped upper-middle menswear
market. Another important reason for entering Russia was the cultural affinity of the
two nations that goes back centuries. The company teamed up through a formal
contractual agreement with a Russian investor who would act as the retail distributor
of the brand. Store planning was scheduled for the opening, within a year, of twelve
shops in shopping malls covering mainly Russia’s European part. The company’s retail
architect designed a variety of options for the Russian retail fascia, and during the
selection process it emerged that either the retail fascia would take an impersonal
global look following retail trends of international expansion or it would be better
to give it a subdued feel of Greek-ness as a differentiation characteristic due to
the perceived cultural affinity. The architect worked on the idea of Greek-ness and
proposed a contemporary interpretation of white washed walls enhanced by the
lighting batteries which could represent the Mediterranean light, this in combination
to the global retail design style. Following this combined version, accepted by both
partners, the first two stores in Moscow and St. Petersburg were scheduled for opening
in late August to accommodate the autumn collections. The collections were modified
in materials and some design features to better represent the more expensive tastes
of the Russian public. This fashion design upgrading coupled with the new store fascia
demanded a more dramatic visual merchandising strategy where the Greek-ness
element should be reflected in a contemporary mode to the store window displays
and also it had to blend in a harmonious manner with the store interiors. The corporate
visual merchandiser (VM) came up with the idea of collaborating with the chief set
designer of the National Theater whom he knew and admired her work in the theater

627
productions. The set designer was trained at the National Academy of Arts as a
sculptor, expressed surprise at the beginning with this “commercial” offer; however,
she accepted the challenge and proceeded with the artistic intervention. Visual
merchandising and theatre set design are in reality parallel activities the difference
being the end purpose as VM is more retail oriented and set design is more a form of
art. The set designer was introduced to the company’s owner where the collaboration
was agreed for a period of initially two seasons. The set designer was also introduced
to the chief fashion designer as she wanted to know the collections philosophy, the
contemporary elements and the modifications rationale for the Russian market.
After deliberations with the chief designer and visual merchandiser, she proposed a
further collaboration with the curator from the museum of Contemporary Art as she
had the idea of making reproductions of works of art from an internationally famous
Greek contemporary artist who was now deceased. The museum’s curator initially
opposed to this commercial use, but after the reassurance from the set designer, she
finally agreed under the condition. She had to see and approve the reproductions
before their mounting as props. Her concern was that the museum’s name could be
at stake in the event that the reproductions could make a mockery of the artist and
subsequently could impact the museum’s reputation as a serious Arts establishment.
Following a formal contractual agreement between the company and the museum’s
curator the visual merchandiser proceeded with the reproductions after delving into
the museum’s archives. She picked a few of the art works and in collaboration with the
visual merchandiser she remodeled them to fit the store windows in an unobtrusive
manner since clothing was the protagonist and not the props. Following the technical
specifications of the stores, given by the architect she configured a scale model of
the windows and some of the stores’ layouts where she placed scale models of the
remodeled reproductions. The company’s owner and the museum’s curator were
invited to see and approve the props who were both delighted with the visual imagery
and the Greek-ness element. The finished real scale props were transported together
with the modular fixtures of the two stores to Russia and after the retail contractor
completed all fixtures and fittings the VM worked on the merchandise in the store
windows and in-store displays. The store openings were on schedule in late August to
present the autumn collections and they received accolades for both the collections
and the props alike from the public which acknowledged the Greek-ness element
of the stores and reacted positively. The collaboration at this initial stage of the
artistic intervention was extended for another year where the set designer assumed
the role of adviser to the company’s design and VM teams in terms of introducing
them to the contemporary art scene. This intervention activity was decided by the
company’s owner because it could enhance their creative output and subsequently
the company’s competitiveness as a differentiator factor in all retail markets of the
brand’s operations.
Findings and Conclusions
The authors can verify at least at this preliminary stage of their research that AIs indeed
can provide the companies in the creative economy with the means to innovate
and enhance their competitiveness. More analytically this indirect influence can be
attributed to the following reasons.
First, the transmission mechanisms between art and fashion can be viewed as AIs as
628
they can serve as conduits of a spillover effect in the two realms. Art is indeed more
restricted in commercial terms to reach a wider public, thus the initial reservations
of the set designer and the museum’s curator. This can be especially prominent in a
fashion company which operates in the mainstream fashion stratification and not in
the luxury segment where collaborations between artists and luxury brands are more
common and also pronounced. However, the company’s owner has demonstrated
leadership and resolute to proceed with the intervention.
Second, the aesthetization of commerce phenomenon demolishes the boundaries
between high art and design as stylistic innovation compels both art and fashion to
unify in the production of style for this is the major indirect output of the collaboration
in the study. The indirect impact also conforms to the literature as on the outset it
would have been difficult to calculate the financial returns on this artistic investment.
Thankfully the company’s owner was educated as a master tailor in Paris so he could
appreciate artistic output as he has realized immediately the artistic contribution as a
differentiation factor irrespective of immediate monetary returns.
Third, the 4Ps principles are shown in the case study as the project has proved that the
company sustained its commitment to the Arts. More specifically, the artist entering
the company has refined the much needed soft capabilities of the company. The
artist also has helped the company to alter its usual mode of operating because
she has induced the creative staff to see and act in a different way. Thus, practices
and principles were influenced in the collaboration as artful ways of working indeed
have brought about creative changes and shifted mindsets of senior management
who not only were convinced to collaborate but also extended the collaboration
as they realized its potential for innovation. With regards to the products these have
included symbolisms translated into the visual imagery of Greek-ness expressed in the
store windows and in-store merchandise displays. This has helped to differentiate the
company’s offer.
Fourth, in terms of stylistic innovation characteristics, these were both influenced by the
intervention as the artist addressed aesthetic considerations by fusing the work of the
contemporary artist to this of the merchandise by collaborating with the chief fashion
designer thus achieving aesthetic compatibility. Also the social compatibility was
successfully addressed as both the artist and the corporate design team forecasted
well the shopping behavior of Russian customers in terms of the Greek-ness element
and the design and material modifications.
On balance, the authors argue that AIs can indeed bring forth innovation which can
lead to competitiveness in the event that senior management is determined to fuse
artistic practices to these of its internal operations by orchestrating refinements which
can also benefit its workers.
REFERENCE
Andari, R., W. Hutton, A. O’Keefe, P. Schnepder, and H. Bakshi. 2007. Staying Ahead: The Economic
Performance of the UK’s Creative Industries London: The Work Foundation.
Aspers, P., and F. Godart. 2013. Sociology of fashion: order and change. The Annual Review of
Sociology, 39: 171-192.
Berthoin Antal, A., and A. Strauss. 2013. Artistic Intervention in Organisation: Finding Evidence of Values-
Added. Berlin: Culture Programme of the European Commission.

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Cappetta, R., P. Cillo, and A. Ponti. 2006. Convergent design in fine fashion: an evolutionary model for
stylistic innovation. Research Policy, 35: 1273-1290.
Cillo, P., and G. Verona. 2008. Search styles in style searching: exploring innovation strategies in fashion
firms. Long Range Planning, 41: 650-671.
Geczy, Adam, and Vicki Karaminas. 2012. Fashion and Art: Critical Crossovers. In Fashion and Art,
edited by A. Geczy and V. Karaminas. London: Berg.
Lee, N. 2014. The creative industries and urban economic growth in the UK. Environment and Planning
A, 46: 455-470.
Lehikoinen, K. 2014. Artistic Interventions As a Strand of Artistic Research Paper Read at The Impact of
Performance as Research, at Helsinki.
Molina, B., J. Oliver, and R. Domenech. 2013. Drivers of Beautiful Innovation: Artworks Restoration by
Museums. In “Innovation, Strategy and Entrepreneurship” The 35th Druid Celebration Conference
Barcelona, Spain Ramon Llull University.
Nations, United. 2008. Creative Economy Report. In The Challenge of Assessing the Creative Economy:
Towards Informed Policy Making. Geneva and New York: United Nations.
Postrel, V. 2004. The Substance of Style. London: HarperCollins Publishers.
Richardson, J. 1996. Vertical integration and rapid response in fashion apparel. Organization Science,
7 (4): 400-412.
Schiuma, G., and A. Lerro. 2014. Do Cultural and Creative Industries (CCI) Matter For Innovation and
Value Creation In Knowledge-Based Business? Aims, Forms and Practices of Collaboration In Italy. In
7th Knowledge Cities World Summit Tallinn, Estonia: Tallinn University & World Capital Institute.
Taylor, M. 2005. Cultural transition: fashion’s cultural dialogue between commerce and art. Fashion
Theory, 9 (4): 445-459.
Tran, Y. 2010. Generating stylistic innovation: a process perspective. Industry and Innovation, 17 (2):
131-161.
UNESCO. 2013. Creative Economy Report: 2013 Special Edition. Paris: United Nations Organization for
Education, Science and Culture (UNESCO).

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LOCAL FASHION VALUE CHAINS: SUCCESS

FACTORS AND COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGES
RUDRAJEET PAL1, JONAS LARSSON1, HEIKKI MATTILA1,2, MARKKU HONKALA2
1
Department of Business Administration and Textile Management, University of Borås, Allegatan 1,
501 90, Borås, Sweden
2
Department of Materials Science, Tampere University of Technology, Korkeakoulunkatu 6, 337 20,
Tampere, Finland
(Presenting author E-mail: rudrajeet.pal@hb.se; Corresponding author email: rudrajeet.pal@hb.se)
ABSTRACT
Globalization had forced fashion companies to move their manufacturing to low
cost bases. However, in the recent times several challenges like poor transparency,
ethical issues, high transportation costs, long lead times, etc. have motivated major
reshoring initiatives. Steadily the fashion companies in the west are relocating back
their production and are motivated by trends of greater product customization, supply
chain transparency and digital technologies. In addition, several initiatives have been
launched to support this development, for example the US initiatives: [TC]2 “Reshoring
Fashion Initiative” and “Apparel Made for You”. However detailed scholarly discussion
on what enables success of such local fashion value chain models are limited. This
paper explores the drivers, critical success factors and competitive advantages in
designing such local fashion value chains by drawing inferences from a European
initiative called “fromRolltoBag”. An action research is employed to collect empirical
data through observations and interviews with the project stakeholders. Results show
that the competitive success lies in designing a consumer-driven, digitally-enabled
fashion value chain, enabled by the strategy of differentiation through: (i) advanced
digitalization of design and manufacturing operations, (ii) flexible, integrated and
agile operations, and (iii) enhanced customer experience/interaction with the
extended product-service system.
Keywords: Local manufacturing, consumer-driven, digital fashion, competitive
advantage, critical success factor
INTRODUCTION
Globalization and cost advantages in many industries have resulted in large-scale
outsourcing of manufacturing to low-cost bases (Kinkel and Maloca 2009, Martínez-
Mora and Merino 2014), however resulting in numerous negative effects and risks as
well, e.g. increased delivery times, decreased delivery precision, unfulfilled demands,
extra inventory, cultural differences and language barrier along the supply chain.
Such is true in case of the fashion apparel industry thus affecting the supply chain
performance due to long lead times, high forecasting errors, mark downs, lost sales
(Mattila, King, and Ojala 2002). Further a number of macro- and environmental factors,
like rising offshore wages, job loss in western nations, vis-à-vis growing environmental
concerns, demand for faster and greener supply chain, etc. have proved to be major
drivers of rethinking manufacturing locations closer to the end customer/consumer
thus strengthening the initiative to “bring back manufacturing” near the country of

631
origin (Ellram, Tate, and Petersen 2013, Kinkel 2014). Numerous drivers, like higher
product quality and consistency, skilled workforce, better image of being Made in the
country of origin, lower inventory levels, better responsiveness to changing customer
demands, minimal intellectual property and regulatory compliance risks, improved
innovation and product differentiation have been highlighted in the studies by Kinkel
(Kinkel 2014, Kinkel and Maloca 2009). Thus the phenomenon of reshoring has gained
widespread attention in the business community and political platform (Tate 2014,
Reshoring Initiative 2015). In the fashion apparel industry, steadily the companies in
the west are relocating back their production and are motivated by triple bottom lines
of sustainability. Several initiatives have been launched to support this development,
for example the US initiatives: [TC]2, “Reshoring Fashion Initiative” and “Apparel Made
for You”.
The existing literature includes much research on manufacturing location decisions
and increasing attention towards reshoring, examining factors that reinforce
competitiveness in re-shored manufacturing in high cost environments (cf. Ellram,
Tate, and Petersen (2013)), however, there is a clear lack of research and insight
from a value chain perspective. Rudberg and Olhager (2003) have highlighted
that there are distinct differences in key operations strategies and issues underlying
success to competitive manufacturing networks and inter-firm supply chains, in terms
of focus, direction, extent and balance. For instance, supply chains take a much
wider focus on coordinating inter-firm relationships and in balancing collaborative
interfaces compared to a narrower intra-firm manufacturing focus. Further, the
scholarly discussion on salient factors enabling competitive manufacturing, have
mostly analysed them separately without exploring their potential effects to achieve
competitive “local value chain” in a high cost environment. Further, Fratocchi et al.
(2014) have highlighted that the reshoring phenomenon holds different perspectives
in labor-intensive and capital-intensive industries; even though Martínez-Mora and
Merino (2014) have studied the reshoring initiatives in the labor-intensive context
of Spanish footwear industry, scholarly discussion is still limited in context to retail-
dominated industries, e.g. fashion-apparel.
In this context, this paper explores the key drivers, critical success factors (CSFs) and
competitive advantages required in designing such “local fashion value chains” by
drawing inferences from a European initiative called “fromRolltoBag” (fRTB).
LITERATURE REVIEW
The concept of “local value chain” has not gained prominence in business and supply
chain management literatures, except that in cluster and regional development
studies. A search with “local value or supply chains” as keywords on Scopus yielded
merely 5 and 19 results respectively with most of them focussed towards cluster and
regional competitiveness. Grounding our research within the scope of supply chain
management we have thus used competitive manufacturing (along with reshoring)
as the dominant literature base for review.
Various operations and supply chain related factors have been emphasized
separately to reinforce competitive manufacturing in high cost environments, viz.
manufacturing location proximity to final market, product customization, flexibility
and responsiveness, strategic alliances and networks, manufacturing strategy, role of

632
automation and information technology (IT), innovation, knowledge, education and

skills, etc.
Success of “local value chains” based on competitive manufacturing in high cost
environment largely depends upon the close proximity to various stakeholders,
particularly the customers and markets to attain market seeking advantages (Ellram,
Tate, and Petersen 2013). MacCarthy and Atthirawong (2003) have specified how this
proximity induces speed and responsiveness not only in the supply process but also
in sales market by reducing delivery lead time resulting in a possibility to shift from
forecast-driven to a demand-driven chain. This also provides a possibility to achieve
higher flexibility and better quality, with more focus towards product customization.
Product customization is an important factor for success of competitive manufacturing
in high cost environment, which demands changes in the processes of manufacturing,
distribution and delivery of products. The supply chain and manufacturing strategies
needs to be restructured (Hayes and Wheelwright 1984), as mass customization requires
a flexible and responsive supply chain, because of the increased product variety. This
in turn creates complexity, which needs an agile supply chain. Customers get value
as they are able to get customized products, and at the same time, manufacturers
are allowed less excess inventory and markdowns.
In a study of manufacturing offshoring and backshoring activities of German
manufacturing companies, Kinkel and Maloca (2009) have highlighted the key role
of flexibility and quality as decision competitiveness factors for local supply chains to
accommodate such complexities. Such flexibility in the manufacturing system can be
availed in various ways, e.g. ability to manufacture and deliver in various batch sizes
and differing degrees of complexity, the integration of activities and the effective flow
of information (Zairi 1993). Literature has highlighted this aspect as responsiveness to
succeed in time-based competition in order to make rapid and balanced response
to unpredictable changes in the today’s turbulent manufacturing environment
(Holweg 2005). In this context, role of future manufacturing systems and advanced
manufacturing technologies (AMT) have been emphasized by Zairi (1993) to develop
competitiveness through flexibility, quick response and innovativeness by utilizing
various technological innovations such as CAD/CAM, robotics, advanced information
and communication technology (ICT) tools, etc. Competitive manufacturing
companies effectively deal with the concurrent evolution of products, processes and
production systems through the integrated use of different innovative methodologies
and digital tools implementing these methodologies that can interoperate properly
and effectively (Tolio et al. 2013).
Yet another factor enabling competitive high cost manufacturing is the focus towards
knowledge-base as a strategic resource. Westkämper (2013) has described the need
of higher education and skills to facilitate future manufacturing in Europe demanding
more specialized know-how of complex and customized products and processes.
This creates opportunity to design and optimize a more holistic manufacturing
system, including product development and realization, and logistics (Manufuture
2004). From the make/buy perspective, companies without this knowledge base
involve in strategic alliances and networks for availing complementary skills for
product development, provision of manufacturing and marketing, or technology.

633
This opens up further possibilities for new servitized business models by moving
beyond manufacturing and by offering services and solutions through the products
(Vandermerwe and Rada 1988). Open manufacturing is hereby a new concept for
the production of customised physical goods, based upon flexible network of small
production units aligned to mass customisation and rapid manufacturing for fast
and flexible fulfilment of small size orders. The coordination and support with vital
services of all these small production units are performed by a manufacturing service
provided (MSP) (Open Garments 2009).
METHODOLOGY
The method used in this study is based upon a participatory action research (PAR)
based on an EU-funded project called fromRolltoBag. More project details can be
retrieved from the project website (http://fromrolltobag.eu/). The project serves as
an ideal setting or vehicle for revealing deeper understanding of the assumptions
and consequences of our actions (Ayas and Zeniuk 2001), in this study revealing
understanding of consumer-driven local production system based on virtual design
and digital manufacturing. This started with observing the current problems in
delocalized apparel production system based on forecasting, long lead times and
low sell-through (Mattila, King, and Ojala 2002) resulting in the ideation for the project.
Similar ongoing projects like Reshoring Initiative and Apparel Made for you (AM4U)
also resulted in reflecting on the current industrial practices.
In the adopted PAR methodology, cyclical activities involving observation (reviewing
current processes), reflection (identifying what needs to be improved), planning
(discussing and selecting implementation strategies) and action (reviewing and
implementation of interventions) are followed, based upon the iterative action
research loop proposed by McNiff and Whitehead (2002). Within the scope of fRTB,
data was continuously collected since January 2015. A multi-method process of
data collection was used, which emphasized iteration between planning, acting,
observing and reflecting. We conducted a state-of-the-art review of literature on
technologies and systems available as a part of knowledge search on: (i) 3D
product development (avatar, sales configurator, interactive rendering), (ii) mass
customization types (made to measure etc.), and (iii) digital production technologies
(e.g. digital printing, digital cutting etc.). Further we collected qualitative data through
3 technical meetings among the core partners, a consumer survey, and interviews
with two industry experts, 2 focus group discussions (each on “Enabling virtual design
& sales” and “Enabling digital manufacturing technology”). In addition, field notes
were taken of many informal conversations, observations, e-mail conversations, and
minutes of the working group meetings and the advisory meetings of the research
group. A proper log of all these data was maintained and shared through cloud.
The consumer survey was conducted to gauze consumers’ preference towards such
digital interact-ability for customization possibilities. The interviews conducted with the
industry experts aimed at identifying the current status and drivers and factors for
success of such fRTB concepts in the industry. Further the joint technical meetings were
conducted with continuous and iterative reflection throughout the action phases
(Flick 2009), on data gathered to develop a system outline (based upon exploring the
emergent key stages for realizing such fRTB value chains). This consists of seven stages,
viz. preparation, 2D pattern-making, marker making, measurement, 3D visualization,
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production and PLM-ERP. Further a multi-tiered input-output model was developed

based on (i) virtual online design and sales, (ii) local digital manufacturing and
delivery, and their interact-ability. A plan was generated to develop and execute pilot
fRTB lines for different product types (e.g. men’s’ shirt, women’s’ jacket), different print
designs, sizes and components. A choice of suitable materials and production line
technology (for printing, cutting and assembly) were made. Throughout the project,
the data were discussed in the working group and research team until stable themes
and plans developed. Presently fRTB is still ongoing and concentrating on realizing
these pilot lines.
Together with the working group, the authors have been involved as participants
to facilitate change and implement the fRTB concept. We reflected on the findings
throughout the action phases, developed subsequent plans for implementation. The
researchers’ role varied between the stages of the research, being project coordinator,
leader and key researchers and accordingly conducted tasks, designed solutions and
analysed data. Overall the authors were actively involved in overseeing the project,
designing and reviewing several documents and tools produced by the project.
FINDINGS
The findings of the different phases of the PAR show that the key to designing a local
fashion apparel value chain lies in tailoring a consumer-driven, digitally-enabled
chain.
As a matter of fact, it was revealed that consumers are still reluctant to pay double
or thrice just for “made in own country” label unless there is some degree of co-
design or customization associated with it. It was highlighted from the perspective of
consumers’ experience the “feeling of ownership through co-designing” was crucial.
fRTB emphasized this by incorporating implementation of an interactive human-
like avatar in work package (WP 3) which can interact with consumers, for e.g. to
customize fit, have conversation, produce virtual garment try-on etc. This avatar is
supported through 3D sales configurator and rendering (in WP 4) which a consumer
can alter flexibly (e.g. 3D product image, colour and component customization,
background and movement, etc.) on any smart platform to enhance own experience.
This customization ensures a made-to-measure (M2M) possibility to make orders on
demand subsequently resulting in less/no inventory and forecasting error.
To support such a consumer-driven value chain for customized product, digitalization
of all key processes is important to ensure less cost and higher speed. It was
highlighted by one of the experts that in order to succeed in a high-cost environment,
manufacturing must involve little labour otherwise there is no real cost advantage.
Even though digitalization has become common to every supply chain to achieve
various operational advantages, new digital processes like digital and 3D printing,
digital cutting etc. are essential enablers of such fRTB concepts. Additionally,
digitalization at the consumer front has become equally crucial by offering various
consumer configurators (e.g. 3D body scan, biometric size measurement, human-like
avatar). These have been emphasized in two WPs of fRTB (“3D sales configurator and
rendering” and “fRTB digital production technology”) through development of “3D
modular and interactive product image”, “using digital production technologies like
printing, cutting, assembly”, and “interactive web site and order management”.
Furthermore, one of the industry experts emphasized, “B2C digitalization for consumer
635
configuration and also other forms of digital applications must be integrated.” A key to
success of such concepts underpinning local chains lie in integrating and connecting
all the modules seamlessly, e.g. connection of production technology to virtual
sales and design technology. For instance, one of the industry experts highlighted
the importance of digitalizing the design to a print file and the pattern to generate
digital cut file and seamlessly integrate the two to develop an integrated, flexible
and agile value chain. This creates potential to develop such local manufacturing
set-ups based upon a cloud service concept availed by branded retailers, in the
form of open manufacturing, digital marketing platforms. On another note, the brand
manufacturers emphasized that that key to run local value chains is to have in-house
process know-how (of pattern-making and printing) as it was put “a flexible system
ensures local manufacturing or mix. If you control the supply chain till the cutter you
can choose to send the CAD file to a local cutter for quick manufacturing and delivery
or make sustainable manufacturing. So knowledge of pattern making, CAD/CAM is
very important to ensure such control.”
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Our PAR conducted via fRTB project revealed three major CSFs of a local fashion
value chain, viz. we identified through are: (i) advanced digitalization of design
and manufacturing operations, (ii) flexible, integrated and agile operations, and (iii)
enhanced customer experience with product servitization, thus enabling a consumer-
driven, digitalized value chain.
Role of ICT and AMT have been emphasized in extant literature for enabling competitive
manufacturing by ensuring flexibility, responsiveness and innovativeness (Tolio et al.
2013, Zairi 1993). In this line, we find evidence of how such local fashion value chains
should incorporate technologies like digital and 3D printing, digital cutting, digital
order management and sales to seamlessly integrate, be quicker and reduce cost of
operating in a high cost environment. However, success of a digitalized fashion supply
chain lies in integrating it with a digitalized experience created for the consumers.
This front-end digitalization ensures higher degrees of product differentiation through
customization and co-design innovation (Kinkel 2014) to match the product-process
system of a “one-of-a-kind” product (Hayes and Wheelwright 1984). The fRTB project
shows that advanced digital tools offered to consumers, like interactive 2.5D or 3D
avatars, easy biometric sizing systems, 3D body scanning, etc. ensures such co-creation
experience to the consumers which can lead to “willingness to pay” a higher price
for M2M garments. Furthermore, such advanced digital technologies can shorten
the time to market, increase efficiency and remove the need for some stages in the
supply chain, such as physical product samples, and at the same time enable a more
flexible response to customer needs.
It is interesting to note, that the CSFs for driving a local value chain in a retail-dominated
industry like fashion-apparel where the branded retailers are predominantly the focal
firms, are pivoted to “buying” of competitive manufacturing competences as services.
Along similar lines, fRTB explores the possibility of open manufacturing business
model in fashion (Open Garments 2009), where small manufacturing SMEs with the
process know-how could make products ordered by different brands and deliver to
the consumer; the brands would log into MSP’s cloud services who organizes such

636
manufacturing networks, while consumers can co-design and they get delivered.
On the other hand, CSFs for the fashion branded manufacturers lies in driving a shift
from labour/resource-intensity towards knowledge-intensity based manufacturing
and enabled by digitalization. However, such a shift holds success, as revealed in
fRTB project, only in case of high-end products (either marked by high degrees of
customization or are designer-based), and is in line with the findings of Martínez-Mora
and Merino (2014) showing that the feasibility of reshoring only for high range products
demanding smaller batch sizes and frequent deliveries. Increased competitiveness
in such activities is reinforced through “increased investment in activities that remain
internalised within the company” (Martínez-Mora and Merino 2014), as was also
highlighted by the experts in fRTB. Such internalization of the knowledge-intensity
for competitive manufacturing in consumer-driven local fashion value chains is
characterized by gaining customer information and creating unique manufacturing
orders from them. As was highlighted through fRTB, the M2M companies possessing
the internal know-how of printing and pattern-making along with digital tool to convert
the co-created design to a unique manufacturing order can have a control over the
entire system with the possibility to optimize costs. Such control renders high degrees
of flexibility and responsiveness to local supply chains and decisive competitive
advantage (Kinkel and Maloca 2009).
In all, our study reveals that competitive success of local fashion value chains lies in
creating focussed differentiation through consumer-drivenness and digitalization. To
enable these two aspects, brands need to incorporate consumers in the co-design
process. In addition, knowledge-intensity is a key to the competitive manufacturers for
integrated control over the core processes; on the other hand, branded retailers can
rely on open manufacturing services and concentrate on investments in designing
unique consumer experience.
Future research needs to be conducted in order to explore how these CSFs can actually
results in creating competitive advantage in such local high cost environments. Within
the scope of fRTB, we intend to extend our work in inspecting how such value chains
actually impact the key performance measures of firms. Further, as was highlighted
earlier such fRTB concepts are not going to replace but complement mass production
supply chains, hence it becomes interesting to investigate what product categories
are best candidates for success in such environment. Still a lot of processes in apparel
production, e.g. sewing are manually conducted; in this line investigating new
garment design and pattern construction and assembly technologies to minimize the
total labour content of the processes needs to be accomplished to open ways for
radical innovation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was made under FromRollToBag project which has received funding from
the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant
agreement No 644114. Furthermore, we thank all partners involved in the project for
supporting us with insights, data and enthusiastic collaboration.

637
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Ellram, L.M., W.L. Tate, and K.J. Petersen. 2013. “Offshoring and reshoring: An update on the
manufacturing location decision.” Journal of Supply Chain Management no. 2 (14-22).
Flick, U. 2009. An Introduction to Qualitative Research. London: Sage. Reprint, 4.
Fratocchi, F., C. Di Mauro, P. Barbieri, G. Nassimbeni, and A. Zanoni. 2014. “When manufacturing moves
back: Concepts and questions.” Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management no. 20 (1):54-59.
Hayes, R. H., and S. C. Wheelwright. 1984. Restoring our competitive edge: competing through
manufacturing.
Holweg, M. 2005. “The three dimensions of responsiveness.” International Journal of Operations &
Production Management no. 25 (7):603-622.
Kinkel, K. 2014. “Future and impact of backshoring—Some conclusions from 15 years of research on
German practices.” Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management no. 20 (1):63-65.
Kinkel, S., and S. Maloca. 2009. “Drivers and antecedents of manufacturing offshoring and
backshoring—A German perspective.” Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management no. 15 (3):154-
165.
MacCarthy, B.L., and W. Atthirawong. 2003. “Factors affecting location decisions in international
operations – a Delphi study.” International Journal of Operations & Production Management no. 23
(7):794-818.
Manufuture, . 2004. “Manufuture - a vision for 2020: Assuring the future of manufacturing in Europe.”
European Commission, http://www.manufuture.org/documents/manufuture_vision_en%5B1%5D.
pdf (December 2015).
Martínez-Mora, C., and F. Merino. 2014. “Offshoring in the Spanish footwear industry: A return journey?”
Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management no. 20 (4):225-237.
Mattila, H., R. King, and N. Ojala. 2002. “Retail performance measures for seasonal fashion.” Journal of
Fashion Marketing and Management no. 6 (4):340-351.
McNiff, J., and J. Whitehead. 2002. Action Research - Principles and Practice. London: RoutledgeFarmer.
Open Garments. 2009. http://www.open-garments.eu/approach.html (May 2015).
Reshoring Initiative. 2015. “What is reshoring?” http://www.reshorenow.org/what-is-reshoring/
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and Supply Management no. 20 (1):66-68.
Tolio, T., M. Sacco, W. Terkaj, and M. Urgo. 2013. “Virtual Factory: An Integrated Framework for
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Vandermerwe, S., and J. Rada. 1988. “Servitization of business: adding value by adding services.”
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Westkämper, E. 2013. Towards the Re-Industrialization of Europe: A concept for Manufacturing for
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Zairi, M. 1993. “Competitive Manufacturing: Combining Total Quality with Advanced Technology.”
Long Range Planning no. 26 (3):123-132.

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DRAPING REALIZATION METHOD OF THE

GARMENT STRUCTURE BASED ON FUZZY
ORIENTATION
LI Qin1, XU Tingyu1, DENG Chunshan1, ZHANG Longlin12
1
College of Textiles & Garments 1, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
2
Biomass Fiber Material and Modern Textile Engineering Technology Research Center 2, Southwest
University, Chongqing, China
(Presenting author E-mail: 13657619708@163.com; Corresponding author email: myfashionworks
@163.com)
ABSTRACT
This research breaks through the evolution of the design theory and the curing thought
influenced by the logic control to the draping. Based on the theory of design principles,
the implementation of the development process in the draping is divided into three
stages. The first stage is the traditional draping programming. The second stage is that
the cross application from modern draping to multi discipline. And the third stage
is the application of reverse thinking in the creation of draping. Combined with the
status of personality customization rise situation, it can highlight the idea of draping
in the fuzzy garment structure, and model the importance of thinking innovation in
shaping fashion modelling. And it can expand the designer’s new understanding in
the shape of garment space to stimulate new creative form and inspiration, which
can also enhance the design language of garment and open garment design new
thought.
Keywords: Fuzzy oriented garment structure; Draping; Non human prototype; The
shape of garment space
INTRODUCTION
The difficulties in design are determined by multi-dimensional integration soft factors,
such as purpose, motivation, emotion and values. The design factors, like invisible,
complex, fuzzy and uncertain, block the design object present forms. In the domestic,
the book named “The garment draping” is writing by Professor ZHANG Wenbin,
make the traditional draping education continuous improving, which realize the
transformation from taking education as the main method into paying equal attention
to theory and practice. The book “originality draping ” of Professor QIU Peina tells the
readers that it is integrated into the multidisciplinary crossing a stereoscopic thinking.
Making the innovation of design concept can enrich the draping method to have
the characteristics of diversity. The realization of the design often depends on update
of technology. Designer Iris Van Herpes combined art and technology to make the
application of 3D printing in the garment show any changes of fashion, which is a good
sample to say good bay to the traditional experience of ready-to-wear. Experienced
three stages, a stylized design process, the inherent nature of design problems and
reflected on the nature of design concept, the innovation of the design concept
becomes a new issue of present research.

639
In searching process for the basic methods of design, the famous researcher KaroLin•
Liros• Mirbooker analysised the current status of designers constantly breakthrough
garment profile to look for more modelling based on the study in the deconstruction.
Meanwhile, combining with the Schiaparelli designer surreal ideas in works, she
broke through the shackles of thinking in 3D space of the profile garment design, and
improved design language to develop in mute-level and diversification direction. In
our research, based on the modern theory of draping on the system research, we
used the opposed traditional form to obtain the draping implementation method
of fuzzy orientation garment structure, which is the modern draping method on the
lateral extension.
Fuzzy orientation garment design belongs to the category of creative draping.
The implementation method is different, and its essentiality is guided by the preset
concept’s difference logical mercy to form. The overall module contains four theories as
following.
Part 1 The design process: Space to Structure to Modelling (Inner space to Outer space)
Part 2 The default concept: The methods of presupposition and inner space are
involved in each other. Suppose, guess and analysis, understanding and resolution are
synchronization.
Part 3 The dominant logic: The experience, intuition, non-inferential and unclear inferential
of logic.
Part 4 The knowledge source: The concept of creative draping.
Under the premise of grasping the relationship between human body and garment
structure, the body can be summed up in the shape of any uncertain appearance. This
article study on the concept of non-human prototype, and the body is topology a
regular or irregular shape. By setting up the inner space to create the modelling, it is
a kind of chosen elastic space reverse design thinking methods. This method makes
up for the singularity in the form of three-dimensional cutting method (Fig.1). Enhance
the understanding and application of three-dimensional cutting ability.
Fig1. The flow chart of reverse design thinking in draping

The highlight is reconstruction of traditional garment styles on non-human prototype
model to gain garment profile with fuzzy style orientation, to get rid of the shackles
of traditional concept on the human body, and to realize the creative expression of
human body and garment under the condition of more freedom. The “geometry”
series design by Kunihiko Morinaga from Japan(Fig2), using the same principles to
reshape the basic models. Which is based on the premise of satisfying the most basic

640
penetrating and opening function and a simple geometry to shape an interior space
with strong sense of appearance. The creation form is established on the basis of
the garment aesthetic concept. The deconstruction of distorted and unconventional
ideas, split and regroup it all the parts. Using suitable body expansion space concept
and a garment’s crisp properties to relax the amount of excess space, which can
natural stack fuzzy modelling profile. The way of using inner space to shape outer
spacei highlight modelling on the creation with indirectness and uniqueness.
The “Geometry” prototype The fuzzy silhouette

Fig2. The “Geometry” series design by Kunihiko Morinaga
Considering the basic necessities of daily life. With the concept of space from simple to
difficult to understand, this article use the basic sweater design as an example, and paper
cups as prototype modelling. According to wear ability properties, The Fuzzy oriented
garment structure are needed to satisfy the needs of the structure and activity of the
body. The first step is that the neckline regard the golden point by the three intersecting
circles as the fixed point to determine the size of neck line. The second, no consideration
the data of waist and the difference between chest and waist and so on, front entire
piece is extended the side seam structure to get a 36 degree angle for an isosceles
triangle, and the two sides seam are changed by the twist and tilt method. Both sides
of the bottom slope with the numerical relationship between division ratio is gold one. In
order to increase the lateral side of the front piece, the relationship between body and
garment is harmonious ratio through cob’: cob=cd’: cd=BSc’: BSc=Be’: Be=0.618, making
the creative stitching design with the way of approaches and winding on cup. The third
step is that use same way to gain the unlike the regular edition back part(Fig.3(a)). Finally,
the final version is created in the CLO3D software, and local fine-tuning on version to get
the dress effect in Figure 3 (b).

641
(a)The sketch map of Net pattern (b) CLO3D design Sketch

Fig3. The sweater design on “cup”
RESULTS
The draping implementation method of fuzzy orientation garment structure based
on “thinking type of imitation” ideas, which uses consciously, purposefully, mandatory
and bolshie way of thinking to realize the design from clear to fuzzy to clear process.
According to this way expand association, it can base on any space form to make
exaggerated creative design, which is the concept means “garment is not garment”.
Totally divorced from garment to serve people’s thinking, with the help of a linear or
curved uncertainty model, such as irregular space form, we can preset inner space
to compose outer of model. Spatial diversification as the research object, mixing
together deconstruction of the established form of art with introduction of other art
forms to realize the innovation of fashion design. The obtained garment version is
different from the traditional version, which can be odd in the version on flat with the
divergent. The following is the reflection and development of experimental process.
No.1 Need to consider the split relationship of fabric when we wrap up the irregular
shape. As a result of breaking away from prototype, the deconstruction thoughts are
particularly important, which can make the final shape more accord with the public’s
aesthetic idea according to the principle of design aesthetics, for instance the golden
section ratio from the Fibonacci Numbers.
No.2 Special consideration is needed for the numerical value of some key points as
the same as a result of draping for people to wear. Just like the collar opening is not
less than the minimum. Meanwhile, joining with the modern draping commonly used
three-dimensional reconstruction techniques or half stereo fabrics, such as sewing,
folding method, etc, as well as different splicing techniques to shape it, which is
becoming the perfect fit for inner and outer space.
No3 The expansion of garment modelling spatial dimension, the multidimensional
space of thinking can be introduced into the draping. Fusion of multiple independent
spaces generate special one as basic model to shape modelling through working
together the creation of the cloth itself with unique space. This technique combines
with the idea of “one for all” also can explore more expressive garment styles.
CONCLUSIONS
As a new basis for the draping design, fuzzy oriented garment design breaks through
the paradigm of implementation method, which is demonstrating the feasibility
of that creation theory by changing or transforming the thinking angle. The whole
experiment process is a test for reverse thinking of garment space from the inside to
642
the outside. To provide a more perfect basis theoretical for the new idea of draping,
this way must bring a new creative ideas to design.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Fund Project: Fundamental Funds for the Central Universities in China( XDJK2016C100
& XDJK2014A011)
REFERENCES
[1]. LIU Chengxia. 2011. LU Peete basic method of the deconstruction design of garment style. Journal
of Textile Research, 32(11):96-99.
[2]. ZHOU Li, XIN Yue, ZHANG Longlin. 2014. Exploring the Fashion Design Based on Three-Dimensional
Printing Technology. Decoration, 253(5):88-89.
[3]. LIANG Mingyu. 2014. The Heterogeneous Resources in Fashion Design and Creative Space.
Decoration, 249(1), 90-91.
[4]. QIU Pena. 2014. Creative draping. Journal of china textile,Beijing,43-53.
[5]. TOMOKO Kiamichi. 2010. Pattern Magic. Bunka Taken Educational Foundation,Tokyo,42-51.
[6]. AMADEN Crawford,Connie. 2012. The Art Of Fashion Draping. Fairchild Books Visuas,United States
,312-319.

643
THE DESIGNER IN THE ERA OF WEARABLE

TECHNOLOGY
GALINA MIHALEVA1
1
Nanyang Technological University, 81 Nanyang Drive, Level 4, Room 29, Singapore 637458,
Singapore
(GMihaleva@ntu.edu.sg)
ABSTRACT
Textiles has been a constant companion of human culture and the lifeblood of
fashion. And like many other design fields, fashion has undergone numerous
evolutions throughout the ages. It is constantly influenced by the prevalent culture and
technology that is present at the time. The current boon of technological advancements
prominently redefines the role of fashion designers and their approaches to design,
ultimately transforming the design process.
Designers now immerse themselves in the age of smart textiles. The used of sensors,
conductive fibres and other smart fabric technologies such as 3d printing brings a
whole new dimension to fashion design in terms of functionality, production, expression
and interaction. The design focus is also shifted to more active issues of personal
identity, social behaviour, and intuitive interactions
This high-tech design culture spawns an interdisciplinary approach to fashion. Traditional
fashion design processes and sensibilities are gradually being amalgamated with
high-tech methods to produce brand new crafting methodology, becoming more
efficient, yet intimate and customized.
Various examples of projects examined in the paper show that as technologies
continue to evolve, their potential uses in smart clothing grows exponentially, and
it simultaneously affects and is affected by the fashion culture. Furthermore, it
demonstrates the role and importance of wearable technology.
Keywords: 3d printing, Fashion design, Sensors, Smart textiles, Wearable technology
INTRODUCTION
It is common knowledge that the environment we live in greatly influences the style
of clothing that people wear. And it is not just referring to the physical geographical
or climatic environment but rather the less tangible aspects of the socio-cultural
environment which is related to the time period we live in as well as the prevalent
culture at the time. As much as clothing is a practical necessity, it is also an expression
of identity and a reflection of culture.
In the current high-tech culture we live in, there is a trend of using computers,
automation, and other technology driven methods to compliment many fields, fashion
design is no exception. Designers now immerse themselves in the age of smart textiles
and incorporate modern technology with fashion design and production. The used
of sensors, conductive fibres and other smart fabric technologies such as 3d printing,
brings a whole new dimension to fashion design in terms of functionality, expression

644
and interaction. The design focus is also shifted to more active issues of personal
identity, social behaviour, and intuitive interactions.
Fuelled by society’s eagerness for efficiency, the fashion industry is on the verge of a
revolution. The boon of technological advancements prominently redefines the role
of fashion designers, their approaches to design and the functionality of fashion. This
ultimately transforms the conventional design process.
ANALYSIS OF TRENDS AND METHODOLOGIES
Traditionally, clothing are a means of fulfilling basic needs such as protection from
the elements, comfort, camouflage, and even socially accepted modesty as well as
a medium for symbolic, artistic or religious expression.
Early concepts and constructs of “smart clothing” was very far from the current
ideals of “smart clothing”, attempts to make wearable technology in the 1970s were
more inclined towards simply using clothing as a support for electronic attachments
and had very little to do with fashion (Lee, Du Preez and Jones 2005). However, this
changed when a different approach was used, resulting in the smart fashion we have
now. Aesthetics and function are sometimes thought as independent of each other
or even antagonistic, there may be misconception that aesthetics is less important
than practicality. What is often neglected is that these two concepts are interrelated
and have a symbiotic relationship. Fashion is linked with design, and design aims to
fulfil needs of the consumer whether it is aesthetic or functional. Thus when a designer
engages in effective fashion design and undergoes the process of satisfying certain
variables, it is fundamentally the same process that sates functionality.
Consequently, working with fashion as the starting point and integrating technology
simultaneously while pursuing it as a distinct hybrid topic of wearable technology
helps in creating a more effective outcome.
Thus with the advent of smart garments and wearable technology, clothing is rapidly
transformed into an interactive interface between wearer, garment, and environment.
The development of clothing as technological interface is highly influenced by
the development of technology as fashion designers are drawn by the expanded
possibilities of high-tech wearables.
The human body is itself a biological receptor interface, it has been mentioned that
clothing and fashion has an intimate relationship with the human body in both physical
and social aspects. With smart garments, fashion becomes an additional interface
and results in a cyclic interaction between body, clothing and environment. Take
for instance the research project SmartSecondSkin (2004) by Jenny Tillotson which
comprises of a scent delivery system that is programmed to respond to the wearer’s
emotions and dispenses olfactory stimulus for aromatherapy to alter the wearer’s
mood(Seymour 2009). This is an example of a complex feedback design. Firstly, the
wearer’s mood changes, possibly reacting to a conscious or subconscious stimuli in
the environment, this emotional response becomes an input which triggers the sensors
and produces an output which in this case is the dispensed aromatherapy which in
turn brings the wearer’s emotions back to a desired state as a feedback. The body,
environment and clothing interacts accordingly, this interaction is modulated by what
is being programmed into the technology involved.

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Technology goes a long way in making certain design concepts viable. Project
“Palpitations” (NthDegree 2016) is a dress designed with the purpose of projecting
internal reactions externally onto the dress. The proposed concept was that the butterfly
headdress, symbolic of dreams and thoughts, is programmed to flutter in response to
brainwaves detected from a sensor, in conjunction with the pulsation of light rippling
down the front of the dress to react to the pulse sensor. The two sensors expresses the
idea of rationality versus emotional response, and plays with the supposed notion
that females are more emotionally inclined. Here, it is demonstrated how Nth-Light®,
a revolutionary flexible LED is used with sensors to create a dress that questions the
socially perceived idea of female temperament, and it shows how technology is used
to provide an insight to the body’s internal workings. This design would not have been
possible if companies did not develop flexible LED compared to what was once rigid
bulbs of lights.
The availability of customizable circuit kits specialized for interactive wearables play a
great part in propagating wearable technology. The LilyPad Arduino developed with
SparkFun Electronics consist of electronic components that can be easily sewn into
fabric and programmed to react to certain variables. “Text-ile Landscape memories”
by Galina Mihaleva is a collection of interactive houte couture dresses inspired from the
beauty of culture and tradition of the Southwest and South East Asia. In this collection
the dresses are based on a multisensory design. The dresses employs the property of
conductive threads to act as contact points that remotely connects to the audio and
visual displays. Sensors in Lilypad kits supports tactile based multisensory systems that
are useful in interactive artworks as well as a multisensory teaching aid. And it is not
just SparkFun, several other new companies took the opportunity to jump onto the DIY
electronics bandwagon. Adafruit founded in 2005 by Limor fried is one such company
(Industries 2016), followed by hardware company TinyCircuits which started in 2011.
One of the products advertised by TinyCircuits is an even smaller processor board
1/12th the size of a Lilypad Arduino targeted for use in E-textile projects (Tiny-circuits.
com 2016). The fact that there are still companies eager to break into the E-textile
markets is a good indicator of its growing popularity; what’s more, companies are
improving on the electronics for e-textiles. It is likely that this momentum will continue
if fashion designers keep up their foray in wearable technology.
“Reflux” by Mihaleva, is dress made from 3D tactile fabric, using fabric as an interface
and consists of XB anathemas, Lily pad Arduino, accelerometers, and conductive
thread that controls the audio as well as the visualizations projected onto three
screens (Wearables 2014). The sound and projections are “played” and manipulated
by the fluidity, flexibility and mobility of the skirt. Technology reinterprets movements
into visual audio outputs. It aims to highlight the unique relationship between the three
domains of Sound, Visual and Movement. It is another example where technology
acts as a translator between different domains.
While textile can turn into a technological interface, some designers are soon inspired
to look at material fabrication technology itself. The exploration of such possibilities
spurred the need for interdisciplinary approaches. Designers become more than
artists, they turn into engineers, programmers, chemists, and even biologists. Micro’be’
Fermented Fashion is a project where organic fabric is “grown” with the bacteria
through the process of bacterial wine fermentation. The cultivated fabric formed from
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cellulose microfibrils is biodegradable and can be used to make seamless garments

(Seymour 2009). Its advantages of being environmentally friendly and a lower cost
fabric production in the wake of rising petroleum costs for synthetic fabrics only
came to be when the artist vision extended across into the biological fields. This can
only serve to prove the benefits of hybridizing interdisciplinary methodologies. The
definition of textiles is also constantly being challenged as designers not only look at
textile with technology but also the technology of textile production. This leads to the
development of innovative and unconventional “textiles” like Fabrican, a spray-on
fabric that has the potential to become a useful advertising and marketing tool.
A notable fabrication tool is 3d printing, which has made a significant impact on the
fashion industry. It is garnering a lot of interest, or at the very least, the prospects of it
is favourable evident by the fairly well received 3d printing competition held at the
Singapore Nanyang Technological University. 3d printing was initially seen as a very
useful tool for product design and medical support purposes until fashion designers
like Iris van herpen discovered its potential in architectural fashion. Van Herpen won
critical acclaim for her intricate 3d printed dresses (Quinn 2012), her success sparked
the growing trend of 3d printed fashion, and be it dresses, jewellery, or shoes, 3d printing
is becoming a popular tool for fashion designers, and it is now easily accessible with
the availability of affordable desktop 3d printers. As 3d printing gets a foothold in
fashion, a team of engineers in San Francisco have built a Electroloom that acts like
a 3d printer for fabrics by using a solution blend of polyester and cotton sprayed onto
a template to create a seamless garment (Russell 2016).
While designers embraced the technology of material fabrication, traditional fashion
design processes and sensibilities are gradually being amalgamated with high-tech
methods to produce brand new crafting methodology, hence the design process
is inevitably altered to accommodate for it. Which brings to the topic of Computer
Aided Design (CAD). For 3d printing, CAD is needed to create a 3d model for printing.
Patterns was used to produce clothes industrially since the invention of the sewing
machine in 1830 (San Martin & Krell 2009), with the use of CAD, designers create their
designs on the computer instead of drawing it on paper. CAD and 3d printing either
bypasses or changes many of the conventional process of tailoring.
Furthermore, computers can be utilized in many ways to created textile designs, for
instance coding can produce interesting computer generated patterns. Japanese
textile company Nuno is renowned for combining tradition and technology to produce
beautiful woven fabrics. Woven structure pattern 1984 is a fabric designed by Nuno
founder Jun’ichi Arai by repeatedly photocopying an African kente cloth until it
becomes pixelated, it is then scanned and woven on a computer driven Jacquard
loom. A more straightforward use of computers is to produce the design directly with
illustration software or drawn by hand and scanned in before printing digitally on
cloth. Alternatively, vector designs can be sent to laser cutters to cut out shapes in
various material. This method was used to create the cut felt in the “Text-ile Landscape
memories” dresses.
The accessibility and advancement of technology changes the playing field of the fashion
industry. Tailors and dressmaker spend a significant amount of time measuring clients,
but a 3d scanner is able to quickly get the accurate three dimension measurements.
A recent service known as bodi.me utilizes body scanners to allow customers to match
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their sizes to outfits purchased online based on sizing information from registered fashion
companies (Fashion.bodi.me 2016). Imagine if the 3d scanners is combined with 3d
printing of garment, perfectly fitting customized clothing could be efficiently produced,
this would drastically reshape the manufacturing process in fashion design.
THE OBSERVED PATTERN
Throughout all the examples, it should be noted that there is a pattern. Firstly, there is
constant improvements in technology and designers tend to make full use of these tools
for their designs, subsequently affecting their design concepts. Secondly, hybridization
is rampant in wearable technology. Fashion is a complex and established long
standing industry, hybridization is almost unavoidable in order to integrate advanced
technology into a field with such a long history. There is a correlation between wearable
technology designs and the concepts they tend to express. The input and output
principles is by virtue of the systemic nature of technology. It is therefore naturally
geared toward issues pertaining to interactions, social or otherwise. And since fashion
is basically an adornment of the human body, expression of identity is a common and
favoured theme. The rise in wearable technology can be said to be a reflection of
our current culture. Availability of specialized kits like Lilypad kits are indicative of the
market for wearable technology.
CONCLUSIONS
Conclusively, the various examples of projects examined in the paper show that
as technologies continue to evolve, their potential uses in smart clothing grows
exponentially, and it simultaneously affects and is affected by the fashion culture.
Furthermore, it demonstrates the role and importance of wearable technology in our
current high-tech environment and expands functional and expressive possibilities for
the modern fashion designer.
REFERENCES
Clarke, Sarah E. Braddock, and Jane Harris. 2012. Digital Visions For Fashion + Textiles. London: Thames
& Hudson.
Fashion.bodi.me,. 2016. “Solutions - Fashion.Bodi.Me”. http://fashion.bodi.me/solutions/.
Industries, Adafruit. 2016. “About Adafruit - Press, Limor Fried / Ladyada & More...”. Adafruit.Com.
https://www.adafruit.com/about.
Lee, Suzanne, Warren Du Preez, and Nick Thornton Jones. 2005. Fashioning The Future. London:
Thames & Hudson.
NthDegree | Nth-Light | Printing the Impossible,. 2016. “Nthdegree | Nth-Light | Printing The Impossible”.
http://www.ndeg.com/#!about/cjg9.
NthDegree,. 2016. “Palpitations”, A Dress By Galina Mihaleva Using Nth-Lights. Image. http://www.
ndeg.com/#!fashion/c7p8z.
Quinn, Bradley. 2012. Fashion Futures. London: Merrell.
Russell, Kyle. 2016. “Electroloom’S ‘3D Printer For Fabric’ Creates Seamless Garments In Any Size”.
Techcrunch. http://techcrunch.com/2015/06/04/electrolooms-3d-printer-for-fabric-creates-seamless-
garments-in-any-size/#.aqmabce:aC0e.
San Martin, Marcarena & Krell, Kevin. 2009. Field guide. Singapore: Page One.
Seymour, Sabine. 2009. Fashionable Technology. Wien: Springer.
Seymour, Sabine. 2010. Functional Aesthetics. Wien: Springer.
Tiny-circuits.com,. 2016. “Learn & Shop The Tinylily Platform”. https://tiny-circuits.com/products/tiny-lily.html/.
Wearables,. 2014. “Re-flux”. https://blogs.ntu.edu.sg/wearables/ss/re-flux/.

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COLOUR OF NATURE IN MODERN ECO-

FASHION DESIGN.
Katarzyna Schmidt-Przewoźna, Anna Maria Brandys
Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants, Wojska Polskiego 71B, 60-630 Poznań, Poland
(Presenting author e-mail: anna.brandys@iwnirz.pl; Corresponding author e-mail: kasia@iwnirz.pl)
ABSTRACT
Laboratory of Natural Dyeing Natural Art from the Institute of Natural Fibers and
Medicinal Plants analyses modern eco-fashion design.
Contemporary fashion design, in order to meet expectations of present day people,
must simultaneously satisfy conflicting needs: clothing should be elegant and
comfortable and allow for complete freedom of movement and constant life on the
run. To be cheap, but of the same high quality, to meet numerous other requirements
dictated by the liquid modernity trends. Many allergies affecting the society are also
a challenge for young designers.
Clothes made of natural fibres and dyed with natural dyestuff are excellent alternative,
while they also respond to market demands. Therefore, the Laboratory presents its
achievements in the field of dyeing and fashion, presenting selected collections
of clothing, accessories and costume pieces designed by artists affiliated with the
Laboratory. Laboratory also investigates the most common dyes and presents colour
analyzes (spectrophotometric colour reaserch, UV, wash and light fastness).
The aim of the research is to design unique clothing collection made of natural fibers
dyed with natural dyes health-promoting properties. In the research were selected
plant dyes witch the antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal and antioxidant properties. The
paper presents potential and future prospects of natural dyeing sources and also
high quality tapestries with aesthetic of design and taste of colour.
Laboratory also pays attention to finding traditional influence in the modern fashion
design and discovering future prospect for natural fibre materials. The paper analyzes
such techniques as macramé, block printing, needle-work, knitted-work and tie dye.
Keywords: Natural dyestuff, traditional techniques, modern fashion, natural fibres etc.
INTRODUCTION
This presentation focuses on a phenomenon known as “sustainable fashion”. Having
derived from anti-consumption postulations, sustainable fashion has become a
permanent part of the current trends. Today, textile industry is responsible for various
damages to the nature and exploitation of people. However, in order to explore
the eco-fashion, it is necessary to analyse fashion itself and understand why it is so
important in people’s lives.
Fashion plays a key role in identity-shaping process. It is essential not only for young
people or citizens of big cities but also for an ordinary individual. Taking care of
one’s image and outfit has become a social and cultural phenomenon. In addition,
economic aspect is important as well, because fashion industry is currently an

649
international operation. Of course, one cannot talk about contemporary fashion

without mentioning historical context. Because fashion is not isolated from the social
and economic background, hence it would be difficult to view or design it without the
knowledge about historical, economic, geographic or social actuality.
The goal of the trend also called “sustainable design” (it also covers fashion design)
is to produce commodities in a way that minimises the impact on the environment
and communities (Jenkyn Jones S., 2007). Such “environmentalism” may manifest in
various ways:
1. firstly, as a control and reduction of CO2 emissions during production of each
piece of clothing in order to prevent adding to the greenhouse effect;
2. secondly, by providing part of the sales income to charities;
3. and finally through the application of environment-friendly fabrics and materials,
etc.
The interaction between civilization and nature resembles a running cycle with survival
interdependence between the mankind and environment. These historical methods
of cloth decoration are still developed by famous designers around the world. The
aforementioned factors lead to a conclusion that in order to face the expectations of
the contemporary man, fashion needs to meet contradictory guidelines: be elegant
and at the same time feel comfortable and leave enough space for freedom of
movement and living in a rush. It should still be cheap but offer the quality of exclusive
commodities and meet many other requirements imposed by the tendencies that
dominate in the times of the floating modernity. Various allergies frequent in the
communities are also a challenge for young designers. Natural fibre clothes dyed
in natural colorants are a great alternative and at the same time a response to the
market needs.
A few designers around the world are currently promoting natural dyes in their
collections. There are some dyeing techniques, which result in not just a colour, but
also patterns. The patterns are the result of a well-planned and designed creative
process. Fabrics dyed according to shibori, ikat as well as block painting and batik
technique require high precision and discipline when placing the colour.
The shibori technique allows creating multiplied forms – repeated triangles, squares,
circles, and diamonds. The forms are dependent on the elements used when the
fabric is pressed and squeezed, as well as on the way it is folded. Various names
of shibori techniques relate to the methods of forming the fabric. 3D shibori models
are designed by many outstanding artists in Japan, India, Malaysia and Taiwan. It
takes several months to make such fabrics. It requires mathematical drawings of the
pattern and high precision. Moreover, it is necessary to predict colour changes during
individual phases of the dyeing process (Schmidt-Przewozna K., Brandys A.M., 2015).
Based on a limited colour scale, ikats and batiks are part of collections designed by
Edric Ong from Malaysia. His unique fashion designs combine hand-woven silk and
cotton with ethnic, eastern and modern elements. In order to extract natural colours,
Edric uses roots, barks, leaves, fruits and peels from tropical Malaysian rainforests and
his favourite techniques include batik and ikat. Whereas, in terms of places, the region
that gave rise to beautiful collections and fabrics printed with natural pastes, is India.

650
Indigo is unquestionably reigning in Asia, in countries such as India, Taiwan, Indonesia

and Malaysia. Another world famous designer comes from Taiwan. Sophie Hong’s
trademark is “gambiered guandong silk” technique. She reinvented this technique, the
application and aesthetics of dyeing and finishing “black and blue silk,” named “Hong
silk” (Sophie Hong, 2014). Favourite dye of Japanese designers is indigo. Japanese
process of dyeing is called “Awa natural indigo.” And truly wonderful examples of
silk collection are Miyoko Kawahito’s designs. Designers often collaborate with artistic
craftsmanship workshops where tradition is passed from generation to generation
resulting in uniquely woven fabrics. Also Indian designers often turn to traditional
print techniques, such as ajarak, bagh and others, passed, just like in Japan, from
generation to generation.
Institute’s designers, Katarzyna Schmidt-Przewoźna and Anna Maria Brandys, from the
Laboratory of Natural Dyeing Natural Art (INF&MP) also have been successfully using
natural dyes. At first, those dyes were used to colour tapestry yarns and silk neckerchiefs.
Today, they are used to design and produce unique and health-conscious collections
of clothes. The research on fabrics and textile products and their effect on human skin
has been carried out by the Institute’s Department of Innovative Technologies.
Analysing organic clothes, it is necessary to apply the same evaluation parameters
as those applied for other clothes. Hence, those clothes should represent “hanger
appeal,” which luckily, with the clothes made of natural fibres is achievable, because
the structure of the textile helps to develop varied forms and shapes (Jenkyn Jones S.,
2007). Collections offered by the Laboratory of Natural Dyeing Natural Art (INF&MP)
come with exclusivity parameter, because the collections are limited and are
made with high precision. Recently, the Laboratory of Natural Dyeing produced two
collection “Logwood” and “Tinctoria.”
The first one presents six unique cuts and styles dyed with a very interesting dyes
called Logwood Haematoxylum campehianum L. and carmine. The tree, which is
the source of the first dye, belongs to legume family, Fabaceae. It grows as high
as 15 metres, has a characteristic, unique scent and is native to Central America
and Antilles, Guatemala and Nicaragua. Logwood plantations are also common
in tropical regions of Asia. Indigenous people of Central America call it “ek,” which
means black colour. Depending on the region of the world, other regional names are
popular, e.g. bois Campeche, palo de Campeche, palo de tinta, palo negro, or tinto.
Logwood is still occurring naturally, but today it is more often found on plantations.
The reason behind cultivation of Haematoxylum campechianum is the beautiful and
hard wood, but mostly the dye that is produced from the tree.
The dye obtained from logwood comes from its heartwood. Haematoxylum is the
core dyeing substance in logwood. Other dyes in this plant include: small amounts of
brazilein, hematein and large amount of tannins. Logwood is also used by cosmetic
industry and alternative and folk medicine.
“Logwood” collection was made of 100% linen fabrics and 100% linen and 100%
cotton knitwear. They underwent “dressing” that involved optimisation of dyeing
parameters (L Nagesh, Shyam Sivasamy, KS Muralikrishna, Kishore G. Bhat, 2012). Linen
and cotton were dressed with oak galls and myrobalan. Used in order to enhance the
effect of dyeing and improve fabric’s durability, dressing process is a very important
651
element of natural dyeing procedure as it intensifies the colour, helps to distribute the
dye evenly and often improves resistance to washing and light (Schmidt-Przewozna
K., 2013).
Myrobalan Terminalia chebula, is also used by traditional ayurveda, unani and
homeopathic medicine (Kim TG, Kang SY, Jung KK, Kang JH, Lee E, Han HM and
Kim SH., 2001). It contains various biochemical compounds (tannins, chebulinic acid,
ellagic acid, gallic acid and flavonoids) and therefore it is often reported as an
antioxidant (Suchalata S. TIWC 2016,
and Devi CS.,25-28 April,
2005). Oak 2016,
galls contain Poznan, Poland
gallic acid and a lot
of tannins. Gallnuts are commonly used in medicine. They prove to have astringent,
sedative, acid,
anti-pyretic and and
gallic acid anti-diabetic effect,
flavonoids) and and are widely
therefore usedreported
it is often by medical andantioxidant
as an
pharmaceutical industries
(Suchalata S. and (Kannan P, 2005).
Devi CS., Ramadevi
Oak SR andcontain
galls Waheeta H.,acid
gallic 2009).and a lot of tannins.
ColouringGallnuts
effects are
of commonly used in using
fabrics dressed medicine. They prove to have
the aforementioned astringent, were
techniques sedative, anti-
pyretic and anti-diabetic effect, and are widely used by medical and pharmaceutical
similar, however, we decided to go with Gall oak.
industries (Kannan P, Ramadevi SR and Waheeta H., 2009).
Colouring
Table 1. Premordating effects ofof
samples fabrics
fabric used dressed using the aforementioned techniques were
in research.
similar, however, we decided to go with Gall oak.
Spectrophotometric result
No.
Type of textile Mordant
L* a* b* C* hº
Table 1. Premordating samples of fabric used in research.
1 Cotton No mordant 82,4 -0,5 14,4 14,4 91,9
2 No.
Cotton Type of Myrobalan
textile Mordant
77,4 0,1 Spectrophotometric
11,4 11,4 89,5 result
L* a* b* C* hº
3 Cotton Gall Oak 84,2 1,4 5,6 5,8 76,4
1 Cotton No mordant 82,4 -0,5 14,4 14,4 91,9
4 Linen No mordant 82,4 0,5 13,9 14,3 76,9
2 Cotton Myrobalan 77,4 0,1 11,4 11,4 89,5
5 Linen
3 Myrobalan
Cotton 82,4 0,3
Gall Oak 10,8
84,2 11,1
1,4 90,1
5,6 5,8 76,4
4 Linen No mordant 82,4 0,5 13,9 14,3 76,9
6 Linen
5 Gall Oak
Linen 82,4 1,5
Myrobalan 4,7
82,4 5,3
0,3 85,6
10,8 11,1 90,1
6 Linen Gall Oak 82,4 1,5 4,7 5,3 85,6

1 2 3 4 5 6

Logwood has been Logwood usedhas by been people used forby dyeingpeople purposes for dyeing purposes
since since the pre-Columbian
the pre-Columbian
age. Hematoxylin is extracted from the heart of logwood tree by boiling chips or shavings
age. Hematoxylin is extracted from the heart of logwood tree by boiling chips or
of logwood in water. Logwood powder is red and during the dyeing process it can become
shavings of logwood in water. Logwood powder is red and during the dyeing process
the source of various colours, such as purple, greyish violet, lavender, brown, black, light
it can become the source of various colours, such as purple, greyish violet, lavender,
brown, purplish-red and indigo blue (Cardon D.,2007).
brown, black, light brown, to
In addition purplish-red
logwood, when and indigo working blue (Cardon
on the D.,2007).
collection, the researchers also used
carmine. It comes from dried, ground insects known as Dactylopius
In addition to logwood, when working on the collection, the researchers coccus, native to the also used
countries of South America, mainly Mexico. This organic dye is a source of colour that
carmine. does not degrade with time. Highly resistant to light and high temperature, carmine is also
It comes from dried, ground insects known as Dactylopius coccus, native
to the countries of South America, mainly Mexico. This organic dye is a source of
used as food colour and many consumers are unaware of the fact. Today, some countries
colour that does not degrade with time. Highly resistant to light and high temperature,
and religions ban it, because it is an animal dye. It is no accident that carmine was chosen
carmine isfor the collection. The shades of pink that were obtained by using carmine form a uniquely
also used as food colour and many consumers are unaware of the fact.
beautiful composition with various shades of purple applied on selected fabrics.
Today, some countries and religions ban it, because it is an animal dye. It is no accident
that carmine was “Logwood”
chosen for is thea summer collection. collection.
The shades Linen of dresses
pink that have were been obtaineddraped byand pleated
highlighting models' figures but at the same time they bring up a sense of airiness. Linen
using carmine form a uniquely beautiful composition with various shades of purple
fabric helped to shape the dresses in a structural way, leading to the final result of
applied on selected fabrics.
interesting system of pleats and box pleats. Whereas silk, because of its delicate and
refined character, gave a truly elegant effect. The dresses are complemented with T-shirts
made of knitwear and cotton, and purple linen leggins.
“Tinctoria” collection was made at the end of 2015 and the beginning of 2016. It is a
result of experiments on shibori technique. In addition to Institute
The 90th Textile linen and silk, “Tinctoria”
World Conference:
collection features fabrics with an element of viscose. Inseparable from the human environment. Hosted by the Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants (INF&MP),
652
Old Asian textiles created by use of this method were colored with natural dyes.
“Logwood” is a summer collection. Linen dresses have been draped and pleated
highlighting models’ figures but at the same time they bring up a sense of airiness.
Linen fabric helped to shape the dresses in a structural way, leading to the final result
of interesting system of pleats and box pleats. Whereas silk, because of its delicate
and refined character, gave a truly elegant effect. The dresses are complemented
with T-shirts made of knitwear and cotton, and purple linen leggins.
“Tinctoria” collection was made at the end of 2015 and the beginning of 2016. It is
a result of experiments on shibori technique. In addition to linen and silk, “Tinctoria”
collection features fabrics with an element of viscose.
Old Asian textiles created by use of this method were colored with natural dyes. Their
coloring is very sophisticated and subtle. The dyeing can be repeated (Prideaux,
V.A.,2003). The whole process of creating ornaments is based on dyeing with light colors
first, and adding dark colors later. W “naszej” kolekcji zastosowano techniki Itajame, kikko
and Bomaki techniques:
- Itajame and kikko are created as a result of folding the fabric in various ways and
compressing it with slats. In this technique, rhythmical and geometrical patterns are
created.
- Bomaki – geometric patterns, made by wrapping folded fabrics around pipes – as a
result, corrugated geometric fields of different shades of indigo are formed. Of course,
different objects can be used to design patterns – e.g., nuts, beans, plugs, nails – which
are wrapped with rubber bands and strings, and then used to dye the fabric.
A novelty featured in the collection was the colour range developed as a consequence
of the dyeing method developed in the laboratory. One dye, Haematoxylum
campehianum L., offered patterns of various colours. Those colours were made
during one colouring bath. With various dressings applied on folded and pressed
fabrics, the colouring process resulted with the following colours: indigo, blue, brown,
ginger, ochre, golden-yellow, purple and black. In shibori technique, multicolour
effect is obtained by repeated colouring. Patterns that appear on the fabrics have
been based on multiplied forms of squares and triangles, which covered the whole
fabric or part of it. With regard to silk, the interesting visual effects came from the
backgrounds that permeated the colours.
“Tinctoria” collection is based on different core material. It still uses linen and knitted
linen fabric, but this time they are just a complementary element for the half-transparent
silk habotai and crepe.
Linen fabrics were dyed purple and blue, whereas knitwear in this collection was
dyed deep to light grey, and all shades of grey. The whole colour range came from
one natural dye resulting in a truly refined and elegant, 100% organic collection. The
combination of linen and royal silk gave a very interesting effect. In terms of features,
silk is undeniably special: the fabrics are smooth, slippery and delicate and thus airy
and thin, simply pleasant to the touch. Whereas, linen is perfect for summer designs
because as a breathable fabric, it doesn’t make the skin sweat. The fabrics used for
the collection combine Eastern and Western cultures. Linen is contrasted with silk.
Roughness and crudity, airiness and gleam, this is a summer, cocktail collection.
“Logwood” collection is addressed at young girls. Dresses are light, airy, breathable,

653
and perfect for summer heat. “Tinctoria” collection is more elegant, mainly because
of the prevalent combination of linen and silk. In addition, the colour range is very
refined and the patterns obtained by applying shibori technique on the silk shawls
underline modest colours of the long dresses.
RESULTS
Natural Art Laboratory carried out a series of dyeing trials and experiments, and based on
the results, inspired by the dyeing capabilities offered by the logwood, developed unique
collections featuring linen and silk dresses. Textiles as well as linen and cotton knitwear
were tested with regard to colours. Depending on the dressing, dyeing method and the
dressings used, logwood colour tests are presented in the below tables.
The tables below present the outcomes of the dyeing experiments featured on various
types of fabrics: linen, linen dressed with galas, linen knitwear, silk and cotton.
Table 2. Logwood dyeing results and spectrophotometric measurement on linen,
and cotton samples.
L – linen
L/G – linen premordating in oak gall
C - cotton
Spectrophotometric result Fastness
No. Fabric Mordant Colour
L* a* b* C* hº Wash Light
1 L – 6,21g No mordant 57,8 3,7 8,5 9.3 66.5 4 3
2 L/G – 6,31g No mordant 43,5 4,5 8,8 9,9 63,1 4-5 3
3 C – 4,67g No mordant 33,6 3.9 3,8 5,5 43,8 4 2
4 L – 5,87g Alum 0,35 g 51,2 8,7 -137 16,3 302,4 4 3
5 L/G – 6,1g Alum 0,35 g 36,4 9,0 -14,5 17,1 301,9 4-5 3-4
6 C – 4,46g Alum 0,35 g 54,2 6,9 -12,3 14,1 299,3 4 2
7 L – 5,95g Soda 0,35 g 79,3 2,0 8,9 9,1 77,5 4 3
8 L/G – 6,38g Soda 0,35 g 66,5 3,6 17,6 17,9 78,4 4 3-4
9 C – 4,23g Soda 0,35 g 72,1 3,3 10,8 11,3 73,0 4 2
10 L – 6,9g Citric acid 0,2 g 60,9 7,0 5,0 8,6 35,1 4 3
11 L/G – 5,87g Citric acid 0,2 g 47,3 7,3 4,5 8,6 31,5 4-5 3-4
12 C – 4,42g Citric acid 0,2 g 53,2 9,5 8,1 12,5 40,4 4 2
13 L – 6,2g CuSO4 0,35 g 43,3 -3,9 -3,9 5,5 225,1 4 3
14 L/G – 6,55g CuSO4 0,35 g 33,2 -1,8 -2,4 3,0 232,5 4-5 3-4
15 C – 4,44g CuSO4 0,35 g 41,3 -4,5 -4,9 6,6 227,6 4 3
16 L – 5,75g Fe 0,35 g 53,6 1,2 -1,8 2,2 304,0 4 4
17 L/G – 6,34g Fe 0,35 g 29,7 2,2 -4,2 4,7 297,8 4-5 4-5
18 C – 4,54g Fe 0,35 g 41,6 1,6 -3,3 3,7 296,4 4 3
Table 3. Logwood dyeing results and spectrophotometric measurement on linen

knitetwear and silk samples.
654
S – silk
S/G – silk premordating in oak gall
LKV – linen knitwear with viscose
LK – linen knitwear
LK/G – linen knitwear premordating in oak gall
CK – cotton knitwear
CK/G – cotton knitwear premordating in oak gall
Spectrophotometric result Fastness
No. Fabric Mordant Colour
L* a* b* C* hº Wash Light
1 S – 2,0 g No mordant 32,0 9,1 12,9 15,8 54,9 4-5 4
2 S/G – 1,1 g No mordant 34,7 7,5 14,2 16,1 62,3 5 4-5
3 S – 2,01 g Alum 0,7 g 18,8 9,5 -11,8 15,1 308,9 4 4-5
4 S/G – 1,1 g Alum 0,7 g 18,1 10,9 -13,0 16,9 309,9 4-5 5
5 S – 2,02 g Soda 0,7 g 64,9 5,0 12,4 13,4 67,8 5 4
6 S/G –1,0 g Soda 0,7 g 69,9 4,4 4,5 6,3 45,7 5 4-5
7 S – 2,1 g Citric acid 0,4 g 39,9 10,4 21,5 23,8 64,2 4-5 4
8 S/G – 1,0 g Citric acid 0,4 g 37,9 10,8 23,3 25,7 65,0 5 4-5
9 S – 2,1 g Cu - 0,7 g 21,6 2,6 0,8 2,7 18,2 4-5 4-5
10 S/G – 1,0 g Cu – 0,7 g 19,2 3,1 -4,8 5,7 302,5 5 5
11 S – 1,2 g Fe - 0,7 g 17,5 1,9 -4,0 4,5 295,4 4 5
12 S/G – 1,0 g Fe - 0,7 g 19,2 3,1 -4,8 5,7 302,5 5 4-5
13 LKV – 5,0 g Fe - 0,7 g 33,6 3,7 -2,5 4,5 326,2 4-5 3-4
14 LKV – 4,9 g Fe - 0,7 g 35,4 4,2 -1,8 4,1 333,9 4 3-4

15 LK – 4,8 g Alum 0,7 g 43,5 7,9 -11,5 14,0 304,5 4-5 4
16 LK/G – 4,9 g Alum 0,7 g 26,1 11,7 -12,5 17,1 313,1 5 3-4
17 CK – 4,3 g Alum 0,7 g 29,0 7,6 -11,2 13,5 304,0 4 3
18 CK/G – 5,1 g Alum 0,7 g 29,4 8,0 -10,8 13,5 306,6 4 4
• Durability trials presented in the tables have been performed in line with the
following standards: PN –ENG ISO 105-C06:2010 meth C1S oraz PN-ENG ISO 105-
B02:2013 meth A1M.
• Saturation was measured by a spectrophotometer (X-rite RM200QC).

655
CONCLUSIONS
1. Natural dyes used by fashion industry fit perfectly in the “sustainable fashion”
trend.
2. With the substances and compounds they contain, many of them are truly pro-
health.
3. The cultivation process of the dyeing plants was free of any pesticides and
chemical agents.
4. “Logwood” and “Tinctoria” collections are the first naturally dyed fashion
collections in Poland.
5. In our research, we were interested in ecological technology of natural dyeing
and focused on creating modern, organic textile products. The aim of the Institute’s
research is to create organic clothing offering the best parameters and the highest
comfort.
6. The collection of clothes made of natural fibres and coloured with natural dyes
show human relation with the surrounding world and nature, they are the proof of the
eco-friendly attitude.
7. During summers, linen clothing seems to be the best option to feel comfortable.
Colours featured by naturally dyed fabrics add to the aesthetics of linen and, as our
studies have shown, a large group of such fabrics is a great protection against UV
rays making it an added value.
Fig 1,2. Logwood collection and proposition from Tinctoria collection.

656
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge to the Institute of Natural Fibers and Medicinal
Plants for a possibility of developing the research topic.
REFERENCES
Cardon D. Natural Dyes (2007) \; pp: 216-218,263-274,470-472, 693-694;
Jenkyn Jones S., 2007. Fashion. Design, Portfolio Series, Arkady, Warszawa PL, pp 30-31, 35-37;
Kannan P, Ramadevi SR and Waheeta Hopper. Antibacterial activity of Terminalia chebula fruit
extract, African Journal of Microbiology Research. 2009; pp. 180-184;
Kim TG, Kang SY, Jung KK, Kang JH, Lee E, Han HM and Kim SH. Antiviral activities of extracts isolated
from Terminalis chebula, Retz., Sanguisorba officinalis L., Rubus coreanus Miq and Rheum palmatum
L. against hepatitis B virus, Phytotherapy research. 2001; pp. 718-720;
Nagesh L., Shyam Sivasamy, KS Muralikrishna, Kishore G. Bhat, Antibacterial Potential of Gall Extract
of Quercus infectoria against Enterococcus faecalis-an in vitro, Pharmacognosy Journal, Volume 4,
Issue 30, July–August 2012, pp. 47–50;
Schmidt-Przewozna K., Brandys A.M., Techniques of Traditional cloth decorating by the use of natural
dyes, Monograph of Clotech Conference 2015, Łódź PL;
Schmidt-Przewozna K., 2013. A thread of colour yarn, Invest-Druk Warszawa Stalowa Wola Museum,
Warszawa PL;
Sophie Hong, International Forum on Natural Dyes&Weft. Tajwan 2014;
Suchalata S. and Devi CS. Antioxidant activity of ethanolic extract of Terminalia chebula fruit against
isoproterenol – induced oxidative stress in rats. Indian Journal of Biochemistryand Biophysics. 2005;
Volume 42, pp. 242-249;
Prideaux, V.A.,2003. Hanbook of Indigo Dyeing, Search Press, London UK.

657
BASIC PATTERN DESIGN FOR CARE DEPENDENT

ELDERLY
Artemisia Caldas1, Miguel Carvalho2, Thayna Piauilino3, Maria Medeiros4,
Monique Caldas5, Humberto Lopes6
1
Department of Textile Engineering, University of Minho, (artecaldas2@gmail.com) Guimaraes,
Portugal, PhD Fellow CSF/CAPEs
2
Department of Textile Engineering, University of Minho, (migcar@det.uminho.pt), Guimaraes,
Portugal
3
, 4 Fashion Design, UFPI, Teresina, Brazil
5
Uninovafap, Teresina, Brazil
5
University of Coimbra, Portugal
(Presenting author, e-mail: migcar@det.uminho.pt;
Corresponding author, e-mail: artecaldas2@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT
This study presents the first results of a PhD in textile engineering aiming to understand
the clothes needs of the female elderly who are under the care of professionals
or relatives. The initial body measurements of the elderly with and over 65 and the
way they will impact in the basic pattern design are presented. A new concept of
clothing is proposed, based in the shape and proportions of their bodies, considering
their anatomic positions and their needs and limitations during the task of dressing/
undressing and seeking the comfort of the user with the handling of the caregiver.
The most common profile of these women corresponds to individuals that spend a
great part of their day in a sitting position, in wheelchairs or in a conventional seat.
After an ergonomic analysis, with the use of specific measurements, it was possible
to perform a basic pattern design for this target population, which will after be used
in the production of the appropriate clothing prototypes, respecting their needs. 78
measurements of elderly women in a sitting position were obtained, 46 in two institutions
in the city of Guimaraes (Portugal) and 32 in two institutions in the city of Teresina
(Brazil). 8 body measurements were considered to build an average measurements
table from pre-established criteria for the construction of the clothing prototypes.
Keywords: body measurements, dependent elderly, clothing comfort, basic pattern
design
INTRODUCTION
Discussing the aging of the population contributes to dissolve preconceptions of a
natural process of the individual’s life cycle. Reaching old age has its problems and
difficulties, as has its benefits and compensations based on the wisdom and experience
gained. Today, with the population changes, the profile of the elderly have, in one
way, improved, result of the technological advances in health care, improving socio-
economic conditions, the partial control of preventable diseases by immunization,
and the awareness to change eating habits and incentive to a more active life with
increasing physical activity. With the increasing of life expectancy, concurrently there
658
has been an increase of people with more independence reaching old age.
World Health Organization (WHO) (2010), prepared a policy report that aims to
contribute to allow people reaching old age in the best possible state of health, for
a sustainable economic and social development. According to the report, it has
been recognized for more than 30 years that Health for All would contribute both to a
better quality of life but also to global peace and security. The report aims providing
the population an healthy aging and to maintain maximum functional capacity, as
long as possible, it means giving value to the autonomy or self-determination and the
preservation of mental and physical independence of the elderly. Both physical and
mental illness can lead to dependence and therefore to the loss of functional capacity.
It is the role of health policies to contribute to more people reaching advanced ages
with the best possible health. Active and healthy aging is the main objective at the
moment, requiring attention in the process of support to the elderly (WHO, 2010).
In the process of aging, addiction is one of the distressing challenges as any other
phenomenon in this stage of life, the loss of mental and physical functioning is seen
in the foreground, as the consequence of decay and deterioration. So, despite all
the care and habits change, as the person gets older is more vulnerable, more
susceptible to various non-communicable diseases, including some more common
as urinary incontinence, memory loss, depression and loss of immobility, as well as
more vulnerable to certain diseases and communicable lesions, especially in the
elderly segment with 80 years or more. (United Nations, 2013; WHO, 2007; BRAZIL, 2007;
Batista et al., 2008).
It is clear, that besides the lack of research dealing with the subject, there is still a need
for adaptable products to the physical conditions in which they find themselves. A
person in the dependency profile has difficulties in finding clothes when they don’t
fit in the standard size clothing (Bergenheim, 1986). Investments are directed to the
production of clothing for people with body size within the said standard “normal”
and outlined. Examples of legitimate confirmation are the existing fitting rooms in
public stores, developed only for people without major restrictions of movement.
In the elderly category, there are many outstanding problems that hinder the task
of finding appropriate clothing. There are individuals with deformities who have
a problem of balance and clothing does not harmonize nor moulds to their new
silhouette. Forced by the circumstances are often forced to choose their clothing
with a larger or smaller size, depending on their body dimension and deformation
(Meinander; Minna, 2002).
Thus, it is important to have the basic knowledge on how to adapt the combination
model with the many changes of the body shape of the person. On this subject,
among the few relevant research available, Hernandez (2002) conducted a study
about standard construction for single figures based on changes in the body - large
disfigurements - using equipment, software and methods of patterns adaptation,
making it possible to identify variations in order to make the process faster. In the
survey, Hernandez refers some authors who had earlier initiatives on public works
developed for “non-standard” people. Gamwell, in 1966, presented a research which
states that an individual with disability does not want to appear different from the
others in his social group, regardless of age, gender or financial situation; Rosemblad-

659
Wallin, in 1977, with a clothing development project for seniors, setting changes and
techniques to facilitate dressing; Benktzon, in 1993, presented a study designing
clothing to meet the needs of women with osteoporosis; and Thoren, in 1994, examined
the manufacturing of individualized clothing for people with physical disabilities and
abnormal body proportions, warning that the importance of clothing is an individual
experience for disabled or disfigured individuals.
Direct contact with the target group of this research allowed observing the various
bodies’ shapes, assessing their geometric appearances. Despite also finding
longitudinal bodies, it can be said that the predominating shapes are more rounded,
oval style, with a concentration of fat in the abdomen and hips. As a person ages a
change in the body gradually occurs, such as a prevalence of fat mass, loss of height,
change in weight, change in skin texture, muscle loss and bone (Baumgartner et al.,
1991; Chumlea et al. 1989, cited by Oliveira, 2013)
Considering that the subjects are people over age in a dependency condition,
remaining a large part of their time in a sitting or lying position, 78 volunteers were
measured in a sitting position, 46 from two institutions in the city of Guimaraes, in
Portugal and 32 from two institutions in the city of Teresina, in Brazil.
The points of the body that would be required to collect the 8 key measurements
for pattern design were identified. The measurements were obtained in the positions
the elderly were found: casually dressed, sitting in different types of chairs, either in a
wheelchair or other types of chair. The 8 selected measurements of the body were:
waist girth, bust girth, hip girth, front bust arc, back bust arc, shoulder length, harm
length and crotch depth, as shown in Figure 1. All measurements were obtained with
a flexible measuring tape.
Symbol Key
• Waist Girth (WG)
• Bust Girth (BG)
• Hip Girth (HG)
• Front Bust Arc (FBH) - (armhole to armhole)
• Back Bust Arc (BBA) - (armhole to armhole)
• Shoulder Length (SL)
• Harm Length - (HL)
• Crotch Depth (CD)
Figure 1 - Body measurements obtained from each participant.

RESULTS
The development of the measurements table to be used in the initial pattern design
process of the proposed clothing was done using the collected measurements of the
78 participants. For this purpose, it was considered applying experimentation methods,
deciding ranges of values that corresponded to larger differences between sizes. It
was necessary to define a methodology that led to find an interval value to more
660
acceptable determination of the size scales.

The measurements table used in the design of the basic patterns was obtained from
the average of all measurements found, later used in the preparation of the garment
prototypes. Thus, some experiments were carried out, starting from a possible range
and size scale, so the samples would be within the acceptable results according to
the predetermined criteria choices.
In order to identify the most suitable mean measurements all trials and determine the
needed sizes, 5 trials were done using the mean values of the measurements table
of the 46 participants from Guimaraes (Portugal). In the first two trials the Waist Girth
(WG) was used as the measurement reference and in the other three trials was used
the Hip Girth (HG).
During the procedure the design of the basic patterns was done using the Cavalheiro
e Silva (2004) methodology. The basic patterns block was composed by 6 basic
patterns using the standard measurements from the methodology and the proposed
measurements from this study. In Figure 2, it is possible to observe the basic patterns
for the skirt, body and pants. The standard pattern design is represented in blue, whilst
the proposed patterns design for a better adjustment to the physics complexion of
the elderly in a sitting position, is represented in red.
Figure 2: Standard and proposed basic patterns block - Skirt (front and back); Body
(front and back); Pants (front and back).
The most relevant differences between the two blocks of patterns are:
•SKIRT - Width reduction in the front with the same enlargement in the back; Increased
center back.
•BODY - Addition in the back shoulder; Increased armhole.

661
•PANTS - Increased height of the center back; Increased crotch depth.

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the theories and lessons learned during the development of the blocks
of basic patterns of the different types, it was possible to produce flat patterns
using fundamental measurements. Flat pattern design is a common method in the
garment industry, where fashion designers and experienced pattern designers use
their own methodologies, formulas and dimensions, creating lines and curves during
the development of each pattern of a specific style. However, several trial methods
were executed to obtain clothes that would serve a larger number of body types and
styles.
The path for the production of garments follows a proposed methodology for product
development. Garments are considered a second skin and garment production should
be compared to an architectural project, which involves the planning of product
transformation, based on knowledge, using specific methods and techniques for their
preparation. For the users satisfaction about the clothing, considering their ergonomic
functions, the architectural design of clothes must be designed according to specific
human differentiations from the perception of their body shape and measurements.
Anthropometric data is imperative for an accurate design. Thus, the development
of the proposed clothing, as a usable product, in addition to the ergonomics and
anthropometry contributions, it should consider the complex movements of the wearer
and more meticulously, the movements of the caregivers, because they are the ones
performing the procedures of dressing and undressing the user.
The contribution of ergonomics follows the entire route, being relevant during the
phase of awareness and participation when the product is evaluated, the user and
caregiver are able to identify problems, ergonomic or any other, which were not
detected in any of the previous phases.
Every professional, at the moment of preparation of a product, has the responsibility
to ensure the full interaction of the product with the user. It is important to use new
reviews, even in the early stage of the process, re-evaluating the design, with the
intention of finding the correct answers to the human dimensions (Panero, Zelnik, 2002).
The responsibility becomes greater when the product has a more direct contact with
the user, as it is the case of the clothing used by the elderly remaining most of their
time sitting or lying down.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Program (COMPETE) and by national funds through FCT - Portuguese Foundation for
Science and Technology under the project UID/CTM/000264 and CSF/CAPEs.

662
REFERENCES
Batista, A. S; Jaccoud, L. de B.; Aquino, L.; El-Moor, P. D. 2008. Envelhecimento e Dependencia: Desafios
para a Organização da Proteção Social [Aging and dependancy: Challenges for the Organisation
of Social Protection]. Dario El-Moor – Brasilia: MPS, SPPS. 160 p.
Bergenheim, E. 1986. Måttsömnad och individuell anpassning av kläder förhandikppade:
Utvecklingsbart nordiskt samarbetsprojekt [Made-to-measure and individually adapted clothes for
disabled: Nordic collaboration project possible for development]. Helsingfors: Textilkonstinstitutionen
[Institution of Textile Arts].
Brazil. Ministério da Saúde [Health Minister]. 2007. Envelhecimento e saúde da pessoa idosa. [Aging
and health of the elderly]. Ministério da Saúde, Secretaria de Atenção à Saúde, Departamento de
Atenção Básica [Health Minister, Department of Health Care, Department of Primary Care]. Brasília,
Ministério da Saúde [Brasilia, Health Minister],192 p. il.
Cavalheiro, M. R., Silva, R. L. De A. 2004. Moldes Femininos: noções básicas [Female pattern desig:
Basic notions]. Rio de Janeiro: Ed. Senac Nacional, 64 p. II.
Hernandez. N. 2002. Tailoring the unique figure. Department of Home Economics. Göteborg University,
Research report 30.
Meinander, H., Minna V. M. 2002. Clothing and textiles for disabled and elderly people. VTT Technical
Research Centre of Finland, JULKAISIJA –UTGIVARE – PUBLISHER. Access in 2014/09/27. Available at
<http://vtt.fi/inf/pdf/tiedotteet/2002/T2143.pdf>.
Oliveira, C. B, J. 2013. Alterações lipidémicas e da composição corporal induzidas pelo exercício
físico em jejum. Estudo com idosos [Lipidemic and body composition changes induced by exercise
in a fasting state. Study with the elderly]. University of Porto.
WHO - World Health Organization. 2010. Financiamento dos sistemas de saúde – o caminho para a
cobertura universal. Relatório mundial da Saúde [Financing of health systems - the path to universal
coverage. World Health Report]. Access in 2014/09/25. Available at < http://www.who.int/whr/2010/
whr10_pt.pdf>.
Panero, J., Zelnik, M. 2002. Dimensionamento humano para espaços interiors [Human dimension for
interior spaces]. Barcelona: G. Gili. 320 p.
United Nations. 2013. Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division. World Population
Ageing. New York. Access in 2014/09/24. Available at < http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/
population/publications/pdf/ageing/WorldPopulationAgeing2013.pdf>.
WHO - World Health Organization. 2007. Women, Ageing and Health: A Framework for Action: Focus
on Gender. Available at <http//www.whqlibdoc.who.int/publications /2007/9789241563529_eng.
pdf>.

663
Structural design of tailored clothing dedicated to the 60+ people
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF TAILORED CLOTHING

DEDICATED TO THE 60+ PEOPLE
Elżbieta Mielicka, Lidia Napieralska
Textile Research Institute, Knitting and Clothing Research Department,
118 Gdańska str, Lodz, Poland
(emielicka@iw.lodz.pl; lnapieralska@iw.lodz.pl;)
Paper Keywords: 3D scanning, target of age 60+, clothing
Paper abstract The aging process has often tackled the demographic problem. It
consists problems associated with an aging population, eg. a lack of clothing tailored
to the specific needs.
In the study, it was carried out the analysis of the basic measurement data and
attempt to work out the basic body dimensions of female and male at the age 60+.
The anthropometric data collection obtained during the measuring by 3D scanner
were compiled as a set of data indispensable for the determination of silhouettes. The
statistical analysis, design and development of anthropometric databases of target
people, characterized of body types and clothing sizes was made.
Among the elderly persons often encountered sloping silhouette, the process of
modeling was based on the evaluation of proportion and posture and specific
requirements of eldery people. The fashion catalogue was prepared. Utility research
tests of few models was made for the group of 60 + woman. Although the specifics of
the structure of their appearance does not differ from traditional clothing.
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays ageing process in developed country is an often brought up issue resulting
from both the ageing dynamic and problems connected with the ageing of population.
Studies indicate a trend to dimension changes in relation to the contemporary human
body as well as changes in his/her silhouette with age. [1Łukomska A.,2008;]
In the population of elder people, usually three age groups are single out: 50–65,
65–75 and over 75 years of age. They concern the ageing phases connected with
other needs in life cycle and the social functions realized. The borderline of perceiving
senior age in the given country is movable and connected with the positive process
of human life prolongation, most frequently connected with overcoming illnesses.
The image of the oldest generation undergoes a change also in the evaluation of
seniors themselves. The recent years have witnessed that more and more elders care
for their strength, body beauty, intellectual activity and diet. They also fight against
the negative stereotype of old and ailing man. They more and more often positively
and optimistically assess their old age and accept it [ 2 Kocimska. P 2003; 3 Posłuszna
M.,2012].
The human posture and silhouette shape undergo changes in various life periods and
is shaped as a result of various factors and differences in body structure. [4 Hagel-
Koczarska G. 1989 ] The human body as irregular solid can be described with figure
664
outline and selected anthropometric features in a standing position, predicting their

use for the structure of garment. [6,7 Nowicki.e 1968, Standardy,2000]
The elderly have a little different body structure and proportions from typical ones [5Ilnicka
L.,2012 ] and therefore they require clothing adapted to changes in posture and peculiar
character of usage. A garment adapted to the silhouette of elder person, often less skilful
or disabled through nonstandard ergonomic structure adapted to body dimensions
should provide functionality and comfort of use, facilitating everyday life.
Within the research work, the bodies of persons of 60+ years of age were measured to
obtain dimension data. The measurements of silhouettes were carried out by the method
of touch-less scanning using a 3D apparatus. The measurements involved residents of
rehabilitation health resort during away-from-home sessions.
As the measurements of silhouettes were taken by the touch-less method, in a 3D cabin,
consent of the Bioethics Commission was not needed. All the persons measured moved
on their own and took a standing position required for the tests. Persons unable to maintain
balance in standing position due to neurological disturbances or chronic diseases of
lower limbs were excluded from the measurements.
Age and sex were used as the criteria of selection for analysis. Both for women and men, the
lower age limit was 60 years. Persons who were 59 years of age at the moment of scanning
were treated as sixty-year-old. The population under tests was divided into age groups
from 60 to 69 years and over 70 years of age. The measurement data obtained in the tests
were selected on the basis of the criteria assumed and basic body measurements used
for designing garments: body height, chest circumference, waist and hip circumferences
[8 MielickaE.,2012]. The slope of silhouette was assessed in the aspect of designing and
structure of clothing. Body posture was assessed on the basis of scannatar cross-sections.
RESULTS
Based on the silhouette measurements obtained with the use of the touch-less device,
comprising 201 women and 106 men, as well as 3D scannatars, the body measurements
and proportion were analysis and the body posture on silhouette cross-sections were
visually assessed. The results obtained were worked out in a convenient form for performing
further analysis and designs.
Below are listed the values of average measurement features for the population 60+
tested, separately for women and men in relation of age groups.
The presentation of the main garment size parameters for women: height, chest and hip
circumferences and additionally circumference under chest is given in Fig. 1.
Fig 1. Values of the average basic features of women

665
From Fig.1 it follows that the average values of the parameters are higher for women
being over 70 years of age.
Fig.2. Values of the average measurement features of men
Fig. 2 shows a distinct decrease in the measurement features of men such as body
circumferences with age. The height of men also decreases with age.
In the analysis concerning the women of more than 60 years of age, the values of
body dimensions, important in the determination of garment size, were referred to the
ranges resulting from the intervals for each of the measurement features, obligatory
in standards.
Fig 3. Distribution of average body heights of women of more than 60 years of age
(every 4 cm)
3
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666
In accordance with standards PN EN 13402, for the body height parameter, an interval
of 4 cm was used. The frequencies in particular body height ranges of women of more
than 60 years of age (Fig. 3) show that the most numerous group, 29%, was obtained
for a height of 160 cm. Women with a height of 156 cm constituted 23% and women
with a height of 152 cm formed a group of 17%. The groups of women with a height
over 160 cm were less numerous. 9% of the women tested had a height of 164 cm,
while women with a height up to 178 cm constituted only 0.6%.
Fig.4. Distribution of average waist circumference of women over 60 years of age
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An interval of 4 cm was used for the waist circumference. From the results presented
it follows that about 15% of the women tested had a waist circumference of 96 cm.
Values over 5% were obtained for 8 marked out ranges of women waist circumference,
from which 12.82% of the women tested showed a waist circumference of 92 cm, while
the groups of women with a waist circumference of 100 cm and 108 cm constituted
11.54% each. A waist circumference from 112 to 132 cm constitutes 6 ranges of waist with
an interval of 4 cm, while each of them has a value within the range: 2.56 – 3.21 %.
The group of women of more than 60 years of age with a waist circumference up to
134 cm constituted 0.64%. About 70 % of the women of more than 60 years of age
have a waist circumference ranging from 88 to 108 cm.
Analyzing the presentations of parameters for women, there was observed a trend of
lowering body height and an increasing trend of body circumferences (Fig 3. Fig 4.).

667
Fig.5. Assessment of body posture on the basis of scan cross-sections
Fig.6. Deformations of limbs and silhouettes on scans
Based on the scans and the silhouette cross-sections made on scannatars, the
characteristic body postures of the elders were assessed. The silhouettes of persons
over 60 years of age are characterized by inclined or just humped backs and
deformed silhouettes with protruding abdomen and curved limbs. The inclined posture
is characterized by the fact that the deviation of the seventh cervical vertebrae from

668
the perpendicular line is greater than that in the normal posture (even up to 8.0 cm).
The back is wider, more rounded and longer. The silhouettes with such a posture
usually have flat buttocks and protruding abdomen.
In further part of the study, we concentrated on the woman silhouette, for which brief
fore design and guidelines for garments dedicated to this group of clothing were
worked out.
The analysis of female figure structure after 60 years of age, made on the basis of
the scannators obtained, shows that there are many persons with a normal body
structure, moderately proportional but with deviations.
Faulty postures can be covered up through the use of structural-modeling treatments
in garments, including:
- selection of appropriate plastic designs of clothing,
- modeling and construction of forms,
- selection of fabrics with appropriate surface quality, color and pattern.
Modeling for figures with non-proportional body structure and inclined posture, based
on basic forms and structural sections taking into account body dimensions is aimed
at maintaining structural equilibrium and obtaining the effect of visually symmetric
user’s silhouette.
The comfort of garments fulfilling biophysical and aesthetic functions depends on:
Adjustment to the user’s body measurements
Ergonomic structure of clothing
Optimal selection of fabrics and additives
Specific character of the making technology.

669
Fig. 7. Designing-structural assumptions of garments for women over 60 years of age

There were worked out designing-structural and pattern assumptions to be used for
the preparation of the collection of everyday garments for women. The measurements
and shapes of garment segments were adjusted to the measurements of users’
bodies, additionally ergonomic functions were taken into account.

670
Fig.8. Structural-modeling treatments taking into account the above assumptions
Fig. 8 shows the structural-modeling treatments based on the design modification of

garments for women 60+, taking into account the design assumptions worked out
through:
The use of modeling basic structure, including:
A Modeling deepened armpit and sleeve with an enlarged undercut facilitating
dressing;
B Modeling for inclined silhouette and protruding shoulder-blades;
C Enlargement of appropriate structural sections and elongation of the garment
back line;
D Reduction in appropriate structural sections, shortening the garment front;
E Optimal length of the elements covering the distortion of limbs (sleeves, garment
bottom).

671
Formation of structural clearances allowing free dressing and undressing and the
formation of structural allowance shaping the garment, e.g.
F elongation of the seat seem;
G possibility of circumference control through the use of elastic tapes in waist,
facilitating unaided dressing and undressing;
H easy fastening and access to pockets;
I necklines allowing dressing and undressing overhead.
The structural designing of the garment collection was based on the standards of female
clothing [Standards COBRPO], using singled out body dimensions indispensable for
the calculation of structural network, division of chest circumference and structural
additives. Basic model structures were made for one singled out size.
Fabrics were selected for elderly persons on account of aesthetic values. Preferred
were elastic fabrics, knitted fabrics with a good shape and color stability. In the color
scheme for elderly women, subdued, warm and uniform colors were used including
pattern effects with timeless motifs.
The following criteria of selecting fabrics for elderly persons were used:
Biophysical and functional properties dependent on raw material composition,
structure and finishing.
Quality and elasticity of knitted fabrics conditioning the methods of modeling and
construction of forms in order to improve the functionality and functional values of
clothing. E.g. shape stability.
Color scheme adapted to the preference and economic situation of elderly persons:
subdued colors, timeless combination of patterns and colors.
The pre-production batch of clothing was handed over to use by elderly persons in
order to carry out functional tests. The tests were carried out by survey conducting.
CONCLUSIONS
Within the study garment models were made and subjected to testing by a group of
women 60+.
The usage assessment has confirmed that an essential feature of clothing for
elderly persons is its ergonomic structure that through pondered combination with
appropriate fabrics provides an attraction effect, comfort of use and improves self-
assessment since it does not differ from traditional, generally available clothing.
The clothing for seniors, structurally facilitating dressing or covering the silhouette
imperfection, developed and made in a pre-production scale within the project ha
been an object of interest and obtained a positive opinion from women. The survey
performed has confirmed the appropriatenss of the designing-structural assumptions
developed for clothing dedicated to women of 60+ years of age to improve their
physical and mental state and influence life quality.

672
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The study was conducted as an international project Eureka E! 8056 GarmNet financed
by NCBiR.
REFERENCES
Łukomska A., Wachowska J.: Seniorzy o swojej starości. Gerontologia Polska, 2008; 16,
1,51-55.
Kocimska P.: Starość wyzwaniem dla współczesności. Niebieska Linia, 2003,5, 6-7.
PosłusznaM.,Aktywność rodzinna i społeczna osób starszych, Nowiny Lekarskie 2012,
81,1,75–79
Hagel-Koczarska G. Budowa ciała ludzi w wieku dojrzałym i starszym. Roczniki
Naukowe AWF 1989; 38: 47–60.
Ilnicka L., Wiszomirska I., Wit A., Wychowański M. Ocena zróżnicowania wybranych
cech antropometrycznych we wczesnym i późnym okresie starości. Wychowanie
Fizyczne i Sport 2004;48: 337–345.
Standardy konstrukcji odzieży damskiej -Praca zbiorowa COBR PO 2000
E Nowicki - Podstawy konstrukcji podstawy- WPLi S W-wa 1968
E. Mielicka, L. Napieralska, Analysis of dimention body changing obtained by
3D scanning method in women example, Innovations in Clothing Technology &
Measurement Techniques, ISBN 978-83-7283-492-8, wyd. CIOP PIB, PŁ, Politechnika
Radomska, Warszawa, 2012, s.108-126

673
IDENTIFICATION OF PREPONDERANT FACTORS

FOR WORK-WEAR DESIGN
Sara Bragança1, Miguel Carvalho1, Pedro Arezes1, Susan Ashdown2; Liliana
Fontes1
1
University of Minho, Guimarães, Portugal
2
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
(Presenting and Corresponding author E-mail: saraabraganca@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT
The work garments’ fit is one factor that highly impacts on workers’ productivity
and on their feeling of comfort. Work-wear may have some limitation, e.g. mobility,
protection, temperature, aesthetics, comfort and fit. Moreover, as the variation of the
human size and shape is so large it is extremely difficult to design clothes that can
accommodate a large variety of people. The purpose of this paper is to present some
important aspects that should be taken in consideration when designing clothes to
be used at work. All information was gathered using a questionnaire, to understand
how the participants feel about the clothes they usually wear at work and to identify
what changes should be made to make it more comfortable – e.g. increase in the
leg length. The results obtained show that there is more dissatisfaction towards the
lower part of the garment. There are some issues that prompt discomfort such as the
excessive leg length or the tightness of the garment.
Keywords: work-wear; fit; opinions
INTRODUCTION
Clothes are designed to fit people within a range of dimensions and general body
types. But, clothing size and fit are concepts very difficult to quantify and analyze
because the relationship between the human body and the clothing is complex and
often ambiguous (Parkinson & Reed, 2010; Loker, Ashdown, & Schoenfelder, 2005). As
such, to understand the relationship between garments and the human body there
is a need to analyze many complex factors. Every person has a specific apparel
fit preference based upon aesthetic and functional expectations and regardless of
what is imposed by the designer, ultimately the decision of what constitutes good fit is
made by each individual (Ashdown & Delong, 1995).
Currently, different brands use different base measurements and provide different
size numbers, with different steps between sizes. Moreover, individual firms, which
use identical base sizes to define their models, interpret the standards that define
garment sizing as they wish, causing the same size to be different in every store
(Gupta et al., 2014; Loker et al., 2005). Ashdown, Loker, Rucker and Davis (2007)
make some comments on the fact that the lack of a good fit is the main reason why
many consumers do not purchase clothing at ready-to-wear stores and the cause of
many returns in purchases via catalogs. In some extreme cases, garment fit is of the
outmost importance, determining even the safety and performance at work, whether
it is regarding loose clothes that can get caught in machinery and cause accidents

674
or regarding tight or smaller clothes that can restrict the range of movements and
the blood circulation. Ideally clothing must have sufficient ease or enough elasticity,
not being too loose or too tight, allowing the worker to move uninhibited and to be
comfortable (Dorman & Havenith, 2007). In any of those cases the wearer’s mobility
and the level of protection provided by the garment can be adversely affected
(Rintamaki, 2005; Huck, Maganga, & Kim, 1997). The clothes worn must allow users
to perform their tasks without any impedance or restriction (Bragança et al., 2015).
According to Man and Swan (2007), in order to make the design process easier,
designers should have a modeling tool that can evaluate different designs and
quantify the impact that they have on human performance.
This paper aims at understanding the opinions of workers from different types of
environments about the clothes they wear during the labor time. Additionally, they
were also questioned about what they think that should be changed to proportionate
more satisfaction and comfort.
This study was based on the opinions of fifty participants, that were divided in two
groups. Group 1 (G1) was composed by 30 participants, 12 females and 18 males,
with ages ranging from 20 to 62 years old. These participants worked in three different
companies/institutions – one research centre, one software development company
and one university. They were grouped together since they had very similar work
characteristics and worked 8 hour in a sitting position, with some occasional standing.
This group of workers are free to wear clothes of their choosing as long as they followed
the appropriate dress code instituted at the institutions/company. Group 2 (G2) was
composed by 20 participants (all males) with ages ranging from 24 to 59 years old.
These participants worked in an industrial company. All these participants work in the
day shift for 8h with a standing posture with some movement. This group wear the
company’s uniform that consists of a cotton t-shirt, a pair of loose pants and a jacket.
The data for the evaluation of the workers’ satisfaction with their work-clothes and
the identification of garments’ characteristics was done using a questionnaire. The
first stage of the questionnaire was based on Likert-type scale questions regarding
five different aspects: (i) fit; (ii) mobility; (iii) comfort; (iv) protection; and (v) donning/
doffing. The second stage included an open-ended style questionnaire where the
participants were able to freely describe their suggestions and opinions, without
being limited to standardized categories.
The analysis of the questionnaire was performed for its five parts individually. In all
of the parts it was made a comparison between the two groups of participants
analysed. In the analysis of all the questionnaire parts, except part I regarding the
garments’ fit, the data was divided in four categories – the upper and lower parts
of the garments for G1 and for G2. The analysis contained information about the
characteristics that have been ranked the best and the worst, on average, for both
participants’ groups. Additionally, the percentage of people dissatisfied with all the
characteristics presented in the questionnaire was also quantified.

675
RESULTS
Stage One – Part I – Fit
The results of the questionnaire showed that, in general, people feel more dissatisfied
with the fit of garments for the lower body rather than the fit of garments for the
upper body. The best and worst classifications for each group and each part are
presented in Table 1 (the mean of the classifications attributed by the participants is in
parenthesis). The classification is based on the obtained score by using a scale from
1 (worst fit) to 9 (best fit).
Table 1. Body parts with the best and worst classification in terms of fit.
Body part group G1 Better G1 Worst G2 Better G2 Worst
Lower part Ankle (7.2) Leg length (5.2) Ankle (6.7) Leg length (5.5)
Upper part Arm length (7.2) Chest (6.6) Arm + Forearm (7.1) Abdomen (6.5)
The best and worst classifications for the lower part were attributed to the same body
parts by both groups – ankle and leg length, respectively. As for the upper part, the
opinions between the groups are divergent. In terms of dissatisfaction, Figure 1 shows
the percentage of people dissatisfied for each body part, divided in the two groups
under analysis.
Figure 1. Percentage of dissatisfaction with the garment’s fit.

It is clear that for both groups the leg length is a big problem, with 50% and 30% of
people dissatisfied for G1 and G2 respectively. The fit in the waist is not very good
for 36.67% of the G1 population whilst for 30% of G2, the fit in the hip is not pleasing.
On the other hand, for G1, the body parts with a smaller percentage of dissatisfied
are the knee, with 6,67% of people displeased, the calf and ankle, both with 10% of
people dissatisfied. For G2, the ankle is the body part with fewest people dissatisfied
(5%). In the garments for the upper body, the regions more problematic are the arm
and chest for G1 (with 20% of people dissatisfied) and the abdomen for G2 (also with
20% of people dissatisfied). The neck base and arm length are the only body parts
that do not have any people dissatisfied with, for G1 and G2 respectively.
Stage One – Part II – Mobility
In terms of mobility, the dissatisfaction is also more accentuated in the garments for
the lower body. The best and worst classifications for each group and each part are

676
presented in Table 2 (the mean of the classifications attributed by the participants is in

parenthesis). The classification is based on the obtained score by using a scale from
1 (worst sensation of mobility) to 9 (best sensation of mobility).
Table 2. Best and worst classification in terms of sensation of mobility.
Lower part Toughness (6.3) Tightness (5.4) Discomfort (5.6) Toughness (5.2)
Limitation of
Upper part Discomfort (7.2) Tightness (6.2) Discomfort (6.3)
movements (6.9)
Surprisingly, the characteristic better ranked for group 1 was the one with the worst
score for group 2 – rigidity. As observed in part I, the opinions between the two groups
are a little bit different. Regarding dissatisfaction, Figure 2 depicts the percentage of
users dissatisfied for each body part, divided in the two groups under analysis.
Figure 2. Percentage of dissatisfaction with the garment’s sensation of mobility.

Tightness of the garments for the lower body is the main characteristic that causes
dissatisfaction for G1 (with 33.33% of people dissatisfied), whilst for G2 the most
troublesome characteristic of the garments for the lower body is the rigidity (35%).
On the other hand, the rigidity of the garments for the lower body is the characteristic
that has the lowest percentage of dissatisfied in G1 (with 6.67% of people dissatisfied)
and the tightness of the garments for the lower body is the characteristic that has the
lowest percentage of dissatisfied in G2 (with 5% of people dissatisfied). Regarding
the garments for the upper body, the feeling of dissatisfaction is more balanced. 5%
of G2 feel discontent with the tightness of the garments for the upper body. All other
characteristics elicited only 10% of dissatisfaction. In G1, the worst result was found for
the limitation of movements caused by the garment.
Stage One – Part III – Comfort
In general, the great majority of people showed some dissatisfaction towards their
garments, both for the lower and upper parts of the body, in situation of cool or warmth.
The best and worst classifications for each group and each part are presented in Table
3 (in parenthesis is the mean of the classifications attributed by the participants). The
classification is based on the obtained score by using a scale from 1 (worst sensation
of comfort) to 5 (best sensation of comfort).

677
Table 3. Best and worst classification in terms of sensation of comfort.

Cool sensation
Itchy sensation Warmth sensation
Lower part + Skin irritation/ Skin dryness (2)
(1.6) (3)
redness (2.7)
Cool sensation + Warmth sensation
Itchy sensation + Itchy sensation
Upper part Warmth sensation + Skin dryness
Skin dryness (1.5) (2.1)
(2.5) (2.7)
Controversially, G1 indicates the cool sensation as the worst characteristic in terms

of comfort, both in the lower and upper parts of the garment, whilst G2 specifies the
warmth sensation as the worst characteristic. Regarding the dissatisfaction, Figure 3
depicts the percentage of users dissatisfied for each body part, divided in the two
groups under analysis.
Figure 3. Percentage of dissatisfaction with the garment’s sensation of comfort.

Warmth and cool sensations were identified as the main causes of dissatisfaction in
both groups and in both parts of the garment, with about 90% of people dissatisfied.
The remaining characteristics have less people dissatisfied in the upper and lower
parts. Skin irritation and redness was the characteristic with less people dissatisfied
in both groups and in both parts of the garment, with only about 15% of people
dissatisfied.
Stage One – Part IV – Protection
In terms of protection, in contrast to what happens in the other parts, people are
more dissatisfied with the garments for the upper body, especially when it comes to
ruptures caused by objects. Figure 4 depicts the percentage of users dissatisfied for
each body part, divided in the two groups under analysis.
Figure 4. Percentage of dissatisfaction with the garment’s ability of protection.

The protection category is the one in the entire questionnaire with the fewest dissatisfied
people. The largest percentage of dissatisfaction was registered for the inability of the
garment to protect against ruptures in the upper part, especially for G2, with 35% of
people dissatisfied.
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Stage One – Part V – Donning/Doffing

As observed in part IV, regarding protection, this part was also one where better
satisfaction was registered. In general, people feel more dissatisfied with the donning,
rather than the doffing of the garments. In both situations the garments made for the
upper body are more favorably.
Figure 5. Percentage of dissatisfaction with the garment’s ease of donning and doffing.
Figure 5 depicts the percentage of users dissatisfied for each body part, divided
in the two groups under analysis. Here it is possible to see that the highest value of
dissatisfied people was 26.67% for the donning of garments for the lower body in G1.
On the other hand, the doffing had a small percentage of dissatisfaction, even 0% for
garments for the lower body in G1.
Stage Two – Open-end questions
The open-end questions revealed that both groups have similar opinions in many
aspects concerning their work outfits. Table 35 shows a summary of the several
answers given by the participants for the most relevant questions.
Table 4. Results of the open-end questions.
Questions regarding General participants’ answers
Collar; Waist; Hip; Thighs; Knees; Crotch; Legs; Leg length
Alterations on fit
Flexibility
Waist; Hip
Alterations on comfort Rigidity; Roominess
Fabric
Sleeves; Armholes; Shoulders; Chest; Back; Waist; Hip; Thighs; Calf; Knees;
Areas causing limitations
Crotch; Legs
Better protection against Cool; Heat; Cuts
Best features Aesthetics; Comfort; Donning; Flexibility; Maintenance; Practicality; Quality
Worst features Comfort; Donning; Durability; Modeling; Quality; Thickness; Rigidity
It should be noted that the protection against cold and heat were the answers
more constantly given by the majority of the participants, regardless of their group.
Participants from G1 tended to point out areas of dissatisfaction more related to
garments for the upper body, whilst participants from G2 point out more areas from
garments for the lower body. However, for both groups there were displeasing aspects
in both garments, for the upper and for the lower body. As can be seen, the areas
that were pointed out as in need for alterations of fit are also the ones presented as
causes of limitations. In terms of fit and comfort, the participants demonstrated that
the pants were the garments that need more changes. For G2, the explanation for

679
this is obvious, since they wear a loose cotton t-shirt in the upper part of the body, that
does not cause any limitations of movements or any discomfort due to tightness. As in
G1, the participants are free to choose their clothes, thus it is normal that they select
the ones that fit them better. Nevertheless, sometimes this choice compromises the
range of movements, reason why the sleeves, shoulders, chest and back areas were
presented as causes of some limitations.
Some of the best features reported by the participants were the aesthetics, flexibility
ease of maintenance, and practicality. As opinions vary from person to person, there
are some features that were registered good and bad, such as the comfort or the
lack of it; the process of donning, that can be easy or not; and the quality of the
products or the lack of it. All of these features are subject to a subjective perspective
of the wearer, which is based on his/her preferences and lifestyle. The other features
that participants tended to dislike more were the low durability of the clothes or some
areas of it; the poor fit of some designs; and the thickness and rigidity of some fabrics
and seams.
CONCLUSIONS
Clothing design for mass consumption is done in order to accommodate a large
variety of people in the same size. This may lead to problems in terms of fit for some
users, since two persons with distinct body types and sizes can wear the exact same
size. In this study, the leg length was pointed out as the most problematic area
regarding fit. As the garments that both groups analyzed are ready to wear, and
not customized, it is normal that to fit a particular user well some changes need to
be made. However, most people do not want to take the time or the effort to make
alterations to their clothes. Nevertheless, in some cases these alterations are crucial for
comfort and safety, as the case of leg length, which if very long can cause accidents
and discomfort.
The questionnaire showed that G1 feels, in general, more dissatisfied with their
garments. The fact that people in G2 have no other option rather than to accept the
garments they are provided with, may also contribute to the higher classifications. In
the moment of decision of whether to buy the garments or not, people in G1 are able
to select models that fit them better and are aesthetically pleasing at the same time.
Obviously, G1 tends to choose a more fashionable and close-fitting type of clothes,
while the garments worn by G2 are looser and not very fashionable. This is the reason
why the tightness of the clothes is not pinpointed as troublesome for G2 as for G1,
where the tightness of both the upper and lower parts of the garment are poorly
classified.
Additionally, the G2’s garments are exactly the same that the rest of the workers wear
in other parts of the world where the company is based. This fact may lead to many
problems in fit since the design is not population-specific, but meant to a population
that is considerably larger than the one studied here, as the cloth was originally
designed for the German population. As reported, the fact that the clothes of G2 are
fairly loose and very tough causes a lot of discomfort and limitation of movements.
Opposing of what might be though to limit the range of motion, i.e., tight clothes, it is
clear here that the combination of loose and tough garments is the cause of much
dissatisfaction and discomfort amongst workers.

680
In the modern society people tend to care more about the appearance, where clothes
play an important role. People from G1 seem to represent well this paradigm; it is clear
that they sometimes compromise comfort over fit and aesthetics. Fashion trends and
the dress codes imposed in many workplaces make people wear garments that are
sometimes limitative, whether it is of movement (caused by the tightness of the clothes)
or of acclimatization (caused by wearing clothes more pleasing than functional). The
materials of which the garments are made of also play a very important role in the
sense of satisfaction of its users. As previously mentioned, the greatest advantage
that G1 has over G2 is the possibility to choose the clothes to wear during the working
period, allowing the selection to be based on several aspects crucial to the users’
satisfaction. The inability to choose what makes them satisfied is the main reason why
most of the garments’ characteristics regarding the sensation of comfort have more
people dissatisfied in G2 than in G1.
It is clear that the two work environments represented in this study are very different
and that what one group values the most is not necessarily the same as the other
group. Taking the example of the garments’ protection against ruptures or impact,
it is obvious that this is much more of a concern to G2 (causing an increased
dissatisfaction) than to G1, where people do not have many problems of this nature
in their everyday activities. For the users of G2 the garments capacity of protection is
of extreme importance, putting at risk their safety when poorly designed.
The last characteristic analyzed in the questionnaire, regarding the donning and
doffing of the garments is sometimes neglected by designers, which create clothes
aesthetically pleasing but not very practical to put on and to take off. However, for
people who have to change from their regular clothes to the work clothes, it is important
that the process of donning and doffing is simple, quick and efficient. Having this is
mind it is possible to say that aspects like good fit, good modeling and high flexibility,
combined with fabrics that protect users against adverse temperatures, should be
better thought out and not forgotten when designing clothes that are meant to the
workplace.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Program - COMPETE) and by national funds through FCT - Portuguese Foundation for
Science and Technology under the project UID/CTM/000264.
REFERENCES
Ashdown, S. P., & Delong, M. (1995). Perception testing of apparel ease variation. Applied Ergonomics,
26(1), 47–54. doi:10.1016/0003-6870(95)95750-T
Ashdown, S. P., Loker, S., Rucker, M., & Davis, U. C. (2007). Improved apparel sizing: Fit and anthropometric
3D scan data. National Textile Center Research Briefs, 1(June), 3–5.
Bragança, S., Fontes, L., Arezes, P., Edelman, E. R., & Carvalho, M. (2015). The impact of work clothing

681
design on workers’ comfort. Procedia Manufacturing, 3(1), 5889–5896. doi:10.1016/j.promfg.2015.07.898

Dorman, L. E., & Havenith, G. (2007). Examining the impact of protective clothing on range of
movement. Loughborough University, Environmental Ergonomics Research Centre.
Gupta, D., Gupta, D., & Zakaria, N. (2014). Anthropometry and the design and production of apparel:
An overview. In Anthropometry, Apparel Sizing and Design (pp. 34–66). United Kingdom: Woodhead
Publishing Ltd.
Huck, J., Maganga, O., & Kim, Y. (1997). Protective overalls: Evaluation of garment design and fit.
International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, 9(1), 45–61. doi:10.1108/09556229710157876
Loker, S., Ashdown, S., & Schoenfelder, K. (2005). Size-specific analysis of body scan data to improve
apparel fit. Jounral of Textile and Apparel Technology and Management, 4(3), 16–33.
Man, X., & Swan, C. C. (2007). A mathematical modeling framework for analysis of functional clothing.
Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics, 2(3), 10–28.
Parkinson, M. B., & Reed, M. P. (2010). Creating virtual user populations by analysis of anthropometric
data. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 40(1), 106–111. doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2009.07.003
Rintamaki, H. (2005). Protective clothing and performance in cold environments. In Third International
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AN EVALUATION OF SEWN SEAMING TECHNIQUES TO FACILITATE THE USE OF BIOCULTURES IN APPAREL
AN EVALUATION OF SEWN SEAMING

TECHNIQUES TO FACILITATE THE USE OF
BIOCULTURES IN APPAREL
Jane Emma Wood1
1
Manchester Metropolitan University, Hollings Faculty, Righton Building, Cavendish Street,
Manchester, M15 6BG
(Presenting author E-mail: j.e.wood@mmu.ac.uk)
ABSTRACT
This preliminary study aims to explore the relative strength of sewn seams appropriate
for apparel applications in a ‘fabric’ grown in a textile lab. Increasing public interest
has led researchers to investigate ‘sustainable’ materials for apparel products, that is,
those that have very little environmental impact at the end of their useful life. Substrates
created from a natural cellulosic base have been found to be fully biodegradable
at the end of their useful life. The ‘fabric’ has been grown under controlled conditions
from a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (Kombucha) using a widely accepted
standard recipe of green tea, cider vinegar and sugar. The ‘fabric’ was then dried
under ambient conditions with the resultant substrate being similar in texture to fine
animal leather. Several common British Standard seam and stitch types were then
used to join the ‘fabric’. The suitability of these seams was evaluated using British
Standard textile laboratory tests for tensile strength. The findings were then compared
using visual observations and data analysis to those in substrates deemed similar in
structure.
Keywords: Bioculture, Sustainability, Seams, Textiles, Environment, Kombucha, Stitching,
Apparel, Garments, Tensile strength
INTRODUCTION
The public are increasingly expressing their concern regarding environmental issues,
but this sits in direct conflict with the world of apparel where clothing can have a
limited lifespan due to changing fashion trends (Fletcher, 2008). Several approaches
have been taken to develop ‘sustainable’ materials, that is, those that have very little
environmental impact at the end of their useful life. Projects such as Victimless Leather
(Catts & Zurr, 2014), Biocouture (Lee, 2014) and Wonderland (Storey 2014) have
sought to address these issues either by ‘growing’ fabrics from naturally occurring
organisms or finding ways in which to ‘dissolve’ garments at the end of their useful life
(Hemmings, 2008).
Fabric being grown by Biocouture is based on the fermentation of Kombucha (Lee,
2014), a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY) which is also used to brew
tea (Dufresne & Farnworth, 2000). The resulting fungus or biofilm is harvested as the
fabric. The fungus is reported to be of cellulosic base (Kappel & Anken 1993; Teoh,
Heard & Cox, 2004). Several researchers have experimented with fabric produced
using the Kombucha base. Designers such as Suzanne Lee and Sacha Laurin have
produced conceptual garments using a variety of construction techniques for catwalk

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shows and display purposes (Lee, 2014; Laurin, 2015). However, apparel construction
technologies have not been studied in detail to date.
Small trials to manufacture the cellulosic biofilm ‘fabric’ using the recipe established
by Biocouture (Lee, 2014) in the Manchester Metropolitan University Hollings textile
laboratory proved successful. An internally funded pilot project facilitated the growing
of ‘fabric’ in sections large enough to be used effectively in garment development
and facilitate evaluation of seaming techniques used in garment creation.
For the purpose of this study the fabric was grown using a proven recipe: Kombucha
(the starter culture), green tea, sugar and cider vinegar. The growing vessels were sited
in the conditioned textile laboratory where the controlled atmosphere is conducive to
the development of the cultures and thus fabric manufacture. The conditions of the
laboratory were set in accordance with BS EN ISO 139:2005 at a standard temperature
of 200C (+/-2%) and a relative humidity of 65% (+/- 4%).
The starter culture was placed in the bath of green tea, sugar and cider vinegar and
the whole bath left to sit for three weeks to allow a mat to form on the surface. The
stages of mat formation are shown in figures 2 and 3. This mat was then ‘harvested’
(removed from the surface) and allowed to dry out for a period of one week in
ambient conditions. The mat was then ready for use as a biofabric.
(a) (b)
Figure 1: The growth bath on (a) day one, (b) day four
(a) (b)
Figure 2: The fabric mat (a) directly after harvest, (b) after drying for one week
Investigations into the construction of the Kombucha mat suggest it is of bacterial
cellulosic base and consists of nanofibrils (Dufresne, 2012). As the grown fabric is
a mat and is not created using standard fabric creation techniques of weaving or
knitting, fine animal leather and a heavyweight non-woven interlining fabric were
deemed to be closest in terms of physical structure and suitable for use in a preliminary
comparison exercise. The samples were also chosen in a mass per unit area as similar
to the Kombucha mat as possible to eliminate variations that could be attributable to
a difference in mass.
684
In order to gain some comparative observations and data regarding seam

performance, seams were created in each of the fabric substrates. Two seams were
chosen for comparison observations in accordance with BS3870-2:1991; a class two
lap felled seam and a class one plain superimposed seam. Once these seams had
been created using BS 3870-1:1991 class 301 lockstitch in each of the substrates, the
samples were subjected to the same tensile property test as above, in accordance
with BS EN ISO 13934-1:2013. The behaviour of each seam was visually observed,
alongside the collection of data pertaining to breaking force. (The force required
to rupture a seam is normally established using BS EN ISO 13935-1:2014. However, for
the purposes of this initial exploration, data was collected using test method BS EN
ISO 13934-1:2013 and used purely for comparative purposes between both fabric
substrates and seam constructions). Before testing, all samples were conditioned for 24
hours in laboratory standard atmospheric conditions (200C +/-2% and RH 65%+/- 4%).
RESULTS
It should be noted at this stage that the heaviest weight of non-woven fabric available
for the exercise was still in the region of 30% lower than that of the other two substrates
(table 1). This could have affected the performance of the non-woven samples
examined; visually the non-woven fabric did appear to behave differently to the fine
animal leather and Kombucha mat.
Mass per unit area (g/m2)
Kombucha mat 320
Non-woven interlining 236
Fine animal leather 302
Table 1: Substrate mass per unit area.
Fabric: Tensile force
Visual observations were made of the behaviours of the substrates when placed under
tensile force. Each of the substrates performed in a slightly different manner when an
increasing load was applied, as illustrated in figure 3. It can be seen that the Kombucha
mat breaks cleanly, with the non-woven showing fibres at the edges of rupture. The fine
animal leather sits in between the two. Measurements of the amount of force required to
break each substrate are shown in graph 1; it is clear to see that a considerably greater
amount of force is required to break the Kombucha mat than the other substrates.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3: The substrates at point of break (a) Kombucha mat, (b) non-woven interlining,
(c) fine animal leather The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:
685
600
500
400
300 Kombucha mat

Non woven interlining
200 Fine animal leather
100
0
Force at fabric Force at plain Force at lapped
break (N) seam break (N) seam break (N)
Graph 1: Results of tensile strength test.

Plain superimposed seam

Figure 4: Seam behaviours under breaking strength tension in (a) Kombucha mat, (b)
non-woven interlining, (c) fine animal leather
At the point of plain, superimposed seam breakdown in all three substrates, fabric
breakdown to varying degrees could also be observed. However, the damage to the
Kombucha mat was the most severe, with almost complete breakage of the fabric
before breakdown of the seam stitches. This can also interpreted using the collected
data; the data suggests that the seam in the Kombucha mat was the strongest,
requiring the most force to be applied for complete breakdown (graph 1). The visual
observations also agreed that the Kombucha mat seemed the most rigid of the three
seams, displaying very little extension or distortion of the substrate or seam at the point
of breakdown. Both the fine animal leather and the non-woven interlining showed
distortion and extension before break.

686
Lap felled seam
Figure 5: Seam behaviours under breaking strength tension in (a) Kombucha mat, (b)
non-woven interlining, (c) fine animal leather
The lap felled seam visual observations showed some interesting comparisons. Fabric
rupture was observed before seam breakdown in both the animal leather and the
Kombucha mat; however the seam in the non-woven substrate was broken before
extensive fabric damage was seen.
The force at break data revealed that again, the Kombucha mat seam was stronger
(albeit considerably on this occasion) than the other two substrates, supporting the
visual evidence.
It is worthy of note that after standard laboratory conditioning, no physical changes
could be detected by the human observer in the structure of either the non-woven or
the animal leather. However, the Kombucha mat displayed increased bend properties
and felt ‘tacky’ to the touch after conditioning. It is reported that the Kombucha mat
absorbs moisture from the atmosphere if left untreated after harvesting and this could
have affected the results of the test (Dufresne, 2012).
CONCLUSIONS
This study was a preliminary exploration of the types of seams that could be used in
apparel construction using a fabric substrate grown from a Kombucha starter culture.
Based on the findings, it is reported that seams can be sewn easily using standard
stitching methods and equipment and the Kombucha substrate and the handling of
the substrate is similar to that of fine animal leather in terms of seam formation.

687
Upon testing the tensile strength of the three substrates, direct comparisons in
behaviours and performances of the seams can be drawn between the Kombucha
fabric and fine animal leather. Further, more extensive studies are required to fully
explore seam performance in Kombucha fabric and establish the most suitable
seam and stitch formations to be used in garment construction, particularly as the
Kombucha mat required much more force to rupture without a seam being present.
This has the potential to impact the type of seam chosen. One area of exploration
could be sew free technology using seams constructed without sewing thread. As the
Kombucha mat became more tacky in humid conditions there could be a possibility
of ‘self-seaming’ (similar to those created in thermoplastic materials using welding
techniques (Tyler, 2008) ), that should be tested for comparative strength against
traditional seaming techniques.
Kombucha fabric can easily be grown in laboratory conditions. The simplicity of the
growth conditions would lend itself well to upscaling and producing the fabric in bulk.
The growth media is from completely natural sources and as such, this type of fabric
should be considered as a viable option as an alternative fabric source, however,
the hygroscopic nature for the fabric continues to be an issue in garment design and
development and it is suggested that the results of this study could have been affected
by this. More research is required to understand the cause of this hygroscopicity and
reduce its effects to enable Kombucha fabric to be a serious contender as a fabric
source for the future.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many thanks to Dr Joanna Kershaw (Department of Food, Nutrition & Hospitality,
Manchester Metropolitan University) for her support in securing funding for this project.
Additional thanks to Mr Derek Hebdon (Department of Apparel, Manchester
Metropolitan University) for his textile laboratory technical support.
REFERENCES
Catts, O., Zurr, I., 2014, Victimless Leather, www.tca.uwa.edu.au , [accessed 4th December 2014].
Dufresne, A., 2012, Nanocellulose - From Nature to High Performance Tailored Materials, DeGruyter.
Dufresne, C., Farnworth, E., 2000, Tea, Kombucha, and Health: a review, Food Research International,
33:6, 409–421.
Fletcher, K., 2008, Sustainable Fashion and Textiles: Design Journeys, London, Routeledge.
Hemmings, J., 2008, Grown Fashion: Animal, Vegetable or Plastic?, Textile: The Journal of Cloth and
Culture, 6:3, 262-273.
Kappel, T., Anken, R.H., 1993, The tea-mushroom, The Mycologist, 7, 12–1.
Laurin, S., 2015, Kombucha Couture, www.kombuchacouture.com, [accessed 22nd January 2016].
Lee, S., 2014, Biocouture, www.biocouture.co.uk, [accessed 4th December, 2014].
Storey, H., 2014, Wonderland, www.helenstoreyfoundation.org/wonderland/1.htm, [accessed 4th
December 2014].
Teoh, A.L., Heard, G., Cox, J., 2004, Yeast ecology of Kombucha fermentation, International Journal of
Food Microbiology, 95:2, 119–126.
Tyler, D., 2008, Carr & Latham’s Technology of Clothing Manufacture, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK.

688

Hannah Badminton, Priscilla Y. L. Chan
Manchester Metropolitan University, Department of Apparel, Righton Building, Cavendish Street,
Manchester, M15 6BG, United Kingdom.
(Presenting author E-mail: p.chan@mmu.ac.uk)
ABSTRACT
With a rising complexity of supply chains and a global demand for speed, the need
for socially low-impact supply chain is evident. Consumer’s interest is stretching much
further up the chain than simple first tier suppliers. Transparency has emerged as a
tool for the greening of global value chains. Few empirical studies have analysed
how transparency has been achieved and this paper aims to fill this gap.
Keywords: (transparent, supply chain, fashion, corporate social responsibility)
INTRODUCTION
Supply chain transparency can be defined as the extent to which information regarding
supplier names and locations, sustainability conditions and buyer purchasing
practices is available to consumers and other stakeholders within the supply chain
(Egels-Zandén et al, 2014; News and Westbrook, 2004). At present there is no powerful,
legitimate or widely spread industry wide outline of what transparency necessitates
from a company. Though it is increasingly central to corporate sustainability strategies
and sustainable supply chains, there is a lack of consistent definition, and academic
conversation on the subject is limited.
Existing research has focused on consumer behaviour surrounding transparency
(Egels-Zandén and Hansson, 2013; Bhaduri and Ha-Brookshire, 2011) and whether it
has improved sustainability practices within the supply chain (Matthew and Murphy,
2001). Yet, little is known regarding the legitimacy of an organisation’s transparency
claims within the fashion industry, and clear guidelines for companies willing to adopt
transparency do not exist.
There are three key dimensions to transparency that are discussed in the literature;
transparency in terms of traceability (Doorey, 2011), the disclosure of information
relating to sustainability conditions at suppliers (Cramer, 2008) and the financial
transaction between buyers and suppliers (Schouten and Remmé, 2006). To measure
transparency consistently throughout the research it has been more narrowly
defined as; the disclosure of supplier information, sustainability conditions and
buying practices available to the consumer through the main purchasing outlet. This
research investigates external transparency, that is, the degree that an organisation
is transparent to its stakeholders (Egels-Zandén et al, 2014).
The call for transparency within fashion supply chains originated in the USA in the
mid nineties, through the disclosure of factory names coupled with the emergence
of corporate social responsibility (CSR) strategies (Doorey, 2011; Featherstone, 2002).
Demand for information on the origin and procurement of products has continued
to rise, as retailers are held increasingly accountable for unethical practices that

689
have been publicized through media campaigns and a growing public access to
information (Castka, Balzarova, 2006). Transparency is broadly believed to be an
instrument that can provoke industry wide institutional change and organizational
behavior (Doorey, 2011). Advocates believe transparency requirements encourage
corporate managers to behave ethically and improve supply chain activity and
management practices (Doorey, 2011; DeLaurentis 2009). It has emerged as both a
consumer tool and corporate tool, used in the former for holding firms accountable
to social responsibility, and the latter for increasing revenues by increasing an
organisations legitimacy and credibility (Egels-Zandén and Hansson, 2013).
Mol (2013) describes four types of transparency in value chain and networks;
management, regulatory, consumer and public. Consumer transparency refers to the
disclosure of production and product information relating to sustainable production
processes and additionally the value that can be added through public or private
certification. Public transparency relates to the sharing of information to the wider
public, to publicly legitimise the sustainability of production processes and products. It
is used as a tool to safeguard reputational capital, to defend claims of sustainability and
to gain competitive advantage. The latter two forms of transparency are examined
through the research, as they focus on sustainability and public accountability of
organisations.
Transparency requires the co-operation of suppliers in both the disclosure of information
and the monitoring of sustainable practices. This can be achieved though supply
chain management (SCM) and integration, which is not only essential to transparency
but also a tool to add value.
Internal supply chain transparency can be achieved through supply chain
management and integration; it is the degree to which an organisation is transparent
to itself by using internally available information (Egels-Zandén, 2014). Supply chain
management (SCM) is the management of upstream and downstream relationships
with suppliers and customers in order to deliver superior customer value at less cost
to the supply chain as a whole (Christopher, 2011; Fernie and Sparks, 2009; Chopra
and Meindl 2013). It is the management of relationships that leads to more profitable
outcomes for all parties and the strengthening of mutual benefits among the supply
chain members (Grant et al, 2006; Koo et al. 2009).
Supply chain integration (SCI) is widely considered the most effective way of
extending value through to the end consumer (Zairi, 1998; Ho and Choi, 2012). Where
brands have previously been involved in a ‘race to the bottom’, striving to maintain
or improve profits whilst decreasing costs; this is no longer a viable way to achieve a
competitive advantage (Ho and Choi, 2012; ILO c, 2014). As Hines (2004) has stated, it
is supply chains that compete, not companies.
Neumayer and Perkins (2005) maintain that there are two motives for organisations
to adopt ethical trading initiatives (such as the ISO26000); efficiency motives caused
by the drive for performance and profitability, and institutional motives where
organisations are driven by social pressures to adopt a certain practice. However,
Castka and Balzarova (2007) agree that there are three other factors that need
to be considered, strategic, altruistic and coercive. All motives will be deliberated
throughout the research to determine which should ultimately trigger a change to
transparency.
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Costs associated with disclosure, such as auditing and monitoring, are substantial
(Meleske, 2011; Goodman, 2012). Benefits of disclosure are largely linked with
reputation, companies with questionable ethical policies risk reputational damage
and therefore future business (Bellman, 2012).
METHODS
Case studies are used as a research strategy. Each case study utilises a variety of
primary sources to provide a rich historical background to the chosen companies. It
encompasses all possible organisational documentation that has been collected, to
then be analysed via the content analysis method.
In this paper, two retailers were discussed, reflecting two different situations and time
frames in which the company adopted transparency. The variance in each situation
has helped to develop a rich theoretical framework. The first company, Nike, is a global
apparel company who adopted factory disclosure as a CSR strategy after being
exposed for unethical labour practices in the mid-nineties, Nike is an example of the
negative impact a lack of CSR policies can have on brand reputation. The second is
Honest By, a small company that claim to be ‘100% transparent’ and responsible in
the way they produce luxury clothes throughout the entire supply chain.
RESULTS
Honest By is a revolutionary online clothing company that embeds total production
transparency into its business model. Launched in 2012 by the previous creative
director of Hugo Boss, Bruno Pieters (Honest By, 2014), it successfully integrates
sustainability and ethical practices with commercial business goals. The website sells
luxury garments and shoes, each product has a detailed breakdown of where every
component is sourced and how much is used. Interestingly, the concept of sharing
such detailed information is as much focused towards designers who are seeking
sustainable resources as it is to consumers (Blanchard, 2013).
Each product is designed with materials that have a low carbon footprint, use
natural fabric and thread and gives the customer an exact break down of every
cost associated with the garment. Every step of the manufacturing and production
process are heavily regulated and tracked to guarantee ethical practices at every
stage (Lehrer 2012).
Pieters has achieved a level of transparency and traceability that many in the industry
believed could not be achieved, however the company is in a far better position than
most to achieve that level of sustainability. High price points coupled with the small
size of the company and the fact that is currently only available online are what give
it a significant advantage. Productions run in the twenties rather than the hundreds
or thousands, which allows Honest By to have control and accountability in every
step of production (Blanchard, 2013). Pieters emphasises that in the current climate
of economic austerity, consumers are largely focused on the quality and value of
what they purchase rather than the price (Tudor, 2012). Just-the-facts information is
provided deliberately to ensure there is no deflection from the reality of what the
company is really doing.

691
Nike
During the 1990s Nike became one of the most recognised brands in the world, the
company so confident in brand awareness that it stopped using the brand name
instead relying on the signature ‘swoosh’ or Nike tick to identify products and adverts
(Goldman and Papson, 1998). It was also the decade the company’s brand image
suffered several severe blows, becoming synonymous with child labour and poor
working conditions through the use of targeted media campaigns against the
company by NGOs and activists. In the summer of 1996 Life magazine published
a photograph of a Pakistani child sewing a football for a reported 6 cents a day,
although catastrophic to the brand’s image, the incident proved a pivotal moment; it
highlighted the lack of visibility within Nike’s supply chain (Wazir, 2001). The photo and
subsequent information surrounding working conditions in Nike factories emerged
causing a media storm, in stark contrast during the same year the CEO and founder
of Nike doubled his fortune to over $5.5 billion (Goldman and Papson, 1998).
In 2005 Nike became one of the first brands to disclose its full factory list both to
improve transparency and to encourage its competitors to join the effort at improving
conditions (Doorey, 2011). At the time, company opinion was that the risk of a future
lawsuit was far outweighed by the benefits of transparency (Murray, 2005). Although
hailed by many as a step in the right direction, the disclosure highlighted a number
issues within the supply chain. It wasn’t before Nike developed the ‘Considered Team’
that the company grasped that reduced waste and sustainable thinking wasn’t just
good ethical practice but as a way of creating value through the supply chain. The
shift away from positioning sustainability as compliance related risk to an opportunity
for innovation has been a successful one; the structure of the CSR team has changed
dramatically to allow for the integration of CSR principles and initiatives throughout
separate functions within the company. In 2008, Nike became chair of the World
Economic Forum’s Consumer Industries Working Group on Sustainable Consumption,
the companies CSR team are seen as global industry experts (Epstein et al, 2010).
Nike’s attitude towards sustainability and transparency has dramatically changed
through its company history; transparency is now considered an integral corporate
strategy that encourages forward thinking and opportunity-orientated initiatives
(Epstein et al, 2010; Doorey, 2011).
As showed in Figure One, there are different levels of transparencies between the
two retailers, Honest By has full individual product disclosure, whereas Nike is more a
collective disclosure and with more Corporate Social Responsibility policy in place.

692
Figure One Comparison between Honest by and Nike

Transparency information Honest By Nike
• Full disclosure.
Manufacturing Factory • All manufacturing factories are disclosed the reader has the choice to
Disclosure • Including time to make garment is available download the full factory list.
for every garment on the site.
• Factory information is consistent.
Fabric Factory Disclosure • In depth fabric composition given for every • None, not disclosed.
garment.
Components Factory Disclosure • The information for the main fabric is as • None, not disclosed.
detailed as the smallest component.
Press and laundry information. • Press and laundry disclosed in full for each • None, not disclosed.
garment, including timings.
Packing information • None, not disclosed. • None, not disclosed.
Timing information • Time from design to ironing is given. • Timing information not available.
Costings • Available for every garment. • Costings not available.
• CSR is disused briefly as a key issue as it is the
main focus of the brands business model. • The website has a comprehensive CSR report which includes how
Corporate Social Responsibility
• Evidence of CSR is not given anywhere and the company plans to improve standards, sustainability and it’s social
(CSR)
due to the site’s minimal content it is only responsibility.
mentioned within the ‘About’ section
• The consumer is led to believe that that • The Manufacturing Index (MI) has been developed and used as a tool used
each supplier/manufacturer is operating in selecting and assessing the performance of contract manufacturers. A
Audit procedures
under regulated standard yet no evidence is scoring criteria is provided and overall performances of factories based on
given. what product they are producing (footwear, apparel, equipment).
• Supplier relationships are discussed in terms of the Manufacturing

• Each garment has incredibly detailed Index that Nike has created; it works with factories to improve
Supplier Relations within in the conditions.
supplier information however there is no
Supply Chain
indication of the supplier relationships, • It is mentioned that Nike aim to establish on going relationships to
improve the standards of the factories that they use.
• Honest By is not vertically integrated it may
Vertical Integration within the • Nike is not vertically integrated it may use factories that are, however
use factories that are, however there is no
Supply Chain there is no mention of individual factory set-ups.
mention of individual factory set-ups.
• Costings are recorded in depth; mark ups • Wages and the issues that are surrounding are discussed in depth in
Wages Within Supply Chain are justified citing wages as one of the Nike’s CSR report.
causes. • Nike address wage issues through the FLA’s ‘fair wage’ system.
• Nike developed has a Human Resources Management (HRM) initiative
Training suppliers, supply chain • There is no information available describing
to train contract manufacturing management it has recently been
stakeholders. training.
integrated into the Sustainable Manufacturing Training model.
• Although a Code of Conduct is not provided,
the ethos of the brand suggests to the • All points from ILO and ETI are met. It is provided through the website.
Code of Conduct
consumer that those conduct is fundament • Code leadership standard is also available in full.
to its core brand values.
• Honest by provide detailed info about every • Nike has developed the materials sustainability index to evaluate the
Sustain- materials in a garment. manufacturing and materials sustainability.
ability of materials • The site has detailed information about the • A break down of how the index works is provided through the CSR
ethical certificates its fabric have, report.

693
CONCLUSIONS
This paper showed different companies has different levels of transparency disclosures.
There is no definite rules required by law, and it will be of interests to know more
information of how other companies work with their transparent supply chain and
hopefully suggestions can be made afterwards for new companies to set up their
transparent supply chain.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Authors would like to acknowledge Manchester Metropolitan University for supporting
this research and providing funding for attending this conference.
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RESHORING OF CLOTHING MANUFACTURING IN EUROPE’S PERIPHERIES: SOCIO-CULTURAL COOPERATION AND COMPETITIVENESS IN RELATIONAL PRODUCTION NETWORKS
RESHORING OF CLOTHING MANUFACTURING

IN EUROPE’S PERIPHERIES: SOCIO-CULTURAL
COOPERATION AND COMPETITIVENESS IN
RELATIONAL PRODUCTION NETWORKS
Konstantinos Agrafiotis1 , WenYing Claire Shih2
1
Fashion Ventures Consultancy, 42, Caroline House, 135 Bayswater Rd. London W2 4RQ, UK
Department of Fashion Design, Hsuan Chuang University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan
2
(Presenting author E-mail:agrafioteskostis@yahoo.com;

Corresponding author email: wycshih@wmail.hcu.edu.tw)
ABSTRACT
Clothing production reshoring is on the increase within the European Continent.
Regional manufacturing networks which were unable to compete with the “China
price”, have recently started to produce more specialized clothing. South-Eastern
European clothing manufacturers possess the experience in high quality production
and the important backward linkages necessary to source materials and trimmings
either locally and/or regionally. Moreover, a certain sense of cultural affinity among
brand owners, network controllers and garment factory owners combined with and a
loose interpretation of European solidarity reinforce convivial relations. This raises the
research question. How cultural affinity may influence a complex balance of sourcing
decisions and what might be the effect on competitiveness for manufacturing networks?
The authors employ the interpretivist methodology where qualitative research on a
single case study explores all major competitive variables of a production network
operating in three South-Eastern European countries. The theory espouses the notion
that competitive advantage can emanate from relational networks as members of
a supply network work collectively sharing valuable resources. Transparency of all
activities and sharing of information and knowledge is crucial across this supply chain.
All network members maintain stability in the flow of work in progress to increases the
probabilities of gaining a certain competitive edge and also retain some textile and
clothing jobs within European borders.
Keywords: reshoring, clothing manufacturing, socio-cultural cooperation, South-
Eastern European countries, relational networks
INTRODUCTION
According to the European Parliament Research Service, reshoring is termed as: “the
partial or total return of production previously offshored to low-wage countries to
the original country, to serve local, regional or global demand (Christopher 2014).
Reshoring production and job creation, despite the media reports, represent a tiny
fraction of what they used to be in the years of mass manufacturing employment
(The Economist 2013; Sirkin, Zinser, and Hohner 2011). An important factor is the
strategic and operational risks associated with reshoring as companies need to
examine closely their supply chains and see the network effect with regards to their

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component suppliers and cost escalation in seven crucial variables, such as labor,
logistics, utilities, real estate, duties/taxes and incentives provided by governments. The
so-called “total landed cost” is a key measure for companies considering reshoring
production including the end-to-end supply chain costs, such as transport, carrying
inventory costs and taxes/duties (Christopher 2014; Wingard and Connerty 2014).
Notwithstanding the risks, reshoring presents benefits in the following areas, these
of improvements in the quality of finished products, protecting intellectual property,
certainty and production efficiencies in the form of smaller batches and introducing
faster new products, reducing transportation costs, and reducing disruptions in long
supply chains. Reshoring is a desirable condition for countries and governments
because it creates jobs (Wingard and Connerty 2014; Groom and Powley 2014).
Domestic manufacturing holds the potential for exports increase and imports
decrease (Christopher 2014; Groom and Powley 2014).
Reshoring in the Textiles & Clothing Sectors
In the European textiles and clothing sectors, the reshoring trend has been observed
mainly among the Southern European and Eastern European countries (Za 2014).
This particular mode of production flows is described as nearshoring because
manufacturing does not occur in the original country of manufacture but in nearer
locations, namely, Eastern Europe and/or Turkey(CBI 2014). The “made in Europe”
label is alluring in fashion since the Eurozone crisis has hit harder the economies of
Southern European states trade unions were willing to renegotiate wages terms with
employers(Za 2014). The theoretical underpinnings of this study will be discussed in
the following, namely the global production networks and their influence in trade,
reshoring and other non-economic factors such as sustainable manufacturing
practices and social parameters.
Global Production Networks
Reshoring can be analyzed using essentially two complementary theories, the global
value chains (GVCs) and global production networks (GPNs) (Fernandes 2012; Gereffi
and Lee 2012). GVCs encompass all linear activities that create value from design
and materials supply to production and distribution. GVCs are essentially governance
mechanisms and broadly divided into production-driven or textile & clothing buyer-
driven. The relational governance involves buyers and suppliers in complex decisions
which cannot be easily codified. Coe, Dicken and Hess (2008) argue that GPNs can
explain how the global economy functions as the transnational network is critical in
its geographical complexity for it reflects the relational and also the structural nature
of how production, distribution and consumption are organized. GPNs exist in the
transnational space where actors engage and shape the geographies of political,
cultural and social conditions as well as the transformation process of production. The
net-chain is comprised of a set of networks in horizontal and vertical configurations.
Horizontal connections refer to relations among actors on the same layer of transactions,
while vertical connections refer to relations among firms at different layers. GPNs do
not solely engage with commercial parameters embedded in firms, they are also
driven horizontally by non-economic agents where at times either all or parts of them
are involved. The role of states, regional powers (EU) and geographic regions, civic
associations, the WTO and various trade agreements, international standards, labor

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issues and environmental concerns can play varying degrees of influence in GPNs
(Coe, Dicken, and Hess 2008; Barrientos 2013).
Peripheral Production Networks in the European Continent
Eastern European countries (EECs) after the collapse of the Soviet bloc in 1989
were re-inserted rapidly into European production networks as garment assembly
manufacturers for western European buyers. The EU and its trade policies and customs
agreements and more specifically the so-called Outward Processing Trade had a
profound leverage in manufacturing and trade in this region. However, after the
abolition of the Multi-Fiber Arrangement (MFA) in 2005 and the subsequent wholesale
relocation of production to mainly China, this has brought about renewed desperation
and poverty in the region. Some countries’ manufacturers managed to upgrade
their production capabilities by manufacturing garments of higher complexity such
as tailoring which demands better skills and commands better prices. Others have
directed their manufacturing capacity in producing low-end garments for local
markets, while others have opted for brand owner status selling products mainly to
domestic markets and to Western European retailers. Following manufacturing reforms,
EECs response to the so-called China price seem to have sustained some production
as regions and countries have managed the specialization of their production by
serving niche brand owners (Pickles and Smith 2011).
The Sustainability Issue and Fashion Practices
The fast fashion business model is certainly partly responsible for the global
environmental deterioration. This model is based on shortening each season’s time
slots between production and retail by inducing customers to buy more as stores’
shelves are replenished approximately every 30 days with fresh merchandise. This is
combined with the race to the bottom for the cheapest possible production location
where fashion’s flavor of the month has an irresistible price tag attached on it. In the
event that one may add the recent deadly accidents in garment factories then the
combination becomes certainly lethal in sustainability terms for both the environment
and human causes(Cachon and Swinney 2011; Gam and Banning 2011). In Europe,
a number of clothing companies together with trade bodies, universities and the
European Parliament and European Commission have also responded to sustainability
demands by instigating public awareness, promoting ethical practices and forming
associations (Goworek 2011).
Among the various initiatives for ethical fashion practices the slow fashion movement,
is possibly one of the most prominent in recent time. Fletcher (2008) relates the slow
philosophy to textiles and fashion by devising a number of fundamental precepts.
The customer elects quality over quantity in the sense of consuming less and more
responsibly. Companies within the slow fashion mindset engage in fair practices
towards their workers across the supply chain, thus drastically improving their livelihoods.
They also reduce the use of raw materials by being more resourceful in alternative
ways of preserving natural resources. Slow fashion firms use mostly local materials
and labor instead of sourcing in remote locations. Moreover, they care about the
preservation of local traditional skills. Financial viability is secured since customers are
willing to pay a premium because they know that these fashion products are made
in a fair practice ecosystem (Fletcher, 2008).

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Resource Productivity and Sustainable Materials Management

In the GPN literature one of the major issues concerning sustainable practices is how
manufacturing companies deal with waste both in materials management practices
and economization of resources (Coe, Dicken and Hess, 2008). In manufacturing
terminology, resource productivity (RP) refers to the sensible utilization of material
resources in a production process by measuring the environmental impact. The
goal is to use less and produce more with given resources in a production network
(Martin 2013). The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
subscribes to the same logic as the goal is to establish a resource efficient economy
by enhancing resource productivity built on the 3 founding principles: reuse-recycle-
reduce (3R). 3R integrated supply chain management and finally encouraging the
general public to take “an ethically-based responsibility for sustainable growth.”
(Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development 2011). Resource
productivity in manufacturing can come also from upgrading machinery especially
in garment factories. Manufacturers calculate the factory’s capacity because the
factory is more specialized so they may attract buyers of better brands by entering
into a more upgraded network (Martin, 2013).
The Labor Conditions Issue
The World Trade Organization (WTO) as the official mediator of trade agreements
seemed to fail to include the social dimension, the so-called Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR), addressing the issue of labor conditions (Bair, Dickson, and Miller
2014). Notwithstanding CSR policies, the labor issue is far more complicated than a
CSR program. It is not unusual for the inspections delegated by retailers/brand owners
to independent auditors to be fraught with audit frauds. Another major labor issue is
workers’ wages as factory owners may pay legal minimum wages but these are far
from what the World Bank calculates as wages above poverty line (Barrientos 2013).
The cost pressure is constant to cut prices by buyers. In the EECs, labor conditions are
not any better; according to a recent report by the NGO Clean Clothes Campaign
it calls the “Made in Europe” label, the cheap labor garment factory for Western
European fashion brands (Luginbuhl and Musiolek 2014). It is suggested in the literature
(Barrientos 2013) that it is naïve to believe that proximity to the Western EU markets
and industrial upgrading can benefit garment workers, and women in particular,
although some benefits arise for workers in more skilled positions.
CASE STUDY RESEARCH METHOD
In order to achieve the objective of this study, the authors make use of descriptions
and explanations of secondary data. This is also based on the interpretive context
of both authors’ working experience in the clothing sector and one of the authors’
family background in clothing and his profound involvement in manufacturing in the
Balkan and Black Sea regions as a consultant. The qualitative approach facilitates
the researchers to gain an in-depth understanding of how the relational network
operates and how it can affect workers lives. The case study method is thus employed
as it explores the network’s activities and potential impact on its workers (Yin 2009).
Production takes place in the Southern Albanian city of Korce in combination with
the cross-border network activities of Thessaloniki, Greece. Since 2009. Albania is a

699
candidate country for full membership of the EU, which benefits from EU’s regional
policy through the so-called Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance. The cross-border
region is currently under EU’s main priorities, this of boosting the local economy namely,
to improve cross-border capacity in order to support entrepreneurship, business
survival and competitiveness(European Commission 2014).
The company’s part owner (Vassili) is of Greek origin, educated as a textile engineer
in Britain. Following the demise of T&C production in his home city, he observed arising
opportunities in Asia in the early 1990s and decided to immigrate to Indonesia. During
the first years of his residence, he worked as a textile agent mediating between
European retailers and local shirt manufacturers. A few years later, he became part
owner of a shirt factory, while acting as an agent for his own factory and others.
However, in 2008, he decided to relocate to Thessaloniki for two main reasons. First,
he realized that the immense pressure on prices demanded by the European buyers
and the relentless turnaround times combined with frequent changes in styles were
threating his business. He was also pressurized to buy specialized machinery to speed
up production which involved a considerable monetary investment. Second, he
foresaw an opportunity in manufacturing for better European brands willing to pay
better prices for quality shirts made in Europe.
In order to pursue his goal of quality manufacturing, he had to find a shirt factory
concentrating more on quality rather than quantity. In pursuit for his ideal, he
approached a Greek shirt manufacturer (Theo) who had established shirts’ production
in the Southern Albanian city of Korce. The city benefits from its proximity to the Greece
and also the cultural affinity as most speak Greek fluently or are from Greek origin. Theo
was producing shirts for his own label in Thessaloniki as well as for a few quality shirt
labels operating in Athens through exclusive boutiques. Vassili proposed a partnership
to the factory owner (Theo) and after deliberations a formal agreement was reached.
The strategic intent of the new company was to increase manufacturing capacity
through expansion of operations in Western Europe as private label manufacturers
selling under their own label in Russia and other Balkan countries. Supplementary
second-hand machinery was from bankrupt factories in Greece which was serviced
and upgraded by engineers. Vassili established connections with quality menswear
retailers in Western Europe through old acquaintances in Germany. Simultaneously
he signed a contract with a Russian representative who after a year established a
contract with a chain of stores operating in up-market shopping malls where the shirts
would be sold exclusively.
Theo put in place three production lines, one for private labels, one for the Russian
market and one for the company’s label. This led to hiring more workers, from 70 to
approximately 250 under the old production arrangement. This production expansion
afforded the company to pay better wages. Internal CSR codes were prescribed with
the help of a consultancy firm in Thessaloniki. Nevertheless, CSR codes are always
communicated with buying partners for approval and reciprocal compliance.
In sustainability terms, the company came up with a novel idea. All fabric remnants
after production, which length was insufficient to make a complete shirt, were given
to all workers under one condition to make something instead of just selling fabric
remnants to relatives and friends. This triggered a small scale up-cycle operation where

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female workers started to make housewares as well as stuffed toys and children wear
in their spare time at home. Nothing was wasted; even fabric shreds were used as
stuffing for toys. After a year, the partners decided to open a small factory outlet and
sell whatever women had produced. This small operation was immensely beneficial
to all participant workers as they were given the opportunity of supplementing their
income by producing unique pieces, and due to the low prices, many people from
the local community could afford to buy a few items regularly.
FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
The term of nearshoring may be complementary to “reshoring” defined by the
European as both nearshoring and reshoring production flows occur concurrently in
the European Continent. Nearshoring seems to be a more plausible scenario for the
future with regards to upper-middle and mainstream brands than reshoring which is
more suitable to luxury.
The GPNs theory concurs with the case study in terms of networks that operate in
vertical and simultaneously horizontal configurations within the European context of
transnational co-operations. The Greek-Albanian production network in its vertical
configuration and all backward sourcing of materials and trim and forward distribution
conforms to the theory. Furthermore, the horizontal influences of non-economic actors
in the network, such as these of the EU and the Outward Processing Trade agreements
and upgrading opportunities also concur with the GPN theory. Furthermore,
peripheral networks in Southeastern Europe indeed operate in accordance with
the East European production literature where Italian and Greek network controllers
dominate in the region because they engage in specialized and also superior quality
production. Positioning in the network is an important factor as the network controller
operates collaboratively with the factory owner, thus relations are more cordial than
adversarial.
As for the nearshoring-front, the production network in the case study confirms the
literature, these of the rationale of producing closer to European markets in terms of
quality and refinement of production, certainty in the supply chain and avoidance of
any serious disruptions. Total landed costs are lower for merchandise coming from Asia
but with higher quality in materials, trims, craftsmanship, specialization and proximity,
they command better wholesale prices. Furthermore, the EU’s Regional Development
Fund has provided grants for cross-border partnerships which benefited the network’s
operations (Christopher 2014). Cultural affinity that permeates the Greek-Albanian
network means that all actors involved are in a similar cultural context, which helps
to reinforce the network from manufacturing in Albania to distribution carried out in
Thessaloniki. This agrees on the GPNs theory as the cultural setting of the network can
influence partners’ relations.
In terms of sustainability, the slow fashion philosophy is found in the case study since
the network is oriented towards quality and specialization which entails smaller
production runs. Buyers acknowledge the fact that quality work demands more time
and as a result, all orders are intentionally allocated longer time slots which conforms
to the quality principle. This also means that workers do not have to work exhaustive
twelve hour shifts every single day, seven days per week. Also both the Albanian and
Greek regional authorities through the EU’s Regional Development Fund subsidized

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labor vocational training where workers were paid for their attendance in vocational
courses (Christopher 2014). This enhanced their skills and helped to strengthen the
network’s competitiveness in attracting more specialized orders. The case study
concurs with the literature in terms of remuneration as workers’ wages correspond
more to survival than living wages despite rises above minimum wage requirements
stipulated by the local Labor Inspectorate and subsidies during vocational training.
The most significant contribution to their income is the company’s scheme of upcycling
fabric remnants which singlehandedly improved workers’ lives. This upcycling
operation also corresponds to OECD’s 3R principles (reuse-recycle-reduce) where 3R
can be connected to workers’ resourcefulness and partners’ willingness. Reuse as in
repurposing fabric remnants, recycle as in upcycling obsolete materials and reduce
as in minimizing waste. In terms of resource productivity, the case study does not agrees
with the literature as new automatic machinery represented a large expenditure
and it was deemed counterproductive even if amortized over a seven year period.
Nevertheless, workers’ resourceful use of the fabrics and management’s willingness to
help them demonstrates social sensitivity on the partners’ behalf in improving workers’
conditions and also environmental concerns. The role of non-economic factors
influencing the operation of GPNs is significant since EU’s auspicious interventions in
cross-border relations was the catalyst in this relational network.
REFERENCES
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contested terrain. Geoforum, 44: 44-51.
Cachon, G.P., and R. Swinney. 2011. The value of fast fashion: quick response, enhanced design
and strategic consumer behavior. Management Science, 57: 778-795.
CBI. 2014. CBI Special Topic: Supply Chain Trends in the Apparel Sector: CBI Ministry of Foreign
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Christopher, Needham. 2014. Reshoring of EU Manufacturing. Strasbourg: European Parliamentary
Research Service
Coe, N. M., P. Dicken, and M. Hess. 2008. Global production networks: realizing the potential
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Fernandes, V. 2012. Understnading reverse offshoring: a theoretical and empirical study. The
European Business Review, 94-100.
Fletcher, K. 2008. Sustainable Fashion & Textiles: Design Journeys. London: Earthscan.
Gam, H. J., and J. Banning. 2011. Addressing sustainable apparel design challenges with problem-
based Learning. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 29: 202-215.
Gereffi, G., and J. Lee. 2012. Why the world suddenly cares about global supply chains. Journal
of Supply Chain Management, 48 (3): 24-32.
Goworek, H. 2011. Social and environmental sustainability in the clothing industry: a case study of
a fair trade retailer Social Responsibility Journal, 7 (1): 74-86.
Groom, B., and T. Powley. 2014. Reshoring driven by quality, not costs, say UK manufacturers.
Financial Times, March 3.
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Europe & Turkey. Brussels European Union.
Martin, M. 2013. Creating Sustainable Apparel Value Chains: A primer on Industry Transformation.
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Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development. 2011. Resource Productivity in the
G8 and the OECD. Paris Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development.
Pickles, J., and A. Smith. 2011. Delocalization and persistence in the European clothing industry:
the reconfiguration of trade and production networks. Regional Studies, 45 (2): 167-185.
Sirkin, H. L., M. Zinser, and D. Hohner. 2011. Made in American,again: why manufacturing will
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Yin, Robert Kuo-Zuir. 2009. Case Study Research: Design and Methods. 4th ed. California: Sage.
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Available from http://www.reuters.com/article/us-eurozone-reshoring-idUSKCN0JF21Q20141201.

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Posters
Comparative study on Volatile Organic compound neutralization and Uv protection property of cotton fabrics pigment printed with different ratios of titania nano particles:-
COMPARATIVE STUDY ON VOLATILE ORGANIC

COMPOUND NEUTRALIZATION AND UV
PROTECTION PROPERTY OF COTTON FABRICS
PIGMENT PRINTED WITH DIFFERENT RATIOS OF
TITANIA NANO PARTICLES:-
Rabbia Hassan (rabbia@gift.edu.pk)
Gift University, Gujranwala, Pakistan
Abstract:
This research is conducted to reduce air pollutants found in indoor and outdoor through
pigment printed fabric. This is an attempt to target Volatile organic compounds as Air
pollutants which are one of the causes of air pollution and global warming. Vocs are
widely used in industries, alcohol beverages, perfumes and fuels etc. Pigment printing
is performed on Cotton fabrics with the use of Nano Titanium Dioxide particles. Titania
nano particles synthesized on a sonication bath machine by preparing six different
recipes of nano titanium dioxide finish by adding various ratios of titanium prop oxide,
ethanol at different ph levels of distilled water. These six finishes were mixed with binder,
thickener and Ammonia Liquor to form a printing paste with blue color pigment.
Cotton fabrics were printed with flat bed screen printing machine. Fabrics were dried
on 120 degree on stenter frame machine and cured at three different temperatures.
Nano titania particles were determined by electron microscopic machine. Volatile
Organic compound meter determines the neutralization of voc compounds in
an enclosed wooden box with a door of glass against a plate of Volatile organic
compound i.e. ethanol and UV protection factor of pigment printed cotton fabrics is
tested by Ultra violet visible spectrophotometer. All pigment printed fabrics tested by
Volatile Organic compound meter showed neutralization of Ethanol and Ultra Violet
Visible Spectrophotometer ensured Ultra Violet protection of pigment printed fabrics.
Pigment Printed fabrics with Nano Titanium Dioxide particles can be effectively used
in home apparels, industry areas to reduce indoor air pollution effectively.
1. INTRODUCTION:
Air pollution is present in air in the form of toxic gases, particles and biological
molecules which cause severe health effects not only to humans but also to other
living organisms. Harmful pollution not only damage health of humans but also
affects lives of other living organisms on earth. Natural occurring gases in air support
life system on earth but imbalance or rise in toxic gases can cause adverse results. As
rise in Air pollution has resulted into stratospheric ozone depletion. And according to
studies of World health organization report 2012, rise of air pollution was the cause of
deaths of 7 million people globally (Air Pollution, 2014).
It is really important to focus on quality of volume of air breathed by people. Especially
air pollution is the major cause of some chronic diseases in the human beings. Older
people, children and infants are more at a risk of air pollution; suffer from heart and

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Posters
lung disorders. People are exposed to so many potentially dangerous pollutants; it is

often hard to know exactly which pollutants are responsible for causing sickness. A
mixture of different pollutants can intensify sickness; it is often difficult to isolate those
pollutants that are at fault (Miller, 1987).
Volatile Organic Compounds occur in environment and are poisonous. People are
exposed to Volatile Organic Compounds in indoor and outdoors. Respiratory and
circulatory diseases caused by Volatile Organic Compounds in indoor environment.
People live indoor i.e. houses, offices etc, volatile organic compounds and semi
volatile organic compounds are discharged from building construction materials of
houses and different indoor places with various equipments (Mariusz et al., 2012)
In a study of “Volatile organics off-gassed among tobacco-exposed clothing fabrics”
it is evaluated that volatile and semi-volatile organic chemicals are released from
the fabrics cotton, polyester, linen, wool and silk which are exposed to environmental
tobacco smoke. Even the fabric structure effects emission of Volatile organic
compounds. Cotton is used to make fabric for polo shirts give more emission when
exposed to environmental tobacco smoke. In comparison to the cotton fabrics which
are with other woven styles (Yeh et al., 2011).
The microorganisms one of the sources of Voc discharge is soil even the microorganisms
also produce Vocs from soil Deep study is done on different type of voc s, discharged
from soils and new methods of discovering them are also discussed (Heribert &
Seewald, 2010)
Drinking and environmental waters are one of the sources of Voc. In a study of
“Determination of volatile organic compounds in drinking and environmental waters”
various methods are discussed which are used to analyze Vocs from drinking and
environment waters as seawater, river water, groundwater which are Halogenated
volatiles [e.g., dichloroethane, trichloroethane, bromodichloromethane and
dibromochloromethane (DBCM)], accompanied by benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene
and xylene (BTEX). Purge-and-trap and solid-phase micro extraction methods are
used to restore or regain Vocs, mass-selective detector is used to detect and Tandem
mass spectrometry method to determine Vocs which evaluated different levels of
Vocs occur in drinking and environmental waters (Nallanthigal et al., 2012).
It is proved by a study that less outdoor pollution can affect functionality of respiratory
system. There can be less improvement in respiratory system functions of human
body but still shows improvement. Results have showed that with decrease in traffic
intensity in 2010 than in 2008, health of respiratory functions was better. There was less
concentration of Nitrogen Oxide, mono nitrogen oxide, Cu and Fe iron energies etc
(Hanna et al., 2013).
Researchers and environmental agencies are collectively working to reduce the
use of those chemicals and processes which does not cause more pollution in air.
Nowadays, Nano technology is used in many fields i.e. biology, chemistry, material
science, Medicine and physics (Alireza & Ali, 2011). Nano particle has a construction
of size of 1-100 nm (Rafael & Rajender, 2013). Nano science or dimension of NS–TiO2
materials is 100 nm and that’s why it can be used for many applications. In comparison
to other nano materials, it is of low cost and can be produced sufficiently (Alireza &
Ali, 2011).
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Posters
Nowadays, nano particles of titanium dioxide particles are been produced which is
a very fine form and doesn’t harm health of a body not even to a minor form (Alireza
& Ali, 2011). According to recent research Coarse size of nano meter of titanium
dioxide particles is achieved, Coarse size enters into body to a deep level for medical
treatment , 70 nano meter of titanium dioxide particles which entered into Alveolar
surface of lung. Nano meter size of Titanium dioxide particle can be less than 10
microns; ultra fine is less than 0.1 microns or 100 nano meters, 70 nano meters is ultra
fine form (titanium dioxide 2013).
Titanium Dioxide particles are known for efficiently neutralizing air pollutants and
protection from Ultra Violet radiations. Titanium dioxide is a pigment powder with
inorganic structure which gives three types of qualities in many applications i.e. white
color, brightness and opacity (transparent) (Alireza & Ali, 2011).
Titanium Dioxide acts as Photocatalyst in visible or Ultra Violet light (Murat et al.,
2012). Titanium dioxide pigment act as a photocatalyst, and hydrolysis is performed,
the strong oxidative potential of the positive holes oxidizes water to create hydroxyl
radicals. It can also oxidize oxygen or organic materials directly. Hence, in addition
to its use as a pigment, titanium dioxide can be added to paints, cements, windows,
tiles, or other products for its sterilizing, deodorizing and anti-fouling properties and is
used as a hydrolysis catalyst. It is also used in dye-sensitized solar cells, which are a
type of chemical solar cell (also known as a Graetzel cell) (Titanium dioxide, 2014).
a. Use of Titanium Dioxide on Fabric in controlling Air Pollution:-
Many suggestions are given by researchers efforts are also been put to control
or Neutralize Air Pollution. In this concern, Fabrics are playing an important role in
protection from external environment but also in controlling air pollution. Many studies
have been conducted in order to make use of textiles in reducing the environment
pollution with the help of many chemicals like Titanium Dioxide. Helen Storey and
Tony Ryan have developed the fabric for the UV protection and air cleaning, using
titanium dioxide particles in combination with softener (Etherington, 2011).
Fashion garments are the important part of our life. Designers, industrialists and
garment manufacturers attract customers playing with garment silhouettes and
various interesting textures by following new fashion trends. They use many ways to
sell their new trendy garments and spend huge amount of money. When garments
reach in the hands of people, they get expensive. There is a need of creation of
such fashion garments which can not only satisfy customer economically but also
give something back to nature especially to neutralize the air pollution which is been
created day by day due to many Human activities. There is a major need to use the
space of wearable garments, which they are covering in atmosphere. Printed fabrics
cut and stitched in many silhouettes provide much larger space in environment.
In this paper we discuss the reduction of air pollutants and ultra violet protection
through six pigment printed bed sheet cotton fabrics with various ratios of titania nano
particles. Presence of nano titania particles in nm size are confirmed on treated Lawn
and pigment printed fabrics by a test of electron microscope. Ethanol, Methanol and
Acetone are Dangerous types of Volatile Organic Compounds. Process of reducing
them as air pollutants is efficiently performed with reduction of three UV rays which
are UVA, UVB in this study.
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b. Volatile Organic Compounds:-

Volatile Organic Compounds are categorized by Methane (CH4), Non methane
(NMVOCs) and Hydrocarbon VOCs. Methane (CH4) is known as a green house gas
and also one of the main causes of global warming. Non methane (NMVOCs) VOC’s
are benzene, toluene and xylene cause leukemia. Hydrocarbon VOCs are also
green house gases and also main causes of ozone. Butadiene, Ethanol, Acetone and
Methanol etc are used in industries and are dangerous compounds (Air Pollution,
2014).
I. Ethanol:-
Ethanol is an alcohol, is used in alcoholic beverages. Is used as fuel, are used as
solvents, as antiseptic and used in thermometers. It is produced by fermentation of
sugars by yeasts. It is one of the psychoactive drugs. Formula is CH3CH2OH often
abbreviated as C2H5OH or C2H6O. It is colorless, flammable, volatile and pure alcohol,
Toxic and dangerous for inhaling (Methanol, 2014).
II. Methanol:-
It is an Alcohol, volatile, flammable and have distinctive odor. It is used as a fuel. There
is a small percentage of methanol is present in atmosphere also. Methanol oxidizes in
sunlight to produce water and carbon dioxide. It is present in anaerobic metabolism
of many bacteria’s. Formula is CH3OH (often abbreviated MeOH) It can be used as
a produced chiefly as a byproduct of the destructive distillation of wood (Methanol,
2014).
III. Acetone:-
Acetone has Low acute and chronic toxicity if ingested or inhaled in less concentration.
Inhalation of high concentrations (around 9200 ppm) in the air caused irritation of
the throat in humans in as little as 5 minutes. Inhalation of concentrations of 1000
ppm caused irritation of the eyes and of the throat in less than 1 hour; however, the
inhalation of 500 ppm of acetone in the air caused no symptoms of irritation in humans
even after 2 hours of exposure. Acetone is not currently regarded as a concern for
chronic neurotoxicity effects (Acetone, 2014).
Formula is (CH3)2CO. It is colorless, flammable, volatile, pure alcohol, toxic and
dangerous for inhaling. It is used in nail remover and paint thinner. Pregnant women,
nursing mothers and children have higher levels of acetone. Ketogenic diets that
increase acetone in the body are used to reduce epileptic attacks in infants and
children who suffer from recalcitrant refractory epilepsy (Acetone, 2014).
Ultra Violet Rays are harmful for Humans Health. Ultra Violet Rays reach earth with
shorter wave lengths than visible light; these rays are components of electromagnetic
(light) spectrum. These shorter wave lengths are known as UVA, UVB, or UVC. UVA rays
are the longest amongst all three at 320-400 nanometers or billionths of a meter. UVA
rays are further classified into two UVA I, UVA II. UVB wavelength range is at 290 to
320 nm. UVC rays have shortest wavelengths, mostly they doesn’t reach earth due to
absorption in Ozone layer (John & Stephen, 2014).
UVA UVB rays cause skin cancers, skin aging and eye damage. These weaken body
immune system with more UV rays contact, skin cancer originates due to effecting

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skin DNA. Some of the names of cancers caused by UVA and UVB rays are squamous
cell carcinoma (SCC), nonmelanoma skin cancers (NMSC) and basal cell carcinoma
(BCC). 8000 Americans die due to the cancers. Every year these cancers affect more
than a million people around the world and each year almost 25000 Americans are
affected (John & Stephen, 2014)
UVA rays prevail into the atmosphere much longer than other UV rays. 95 percent of
rays reach earth. There intensity remains same or equal for all day hours as they can
pass through glass and clouds. UVB rays have more intense than UVA in damaging
human’s health. UVB rays effect skin to a high level with direct contact and also
bounce back from reflective surface of snow and ice (John & Stephen, 2014).
Study on “Comparative study on Volatile Organic compound neutralization and UV
protection property of cotton fabrics pigment printed with different ratios of titania
nano particles” is one of the effort to analyze level of neutralizing air pollutants
mainly Volatile Organic Compounds Ethanol, Methanol and Acetone by developing
titanium dioxide finish treated fabrics to find out best recipes of titanium dioxide Finish
development in water. So that pigment printed fabrics can be developed with the
use of those best recipes of Titanium dioxide Finishes added with printing pastes which
can give satisfactory air cleanup properties. Bed Sheet cotton and Lawn is used in this
work. 48% of cotton fiber is used all over the globe as clothing material. It is soft, good
absorbent and breathable. (Khan et al., 2012)
Ultra Violet Protection properties of these titanium dioxide applied fabrics are also
tested against untreated Fabrics. This type of economical air cleaning technology will
enhance the use of fashion garments in future for further developments and may be
designers will introduce new concepts reducing the cost of fashion garments also.
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
22 recipes of finishes are developed to be tested on Bleached Lawn Fabric with weave
quality-GSM 59 gms 80/80 gsm in order to illustrate neutralization of Volatile organic
compounds act as air pollutants. Out of these finishes five recipes which have shown
satisfactory neutralization of Vocs are selected. These are further mixed with Pigment
printing paste to apply on Bleached Bed Sheet Cotton Fabric with weave quality-GSM
135 gms 22/22. Nano Titanium dioxide particles in nm size are produced in finish form
by following a recipe stated in Table: 1.
2.1. Synthesis of Nano Titanium Dioxide Finishes & application of Nano Titanium
Dioxide Finishes on Lawn fabric
Distilled water (100 gm) is taken in a beaker to form each finish with Nano Titanium
dioxide particles. Ph Values of distilled water are obtained in different numbers between
2 and 5 (i.e. 2, 3, 4, 5). After achieving Ph, water is placed on Sonication Bath Machine
(Model no: LEO-50 Ultrasonic Output, Ultrasonic Cleaner) for development of Nano
Titanium Dioxide Finish. Different concentrations of Titanium Isopropoxide is mixed
in different concentrations of ethanol following each recipe, Titanium Isopropoxide
concentrations are taken between 1.25 and 2.75 i.e. 0.5, 1.25, 2, 2.75 and Ethanol
concentrations are taken between 3 and 12 i.e. 3, 6, 9, 12. Mixture is added slowly and
steadily in a beaker of distilled water afterwards, solution will be kept for sonication
for 2 hours to form finish with nano titania particles. Further the process is repeated by

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using same material and conditions by following each recipe stated in Table no 1.
Afterwards, 22 bleached lawn fabrics (weave quality-GSM 59 gms 80/80) with 12 by
12 inch size are dipped in each beaker of Nano Titanium Dioxide Finish, padded
on Laboratory padder machine(Model no:VPM-250A, serial no:92-5-12-3, Tsuji Dyeing
machine Japan,). Before curing on Stenter Frame machine (Model no: OPT-1, serial
no: 92-5-552, Tsuji Dyeing machine Japan) all fabrics are dried using same machine for
1 minute at 120 degree. Fabrics are cured for 3 minutes temperature varies between
140 and 180 mentioned in Table 1.
Recipes of Nano Titanium Dioxide Finishes
Table: 1
Titanium Curing Temp of Lawn
pH Level of Ethanol
Recipes Prop. Oxide fabrics dried with Nano
distilled water Concentration
Concentration Titanium Dioxide Finishes
1 2 9 2 150
2 2 9 2 170
3 3 6 1.25 140
4 3 6 1.25 160
5 3 6 1.25 180
6 2 3 2 150
7 2 3 2 170
8 2 3 0.5 150
9 2 3 0.5 170
10 4 3 0.5 150
11 4 3 0.5 170
12 4 3 2 150
13 4 3 2 170
14 5 6 1.25 160
15 2 9 0.5 150
16 2 9 0.5 170
17 4 9 0.5 150
18 4 9 0.5 170
19 3 6 2.75 160
20 4 9 2 150
21 4 9 2 170
22 3 12 1.25 160
After completion of curing of finish treated lawn fabrics, Air cleanup testes of these
fabrics are performed to find out delta percentage values of neutralization of three
Volatile organic compounds. Treated fabrics which show better Delta percentage
values, Finish solutions of Nano titanium dioxide finishes are further applied on Bed
sheet cotton fabrics after adding in pigment printed pastes through printing.

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2.2. Reading is taken in an enclosed box with use of Desktop Volatile Organic
Compound Meter:-
Nano Titanium dioxide Finish treated lawn fabrics reading of Neutralization of Ethanol
is performed by Desktop Volatile Organic Compound Meter (Model: 98113, Made
in Taiwan) in an enclosed wooden box shown in figure below. At first fabrics were
placed on ground surface of box. To find better results after two three experiments
Finish treated fabrics were attached on sense area of Desktop Volatile Organic
Compound Meter to find reading of Neutralization of 15 ml ethanol concentration
placed in a glass plate before the meter.
Nano Titinia particles in nm size are produced in finish form by following recipes.
Randomly selected one fabric from Titanium Dioxide Finish treated Fabrics is tested
by Electron microscopic machine which shows presence of Nano titania particles in
nano meter size.
2.3. Air Cleanup Tests/VOC Neutralization of 22 Finish Treated Lawn Fabrics:-
Each finish treated lawn fabric sized 6 by 6 inch is attached on the area of the
Desktop Volatile Organic Compound Meter (Model: 98113, Made in Taiwan) which
can sense air pollutants. Logger is placed in an enclosed wooden box with the
door of glass against a plate of Volatile Organic Compounds with Quantity of 5
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ml for 10 minutes in each Air Cleanup test. Neutralization of three Volatile Organic
Compounds is performed which are Ethanol, Methanol and Acetone. In total 132 Air
cleanup testes are performed. Results of Air Cleanup Tests/VOC Neutralization of 22
Finish Treated Lawn Fabrics against Untreated Fabrics of Lawn are shown in Table: 2,
Table: 3, Table: 4.
Table: 2 Table: 3
Methanol
Ethanol Neutralization Ethanol Neutralization Methanol Neutralization Neutralization
Rec of Untreated Lawn of Treated Lawn Delta % Rec of Untreated Lawn Fabric of Treated Lawn Delta %
Fabric after 10 min Fabric after 10 min after 10 min Fabric after 10
min
1 1.19 1.14 4.20168 1 6.59 6.39 3.03490
2 1.31 1.6 -22.1374 2 5.94 6.74 -13.468
3 2.11 2.11 0 3 1.47 1.48 -0.68027
4 2 1.06 47 4 1.46 1.22 16.4383
5 1.277 1.04 18.5591 5 1.99 1.2 39.6984
6 0.95 1.14 -20 6 6.44 7.43 -15.3727
7 0.95 0.98 -3.15789 7 6.62 6.82 -3.02115
8 1.62 1.11 31.4814 8 7.72 6.25 19.0414
9 1.94 1.42 26.8041 9 6.33 5.15 18.6413
10 1.43 1.17 18.1818 10 1.36 1.09 19.8529
11 2.11 1.93 8.53080 11 1.09 1.08 0.91743
12 1.22 1.1 9.83606 12 6.43 5.19 19.2846
13 1.62 1.61 0.61728 13 6.84 6.75 1.31578
14 1.22 1.15 5.73770 14 6.84 6.58 3.80117
15 1.18 1.14 3.38983 15 7.04 7.19 -2.13068
16 1.31 1.32 -0.76336 16 5.4 5.49 -1.66667
17 1.22 1.26 -3.27869 17 5.56 5.05 9.17266
18 1.95 1.91 2.051282 18 5.56 5.05 9.17266
19 2.14 2.11 1.401869 19 2.42 2.26 6.61157
20 1.34 1.17 12.68657 20 5.94 5.21 12.2895
21 1.13 0.99 12.38938 21 6.9 6.05 12.3188
22 2.13 1.866 12.39437 22 1.59 1.47 7.54717

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Table: 4
Acetone
Acetone Neutralization
Neutralization of
Rec of Untreated Lawn Delta %
Treated Lawn Fabric
Fabric after 10 min
after 10 min
1 3.17 2.8 11.67192
2 3.79 4.8 -26.6491
3 3.6 3.64 -1.11111
4 2.6 1.8 30.76923
5 1.86 1.34 27.95699
6 4.3 4.37 -1.62791
7 3.26 3.3 -1.22699
8 3.86 2.44 36.78756
9 4.6 3.6 21.73913
10 5.01 4.12 17.76447
11 1.67 1.6 4.191617
12 6.25 5.33 14.72
13 4.14 4.09 1.207729
14 4.3 4.09 4.883721
15 3.73 3.55 4.825737
16 2.4 2.41 -0.41667
17 4.6 4.65 -1.08696
18 4.44 3.68 17.11712
19 3.88 3.76 3.092784
20 5.58 4.95 11.29032
21 4.42 3.9 11.76471
22 1.67 1.46 12.57485
Delta percentage values are calculated to find out maximum neutralization of

Volatile Organic Compounds. It is observed after analyzing Air cleanup tests of
Nano Titanium dioxide Finish Treated Lawn Fabrics that six Finish treated lawn fabrics
have shown remarkable neutralization and calculating Delta percentage values to
find out maximum neutralization of all three Volatile Organic Compounds against
untreated lawn Fabrics. Recipes are 5th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 20th and 21stshown in Table:
5.
Printed Bed Sheet Cotton Fabric (5 by 5’’) with following Finish
Table: 5
Titanium Curing Temp of Cotton Delta % Delta %
pH Level of Delta % Neutralizti-
Rec Ethanol Conc Prop. Oxide dried with Nano Tit Diox Neutralizati-on of Neutral-ization
distilled water on of Methanol
Conc Finish Ethanol of Acetone
5 3 6 1.25 180 18.55912 39.69849 27.95699
8 2 3 0.5 150 31.48148 19.04145 36.78756
9 2 3 0.5 170 26.80412 18.64139 21.73913
10 4 3 0.5 150 18.18182 19.85294 17.76447
20 4 9 2 150 12.6865 12.28956 11.29032
21 4 9 2 170 12.38938 12.31884 11.76471

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2.4. Synthesis of Five Pigment printing pastes with Selected Nano Titanium
Finishes:-
Six Nano Titanium Dioxide Finishes 5th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 20th and 21th mentioned in Table:
5 has shown best delta percentage values in neutralization of three Volatile organic
compounds are synthesized in 200 gm dilled water following recipe details. In each of
these finishes Synthetic Thickener Acrylic based 8 gm; Binder 25 gm & Ammonia Liquor
2 gm are added to develop printing paste. Gel type fluid is obtained; afterwards Blue
color Pigment 6 gm is mixed properly for an evened printing paste.
2.5. Pigment Printing of Bed Sheet Cotton fabrics with Nano Titania particles:-
Six Bleached Bed Sheet Cotton Fabrics (weave quality GSM 135 gms 22/22) with 12
by 12 inch size are printed with six Pigment Printing pastes of nano Titanium Dioxide
Finish on Flat Bed Screen Printing Machine (Model no: SP-300 AB, Serial no: 92-5-253,
Tsuji Dyeing machine Japan) with a Screen of 10 by 10 inch. Pigment printed Cotton
Fabrics are Dried on Stenter Frame machine for 1 minutes at 120 degree temperature,
Curing is done by following the recipes of Titanium Dioxide Finish mentioned in Table:5
for the time of three minutes.
2.6. Significance of the Regression Model of Independent and Dependant
Variables:-
Significance of Regression model is also tested by performing ANOVA analysis of
Variance. In which F ratio and p Value is investigated. Here, ANOVA is performed by
analyzing the mean of dependant variable Ethanol Neutralization by Pigment Printed
Cotton Fabrics with Nano Titania Particles is same or different in three or more group’s
of independent variable Recipe of Pigment printed fabrics with Nano Titania Particles
i.e. pH levels of distilled water (pH), Ethanol concentration (Ethanol), Titanium Prop
oxide (Titanium Prop. Oxide), Curing Temp (Temp) of pigment printed cotton fabrics
with nano titania particles. If p value is less than 0.0001 and in all one ANOVAs if p
values are less than 0.0001 and different values are achieved Mean of Dependant
Variable will be significantly different in all four groups of Independent variables.
F ratio is the Ratio between Regression mean square and mean square error. F ratio is
also called Variance ratio to examine Significance of model of effects of factors with
respect to Variances due to all error terms. If F ratio is large it means, regression model
is depicting the variation in different concentrations of pH of Distilled water, ethanol,
titanium Prop oxide & curing temperature of Pigment printed fabrics with Nano titania
particles. Large F value statistically depicts larger variance distributed by models than
random error.
2.7. Examining Distribution of Data:-
Fit of Normal Distribution to the data is evaluated by examining Percentiles of values
of Independent variables and comparing Sample distributions in probability plot
graphs. Residual is the difference between Independent and dependant variable
observed by Normal Probability Plot. Straight Line is observed if Model is adequate. A
fitted distribution line is developed by graphing each value of independent variable
verses the percentage of independent variable values. If Normal Probability plot
forms a straight line it means there is Normal Distribution of values of Data and there
is fitted distribution of data along a line.

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Residuals are randomly distributed on residuals versus fits Plots. Plot of residuals verses
fitted values should not depict a shape of spread data if points are observed around
0 in randomly scattered manner. It means assumption error has 0 mean and there
is equal variance. Models with the experimental data indicate better fit. If there is
scattered data in the plot of Residual verses fits and there are random points along y
axis there is no problem with assumption.
2.8. Examining Potential Relationship between three Variables, two independent
Variables and one Dependant Variable:-
It is evaluated by finding Potential Relationship between two independent variables
on dependant variables. 3 D contour plots are developed which shows Continuous
Change in Neutralization of Ethanol Concentration is observed Change in values of pH
level of distilled water and Ethanol concentration increases Neutralization of Ethanol
in one 3 D plot and in another 3 D plot, Change in values of titanium prop oxide
concentration and curing temperature of Pigment Printed Fabrics rises Neutralization
of Ethanol Concentration. Hence, values in both cases reach optimum level. After
reaching optimum level, Ethanol Neutralization decreases with some change in
Values of Independent variables.
2.9. Examining Potential Relationship between Pair of Variables i.e. independent
and Dependant Variables:-
Potential relationship between pair of variables is examined. Scatter plots are
developed in Minitab 16 by keeping Dependant variable values on y axis and
Independent variable values on x axis. Change in independent variable values show
continuous change in Dependant variable values. Relationship of change in values
of each independent variable i.e. pH level of distilled water, Ethanol concentration,
Titanium Prop oxide Concentration and Curing temperature of Pigment Printed Cotton
Fabrics on Change is Values of dependant variable i.e. Ethanol Neutralization.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Air Cleanup Tests/VOC Neutralization of 6 Pigment Printed Cotton Fabrics with
different ratios of titania nano particles:-
6 Air cleanup testes are performed. Each finish treated lawn fabric sized 6 by 6 inch
is attached on the area of the Desktop Volatile Organic Compound Meter (Model:
98113, Made in Taiwan) which can sense air pollutants. Logger is placed in an enclosed
wooden box with the door of glass against a plate of Volatile Organic Compounds
with Quantity of 5 ml for 10 minutes in each Air Cleanup test. Neutralization of one
Volatile Organic Compounds is performed which are Ethanol. Results of Air Cleanup
Tests/VOC Neutralization of 6 pigment printed Cotton Fabrics treated Nano Titania
particles against Untreated Fabrics of Cotton are shown in Table: 6.

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Neutralization of Ethanol (15 m liter)

Table: 6
Curing Temp of Unt Fabric Print Fabric
pH Level of Titanium Prop.
Recipes distilled water
Ethanol Conc
Oxide Conc
Cotton dried with value after 12 value after 12 Delta %
Nano Tit Diox Finish min min
5 3 6 1.25 180 0.35 0.17 51.42857143
8 2 3 0.5 150 1.07 0.84 21.4953271
9 2 3 0.5 170 1.05 1.02 2.857142857
10 4 3 0.5 150 0.56 0.46 17.85714286
20 4 9 2 150 1.14 0.84 26.31578947
21 4 9 2 170 0.93 0.9 3.225806452
3.2. Significance of Regression Models of Independent and Dependant Variables:-

In ANOVA analysis of variance Statistical Significance of Anova is observed by p-value,
p values are less than 0.05. There are four groups of independent variable “Recipe
of Pigment printed fabrics with Nano Titania Particles” i.e. pH levels of distilled water
(pH), Ethanol concentration (Ethanol), Titanium Prop oxide (Titanium Prop. Oxide),
Curing Temp (Temp) of pigment printed cotton fabrics with nano titania particles and
One dependent variable is “Ethanol Neutralization by Pigment Printed Cotton Fabrics
with Nano Titania Particles”. Mean of Dependant Variable is significantly different in
all four groups of Independent variables, statistically proved by p values.
Significance of Regression model is evaluated by observing effects of independent
variables on response Variable e.g f value tests are performed. Variances are
compared by examining ratios through F values. In Table no F values of each response
variable are stated i.e. F value of ph Value of Distilled water is 33.96, F value of ethanol
is 15.67, F value of titanium Propoxide is 1.63 & F value of curing temperature of Pigment
printed fabrics with Nano titania particles is 879.40.
ANOVA F Value p Value
pH of distilled water & Pigment printed Cotton fabric with Nano Titania Particles 33.96 0.000
Ethanol & Pigment printed Cotton fabric with Nano Titania Particles 15.67 0.003
Titanium Prop. Oxide & Pigment printed Cotton fabric with Nano Titania Particles 11.63 0.002
Curing Temp of Cotton fabrics & Pigment printed Cotton fabric with Nano Titania Particles 879.40 0.000
3.3. Examining Distribution of Data:-

Significance of each model coefficient is tested by examining the Normal Probability
plots shown in figures 1, 2, 3 & 4.
Straight line is formed Normal Probability plot of residuals which assures adequacy
of Individual Model Coefficient. Regression model equation has normal assumption
without any problem and there is no requirement of transforming response
Random distribution of residuals with equal variance, is observed by residuals versus
fits Plots, evaluate the assumption of random distribution of residuals with constant
variance. And plot of residuals verses the fitted values shows no shape of spread data
as points are observed around 0 in randomly scattered manner shown in figures 5, 6,
7 & 8. It means assumption error has 0 mean and there is equal variance. Models with
the experimental data indicate better fit.

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N or ma l P r oba bi l i ty P l ot
( responses are pH Level of distilled water, Print Fabric value after 12 min)
99
95
90
80
70
Per cent
60
50
40
30
20
10
1
-2 -1 0 1 2
R e s idua l
Fig: 1
( responses are Ethanol Conc, Print Fabric value after 12 min)
99
95
90
80
70
Pe r ce nt
60
50
40
30
20
10
1
-5. 0 -2. 5 0. 0 2. 5 5. 0
R e s idua l
Fig: 2
( responses are T itanium Prop. Oxide Conc, Print Fabric value after 12 min)
99
95
90
80
70
Per cent
60
50
40
30
20
10
1
-1. 5 -1. 0 -0. 5 0. 0 0. 5 1. 0
R e s idua l
Fig: 3

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N or ma l P r oba bi l i t y P l ot
( responses are Curing T emp of Cotton dried w, Print Fabric value after 12 min)
99
95
90
80
70
Percent
60
50
40
30
20
10
1
- 20 - 10 0 10 20
R e s idua l
Fig: 4
V e r s us F i ts
( responses are pH Level of distilled water, Print Fabric value after 12 min)
1. 0
0. 5
R es idua l
0. 0
-0. 5
-1. 0
1. 0 1. 5 2. 0 2. 5 3. 0 3. 5
Fit t e d V a lue
Fig: 5
V e r s us F i ts
( responses are Ethanol Conc, Print Fabric value after 12 min)
4
1
R es idual
-1
-2
-3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Fit t e d V a lue
Fig: 6

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V e r s us F i t s
( res pons es are T itanium Prop. Oxide Conc, Print Fabric value after 12 min)
1. 00
0. 75
0. 50
R esidual
0. 25
0. 00
- 0. 25
- 0. 50
0. 7 0. 8 0. 9 1. 0 1. 1
Fit t e d V a lue
Fig: 7
V e r s us F i ts
( responses are Curing T emp of Cotton dried w, Print Fabric value after 12 min)
20
15
10
R es idua l
-5
-10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Fit t e d V a lue
Fig: 8
3.4. Examining Potential Relationship between three Variables, two independent
Variables and one Dependant Variable:-
The interactive relationship between the three variables is illustrated by plotting 3-D
graphs representation of the response surfaces. These are developed by carefully
varying the two variables to show change in response variable within the experimental
range. 3-D Surface plots showing the relationship between independent variables
i.e. ph levels of distilled water (pH), Ethanol concentration (Ethanol), Titanium Prop
oxide (Titanium Prop. Oxide), Curing Temp (Temp) and dependent variable Delta
% of Neutralization of Ethanol by Pigment Printed Cotton Fabrics with Nano Titania
Particles (delta).
The 3-D response surface plots were plotted based on the values presented in Table:
6. The 3 D surface plots are generated by keeping two predictor variables displayed
on x and y scales and response variable on z scale, represented by a smooth surface
of 3D surface plot.

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S ur f a ce P lot of Delta v s pH, E tha nol
45
D elta 30
15 4
0 3 pH
4
6 2
8
E tha nol
I.
Effect of ph level of Distilled water and Ethanol Concentration on Response Variable
of Delta % of Ethanol
Fig: 9
As shown in Fig: 9 as the pH level of distilled water and ethanol concentration increase,
the Delta % of neutralization of Ethanol by Pigment Printed Cotton Fabric with nano
titania Particles increases until it reaches an optimal region. However, increase in both
variables beyond the optimum level resulted in decrease in the Delta %. pH value of
distilled Water and Ethanol Concentration increase gradually with increasing Delta
% of Neutralization of Ethanol and tend to decrease after reaching optimum level.
pH reaches 3 and Ethanol at 6 Delta % is at maximum i.e. 51.42%. After reaching this
optimum level, increase in pH and Ethanol Delta% decreases.
II. Effect of Titanium Prop oxide and curing temperature on Response Variable of
Delta % of Ethanol
S ur f a ce P l ot of De l ta v s T i ta ni um P r op. O x i de , T e mp
45
D e lta 30
15 2. 0
1. 5
0
1. 0 T ita nium P r op. O x ide
150
160 0. 5
170
T e mp 180
Fig: 10
As shown in Fig: 10 as the Titanium Prop oxide Concentration and Curing temp of
Pigment Printed fabrics, the Delta % of neutralization of Ethanol by Pigment Printed

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Cotton Fabric with nano titania Particles increases until it reaches an optimal region.
However, increase in both variables beyond the optimum level resulted in decrease
in the Delta %.Titanium Prop oxide Concentration and Curing temp of Pigment Printed
fabrics increase gradually with increasing Delta % of Neutralization of Ethanol and
tend to decrease after reaching optimum level. Titanium Prop oxide Concentration
reaches 1.25 and Curing temp at 180 Delta % is at maximum i.e. 51.42%. After reaching
this optimum level, increase in Titanium Prop oxide Concentration and Curing temp
Delta % decreases.
3.5. Potential Relationship between Pair of Variables i.e. independent and
Dependant Variables:-:-
The potential relationship between a pair of continuous variables from six recipes
shown in Table: 6 i.e. Ph level of distilled water and Delta % of Neutralization of Ethanol
(VOC), Ethanol concentration and Delta % of Neutralization of Ethanol (VOC), Titanium
Prop oxide concentration and Delta % of Neutralization of Ethanol (VOC), Curing
Temperature of Pigment Printed Cotton Fabric with Nano Titania Particles and Delta
% of Neutralization of Ethanol (VOC), is illustrated by scatter plots on Minitab 16. (X
and y) are the symbols for the representation of Data values of variables. The scatter
plots were plotted based on the values presented in Table 6. The plots are generated
by keeping response variable on y-axis and predictor variable on the x-axis for each
observation.
S c a tte r pl ot of De l ta v s pH
50
40
30
Delt a
20
10
0
2. 0 2. 5 3. 0 3. 5 4. 0
pH
Fig: 11
S c a tte r pl ot of De l ta v s E tha nol
50
40
30
Delt a
20
10
0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Et ha nol
Fig: 12
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S ca tte r pl ot of De l ta v s T i ta ni um P r op. O x i de
50
40
30
Delt a
20
10
0
0. 50 0. 75 1. 00 1. 25 1. 50 1. 75 2. 00
Tit a nium Pr op. Oxide
Fig: 13
S ca tte r pl ot of De l ta v s T e mp
50
40
30
De lt a
20
10
0
150 155 160 165 170 175 180
Te mp
Fig: 14
We can examine the relationship between the ph level of distilled water and Delta %
of Neutralization of Ethanol in Fig. 11. This scatter plot shows that as ph level of distilled
water increases (x), so does delta % of Neutralization of Ethanol (y).
We can examine the relationship between the Ethanol concentration and Delta %
of Neutralization of Ethanol (VOC) in Fig. 12. This scatter plot shows that as ph level of
distilled water increases (x), so does delta % of Neutralization of Ethanol (y).
We can examine the relationship between the Titanium Prop oxide concentration
and Delta % of Neutralization of Ethanol (VOC) in Fig. 13. This scatter plot shows that
as ph level of distilled water increases (x), so does delta % of Neutralization of Ethanol
(y).
We can examine the relationship between the Curing Temperature of Pigment Printed
Cotton Fabric with Nano Titania Particles and Delta % of Neutralization of Ethanol
(VOC) in Fig. 14. This scatter plot shows that as ph level of distilled water increases (x),
so does delta % of Neutralization of Ethanol (y).
3.6. UV protection property of 6 Pigment Printed Cotton Fabrics with different ratios of
titania nano particles:-

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Table: 7 Table: 8 Table: 9

Mean Ultra Violet
Sr. No. Sr. No. UVA Blocking % Sr. No. UVB Blocking%
Protection Factor
Sample 1 4.81 Sample 1 74.3 Sample 1 80.3
Sample 2 5.11 Sample 2 75 Sample 2 81.5
All Pigment Printed fabrics with nano titania particles can provide protection from
Ultra Violet Rays.
Uv Protection property of all 6 fabrics is shown by Cluster Bars in Figure: 15 Each Bar
represent one of the Uv Protection Property as of UVA, UVB Protection and mean UPF.
Char t of UVA B lock ing % , UVB B lock ing% , Mean UP F
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
Da t a
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
% % PF % % PF % % PF % % PF % % PF % % PF
g g U g g U g g U g g U g g U g g U
i n k in n i n k in n in k in n in k in n in k in n in k in n
k c a k c a k c a k c a k c a k c a
oc l o e oc l o e oc l o e oc l o e oc l o e oc l o e
Bl B B M BlB B M BlB B M BlB B M BlB B M Bl B B M
VA V VA V VA V VA V VA V VA V
U U U U U U U U U U U U
PigPrintFabr W nano Titania Par 1 2 3 4 5 6
Fig: 15
Level of Ultra Violet Protection of Fabrics is shown here with various bars. Though all
Pigment Printed fabrics with nano titania particles can provide protection from Ultra
Violet Rays First three recipes of treating cotton fabrics with pigment printing adding
nano titania particles have shown remarkable effects of Ultra Violet Protection 3rd
Cotton Fabric treated with 3rd recipe of Finish with nano titania particles is showing
best results of UVA, UVB Protection and mean UPF. 2nd and 1st fabrics In comparison to
3rd fabric are showing less UV Protection but Protection difference is minute change
and it can be counted on points.

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4. CONCLUSION
It is observed after comparing six pigment printed cotton fabrics printed with different
ratios of titania nano particles, all fabrics neutralize air pollutants i.e Volatile Organic
Compound Ethanol, confirmed by Neutralization of concentration of 15 ml Ethanol
after 12 minutes after comparing it with Untreated Cotton Fabric Delta % values are
also compared of Neutralization of Ethanol. All Pigment Printed Cotton with Nano
Titanium Dioxide Particles gives protection from Ultra Violet rays i.e. UVA, UVB rays.
Recipes to prepare Pigment Printed Cotton fabric with Nano Titanium Dioxide Particles
are compared with different concentrations and levels of contents of recipe. Effects
of all independent variables i.e. pH Level of distilled water, Ethanol Concentration,
Titanium Prop. Oxide Concentration and Curing Temp of Cotton dried with Nano
Titanium Dioxide Finish are observed on Dependant Variable i.e. Neutralization
of Ethanol by observing 3 D Contour Plots and Scatter plot. Mean difference of
Neutralization of Ethanol is observed in all independent variables in ANOVA test, with
examining F value and p value. Normal Probability Plot and Plot of residuals verses fit
are also observed to find out Normal and random distribution of Data. So, Process of
Neutralization of Ethanol as Volatile organic Compound is performed due to different
effects of Various Variables i.e. pH Level of distilled water, Ethanol Concentration,
Titanium Prop. Oxide Concentration and Curing Temp of Cotton dried with Nano
Titanium Dioxide Finish.
Recipe no 5 stated mentioned below shows better Delta % of Neutralization of Volatile
Organic Compounds i.e. Ethanol in Pigment printed Cotton fabric with Nano Titania
particles shown better delta percentage in comparison to other five Pigment printed
Cotton fabric with Nano Titania particles, Neutralization results are taken from Table:
6. In this study, we successfully synthesized Pigment printed paste with Different Nano
Titanium Finishes for printing pigment printing on bed sheet cotton fabrics. Same fabric
is giving satisfactory Ultra Violet protection than fabric pigment printed with Nano
Titania particles by following recipe no: 5. However, fabric pigment printed with Nano
Titania particles by following recipe no: 3 is showing far better Ultra Violet protection
than all Pigment Printed fabrics with Nano Titania Particles. Levels of UV protection is
illustrated in Cluster Plots Fig: 15.
Neutralization of Ethanol (15 m liter)
Curing Temp
pH Level Titanium of Cotton Unt Fabric Print Fabric
Ethanol
Recipes of distilled
Conc
Prop. Oxide dried with value after value after Delta %
water Conc Nano Tit Diox 12 min 12 min
Finish
5 3 6 1.25 180 0.35 0.17 51.42857143
8 2 3 0.5 150 1.07 0.84 21.4953271
9 2 3 0.5 170 1.05 1.02 2.857142857
10 4 3 0.5 150 0.56 0.46 17.85714286
20 4 9 2 150 1.14 0.84 26.31578947
21 4 9 2 170 0.93 0.9 3.225806452

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UV protection property of 6 Pigment Printed Cotton Fabrics with titania nano particles
Sr. No. UVA Blocking % Sr. No. UVB Blocking %
Sample 1 74.3 Sample 1 80.3

Sample 2 75 Sample 2 81.5
It is fairly logical that use of these pigment printed cotton fabrics can benefit us indoors
and outdoors in homes and industries to reduce air pollution in the form of Volatile
Organic Compounds by using them in home apparels curtains, table clothes, hats,
umbrellas and sheet covers etc.
REFERENCES
Acetone. (2014, July 22). Retrieved August 20, 2014, from wikipedia.org: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Acetone
Air Pollution. (2014, August). Retrieved August 21, 2014, from wikipedia.org: http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Air_pollution
Alireza & Ali. (2011). Nanostructured Titanium Dioxide Materials Alireza. World Scientific Publishing
Company.
Ethanol. (2014, August 30). Retrieved August 30, 2014, from wikipedia.org: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Ethanol
Hanna Boogaard, Paul H. Fischer, Nicole A. H. Janssen, Gerard P. A. Kos & Ernie P. Weijers. (2013).
Respiratory effects of a reduction in outdoor air pollution concentrations . Epidemiology (Cambridge,
Mass.), 24 (5), 753-61.
Heribert Insam & M. S A Seewald. (2010). Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in soils. Biology and
Fertility of Soils, 46 (3), 199-213.
Jhon H Epstein MD & Stephen Q, Wang MD. understanding uva and uvb. skincancer.org. Retrieved
August, 3, 2014. http://www.skincancer.org/prevention/uva-and-uvb/understanding-uva-and-uvb.
Khan. M, Mahbubal Bashar & Mubarak A. (2012). An Overview of Surface Modification of Cotton
Fiber for Apparel Use. Journal of Polymers and the Environment , 1-21.
Mariusz Marc, Bozena Zabiegala & Jacek Namiesnik. (2012). Testing and sampling devices for
monitoring volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds in indoor air. Trends in Analytical Chemistry.
Methanol. (2014, August 12). Retrieved August 20, 2014, from wikipedia.org: http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Methanol
Miller, G. T. (1987). Living in the Environemnt. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Murat Erdem Kurtoglu, Travis Longenbach & Yury Gogotsi. (2011). Preventing Sodium Poisoning of
Photocatalytic TiO2 Films on Glass by Metal Doping. International Journal of Applied Glass Science ,
2 (2), 108–116 .
Nallanthigal Sridhara, Amadeo R & Fernandez-Alba. (2012). Determination of volatile organic
compounds in drinking and environmental waters. TrAC - Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 32, 60-75.
Rafael & Rajender. (2013). Sustainable Preparation of Metal Nanoparticles. Royal society of Chemistry.
Rose, Etherington. catalytic-clothing-by-helen-storey-and-tony-ryan. dezeen.com. June 15, 2011.
[Cited: November 8, 2015.] http://www.dezeen.com/2011/06/15/catalytic-clothing-by-helen-storey-
and-tony-ryan/.
Titanium dioxide. (2014, August 27). Retrieved August 27, 2014, from wikipedia.org: http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Titanium_dioxide
Titaniumdioxide. (2013, April 30). Retrieved August 15, 2014, from organicmakeup.ca: http://www.
organicmakeup.ca/ca/titaniumdioxide.asp
Yeh Chung Chien, Cheng Ping Chang & Zheng Zhe Liu. (2011). Volatile organics off-gassed among
tobacco-exposed clothing fabrics. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 193, 139-148.
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COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF GREEN AND COMMERCIAL ANTIMICROBIAL SILVER NANOPARTICLES SOLUTIONS FOR TEXTILE APPLICATIONS
COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF GREEN

AND COMMERCIAL ANTIMICROBIAL SILVER
NANOPARTICLES SOLUTIONS FOR TEXTILE
APPLICATIONS
Laura González Echavarría1, Ana Elisa Casas Botero1,2, Marta Elena
Londoño Lopez3, Santiago Benavides López3, Adriana RestrepoOsorio1
1
Facultad de Ingeniería Textil, Grupo de investigación sobre Nuevos Materiales GINUMA, Semillero
de Investigación en Textiles SI Textil, 2Grupo de Investigaciones Agroindustriales GRAIN.
1
Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, Circular 1 N° 70-01, Medellín, Colombia.
3
Escuela de Ingeniería de Antioquía, Grupo de Investigación en Ingeniería Biomédica, Calle 25 sur
4272, Envigado, Colombia.
(Presenting and corresponding author E-mail: adriana.restrepo@upb.edu.co;)
ABSTRACT
In recent years, the antibacterial finishing of fabrics has attracted great attention, in
special with silver nanoparticles for their strong antimicrobial activity and potential
uses in various applications. The synthesis of nanoparticles usually has been
produce by chemical process. Recently, the trend is to use ecofriendly routes for
synthesis of nanoparticles to avoid use of toxic chemicals and to achieve biological
compatibility. In this work were compared silver nanoparticles solutions obtained
by a green technology with a commercial antibacterial product. Cotton woven
was functionalized with simple method for immersion, dry and wash with a basic
process. The antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, E. coli and P. aeruginosa was
determined with a Kirby-Bauer test. The morphology was evaluated by scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) and color changes by spectrophotometric analysis.
The results indicate that both green and commercial silver nanoparticles have
antibacterial activity even after a basic washing process. While the morphology
of fibers and color of cotton fabrics was altered for both functionalization products
evaluated.
Keywords: Silver nanoparticles, antimicrobial, functionalized textiles, cotton
fabrics,
INTRODUCTION
In the last decades, scientific advances found in the nanotechnology a new
border for the development of materials with unusual blend of physicochemical
properties, useful as solution for several problematic. Recent researches show that
silver nanoparticles (NPs Ag) have effectiveness against bacteria, inhibiting or
killing them (Prabhu y Poulose 2012). The silver was use since centuries to treat
infections due to its bactericide effect and low toxicity against human cells (Rai,
Yadav y Gade 2009) (Dastjerdi, Mojtahedi y Shoshtari 2010), furthermore the NPs Ag
maximizing the bactericide effect, which allows increase the metal concentration
per area, to improve the contact surface with microorganism and it also enables
its immobilization over different materials (Yeo y Jeong 2003) (Lok 2006 ).
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Using NPs Ag to functionalize textiles has proved to be an excellent approach

to provide antimicrobial properties (Roya y Majid 2010), nowadays exist several
production processes for NPs Ag, the chemical synthesis process is the route most
frequently used (Yu 2009). The chemical syntheses employ reagents that can be
toxic for the humans and for the environment (Hebeish, El-Bisi y El-Shafei 2015).
Alternatively, recently have been taking place researches about synthesis of
NPs Ag through green technologies, which utilize extracts of natural origin, less
toxic and cheaper compare with the synthetic ones (Kharissova, y otros 2013).
Additionally, some components drawn form natural extracts and that remains
with the NPs Ag after green synthesis process, which presents funtional groups
that react with natural polymers, allowing an higher adhesion and durability of
the textile finishing (Fernández, y otros 2015).
The NPs Ag impregnation methods on textiles play a significant role because are
related with the behavior of finished products. Simple methods of impregnation
are preferable, because require less chemical products and lead lower emissions
(Schindler y Hauser 2004). Other important considerations are to prevent the
formation of NPs Ag clusters in order to promote its correct distribution in the
fabrics (Pinto, y otros 2012), and that NPs Ag textile finishing should preserve the
typical textile properties, especially physical properties related with its comfort
(Kawabata y Niwa 1989).
The present work has as aim to evaluated, antimicrobial activity, change of color
and differences in surface morphology, of cotton woven fabrics functionalized
through simple dipping on three different NPs Ag solutions, two obtained by green
technologies and one commercial product.
Cotton woven fabric weighting 138 g/m2, with a density of 25 yarns/cm in warp and
weft, suitable for dyeing, which was already scoured and bleached, and was used
as textile substrate. Three different NPs Ag aqueous solutions were incorporated
in cotton fabric, two of them were synthesized with green methodologies by the
Laboratorio de Biomateriales CES-EIA and named G1 and G2, and the other one
it is a commercial product C.
Fabrics functionalization
Samples of cotton fabric previously washed were cut in round shape with 6 mm
of diameter. The NPs Ag solutions were used in three estimated concentrations of
2.5, 1.25 and 0.5 mM. Cut samples were immersed on NPs Ag solutions, at 300 rpm
for 30 min, after that the samples were dried at 70 °C for 10 min. The samples are
described in the Table 1. Half of the samples were subjected to a manual washing
with distilled water and dried at 70 °C for 10 min. The washed samples were
identified with a subscript “w”, and were utilized for determine the antimicrobial
activity after simple washing process.

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Samples Name Type of NPs Ag Concentration [mM]

G1_2.5 2.5
G1_1.25 Green, source 1 1.25
G1_0.5 0.5
G2_2.5 2.5
G2_1.25 Green, source 2 1.25
G2_0.5 0.5
C_2.5 2.5
C_1.25 Commercial 1.25
C_0.5 0.5
Table 1. Description of samples
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
The surface structure was studied using a JEOL JSM6490 LV equipped with Oxford
Inca Pental FETx3 energy dispersive (EDS) analyzer. Treated and untreated fabric
samples were gold coated to observe the samples under different magnifications,
and the elemental composition on samples surface was characterized using EDS.
Color changes
The color change was determined in quantitative way using a spectrophotometer
Cyber Chrome, IncStone Ridge, NY. In the CIELAB color system, L* shows the lightness
of the fabric a* and b* are indicators of red-green (redder if positive; greener
if negative) and the yellow blue colors (yellower if positive; bluer if negative),
respectively. In order to assess the color variation of the treated samples respect
to untreated ones, three indices of CIELAB ΔL*, Δa* and Δb*, for each kind of
sample were determined (J. C. Garcia 2007).
Antimicrobial activity
In order to determine the antimicrobial activity the Kirby–Bauer disk-diffusion
qualitative test, against S. aureus ATCC 25923, E. coli ATCC 25922 and P. aeruginosa
ATCC 27853, was carried out. The microbial suspensions were prepared by
growing colony in nutrient agar medium, then petri Müeller Hinton agar dishes
were inoculated separately with each kind of bacteria. Treated and untreated
cotton fabrics samples were sterilized and putted by triplicated on bacterial
layer. The zone of inhibition was measured after incubation of 20 h at 37 °C and
photographical register was made. The presence of the inhibition zone was
determined from the images.
RESULTS
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
In the SEM images can be observed NPs Ag on the surface of the functionalized
cotton fibers. The C_2.5 sample presents significant superficial changes due to
the presence of micrometric clusters or aggregates, attributable to NPs Ag and
other components of the commercial formulation. The G1_2.5 and G2_2.5 samples
present a slight superficial change, which suggests that the fiber roughness was

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increased, compare with the pristine cotton fibers. The presence of NPs Ag was
verified by EDS analysis, in the compositional spectrum of each samples presents
characteristics Ag peaks, except to untreated cotton.
Color changes
In the Table 2 shows the colorimetric coordinates values of the treated samples
obtained by spectrophotometer, using as referent the untreated cotton fabric
sample.
Tabla 2. Colour changes of cotton textiles treated with NPs Ag, according to the
CIE L*a*b* system.
CIELAB values
Sample
ΔL* Δa* Δb*
G1_2.5 -33.70 8.40 6.06
G1_1.25 -24.82 7.33 4.03
G1_0.5 -18.54 4.92 1.87
G2_2.5 -12.36 7.58 7.08
G2_1.25 -4.19 2.57 1.60
G2_0.5 -2.06 1.33 0.60
C_2.5 -4.62 -0.09 3.02
C_1.25 -4.24 -0.06 1.43
C_0.5 -3.67 0.02 -0.12
The differences ΔL*, Δa* and Δb*, indicate a significant color changes between
the samples treated with NPs Ag and the untreated cotton sample. The negatives
values for ΔL* in all functionalized samples indicated the NPs Ag treatments results
in a decrease in the lightness. In the G1 and G2 samples the darkness is directly
proportional with the employed concentration and the effect was major in G1;
while C samples present negative but similar values of ΔL* for all concentrations.
Furthermore the Δa* and Δb* values are positive for G1 and G2 samples and
proportional to concentration of NPs Ag, with a tendency to yellower with reddish
shade and the coloration effect was higher in G1. For C samples Δa* did not
presents a significant values compare to untreated cotton sample and Δb* values
indicated slightly reddish shade for C_2.5, C_1.25, while C_0.5 the difference was
not significant. The results can be related with the colouration properties of NPs Ag,
which depends of the localised surface plasmon resonance and its absorbance
peaks around 450 nm characteristic of the yellow color range (Tang, y otros 2012),
the most significant being for G1 and G2 due to the NPs Ag and the remains
components from natural extracts, this effect was controlling in the C sample, due
to the commercial formulation include chemical auxiliary compounds.

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Antimicrobial activity
The antimicrobial activity was confirmed from the pictures in which it appears
clearly inhibition zone against the three different evaluated microorganisms in all
concentrations used for treated the cotton fabrics. These results were verified with
cotton fabrics without treatment as negative controls. The results suggest that the
antimicrobial activity against S. aureus is greater for every kind of antimicrobial
agent compared to with the others microorganisms, because in the images of
these samples exhibit an apparent larger inhibition zone.
Ravindra et al, proved the antomicrobial activity against E. coli by KirbyBauer test,
of green NPs Ag synthesised in situ on cotton fibers, presenting positive inhibition
zone compared to a control without treatment (Ravindra, y otros 2010). Simirala et
al, modified cotton fabrics with NPs Ag obtained by chemical route using pad dry
process, achieving antomicrobial activity against E. coli and S. aureus (Sirimala, y
otros 2013). These results are comparable with those obtained in the present work.
After simple aqueous washing process, the antimicrobial activity was preserve in
all samples, in all concentrations; which remained inhibition zone in the samples
treated with commercial and with green NPs Ag, suggest a certain level of
durability of antimicrobial treatments.
CONCLUSIONS
The achieved results indicate that the green and commercial NPs Ag produces
positive comparable antimicrobial effects against S. aureus, E. coli and P. aeruginosa
in the cotton fabrics using simple method of immersion. The antimicrobial activity
was preserve after a basic aqueous washing process. The treatments results in
superficial modifications on cotton fibers to be more significant for fibers treated
with commercial NPs Ag (C samples), while change of color was higher for samples
functionalized with green NPs Ag, all samples turn dankness and yellowness.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors express their thanks to Centro de Investigación para el Desarrollo y
la Innovación (CIDI) of the Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana (UPB) and to the
Escuela de Ingeniería de Antioquía, both institutions provided the resources for
this work through project “Functionalized textiles with antibacterial NPs obtained
by green technologies, and its application on medical textiles” 287B-09/14-18.
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Dastjerdi, R. , M.R.M. Mojtahedi, y A.M. Shoshtari. «Comparing the effect of three processing
methods for modification of filament yarns with inorganic nanocomposite filler and their
bioactivity against Staphylococcus aureus.» Macromolecular Research, nº 17 (2010): 378-387.
Fernández, J.G., C.A. Almeida, M.A. Fernández-Baldo, E. Felici, J. Raba, y M.I. Sanz. «Development of
nitrocellulose membrane filters impregnated wittjeh different biosynthesized silver nanoparticles
applied to water purification.» Talanta, 2015.
Garcia, Juan Carlos. «Metodología de Análisis y Evaluación de las Propiedades del Color en
Fibras Teñidas 100% Algodón como Herramienta en la Producción, para la Industria Textil
Guatemalteca.» Guatemala, 2007.
Garcia, M. A. «Surface plasmons in metallic nanoparticles: fundamentals and applications.»
JOURNAL OF PHYSICS D: APPLIED PHYSICS, 2011: 20-41.
Hebeish, A., M.K. El-Bisi, y A. El-Shafei. «Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their application
to cotton fabrics.» International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, nº 72 (2015): 1384–1390.

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Jha, A.K., K. Prasad, K. Prasad, y A.R. Kulkarni. «Plant system: nature’s nanofactory.» Colloids Surf.
B Biointerfaces, nº 73 (2009): 219-223.
Kawabata, S., y M. Niwa. «Fabric Performance in Clothing and Clothing Manufacture.» The
Journal of The Textile Institute 80, nº 1 (1989): 19-50.
Kharissova, O.V., H.V. Rasika , B.I. Kharisov, B.O. Pérez, y V.M. Jiménez. «The greener synthesis of
nanoparticles.» Trends in Biotechnology 31, nº 4 (2013): 240-248.
Kreibig, U., y M. Vollmer. Optical Properties of Metal. Berlin: Springer, 1995.
Lok, C. «Proteomic analysis of the mode of antibacterial action of silver nanoparticles.» Journal
of Proteome Research, nº 5 (2006 ): 916-924.
Pinto, R.J., C.P. Neto, M.C. Neves, y T. Trindade. Composites of cellulose and metal nanoparticles.
INTECH Open Access Publisher, 2012.
Prabhu, S., y E.K. Poulose. «Silver nanoparticles: mechanism of antimicrobial action, synthesis,
medical applications, and toxicity effects.» International Nano Letters, 2012: 2-32.
Rai, M. , A. Yadav, y A. Gade. «Silver nanoparticles as a new generation of antimicrobials.»
Biotechnology Advances 27 (2009): 76-83.
Ravindra, S. , Y. Murali Mohan, N. Narayana Reddy, y K. Mohana Raju. «Fabrication of antibacterial
cotton fibres loaded with silver nanoparticles via “Green Approach”.» Colloids and Surfaces A:
Physicochem. Eng. Aspects , 2010: 31–40.
Roya , Dastjerdi, y Montazer Majid. «A review on the application of inorganic nano-structured
materials in the.» Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 2010: 5–18.
Schindler, W.D., y P.J. Hauser. Chemical finishing of textiles. Elsevier, 2004.
Sirimala, Perera, Bharat Bhushan, Rathnayake Bandara, Rajapakse Gamini, Sanath Rajapakse,
y Bandara Chaturanga. «Morphological, antimicrobial, durability, and physical properties
ofuntreated and treated textiles using silver-nanoparticles.» Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochem.
Eng. Aspects, 2013: 975-989.
Tang, Bin, y otros. «Function improvement of wool fabric based on surface assembly of silica and
silver nanoparticles.» Chemical Engineering Journal, 2012: 366-373.
Yeo, S.Y. , y S.H. Jeong. «Preparation and characterization of polypropylene/silver nanocomposite
fibers.» Polymer International 52 (2003): 1053-1057.
Yu, D.G. . «Formation of colloidal silver nanoparticles stabilized by Na+poly(-glutamic acid)–silver
nitrate complex via chemical reduction process.» Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, nº 59
(2009): 171-178.

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PRELIMINARY STUDY EVALUATING THE ERGONOMIC PROPERTIES

OF TEXTILE MATERIALS IN PROTECTIVE GLOVES USING SURFACE
ELECTROMYOGRAPHY (EMG)
Emilia Irzmańska1, Tomasz Tokarski2, Paulina Wójcik1
1
Central Institute for Labour Protection – National Research Institute, Department of Personal Protective
Equipment, Laboratory of Hand and Foot Protection, ul. Wierzbowa 48, 90-133 Łódź, Poland
2
Central Institute for Labour Protection – National Research Institute, Department of Ergonomics,
Biomechanics Laboratory, ul. Czerniakowska 16, 00-701 Warszawa, Poland
ABSTRACT
The paper presents the preliminary results of a study into the ergonomic properties of
protective gloves using four manual dexterity tests (TEST 1: the fine finger movement
dexterity test according to the standard PN-EN 420; TEST 2: the cylinder grip and pull
test for gross hand and arm movements according to the standard PN-EN 1082; TEST 3:
Pardue Pegboard Test for fine finger movements; TEST 4: simulated occupational tasks for
evaluation of gross hand and arm movements).
The study involved protective gloves differing in terms of materials and construction. The
loading of four groups of muscles of the upper limb (adductor pollicis, extensor carpi radialis,
flexor carpi ulnaris, and biceps brachii) was investigated using surface electromyography
(EMG).
The objective of the work was to evaluate the sensitivity of the four manual dexterity tests
by means of EMG. The study showed that not all tests detected differences between the
various types of protective gloves, made of different materials. These results prove that one
should seek new methods for evaluation of the ergonomic properties of protective gloves,
which would better approximate real-life workplace conditions.
Keywords: dexterity tests, manual dexterity, EMG, protective gloves, comfort of use
INTRODUCTION
Upper limbs are at the greatest risk of occupational injury, especially in food processing
plants and the meatpacking industry (Trybus and Guzik, 2004; Brongel and Gedliczka, 1994;
Hertz and Emmett, 1986). Hand injury can be prevented, amongst others, by appropriate
gloves protecting from cuts and stabs by hand knives (Irzmańska, et al. 2011).
Just as all kinds of PPE, gloves protecting from mechanical factors should primarily meet the
requirements defined in the relevant standards. However, their ergonomic properties, such
as comfort of use, fit and anti-slip characteristics are also of paramount importance as they
affect manual dexterity and work safety (Irzmańska, 2014a; Irzmańska 2014b; Irzmańska
2014c).
Currently, ergonomic properties can be assessed using two standard methods: a
dynamometric grip and pull test pursuant to PN-EN 1082-2 (evaluating glove fit and anti-slip
characteristics) and a test in which pins of varying diameters are to be picked up, pursuant
to PN-EN 420+A1:2012 (evaluating finger dexterity). However, those methods lack objective
indicators, with the results being subjective sensations of upper limb fatigue, discomfort,
and fit. Recent years have seen the development of many non-standard methods for the
evaluation of ergonomic aspects of hand protection equipment using physical, physiological,

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and psychophysical methods (Nordin and Andersson, 1997; Drabek et al., 2010; Yoo et al.,
2011; Wimer et al., 2009).
The paper presents a study of protective gloves consisting of four tests (two specified in the
relevant standards, and two non-standard), which corresponded to different levels of manual
dexterity (low, medium, and high) and hand movements in different force configurations
(finger flexion, wrist abduction, pressing with the fingers and wrist).
The method was verified using surface electromyography (EMG), which evaluated the
loading of four groups of muscles of the upper limb during a series of tests. The objective
of the study was to identify highly sensitive tests which could be subsequently applied to
reliably assess protective gloves.

Characterization of protective gloves
The study examined three types of gloves used widely for protection against cuts and stabs
by hand knives:
• Gloves made of coverspun yarn with a double core of thin metal wire and a cover of
polyester filaments;
• Gloves made of a metal mesh composed of 0.5 mm thick stainless steel wire; the
internal diameter of each link was 3 mm;
• Metal mesh gloves with a polyurethane (PU) tightener.
Study group
The study group consisted of 6 healthy, professionally active men who used protective
gloves on a daily basis. However, they had no prior experience with gloves protecting against
cuts and stabs. The objective was to eliminate manual habits in the use of hand protection
products.
The study group was homogeneous in terms of age (20–30 years), height (165–175 cm) and
weight (65–75 kg). The BMI of the subjects ranged from 18.73 to 24.82. All the subjects were
right-handed. Due to the fact that in workplace settings the studied gloves are worn on the
left hand (as it does not hold the knife and is at high risk of cutting or stabbing), all the tests
were conducted for that hand.
Manual dexterity tests

Four manual dexterity tests were used:
- Standard tests:
ü Test 1 – evaluation of the strain on the fine movements of the fingers (finger dexterity
assessment) (PN-EN 420+A1:2012)
ü Test 2 – evaluation of the strain on the gross movements of the hand and arm
(dynamometric grip and pull test) (PN-EN 1082-2:2002)
- Non-standard tests:
ü Test 3 – evaluation of the strain on the fine movements of the fingers (Purdue
Pegboard Test)
ü Test 4 - evaluation of the strain on the gross movements of the hand and arm (a test
developed by the authors for simulation of simple occupational tasks).
In test 1, subjects picked up 40 mm long pins with varying diameters: 5.0; 6.5; 8.0; 9.5;
11.0 mm. The pins were to be picked up three times over 30 s without undue fumbling.
Results were expressed as the smallest pin diameter picked up by the subject, corresponding
to specified performance levels.
In test 2, the experimental setup consisted of a table with a cylinder attached to a dynamometer

732
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on one end. The subject was asked to grip the cylinder handle with his right hand and pull it
with maximum force. Next, the subject released his hold and rested for (30 ± 5) s. Results
were expressed as maximum force and force maintained for 10 s
Test 3 involved the Purdue Pegboard protocol. The subjects were asked to place as many
pegs in the holes as possible, beginning from the top of the board, over 30 s. Results were
expressed as the number of properly placed pegs and compared with the literature data
(Purdue Pegboard Test).
Test 4 consisted of 3 cycles of transferring 4 weights with a mass of 599.8 g each from the
right to the left and from the left to the right. The weights were placed on two trays at waist
height. Results were expressed as the number of weights that slipped out of hand during 30
s relative to the total number of transferred elements
Measurements of the fatigue of upper limb muscles (EMG)

The loading of four groups of upper limb muscles (adductor pollicis, extensor carpi radialis,
flexor carpi ulnaris, and biceps brachii) was measured using wireless electromyography
(EMG). The loading of the various muscles was expressed as percentage of maximum
voluntary contraction (%MVC). The lower the force applied to execute a given task, the
lower the %MVC value.
Measurements were conducted using a TeleMyo DTS system from Noraxon. EMG
electrodes were placed on the skin directly over the studied muscles, in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions. After securing the electrodes, maximum voluntary contraction
was measured as a reference value.
RESULTS
Manual dexterity test
In test 1, all of the studied protective glove types met the requirements of the standard at
a high level (PN-EN 420+A1:2012). It was found that 66.(6)% of the gloves reached the
highest performance level (level 5). Performance level 4 was obtained for 22.(2)% of the
gloves and performance level 3 was found for 11.(1)% of the gloves. The study method did
not detect significant differences between the studied glove types in terms of ergonomic
properties associated with manual dexterity (Table 1).
Table 1. Finger dexterity results obtained in test 1

Diameter of pins picked up in 30 s [mm]
Metal mesh glove
No glove Knitwear glove Metal mesh glove
with PU tightener
5.0 6.5 5.0 5.0
5.0 5.0 6.5 5.0
5.0 5.0 5.0 8.0
Legend:
Performance level 5
Performance level 4
Performance level 3
In test 2, maximum force and force maintained over 10 s differed significantly between
gloved-hand performance and bare-hand performance (both were higher in the latter case).
In gloved-hand trials, maximum force was lower by 50.6% for knitwear gloves, 42.1% for
metal mesh gloves, and 35.4% for metal mesh gloves with a PU tightener. Similarly, force
maintained over 10 s decreased by 48.3% for knitwear gloves, 39.1% for metal mesh gloves,
and 34.5% for metal mesh gloves with a PU tightener. This was caused by the fact that the
cylinder tended to slip in gloved hands. Thus, test 2 detected differences in ergonomic grip

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properties between the various protective glove types, depending on the construction and
material used (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Dynamometric grip and pull test results (ergonomic properties of protective
gloves measured by test 2)
Test 3, involving the Purdue Pegboard protocol, was used to establish mean manual
dexterity. The reference manual dexterity reported for the ungloved left hand was 15 for the
age group 21–25 years (Purdue Pegboard Test). There are no literature data concerning
manual dexterity in protective gloves for this protocol. The best results were obtained for
the ungloved hand. The tests showed that gloved subjects exhibited decreased manual
dexterity, by 20% for knitwear gloves, 40% for metal mesh gloves, and 46.6% for metal mesh
gloves with a PU tightener (Figure 2). The test can detect differences in manual dexterity
between the various test variants, but it should be conducted on a larger study group to find
out whether the differences are statistically significant.
Figure 2. Purdue Pegboard Test results (manual dexterity test 3)
In test 4, it was found that in trials involving metal mesh gloves, the weights tended to slip
out of the hand in the course of transferring them from one tray to the other, while the use of
a PU tightener decreased the number of dropped elements by 80% (Table 2).

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Table 2. Upper limb precision testing in a simulated occupational task (test 4)

Metal Metal mesh
Knitwear
Tested parameter No glove mesh glove with PU
glove
glove tightener
Number of elements
0.00 0.00 1.67 0.33
dropped during transfer
Mean Proportion of dropped
elements to total 0.00 0.00 14.00 3.00
number of elements [%]
Number of elements
0.00 0.00 0.58 0.58
Standard dropped during transfer
deviation Proportion of dropped

Results for the fatigue of upper limb muscles are given below as percentage voluntary
contraction [%MVC] (Table 3).
Table 3. Loading of the studied upper limb muscles [%MVC].

Percentage maximum voluntary contraction
Variant Muscle [%MVC]
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4
Left adductor pollicis 7.8 13.8 35.5 3.6
Left extensor carpi radialis 1.5 25.9 4.9 4.1
No glove
Left flexor carpi ulnaris 2.5 13.5 11.0 12.2
Left biceps brachii 1.9 17.2 6.3 9.4
Knitwear glove
Metal mesh Left extensor carpi radialis 3.8 21.8 4.5 8.5
glove Left flexor carpi ulnaris 7.2 16.2 10.9 15.0
glove with
PU tightener Left flexor carpi ulnaris 6.9 13.9 9.9 14.9
Summary
The studied protective gloves differed in terms of the comfort of use. The subjects performed
four manual dexterity tests, while the loading of their muscles was measured directly by
means of surface electromyography.
The pilot study showed that only two tests (pursuant to the standard PN-EN 1082-2:2002

735
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and the Purdue Pegboard Test) detected differences in the comfort of use between the
various types of protective gloves. It should be noted that the standard test according to PN-
EN 420+A1:2012 and the test simulating a simple manual activity involving weights did not
differentiate between the glove types, and so did not afford an objective assessment of the
ergonomic qualities of the protective gloves.
It was found that the test according to PN-EN 420+A1:2012 and the test simulating
occupational tasks led to only a small loading of the muscles and so the measurements
were not very sensitive (similar results were obtained for different protective glove types).
This is of importance for comparative ergonomic studies, but this observation should be
additionally verified on a larger study group.
The above results are consistent with electromyographic measurements, which detected
differences between the various glove types, reflected in changes in the loading of the upper
limb muscles. The EMG results are clear and easy to interpret. In contrast to manual dexterity
tests, EMG measurements identified the best and worst types of protective gloves in terms
of their functional properties. Muscle loading was the lowest for the knitwear gloves, and the
highest for the metal mesh gloves with a PU tightener. This is probably due to the weight of
the metal mesh gloves, which put an additional strain on the hand.
During the test conducted in accordance with PN-EN 420+A1:2012 and the Purdue Pegboard
Test, the highest loading was found for the left adduction pollicis and the lowest for the left
extensor carpi radialis. This can be explained by the type of manual tasks performed, which
involved only the fingers. In the PN-EN 1082-2:2002 test, the highest loading was found for
the left extensor carpi radialis, and the lowest loading for the left flexor carpi ulnaris. Finally,
the test simulating occupational tasks put the greatest strain on the left flexor carpi ulnaris,
and the smallest strain on the left adductor pollicis.
CONCLUSIONS
• Not all manual dexterity tests can detect differences in the comfort of use between gloves
made of different materials, including textiles.
• The test pursuant to PN-EN 420 and the test simulating simple manual tasks are not very
sensitive research tools and do not detect differences in the comfort of use between the
studied types of protective gloves.
• The test pursuant to PN-EN 1082 and the Purdue Pegboard Test are sensitive enough
to detect differences in the comfort of use between different types of glove construction.
• EMG results indicated the best and worst types of protective gloves in terms of their
functional properties: muscle loading was the lowest for the knitwear gloves, and the
highest for the wire mesh gloves with a PU tightener.
• The results also suggest that new, objective methods should be sought for evaluating the
ergonomic properties of protective gloves; such methods should approximate real-life
workplace conditions and simulate occupational tasks.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The publication is based on the results of Phase III of the National Program “Safety and
working conditions improvement,” financed in the years 2014–2016 in the area of research
and development by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education/the National Centre for
Research and Development; the Central Institute for Labour Protection – National Research
Institute is the Program Coordinator.
REFERENCES
Brongel, L., O. Gedliczka. 1994. Obrażenia ciała w badaniu prospektywnym. IV

736
Posters
Uszkodzenia pojedyncze i mnogie. Polski Przegląd Chirurgiczny, 66 (2): 151-159

Drabek, T., C. D. Boucek, and C. W. Buffington. 2010. Wearing the wrong size
latex surgical gloves impairs manual dexterity. Journal of Occupational and
Environmental Hygiene, 7: 152-155
Hertz, R., and E.A. Emmett. 1986. Risk factors for occupational hand injury. Journal of
Occupational Medicine, 28 (1): 36-41
Irzmańska, E. 2014a. Ergonomic Gloves. The evolution of ergonomic properties. Health &
Safety International, 55: 15-25
Irzmańska, E. 2014b. Ergonomiczna ocena rękawic chroniących przed przecięciami i
ukłuciami nożami ręcznymi. Przegląd Włókienniczy, 5: 40-44
Irzmańska, E. 2014c. Ergonomia w ochronie rąk. Jak dobierać rękawice. NORMAbhp.pl,
3: 4-8
Irzmańska, E., K. Majchrzycka, and A. Stefko. 2011. Ocena właściwego doboru rękawic
ochronnych do prac z nożami ręcznymi – badania ankietowe. Bezpieczeństwo
Pracy – Nauka i Praktyka, 9: 14-17
Nordin M., G. B. J. Andersson, and M. H. Pope. 1997. Musculoskeletal disorders in the
workplace: principle and practice. St Louis: Mosby
PN-EN 1082-2:2002 Odzież ochronna. Rękawice i ochrony ramion chroniące przed
przecięciami i ukłuciami nożami ręcznymi. Część 2: Rękawice i ochrony ramion
wykonane z materiałów innych niż plecionka pierścieni
PN-EN 420+A1:2012 Rękawice ochronne – wymagania ogólne i metody badań
Purdue Pegboard Test, User Instruction, Lafayette Instrument
Trybus, M., and P. Guzik. 2004. Obrażenia rąk w pracy zawodowej. Medycyna Pracy,
55(4): 341-344
Wimer, B., R. G. Dong, D. E. Welcome, C. Warren, and T. W. McDowell. 2009. Development
of a new dynamometer for measuring grip strength applied on a cylindrical handle.
Medical Engineering & Physics, 31(6): 695-704
Yoo, I., J. Lee, M. Jung, and J. Lee. 2011. Effects of Wearing the Wrong Glove Size on
Shoulder and Forearm Muscle Activities during Simulated Assembly Work. Industrial
Health, 49 (5): 575-581

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PRELIMINARY STUDY EVALUATING THE ERGONOMIC PROPERTIES OF TEXTILE MATERIALS IN PROTECTIVE GLOVES USING SURFACE ELECTROMYOGRAPHY (EMG)
PRELIMINARY STUDY EVALUATING THE

ERGONOMIC PROPERTIES OF TEXTILE
MATERIALS IN PROTECTIVE GLOVES USING
SURFACE ELECTROMYOGRAPHY (EMG)
Emilia Irzmańska1, Tomasz Tokarski2, Paulina Wójcik1
1
Protective Equipment, Laboratory of Hand and Foot Protection, ul. Wierzbowa 48, 90-133 Łódź, Poland
2
Central Institute for Labour Protection – National Research Institute, Department of Ergonomics,
Biomechanics Laboratory, ul. Czerniakowska 16, 00-701 Warszawa, Poland
ABSTRACT
The paper presents the preliminary results of a study into the ergonomic properties of
protective gloves using four manual dexterity tests (TEST 1: the fine finger movement
dexterity test according to the standard PN-EN 420; TEST 2: the cylinder grip and pull
test for gross hand and arm movements according to the standard PN-EN 1082; TEST 3:
Pardue Pegboard Test for fine finger movements; TEST 4: simulated occupational tasks
for evaluation of gross hand and arm movements).
The study involved protective gloves differing in terms of materials and construction.
The loading of four groups of muscles of the upper limb (adductor pollicis, extensor
carpi radialis, flexor carpi ulnaris, and biceps brachii) was investigated using surface
electromyography (EMG).
The objective of the work was to evaluate the sensitivity of the four manual dexterity
tests by means of EMG. The study showed that not all tests detected differences
between the various types of protective gloves, made of different materials. These
results prove that one should seek new methods for evaluation of the ergonomic
properties of protective gloves, which would better approximate real-life workplace
conditions.
Keywords: dexterity tests, manual dexterity, EMG, protective gloves, comfort of use
INTRODUCTION
Upper limbs are at the greatest risk of occupational injury, especially in food processing
plants and the meatpacking industry (Trybus and Guzik, 2004; Brongel and Gedliczka,
1994; Hertz and Emmett, 1986). Hand injury can be prevented, amongst others, by
appropriate gloves protecting from cuts and stabs by hand knives (Irzmańska, et al.
2011).
Just as all kinds of PPE, gloves protecting from mechanical factors should primarily
meet the requirements defined in the relevant standards. However, their ergonomic
properties, such as comfort of use, fit and anti-slip characteristics are also of paramount
importance as they affect manual dexterity and work safety (Irzmańska, 2014a;
Irzmańska 2014b; Irzmańska 2014c).

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Currently, ergonomic properties can be assessed using two standard methods: a

dynamometric grip and pull test pursuant to PN-EN 1082-2 (evaluating glove fit and
anti-slip characteristics) and a test in which pins of varying diameters are to be
picked up, pursuant to PN-EN 420+A1:2012 (evaluating finger dexterity). However,
those methods lack objective indicators, with the results being subjective sensations
of upper limb fatigue, discomfort, and fit. Recent years have seen the development
of many non-standard methods for the evaluation of ergonomic aspects of hand
protection equipment using physical, physiological, and psychophysical methods
(Nordin and Andersson, 1997; Drabek et al., 2010; Yoo et al., 2011; Wimer et al., 2009).
The paper presents a study of protective gloves consisting of four tests (two specified
in the relevant standards, and two non-standard), which corresponded to different
levels of manual dexterity (low, medium, and high) and hand movements in different
force configurations (finger flexion, wrist abduction, pressing with the fingers and wrist).
The method was verified using surface electromyography (EMG), which evaluated
the loading of four groups of muscles of the upper limb during a series of tests. The
objective of the study was to identify highly sensitive tests which could be subsequently
applied to reliably assess protective gloves.
Characterization of protective gloves
The study examined three types of gloves used widely for protection against cuts and
stabs by hand knives:
• Gloves made of coverspun yarn with a double core of thin metal wire and a
cover of polyester filaments;
• Gloves made of a metal mesh composed of 0.5 mm thick stainless steel wire;
the internal diameter of each link was 3 mm;
• Metal mesh gloves with a polyurethane (PU) tightener.
Study group
The study group consisted of 6 healthy, professionally active men who used protective
gloves on a daily basis. However, they had no prior experience with gloves protecting
against cuts and stabs. The objective was to eliminate manual habits in the use of
hand protection products.
The study group was homogeneous in terms of age (20–30 years), height (165–175
cm) and weight (65–75 kg). The BMI of the subjects ranged from 18.73 to 24.82. All
the subjects were right-handed. Due to the fact that in workplace settings the studied
gloves are worn on the left hand (as it does not hold the knife and is at high risk of
cutting or stabbing), all the tests were conducted for that hand.
Manual dexterity tests
Four manual dexterity tests were used:
- Standard tests:
• Test 1 – evaluation of the strain on the fine movements of the fingers (finger dexterity
assessment) (PN-EN 420+A1:2012)

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• Test 2 – evaluation of the strain on the gross movements of the hand and arm
(dynamometric grip and pull test) (PN-EN 1082-2:2002)
- Non-standard tests:
• Test 3 – evaluation of the strain on the fine movements of the fingers (Purdue
Pegboard Test)
• Test 4 - evaluation of the strain on the gross movements of the hand and arm (a test
developed by the authors for simulation of simple occupational tasks).
In test 1, subjects picked up 40 mm long pins with varying diameters: 5.0; 6.5; 8.0; 9.5;
11.0 mm. The pins were to be picked up three times over 30 s without undue fumbling.
Results were expressed as the smallest pin diameter picked up by the subject,
corresponding to specified performance levels.
In test 2, the experimental setup consisted of a table with a cylinder attached to a
dynamometer on one end. The subject was asked to grip the cylinder handle with
his right hand and pull it with maximum force. Next, the subject released his hold and
rested for (30 ± 5) s. Results were expressed as maximum force and force maintained
for 10 s
Test 3 involved the Purdue Pegboard protocol. The subjects were asked to place as
many pegs in the holes as possible, beginning from the top of the board, over 30 s.
Results were expressed as the number of properly placed pegs and compared with
the literature data (Purdue Pegboard Test).
Test 4 consisted of 3 cycles of transferring 4 weights with a mass of 599.8 g each from
the right to the left and from the left to the right. The weights were placed on two trays
at waist height. Results were expressed as the number of weights that slipped out of
hand during 30 s relative to the total number of transferred elements
The loading of four groups of upper limb muscles (adductor pollicis, extensor carpi
radialis, flexor carpi ulnaris, and biceps brachii) was measured using wireless
electromyography (EMG). The loading of the various muscles was expressed as
percentage of maximum voluntary contraction (%MVC). The lower the force applied
to execute a given task, the lower the %MVC value.
Measurements were conducted using a TeleMyo DTS system from Noraxon. EMG
electrodes were placed on the skin directly over the studied muscles, in accordance
with the manufacturer’s instructions. After securing the electrodes, maximum voluntary
contraction was measured as a reference value.
RESULTS
Manual dexterity test
In test 1, all of the studied protective glove types met the requirements of the standard
at a high level (PN-EN 420+A1:2012). It was found that 66.(6)% of the gloves reached
the highest performance level (level 5). Performance level 4 was obtained for 22.(2)%
of the gloves and performance level 3 was found for 11.(1)% of the gloves. The study
method did not detect significant differences between the studied glove types in
terms of ergonomic properties associated with manual dexterity (Table 1).

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Table 1. Finger dexterity results obtained in test 1

Diameter of pins picked up in 30 s [mm]
Metal mesh glove
No glove Knitwear glove Metal mesh glove
with PU tightener
5.0 6.5 5.0 5.0
5.0 5.0 6.5 5.0
5.0 5.0 5.0 8.0
Legend:
Performance level 5
Performance level 4
Performance level 3
In test 2, maximum force and force maintained over 10 s differed significantly between
gloved-hand performance and bare-hand performance (both were higher in the
latter case). In gloved-hand trials, maximum force was lower by 50.6% for knitwear
gloves, 42.1% for metal mesh gloves, and 35.4% for metal mesh gloves with a PU
tightener. Similarly, force maintained over 10 s decreased by 48.3% for knitwear gloves,
39.1% for metal mesh gloves, and 34.5% for metal mesh gloves with a PU tightener.
This was caused by the fact that the cylinder tended to slip in gloved hands. Thus, test
2 detected differences in ergonomic grip properties between the various protective
glove types, depending on the construction and material used (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Dynamometric grip and pull test results (ergonomic properties of protective
gloves measured by test 2)
Test 3, involving the Purdue Pegboard protocol, was used to establish mean manual
dexterity. The reference manual dexterity reported for the ungloved left hand was
15 for the age group 21–25 years (Purdue Pegboard Test). There are no literature
data concerning manual dexterity in protective gloves for this protocol. The best
results were obtained for the ungloved hand. The tests showed that gloved subjects
exhibited decreased manual dexterity, by 20% for knitwear gloves, 40% for metal
mesh gloves, and 46.6% for metal mesh gloves with a PU tightener (Figure 2). The test
can detect differences in manual dexterity between the various test variants, but it
should be conducted on a larger study group to find out whether the differences are
statistically significant.
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Figure 2. Purdue Pegboard Test results (manual dexterity test 3)

In test 4, it was found that in trials involving metal mesh gloves, the weights tended to
slip out of the hand in the course of transferring them from one tray to the other, while
the use of a PU tightener decreased the number of dropped elements by 80% (Table 2).
Table 2. Upper limb precision testing in a simulated occupational task (test 4)
Metal
Knitwear Metal mesh glove
Tested parameter No glove mesh
glove with PU tightener
glove
Number of elements
0.00 0.00 1.67 0.33
Mean
Proportion of dropped
Number of elements
0.00 0.00 0.58 0.58
Standard
deviation Proportion of dropped

Results for the fatigue of upper limb muscles are given below as percentage voluntary
contraction [%MVC] (Table 3).

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Table 3. Loading of the studied upper limb muscles [%MVC].

Percentage maximum voluntary contraction
Variant Muscle [%MVC]
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4
No glove
Knitwear Left extensor carpi radialis 4.7 16.4 6.1 7.4

glove with
PU tightener Left flexor carpi ulnaris 6.9 13.9 9.9 14.9
SUMMARY
The studied protective gloves differed in terms of the comfort of use. The subjects
performed four manual dexterity tests, while the loading of their muscles was measured
directly by means of surface electromyography.
The pilot study showed that only two tests (pursuant to the standard PN-EN 1082-
2:2002 and the Purdue Pegboard Test) detected differences in the comfort of use
between the various types of protective gloves. It should be noted that the standard
test according to PN-EN 420+A1:2012 and the test simulating a simple manual activity
involving weights did not differentiate between the glove types, and so did not afford
an objective assessment of the ergonomic qualities of the protective gloves.
It was found that the test according to PN-EN 420+A1:2012 and the test simulating
occupational tasks led to only a small loading of the muscles and so the measurements
were not very sensitive (similar results were obtained for different protective glove
types). This is of importance for comparative ergonomic studies, but this observation
should be additionally verified on a larger study group.
The above results are consistent with electromyographic measurements, which
detected differences between the various glove types, reflected in changes in the
loading of the upper limb muscles. The EMG results are clear and easy to interpret. In
contrast to manual dexterity tests, EMG measurements identified the best and worst

743
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types of protective gloves in terms of their functional properties. Muscle loading was
the lowest for the knitwear gloves, and the highest for the metal mesh gloves with a
PU tightener. This is probably due to the weight of the metal mesh gloves, which put
an additional strain on the hand.
During the test conducted in accordance with PN-EN 420+A1:2012 and the Purdue
Pegboard Test, the highest loading was found for the left adduction pollicis and
the lowest for the left extensor carpi radialis. This can be explained by the type of
manual tasks performed, which involved only the fingers. In the PN-EN 1082-2:2002
test, the highest loading was found for the left extensor carpi radialis, and the lowest
loading for the left flexor carpi ulnaris. Finally, the test simulating occupational tasks
put the greatest strain on the left flexor carpi ulnaris, and the smallest strain on the left
adductor pollicis.
CONCLUSIONS
• Not all manual dexterity tests can detect differences in the comfort of use
between gloves made of different materials, including textiles.
• The test pursuant to PN-EN 420 and the test simulating simple manual tasks are
not very sensitive research tools and do not detect differences in the comfort of use
between the studied types of protective gloves.
• The test pursuant to PN-EN 1082 and the Purdue Pegboard Test are sensitive
enough to detect differences in the comfort of use between different types of glove
construction.
• EMG results indicated the best and worst types of protective gloves in terms of
their functional properties: muscle loading was the lowest for the knitwear gloves, and
the highest for the wire mesh gloves with a PU tightener.
• The results also suggest that new, objective methods should be sought for
evaluating the ergonomic properties of protective gloves; such methods should
approximate real-life workplace conditions and simulate occupational tasks.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
and working conditions improvement,” financed in the years 2014–2016 in the area
of research and development by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education/
the National Centre for Research and Development; the Central Institute for Labour
Protection – National Research Institute is the Program Coordinator.
REFERENCES
Brongel, L., O. Gedliczka. 1994. Obrażenia ciała w badaniu prospektywnym. IV Uszkodzenia
pojedyncze i mnogie. Polski Przegląd Chirurgiczny, 66 (2): 151-159
Drabek, T., C. D. Boucek, and C. W. Buffington. 2010. Wearing the wrong size latex surgical gloves
impairs manual dexterity. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 7: 152-155
Hertz, R., and E.A. Emmett. 1986. Risk factors for occupational hand injury. Journal of Occupational
Medicine, 28 (1): 36-41
Irzmańska, E. 2014a. Ergonomic Gloves. The evolution of ergonomic properties. Health & Safety
International, 55: 15-25
Irzmańska, E. 2014b. Ergonomiczna ocena rękawic chroniących przed przecięciami i ukłuciami
nożami ręcznymi. Przegląd Włókienniczy, 5: 40-44

744
Posters
Irzmańska, E. 2014c. Ergonomia w ochronie rąk. Jak dobierać rękawice. NORMAbhp.pl, 3: 4-8
Irzmańska, E., K. Majchrzycka, and A. Stefko. 2011. Ocena właściwego doboru rękawic ochronnych
do prac z nożami ręcznymi – badania ankietowe. Bezpieczeństwo Pracy – Nauka i Praktyka, 9: 14-17
Nordin M., G. B. J. Andersson, and M. H. Pope. 1997. Musculoskeletal disorders in the workplace:
principle and practice. St Louis: Mosby
PN-EN 1082-2:2002 Odzież ochronna. Rękawice i ochrony ramion chroniące przed przecięciami i
ukłuciami nożami ręcznymi. Część 2: Rękawice i ochrony ramion wykonane z materiałów innych niż
plecionka pierścieni
PN-EN 420+A1:2012 Rękawice ochronne – wymagania ogólne i metody badań
Purdue Pegboard Test, User Instruction, Lafayette Instrument
Trybus, M., and P. Guzik. 2004. Obrażenia rąk w pracy zawodowej. Medycyna Pracy, 55(4): 341-344
Wimer, B., R. G. Dong, D. E. Welcome, C. Warren, and T. W. McDowell. 2009. Development of a new
dynamometer for measuring grip strength applied on a cylindrical handle. Medical Engineering &
Physics, 31(6): 695-704
Yoo, I., J. Lee, M. Jung, and J. Lee. 2011. Effects of Wearing the Wrong Glove Size on Shoulder and
Forearm Muscle Activities during Simulated Assembly Work. Industrial Health, 49 (5): 575-581

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TEXTILE CHALLENGE: CATERING TO THE

HUMAN BODY IN FLIGHT
Professor Olga Mitterfellner
1
Mediadesign Hochschule University of Applied Sciences, Claudius-Keller-Str. 7, 81669 Munich,
Germany
(Presenting author E-mail: o.mitterfellner@mediadesign.de; misso.mitterfellner@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT
This paper investigates the challenge for textiles used as travel clothes with a focus on
aviation and smart textile properties.
Unknown to many of the 3 billion air travellers per year, the human body is subjected
to physical stress during commercial flights. As the cabin is artificially pressurized, the
air pressure equals that of a mountain of 2400 metres above sea level. This - combined
with a moisture level that is less than in the Sahara desert - causes travellers to feel dry
skin, eyes and nose; have an accelerated heart rate and feel body gases expand
in their ears and stomachs. Passengers with lung problems (or smokers) might suffer
from slight hypoxia and get headaches. Furthermore, on certain routes passengers
are affected by cosmic radiation.
However, this not only affects the passengers but also the many crew-members.
They have further physical challenges to deal with such as climate changes when
they leave a hot country like Singapore and stand at an open door after landing in
Moscow.
The question for the future of air travel is how textile innovations can cater to the
human needs of the body. How can they improve our travel experience?
Keywords: Aviation, pressurized cabin, hypoxia, human body, travel clothes, moisture
levels, smart textiles.
INTRODUCTION
The idea to research the potential of smart textiles in commercial aviation stems from
my own experience as a flight attendant. From 2007 until 2010 I joined Japan Airlines
because I wanted to learn Japanese and immerse myself in the culture. However as
a textile and fashion designer, I was immediately confronted with the unsuitability of
clothing, both for passengers and crew in the context of 10000 feet altitude.
Both cabin crew members (CCM) and passengers (PAX) are subjected to physical
discomfort during flight.
I have measured that a CCM walks an average of 22000 steps or 18km per long-haul
flight, burning 1000 kilo-calories. Meanwhile PAX are confined to their seats for many
hours. Both situations are bad for the legs and blood circulation and would benefit
from compression tights.

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The external aircraft air of -60°C is sucked in, compressed and cooled down, mixed
with cabin air and delivered at an increased temperature. However, for pilots the air
is not recirculated but kept fresh to ensure their absolute alertness (Egli, L., Jardine, A.,
Krogerus, M., Maggi, B., Sachse, G. Schneider, R.U., Weber, D. August 2009).
In the cabin where CCM and PAX spend hours, at 12% the cabin air is dryer than the air
in the Sahara and causes dry eyes, nose and skin and can even cause dehydration.
The ideal textile to be used here could be a moisture-delivering fabric which can be
used both as the uniform for CCM and as travel clothes for PAX. Such types of fabrics
are already used for hosiery and underwear delivering aloe vera or vitamin E through
the technique of microencapsulation. (Ghosh, 2006).
Passengers and crew are subject to a pressurized cabin which equals the altitude
of aprox. 2400 meters (this can be lower with newer aircrafts such as the A380 or
Dreamliner) and is about 20% less than on the ground. This causes problems for all
people inside the aircraft and can be especially dangerous for vulnerable individuals
such as PAX with illnesses or babies. The change in pressure increases the frequency
of the heart-beat, makes breathing more difficult (even causing hypoxia), and causes
gases to expand which in turn hurt the ears, insides of the bowel and worsens tooth
problems.
It would thus be advisable to wear smart textiles or medical wearables which offer
monitoring of bodily functions so that PAX with predispositions can act immediately,
such as respiratory monitors which have been integrated into textiles and are
designed for everyday life (Merritt, C.R., Nagle, H.T., Grant, E. 2009). There are a few
interesting products by sports brand Adidas which are marketed under the name “mi
Coach” such as the Bluetooth Smart Heart Rate Monitor with Textile Strap (Adidas,
2016) or the “NuMetrex heart sensing sports bra and cardio shirt [which] integrate
special sensing fibers directly into the garment. This eliminates the need for a separate
heart monitoring chest strap.” (Tetronics, 2016): However, these products are currently
targeted at athletes who are on the ground and not intended for in-flight use.
Furthermore, both PAX and CCM may experience climate change upon arrival at
their destination without enough time for acclimatization. In the case of CCM, this
climate change happens many times during an active flight month, sometimes as
frequently as several times per day. Again, neither the CCM’s uniforms, not the PAX’
clothes help to protect the body form extreme climate changes.
The change in cabin pressure even affects the taste buds which is why many airlines
such as Lufthansa develop special meals which cater to the change in taste. Lufthansa
has even developed special pressure chambers to test their meals (Seipke, S. 2015).
RESULTS
The research of the use of smart or nano textile in aviation has shown that although
they would greatly contribute to the comfort in flight, at present, they are not being
integrated in flight. Neither airlines which are responsible for creating comfortable
and functional uniforms for sometimes tens of thousands of crew still use old-fashioned
materials such as cotton, wool and polyester.
Equally there are hardly any companies which offer travel clothing with smart or
medical properties for more than 3bn PAX per year. Apart from compression tights

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from brands like Kunert there are no special clothes available at the moment. There
are trivial items such as inflatable neck pillows, earplugs or slippers which are being
sold for comfort or travel-ranges from premium and luxury fashion brands catering
to a fashion-conscious jet-setter who is worried about an impeccable appearance
(Cristobal, 2010). It is therefore vital that airlines and fashion brands pay attention to
the growing number of annual CCM and PAX who use commercial aviation and
create innovative clothing.
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion it can be said that the human body is in need of better protection
during flight and would benefit from clothes with smart, medical or nano properties
which help to do just that. The actual challenge does not seem to be in developing
the smart textiles but in applying them for the commercial aviation segment. With
IATA estimating 6bn air-travellers by 2030, it would now be the right time for clothing
brands and smart textile manufacturers to team up and start creating complete
ranges which can be sold to airlines and air travellers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
Adidas “Heart Rate Monitor With Textile Strap,” accessed January 31, 2016. http://www.adidas.com/
us/heart-rate-monitor-with-textile-strap/Z51348.html.
Cristobal, S. 2010. Pack like a pro. Harpers Bazaar, 125-126.
Egli, L., Jardine, A., Krogerus, M., Maggi, B., Sachse, G. Schneider, R.U., Weber, D. August 2009. Flug
LX14: Eine Reise von Zürich nah New York. NZZ Folio, 43.
Ghosh, S.K., 2006. Functional Coatings: By Polymer Microencapsulation. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, 248-
249.
Merritt, C.R., Nagle, H.T. , Grant, E. 2009. Textile-Based Capacitive Sensors for Respiration Monitoring.
Sensors Journal, IEEE (Volume:9 , Issue: 1 ), 71-78.
Seipke, S. 2015. Aromen unter Druck: Star-Chef-Rezepte perfekt in Bordmenüs verwandeln. Lufthansa
Passage, 26-27.
Tetronics “Markets: Sports and Fitness”, accessed January 30, 2016. http://www.textronicsinc.com/
markets/sports-fitness.

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WEAVABILITY AND WEAVING TENSION OF ARAMID TECHNICAL FABRICS FOR PROTECTIVE GARMENT
WEAVABILITY AND WEAVING TENSION OF

ARAMID TECHNICAL FABRICS FOR PROTECTIVE
GARMENT
Hyun Ah Kim1, Seung Jin Kim2*
1
Korea Research Institute for Fashion Industry, Daegu, Korea
2
Dept. of Textile Eng. and Technology, Yeungnam Univ, Gyeongsan, Korea
(Presenting author E-mail: sjkim@ynu.ac.kr; Corresponding author email: sjkim@ynu.ac.kr)
ABSTRACT
This study examined the weavability of technical fabrics according to the weave
density coefficient (WDC) and loom settings, such as the weaving speed, front shedding
angle and transmission speed using aramid filament on a Dornier rapier loom. For this
purpose, the warp tension and its variations were measured and discussed with the
WDC and loom settings according to the measured time during weaving. Regression
analysis for the effects of the WDC and loom settings to the measured warp tension
were carried out. The results were as follows. The measured mean weaving tension
increased with increasing yarn linear density. The measured mean weaving tension
increased linearly with the WDC. The measured mean weaving tension in the twill
fabric was higher than that of the plain fabric despite having the same WDC. The
measured mean weaving tension increased with increasing shedding angle due to
an increase in shedding height. The measured mean weaving tension increased with
increasing transmission speed. Measured weaving tension variation according to the
time during weaving ranged from 5cN/thread to 13cN/thread, irrespective of the yarn
number, weave pattern, fabric density, and weaving conditions. Through regression
analysis, the shedding angle and WDC were the most important factors affecting the
measured weaving tension but at a high fabric cover factor, weaving speed also
affects the weaving tension.
Keywords: weavability, weaving tension, weave density coefficient, aramid, front
shedding angle, transmission speed
INTRODUCTION
The weavability is defined simply as the weaving efficiency of the loom for making
good quality fabric. On the other hand, the weavability limit normally means the
maximum weft density that can be woven for a given weave construction without
interrupting the continuity of weaving.[1] Many studies [3,4,5,6] related to the
weavability and weavability limit have been carried out in two main fields, i.e.,
theoretical and experimental methods. The weavability is affected by two factors,
the loom characteristics and fabric structural parameters. Y. Turhan [1] examined the
effects of the fabric structural parameters and loom characteristics on the weavability
limit using an air-jet loom. They reported that the warp tension had the most significant
effect on the weavability limit, and the weavability limit was slightly increased by the
shed adjustment, but the shed angle did not have any effect on the weavability limit.
Kumpikaite et al. [2][3] analyzed the effects of the loom particulars and fabric structural

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parameters on the weavability limits on an air-jet loom using polyester filament yarns.
They examined the effects of the fabric structural parameters, such as the yarn count,
weave pattern, fabric density and loom characteristics on the weavability limits. Aston
[4] carried out this type of research using shuttle and water jet looms and Seyam
[5] studied the theoretical weavability limit of the yarns with thickness variations in
a shuttless weaving loom. On the other hand, many studies have also been carried
out on the weavability related to the weaving tension. S. D. Meulemeester et al.[6]
investigated the weavability of elastane-based stretch yarns on an air jet loom. They
made three types of elastan yarns, core twist, core spun, and air covered. They
measured the weavability related parameters, such as the weft-related stoppages
per 100,000 picks and the loom speed during weaving, and assessed the yarn and
fabric physical properties, such as the tensile force, elongation at break and modulus.
Lappage [7], He et al. [8], Bilisik and De [9], and Seyam [10] examined the warp yarn
tension and weavability related to yarn breakage during weaving was investigated
according to the yarn physical property and weavability limit. In addition to these
studies, B. K. Behera et al. [11] and S. Maatong et al. [12] investigated the effects of the
sizing conditions of cotton yarns to the weavability of the different cotton staple yarns.
The effects of the warp and weft yarn tensions affecting yarn and fabric physical
properties were also investigated as follows. Z. Rukuiziene et al. [13] analyzed the
dependence of the warp yarn projection on the initial warp yarn tension according
to the different weave patterns. The initial setting tension should be given to weave a
fabric, which is one of the most important parameters of loom settings. The initial warp
tension can range from 5mN/tex to 20mN/tex[13]. J. Katunskis [14] studied the effect
of the fabric tightness factor on the warp tension and amplitude of its vibration, which
resulted in an increase in warp breakage and low weaving productivity. On the other
hand, many researchers focused on the fabrics related to fashion garments but there
has been no research related to the technical fabrics woven on the technical textile
oriented weaving loom using aramid. Therefore, this study examined the effects of
the weave structural parameters and loom settings on the weavability of aramid
technical fabrics. The weaving tension is very important for determining the weavability
of non-twisted aramid filaments. Therefore, the warp tension was also investigated
according to the fabric cover factor, and loom characteristics, such as the weaving
speed, and shedding angle for analyzing the weavability of technical fabrics using
different aramid filaments on the Donier rapier loom. Accordingly, another aim of
this study was to investigate the influence of the loom settings, such as the front shed
angle, loom and transmission speeds, and weave density coefficient on the weaving
tension of aramid filament fabrics.
Weave structural parameters
The filament used for making fabrics was 420d and 840d Technora® made by Teijin,
Japan, and 1,500d Heracron® made by Kolon, Korea. The weft density and weave
pattern were changed to make ten different fabric specimens using 420d, 840d and
1,500d. A total of thirty fabrics specimens were woven. Table 1 lists the specimens
prepared.

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Table 2 lists the weave pattern and fabric width and total warp numbers of each ten
fabric specimens according to the yarn linear density.
Table 1. Fabric specimens
420d/500f 840d/1,000f 1,500d/1,000f
Filament
(Technora®) (Technora®) (Heracron®)
Maker Teijin(Japan) Teijin(Japan) KOLON(Korea)
Specimen Weave Specimen Weave Specimen Weave

no.
Density no.
Density no.
Density
pattern pattern pattern
1-1 34x10 Matt 2-1 23x9 Matt 3-1 41x5 Matt
Weave 1-4 34x28 Plain 2-4 23x18 Plain 3-4 41x11 Plain
density
(ends x picks/ 1-5 34x34 Plain 2-5 23x23 Plain 3-5 41x13 Plain
inch)
1-6 34x36 Plain 2-6 23x25 Plain 3-6 41x15 Plain
1-7 34x38 Plain 2-7 23x27 Plain 3-7 41x17 Plain
1-8 34x40 Twill 2-8 23x29 Twill 3-8 41x19 Twill
Table 2. Structural parameters of the fabric specimens

Fabric width(inch)
Weave pattern Total warp numbers (ends)
On loom Grey Fabric Finished fabric
420d 45 43.69 45 1530
840d 47 45.63 45 1035
1500d 46.10 44.76 45 1845
Weaving loom settings

The weaving process characteristics were changed by four factors; the setting warp
tension, rpm, front shedding angle, and transmission speed. The setting warp tension
was changed in ten steps from 22cN/in to 40cN/in in aramid 420d, from 32cN/in
to 50cN/in in 840d and from 42cN/in to 60cN/in in 1500d. The weaving speed was
changed from 120rpm to 180rpm in 20 rpm increments, and the front shedding angle
was also changed by 28°, 29°, 30°, and 32°. The transmission speed was also changed
from 0.16 to 0.67 according to the yarn linear density and rpm. Table 3 lists the weaving
machine conditions of each specimen.

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Table 3. Weaving loom parameters

Aramid 420d Aramid 840d Aramid 1,500d
Setting Transmi- Setting Transmi- Setting Transmi-
Shedding Shedding Shedding
Specimen warp ssion Specimen warp ssion Specimen warp ssion
RPM angle RPM angle RPM angle
no. tension speed no. tension speed no. tension speed
(°) (°) (°)
(cN/thread) (yd/min) (cN/thread) (yd/min) (cN/thread) (yd/min)
1-1 22 120 28 0.33 2-1 32 120 29 0.33 3-1 42 120 30 0.67
1-2 24 140 28 0.24 2-2 34 140 29 0.24 3-2 44 140 30 0.56
1-3 26 160 28 0.20 2-3 36 160 29 0.20 3-3 46 160 30 0.49
1-4 28 120 28 0.18 2-4 38 120 29 0.18 3-4 48 120 30 0.45
1-5 30 140 28 0.16 2-5 40 140 29 0.16 3-5 50 140 30 0.43
1-6 32 160 28 0.17 2-6 42 160 29 0.17 3-6 52 160 30 0.41
1-7 34 180 28 0.18 2-7 44 180 29 0.18 3-7 54 180 30 0.39
1-8 36 120 29 0.18 2-8 46 120 30 0.18 3-8 56 120 32 0.38
1-9 38 140 29 0.19 2-9 48 140 30 0.19 3-9 58 140 32 0.41
1-10 40 160 29 0.19 2-10 50 160 30 0.19 3-10 60 160 32 0.40
Warp tension measurement

The warp tension was assessed by a warp tension sensor every 5 minutes over a 30
minute period, and the measured tension values are shown on the panel board of
the loom over a 30 minute period, as shown in Fig. 1.
(a) Loom (b) Enlarged position

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the warp yarn tension measurement position.
Weavability measurement
The weavability was measured during 100y weaving of each beam made of 420d,
840d and 1500d, i.e., each fabric specimen was woven by 10y, and the warp and
filling stop numbers during 10y weaving were counted, the pilling development on
the filament during weaving was also checked, and stop number caused by other
factors except for warp and weft breakages was also counted during 10y weaving.
RESULTS
Weaving tension according to fabric structural parameters
Fig. 2 shows the measured weaving tension according to the weave structural
parameters against setting warp tension. As shown in Fig. 2(a), the measured weaving
tension was increased linearly with increasing setting warp tension, as expected. The
tension variation measured every 5 minutes for 30 minutes ranged between 6 and 13
cN/thread according to the weave structural parameters, such as yarn linear density,
weave pattern and weave density coefficient, and the weaving loom conditions, such
as setting warp tension, weave speed(rpm), shedding angle, and transmission speed.
As shown in Fig. 2(a), the measured mean weaving tension (420d) was 0.3~6.0cN

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higher than that of setting warp tension. On the other hand, in 840d and 1500d, the
measured mean weaving tension was preferably lower than that of the setting warp
tension, respectively.
(a) According to the yarn linear density (b) According to the weave pattern
Fig. 2. Measured weaving tension against the setting tension
The measured mean weaving tension increased with increasing yarn linear density,
which was also an expected result. In Fig. 2(b), the measured mean weaving tension
of the twill weave pattern showed the highest, followed by the plain and matt weave
patterns, respectively. This coincides well with a previous study[13]. According to Z.
Rukuiziene et al[13], the initial warp tension of more flexible weave pattern (basket
2/2) fabric is lower than that of more tightly woven fabric (plain) and the initial warp
tension increases with increasing weave factor. Fig. 3 shows the mean weaving
tension as a function of weave density coefficient(WDC)[15] according to the weave
pattern.
Fig. 3. Measured weaving tension against WDC according to the weave pattern
As shown in Fig. 3, the measured mean weaving tension was increased linearly with
increasing weave density coefficient on the matt, plain and twill weave patterns.
The measured mean weaving tension in twill fabric was higher than that of the plain
fabric, even with the same WDC. This result also coincides with the previous study of Z.
Rukuiziene et al. [13] The measured weaving tension ranged between 20cN/thread
and 70cN/thread.
Weaving tension according to the loom settings
Fig. 4 shows the mean weaving tension according to the shedding angle. As shown
in Fig. 4, the measured mean weaving tension increased with increasing shedding
angle, which is due to the increase in shedding height. This agrees with the previous
finding carried out by Y. Turhan et al. [1]. They found the dependence of the front shed
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angle on the average warp tension on the air-jet weaving machine. Fig. 5 shows the
weaving tension according to the loom rpm and the transmission speed. As shown in
Fig. 5(a), the measured mean weaving tension increased with increasing rpm of the
loom. Fig. 5(b) shows the weaving tension according to the transmission speed. The
weaving tension decreased with increasing transmission speed, which was attributed
to loosen by the slack of the warp yarn due to the high speed let off and take up
motion by the increasing transmission speed.
Fig. 4. Measured weaving tension according to the shedding angle
(a)RPM (b) transmission speed

Fig. 5. Measured weaving tension against RPM and transmission speed
Regression analysis of the weaving tension and fabric structural parameters and
loom settings
Regression statistical analysis was carried out to detect which parameters are most
important for the measured weaving tension. Table 4 lists the regression equation for
the measured mean weaving tension and loom machine parameters and weave
density coefficient. According to regression analysis, the measured average warp
tension was highly regressed with the shedding angle, weave density coefficient and
weaving speed (R2 > 0.9). The shedding angle and fabric weave density coefficient
affect the weaving tension but at a high fabric weave density coefficient, the weaving
speed also affects the weaving tension. This result is a very significant effect and
agrees well with the previous finding[1]. Y. Turhan et al.[1] investigated the effect of
warp tension on the maximum weavable weft density, i.e. the increase in warp tension
increased the maximum weavable weft density, this result means dependence of
weave density coefficient on the weaving tension. In addition, the positive coefficients
in front of the front shed angle, weave density coefficient and rpm means a positive
linear dependence on the measured weaving tension, and negative coefficient in
front of transmission speed means an inverse linear dependence to the measured
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weaving tension.
Table 4. Regression equation for measured weaving tension and loom
characteristics and weave density coefficient
Denier Regression equation R2
ŷ = 10.533∙(shedding angle) + 35.030∙(WDC) –

25.871∙(transmission speed) + 0.038∙(RPM) – 270.086
0.993
420d ŷ = 10.256∙(shedding angle) + 37.637∙(WDC) –
0.984
28.351∙(transmission speed) – 256.788
0.901
ŷ = - 88.455∙(transmission speed) + 9.034∙(shedding angle) – 202.670
ŷ = 10.802∙(shedding angle) + 24.015∙(WDC) –

39.889∙(transmission speed) + 0.075∙(RPM) – 284.616 0.969
840d
ŷ = 10.828∙(shedding angle) + 48.317∙(WDC) – 287.245 0.902
ŷ = 11.662∙(shedding angle) – 302.524 0.563
ŷ = 5.675∙(shedding angle) + 17.970∙(WDC) + 0.130(RPM) + 6.697∙(transmission

speed) – 151.044
0.963
1,500d ŷ = 5.512∙(shedding angle) + 0.121∙(RPM) + 15.328∙(WDC) –
0.962
140.804
0.869
ŷ = 6.526∙(shedding angle) + 0.153∙(RPM) – 170∙836
Note: WDC: weave density coefficient RPM: revolution per minute

Weavability
The important objective of this study was to enhance weavability of non-twisted
filament during weaving. Pilling by cohesion between filaments, warp and weft stops,
filament breakage and number of loom stop due to other factor during 10y weaving
of each specimens (i.e. during 100y weaving of each beam) were checked during
weaving. The pilling specimens developed by friction between the warp yarns during
weaving were 1-5, 1-6, 2-1 and 2-5 specimens, but pillings developed in all specimens
from 3-1 to 3-10. Weft stop occurred twice in 420d, three times in 840d and five times
in 1500d, and warp stop also occurred five times in 420d and 840d each, and seven
times in 1500d. Broken filament in the yarns occurred on the 1-5, 2-1, 2-5 specimens
and eighteen times from the 3-1 to 3-10 specimens.
Regarding the effects of the filament materials on the weavability of this fabrics,
pilling due to friction between the filaments during weaving occurred more on the
Heracron filament, and warp and weft stops during weaving also occurred more on
the Heracron filament, which appears to be due to no oiling during warping and the
low tenacity of Heracron.
Many warp breakages occurred in the specimens with high warp tension variations
(3-6, 3-9), high front shed angle (3-8, 9, 10) and high weave density coefficients (3-6,
7, 8, 9, 10), and many weft breakages occurred in the specimens with a low weave
density coefficient (1-1, 2, 3, 2-1, 2, 3, 3-1, 2) and high weave density coefficient (i.e.
fabric jamming).
CONCLUSIONS
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In this study, the effects of weave structural parameters, such as the weave density
coefficient and weave pattern and loom settings on the weaving tension and
weavability of aramid technical fabrics were investigated and the following
conclusions were made:
1) The measured mean weaving tension was linearly dependent on the setting tension.
The measured mean waving tension ranged between 20cN/thread and 70cN/thread
according to loom settings and weave structural parameters.
2) The measured mean weaving tension increased with increasing shedding angle
due to the increased shedding height.
3) The measured weaving tension variation according to the measuring time during
weaving ranged from 5cN/inch to 13cN/inch, irrespective of the yarn number, weave
pattern, fabric density, and weaving conditions.
4) Regression analysis showed that the front shedding angle and fabric weave density
coefficient affect the weaving tension and are the most important factors for the
weaving tension but at a high fabric weave density coefficient, the weaving speed
also affects the weaving tension.
5) The pilling phenomena due to friction between the filaments during weaving
occurred more on the Haracron filament and warp and filling stops during weaving
were also occurred more on the Heracron filament, which appears to be due to no
oiling in the warping process and low tenacity of Heracron® and high weave density
coefficient (i.e. fabric jamming).
Maximizing the high weavability in the Aramid technical fabric weaving, low front
shed angle and high transmission speed with a fixed fabric structural parameter are
required and clean shedding and stable weft insertion are needed for low weaving
tension variation, which was shown at the appropriate weave density coefficient and
weaving tension. The reason for this was that high weaving tension variations were
observed at a low weave density coefficient fabric in the case of fine yarn count
(420d and 840d) and at high weave density coefficient in the case of a course yarn
count (1500d), and also high weaving tension variation was observed in too low and
too high weaving tensions during weaving. Regarding the oiling treatment during
warping, oiling is essential for high weavability and good fabric quality without pilling
and broken filaments due to the cohesion between filaments during weaving. The
oiling treatment makes variations of the warp tension lower, which diminishes the
warp breaks and broken filament during weaving.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was funded by “Development of automotive pillar trim materials with
anti-static & heat-resistant” project.
REFERENCES
1. Turhan, Y., and Eren, R. 2011. The effect of loom settings on weavability limits on air-jet weaving
machines. Textile Research Journal, 82(2): 172-182.
2. Kumpikaitė, E., and Milašius, V. 2003. Analysis of interrelation between fabric structure and beat–up
parameters. Materials Science, 9(2): 228-232.
3. Kumpikaitė, E., and Milašius, V. 2003. Influence of fabric structure on its weavability. Materials
Science, 9(4): 395-400.

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4. Aston, W. 1996. “Maximum weavability fabric sett”, Ph.D. Dissertation, Leeds University, Leeds, 1996.
5. Seyam, A. M. 2000. Weavability Limit of yarns with thickness variation in shuttleless weaving: The
Single Filling Yarn Feeder Case. Textile Research Journal, 70(2): 129-134.
6. Simon, D. M., Lieva V. L. and Kiekens, P. 2009. Study of the weavability of elastane based stretch
yarns on air-jet looms. Autex Research Journal, 9(2): 54-60.
7. Lappage, J. 2005. End breaks in the spinning and Weaving of weavable singles yarns Part 2: End
breaks in weaving. Textile Research Journal, 75(6): 512-517.
8. He, X., Taguchi, Y., Sakaguchi, A., Matsumoto, Y. I., and Toriumi, K. 2004. Measuring cloth fell fluctuation
on a weaving machine. Textile Research Journal, 74(7): 576.
9. Bilisik, K., and Demiryurek, O. 2011. Effect of weaving process on tensile characterization of single
and multiple ends of air-entangled textured polyester yarns. Fibers and Polymers, 12(3): 376-383.
10. Seyam, A. M. 2003. Weavability limit of yarns with thickness variation in shuttleless weaving. Fibers
and Polymers, 4(4): 176-181.
11. Behera, B. K., and Joshi, V. K. 2006. Effect of sizing on weavability of dref Yarns. AUTEX Research
Journal, 6: 142-147.
12. Maatoug, S., Ladhari, N., and Sakli, F. 2007. Evaluation of the weavability of sized cotton warps.
Autex Research Journal, 8(4): 239-244.
13. Rukuižienė, Ž., and Kumpikaitė, E. 2013. Investigation of initial warp tension and weave influence
on warp yarn diameter projections. Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe, 21(5): 43-48.
14. Katunskis, J. 2004. Theoretical and experimental beat-up investigation. Fibres & Textiles in Eastern
Europe, 12(3): 24-28.
15. Kim, H. A., and Kim, S. J. 2011. Woven fabric engineering. Polona Dobnik Dubrovski:SCIYO.

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MODERN TECHNOLOGIES TO BE APPLIED INTO MULTIFUNCTIONAL, CONCEALED BALLISTIC VEST DESIGN
MODERN TECHNOLOGIES TO BE APPLIED INTO

MULTIFUNCTIONAL, CONCEALED BALLISTIC
VEST DESIGN
Elżbieta Maklewska, Grażyna Grabowska, Joanna Błaszczyk,
Agata Pawłowska
Institute of Security Technologies MORATEX, Lodz, Poland
ABSTRACT
The presented results are a part of the development project „Individualization of the
Design of Multifunctional Ballistic Concealable Vests”
The project consortium consists of:
• Institute of Security Technologies MORATEX - Project Leader;
• Central Institute for Labour Protection – National Research Institute (CIOP);
• Protective Equipment Plant MASKPOL ;
• Military Institute of Armament Technology (WITU);
• Police Academy (WSPOL Szczytno);
The presentation concerns new, innovative technologies used at the project realisation.
The main objective of the project is to develop a procedure for individualised design of
ballistic vest, based on the three-dimensional scanning technique. It will be developed
also the procedures of privacy protection that will ensure the protection of storage
and processing of gathered data according to related polish and EU law documents.
3D scanning technique involves the use of innovative methods for contactless
anthropometric measurements, carried out with the modern measuring apparatus
- a scanner for registering the images of three-dimensional objects. The use of this
method will allow for fast, professional determining the size and shape of ballistic
concealable vests, taking into account the specificity of an individual wearer’s body.
The method proposed in the project, which makes use of the laser measurement of
human silhouette and automatic matching of standard templates to an individual
user profile will improve the process of developing a vest adjusted to the particular
customer and significantly reduce the time of making-up such a vest. This method brings
also a number of other benefits, that will be presented in the course of the project. The
success of the project relies on making the use of 3D scanning technology, the use
of multimedia techniques - software programs dedicated for use in the business of
special or protective clothing as well as on the use of advanced textile technologies,
including phase-change materials (PCM).
The comparative research with the use of various types of the Outlast®-type materials
have been carried out within the framework of the project. Based on results of the
research, one of PCM materials was recommended for the products like ballistic
vests, since it has been found the best from the point of view of the wearer’s comfort.

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It is expected that results of the project – the implementation of new products, new
innovative technology and procedure solutions, will reduce the number of adverse
events in production of chosen personal equipment.
Keywords: 3D scanning technique, ballistic concealable vests, phase-change
materials
INTRODUCTION
The main objectives of the project developing of:
• multi-functional concealed vests bullet-, knife-, stab- and/or needle-proof, tailored
to the dimensions of individual users, made using 3 dimensional (3D) scanning
technology, which is the most accurate method of human body measurement,
• guidelines for users for proper selection of functionalities of the protective vests,
• the procedure for the individualization of the vests design, which will be the basis for
the implementation the rules of designing the protective products in industry,
• application of optimal solutions of material (including PCM) and design, which
additionally support the functionality of developed ballistic vests, while minimizing
their weight,
• procedure to ensure the protection of personal and biometric data of individuals
from the measurements with a 3D scanner. It will be developed the procedures
of privacy protection, that will ensure the protection of storage and processing of
gathered data according to related polish and EU law documents.
Proposed application modern technologies into process of developing and designing
the ballistic vest
The project proposes a method, which takes:
• the laser measurement of the human shape with use 3D scanner - applying the 3D
scanning technology will enable achieving the best fitting a vest to the individual size
of user, respecting the characteristics of the wearer’s physique.
• software that supports automatic adjustment of standard templates to individual
user profile, to develop a vest tailored according the needs of an individual customer.
This method significantly reduce the time of manufacturing such a vest
Proposed application of novel textile materials into ballistic vest:
Modern textile material with the coat comprising the OUTLAST® microcapsules in its
structure was selected for the inner covering (lining) of vest. The OUTLAST® belongs to
the group of Phase Change Material (PCM). It is a substance capable of absorbing,
accumulating and releasing a large amount of energy in the form of heat, within
the range of transition temperature (eg. solid - liquid). During energy absorption the
temperature of a PCM remains unchanged. The use of this technology is meant to
support achieving the optimum thermal comfort to the user.
The comparative research with the use of various types of the Outlast®-type materials
have been carried out within the framework of the project. Based on results of the
research, one of PCM materials was recommended for the products like ballistic
vests, since it has been found the best from the point of view of the wearer’s comfort.
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Research on the materials dedicated for the inner covering of vest

Research material:
In order to select the best material for the project needs, from among three kinds of
materials with a content of Outlast®, the thermo-graphic studies were conducted on
collected samples: SP01, SP02, SP03
Figure.1 Samples S01, S02, S 03 placed on a hot plate

Research method:
The samples (after acclimatization) were placed on the heating panel of the
temperature of 35 °C, in a climate of 20 °C, the humidity of 65%. The panel simulated
a human body.
• Measurement no. 1 - fabric side coated with Outlast was on the outside (had no
contact with panel),
• Measurement no. 2 - fabric side coated with Outlast was facing on the panel.
The temperature was measured for 35 min for each variant.
The conditions (temperature) stabilized after 250 s (measurement no. 1) and 100 s
(measurement no. 2).
The charts embrace the test time of 500 s, the temperature did not change later.

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RESULTS
The results of research indicate, both at the measurement no. 1 and the
measurement no. 2, that the temperature of the sample SP03 (distance knit) is lowest
(is coolest), both at t=0 s and at t=200 s.
SP01 SP02 SP03 SP01 SP02 SP03
36,0°C 36,0°C
35 35
SP01 SP02 SP03 SP01 SP02 SP03
30 30
25 25
21,0°C 21,0°C
at time t=0 s at time t=200 s

Figure 1. Thermal images of samples before and after heating
Figure 3. Graph of temperature changes over time on the surface of individual samples
The results of research performed on various types of materials comprising the PCM
have proved, that the SP03 material (black distance knitted fabric) features best
properties concerning the usage comfort, compared to the other tested materials,
therefore that material is recommended for applying into the products like ballistic
vests.
Figure 4. Front view of SP03 (distance knit) Figure 5. Back view of SP03 (outlast covering)

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CONCLUSIONS
1. It is anticipated that results of the project, will contribute to the popularization of
3D scanner and 3D visualization software techniques, and to modernizing the apparel
industry, including the clothing for uniformed organizations such as armed forces and
the Police,
2. Data acquired from anthropometric measurements with a 3D scanner will be
found useful for the computer systems for designing technical clothes and will enable
developing the templates of clothing according to standard dimensions of human
body.
3. Thanks to results of project, it will be possible to fulfill the most important
expectations of potential users of concealed vests, concerning:
• increasing the effectiveness of protection in relation to the type of tools used to
attack the officer
• increasing comfort of ballistic vests,
• improvement the effectiveness of camouflage concealed vests, by proper matching
vets to the individual user body shape.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The presented study were done within the research project No OBR-BIO4/045/13067/2013
“Individualization of Multifunctional, Concealed Body Ballistic Vest Design” financed
by Polish National Centre for Research and Development
REFERENCES
1. W. Bendkowska: „Technologia mikroenkapsulacji we włókiennictwie” cz.I, Przegląd
włókienniczy 3/2006.
2. W. Bendkowska: „Zastosowanie technologii mikroenkapsulacji we włókiennictwie”. cz. III,
Przegląd -WOS 6/2006.

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3D approach to the CLOTHING fOR HEALING APPLICATIONS
3D APPROACH TO THE CLOTHING FOR

HEALING APPLICATIONS
Agnieszka Cichocka 1, Iwona Frydrych 1, Małgorzata Zimniewska 2,
Małgorzata Muzyczek2, Przemysław Mikołajczak2, Katarzyna Schmidt-
Przewoźna2, Barbara Romanowska2, Mariola Pawlaczyk3, Izabella
Krucińska4, Agnieszka Komisarczyk4, Stanisława Kowalska4, Lucyna
Herczyńska4, Monika Urbaniak5
Lodz University of Technology, Institute of Textile Architecture, 2Institute of Natural Fibres and
1
Medical Plants, 3Poznan University of Medical Science, 4Lodz University of Technology, Department
of Material and Commodity Sciences and Textiles Metrology, 5Marko-Kolor Sp.
ABSTRACT
In our paper we propose a new approach of clothing engineering for a healing
application. The partnership project “BIOAKOD” aims at elaborating the clothing
solutions for woman patients with some skin diseases and dysfunctions. Due to the
assumed additional functionality expected in such clothing like the supporting
activities of dermatosis treatment, the particular concept of clothing design is also
required. Design challenges of clothing collection in the frame BIOAKOD project take
into account the conditions of covering the human body in an aesthetic way and
assuring utility comfort. However, an adding value in the healing treatment of people
with the dermatosis is also very important.
Keywords: 3D fitting, personalization, clothing functionality)
INTRODUCTION
In the frame of BIOAKOD project we designed the new clothing model for women with
the dermatosis diseases and body dysfunctions. Textile fabrics such woven or knitted
used in the project, made of cotton and/or flax raw materials are coated by different
kinds of herbs contained in the microcapsules. The process of micro-capsulation
allows releasing appropriate herbs, while wearing the clothes supporting the curing
process. The specificity of dermatosis treatment from the point of view of relevant time
needs to ensure the proper contact of the skin with the “medical” clothing as well as
the appropriate utility comfort of users. Moreover, we decided to design the clothing
that guarantees the curing process continuously. To personalize and facilitate the
clothing design process we used new technologies such 3D human body scanner
and CAD system.
The implementation of new technologies such as 3D human body scanner and
software for the virtual simulation of clothing, assuring the “fit” of garment onto
the mannequin in the virtual 3D space, can increase the efficiency and speed of
clothing production process by the introduction of patterns of personalized garment
[1]. 3D scanner is a tool accelerating the delivery process of anthropometric data
of the human body. Usage of 3D scanner causes avoiding the errors resulting from
measurements done in a traditional, manual way (e.g. incorrect identification of

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anthropometric points) and the errors from data saved by mistake. The scanning
process leads to dimensioning the human body immediate and accurate, giving an
opportunity to present the results of measure numerically or volumetrically (3D volume)
representing the key point for the definition of garment pattern shapes. Generated 3D
image treated by an appropriate technology admits for the creation of the numerical
avatar of consumer profile. This idea appropriately defines the trend of buying clothes
without leaving home and involves the idea of mass customization. Virtual simulation
of clothing reports the clothing design defects, checks the clothing drape and fit to
the silhouette of the virtual human body as well as approves a correctness of virtual
sewing of clothing [2, 3, 4]. Some modules of 3D clothing simulation allow generating
the parametric mannequins or entering the avatars created as a result of scanning
process. It seems that it is an interesting alternative for the people with disabilities,
with specific anatomical defects or dysfunctions. In the case of uncommon silhouette
the “tailor -made” clothing appears as recommended and required. Likewise, in our
project, the clothing design process needs to be carefully proceeded in order to
support the treatment of skin disease. Moreover, this concept of 3D clothing could be
pondered especially by people, who prefer to buy clothes via the Internet.
Our project focuses on the implementation of personalized clothing for selected
women. The methodology pays a particular attention on the clothing design; it takes
into account the morphology of each silhouette of customers and it is important that
the clothing could be wearing by a person moving independently, even the person
with anatomical defects or body dysfunctions. The proposed approach has to ensure
the correctness of implementation of the clothing structure matched to the specific
recipient. It also aims at proposing a strategy for a future implementation of such
clothes in the manufacturing process, i.e. taking into account the industrial conditions
by the usage of appropriate solutions.
RESULTS
Strategy of BIOAKOD project aims at development of appropriate procedure for
designing the clothing tailored for individual needs of patients. The strategy is shown
below in the figure 1:
Figure 1. Concept of creation of BIOAKOD clothing collection

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Presented strategy of our clothing creation process takes into account 6 elements.
Collection of anthropometric data of users reflects the need to obtain a precise and
quick description of the anthropometric data of wearer using 3D scanner device. Due
to the selected target of consumers (wearers), some additional information about
patients’ habits and preferences were required.
In the BAKOD project the process of clothing personalization takes a very significant
part of the process of clothing collection design. The challenge of this project was to
propose 2 suits for each patient: casual and for the night, each properly fitted to the
given morphology and especially to particular problem of dermatosis. Moreover, the
proposed clothing covers upper and lower part of body, is made of natural materials,
as well as takes into account personal preferences of selected wearers, varied by the
age, morphology and the dermatosis aspect. In total, we made twenty prototypes
of clothing, and each of its models takes into account also the physical aspect of
the wearer appearance like a color of hair and skin of face, etc. The design of such
clothing had to be deeply considered also in terms of “permitted” palette of colors.
This concept pays an attention to use the dyestuffs, which are present in the nature as
flowers or plants. On the other hand, it also defines the limits of proposed garment sets
because of used dyestuffs and chosen fabrics. Mentioned above aspects of design
process show the added value to clothing functions, i.e., its heeling aspect.
It’s worth to emphasize that the usage of 3D scanner represents a part of strategy of
BLOOD collection with a significant impact on clothing design.
Moreover, the patient avatars were targeted to supplement the information in the
tabular form of data, which accumulated knowledge about habits and preferences
of clothing for those ladies, who tested the prototypes in our project.
Generated virtual avatars were subjected to sequential modifications of following
body parts:
• legs,
• hands,
• arms,
• body height.
The designing process, which aims at developing the proper forms of prototypes,
took place in four stages:
1. Pattern making process of clothing covering the upper and lower parts of the
human body based on the morphological characteristics of the user.
2. Iterative modelling procedure of standard clothing patterns (trousers and blouse),
according to the design project (fashion illustration). Proposed verification procedure
of the virtual simulation is followed by necessary corrections of generated patterns of
prototypes.
3. Evaluation of each outfit drape on the selected avatar proceeded by an inclusion
of some corrections (if it is needed) leading to relaunch of virtual simulation.
4. Re-evaluation of final drape of prototypes.
Next, the process of “virtual conversion of the material images” (digitization) was
done. Digitization of materials used in the BIOAKOD project was proceeded by using
the physical parameters of materials obtained from the KAWABATA system and
completed with the appropriate CAD module.

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Figure 2 BIOAKOD garment virtual try-on of the selected prototypes
Four stages described above taking into account the virtual try-on of prototypes were
significant for the last stage of prototyping, i.e., the evaluation of clothing functionality
in the clinical tests on the human beings. To optimize the selection criteria of properly
modelled clothing, an analysis of ease allowances as well as a material stresses,
offered by software, was carried out (figure 2).
CONCLUSIONS
Implementation of new technologies such as CAD system and scanner device assures
the sewing process without difficulties. Moreover, data generated in this way can be
transferred easily to the manufacturer, what enables saving time and costs.
We hope that products developed in the project BIOAKOD will provide a new quality
of clothing on the market – a kind of support intended for seniors and the people
suffering from dermatological diseases or disabilities. Data from Eurostat (European
Statistical Data Support) show the increase of the average age of European society.
It is anticipated the increase of the number of elderly people (aged over 65 years) in
Europe by about 67 million, i.e., from 84.6 million in 2008 to 151.5 million seniors in 2060.
Moreover, it is expected that in 2020 about 25% of the European population will be
accounted for the elderly and disabled [5].
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by Structural Founds in the frame of the project titled “Bioactive
clothing with healing care properties” BIOAKOD financed by Applied Research
Programme of the National Centre for Research and Development in Poland, (PBS
1 - Project no. 177463, programme path A)
REFERENCES
1. Cichocka A. et al. “Modelling of Virtual Garment Design in 3D”, Research Journal of Textile
and Apparel, vol.11 number.4, pp.55-63, (2007)
2. Cichocka A. PhD Thesis “Contribution à la modélisation et à la simulation de vêtements sur
mannequin adaptatif”, UST Lille, France (2008),
3. Cichocka A. at al. The fitting analysis of the clothes for health service as a part of human
resources management, Autex 2011
4. Cichocka A. at al. ”New methodology of apparel construction in 3D for medical applications,
Fiber Society Spring Conference. Liberec, 2014,
5. http://bioakod.pl/

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APPLICATION OF HPLC FOR QUANTIFICATION

OF - TOCOPHEROL IN COSMETO-COTTON
FABRICS
Sandra Bischof1, Tanja Pušić1, Iva Matijević1
1
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Textile Technology, Prilaz baruna Filipovića 28, Zagreb, Croatia
(Presenting author e-mail: sbischof@ttf.hr; Corresponding author email: iva.matijevic@ttf.hr)
ABSTRACT
Cosmetotextiles proved to be very interesting source of active ingredient to be used
as wellbeing products. The major issue of this treatment is durability of the product.
Its lifetime is tried to be prolonged using different application methods (pad-roll,
exhaustion, printing or coating) and active ingrediants. α-tocopherol was used in
this study for its strong antioxidant property, capable to enhance anti aging effects
of cotton products. Up to now, major concern has been dedicated to qualitative
determination of active ingrediants while the aim of this study was to establish reliable
analytical method for the quantification purposes. The mechanism of slow release
of active ingredience is a necessary demand which can be monitored only through
precise qualitative methods, such as HPLC. This method proved to be convenient
indirect method enabling quantification of previously isolated α-tocopherol from
cotton fabric using extraction with methanol.
Keywords: cosmetotextiles, cotton, α-tocopherol, identification, HPLC analysis, washing
INTRODUCTION
Vitamin E, also known as α -tocopherol, is used in the cosmetic industry as antioxidant
and lipid-soluble compound with active substance. It is a promising formulation for an
antiaging effect due to the decrease in skin roughness and increases in skin moisture
and elasticity.
It belongs found in many vegetable oils and plant tissues.
-tocopherol belongs to the group tocopherols that are consisting of a series of related
benzopyranols (or methyl tocopherols). Hydrophobic part of a molecule is C16 side
chain, saturated with 20-carbon phytyl tails (including the pyranol ring), with variable
numbers of methyl groups attached to the benzene ring. The side-chain methyl groups
of natural tocopherols are responsible for R,R,R stereochemistry. The four general
constituents of the two classes are termed - α (5,7,8-trimethyl) (Figure 1), β (5,8-dimethyl),
g (7,8-dimethyl) and d (8-methyl) (Yenilmez 2011).
Figure 1 Structure and composition of α -tocopherol (R’=CH3, R’’= CH3)

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Vitamin E, well known as a youth source applied onto textiles can result with the anti-
ageing properties (Lupo 2001). Vitamin E significantly increases the skin moisture and
elasticity and reduce the skin wrinkle and roughness (Yenilmez 2011). Temperature
and light sensitivity of α-tocopherol is a reason why commercial products are mostly
prepared as complexes, e.g. with cyclodextrin (Hategekimana 2015, Patel 2014).
Such complexes are more stable and adequate for the textile application enabling
gradual release during the wearing (Vujasinović 2012).
It is very important to find out suitable method for monitoring of Vitamin E lifetime
on cosmetotextile surface. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is
selected as a basic method for quantification of α-tocopherol, since it is stable
under the HPLC conditions and easy dissolved in appropriate solvents. During the
sampling it is necessary to preserve the sample from negative influence of light
and heat (Edison 2009). Both phases, the normal (NP) and the reversed one (RP)
are applied in chromatography. As far as stationary phase (silica gel HPLC column)
is concerned, all the researchers who have adopted RP liquid chromatographic
method have used C18 column from different manufacturers. However, the
columns used vary in length, particle size and internal diameter (Khan 2010). NP-
HPLC is commonly applied for samples with more than one tocopherol ingredient.
RP-HPLC might be utilized for separation of vitamers, mixtures of fat-soluble
vitamins, free or esterified tocopherols (Liu 2011, Taepaiboon 2007, Yenilmez 2011).
Furthermore, tocopherols can be analysed by gas chromatography (GC) in spite of
a possible risk for decomposition due to high temperatures. To determine vitamin E
in a human serum, except HPLC analysis, scientists apply capillary electrophoresis
and microemulsion electrokinetic chromatography (Khan 2010).
Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS) can also be used for
identification of tocopherols while NMR analysis can effectively characterize
vitamin E form (Yenilmez 2011). Distribution and shape of microencapsulated
vitamin E can be characterised by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) while
Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy enables identification of vitamin E
in a core of microcapsules (Liu 2014). The aim of this study is application of HPLC
for identification and quantification of α-tocopherol on cosmeto cotton as well as
its washing durability.
Materials
Untreated cotton fabric (C) specified in Table 1 was treated with NouWell E
(cyclodextrine- α-tocopherol complex) as a well-being finishing product applied
according protocol presented in Table 2. NouWell E was directly added, while
stirring, as the last component of the application liquor. Final pH of a liquor bath
was adjusted on 6 with acetic acid. Padding process was applied on a laboratory
foulard, with liquor pick-up of 100%. Treated samples were dried for 2 min at 130°C
and cured for 30 seconds at 170°C (Pušić 2015).

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Table 1 Technical specification of cotton fabrics

Parameter
Weave Plain
Mass per unit area (gm-2) 177
Warp yarn density (cm-1) 25
Weft yarn density (cm-1) 25
Table 2 The composition and concentration of products in impregnation bath

Product* Chemical composition g (g/l)
NouWell E cyclodextrine- α-tocopherol complex 50
Sarabid OL alkyl polyglycol ether 4
Arristan EPD microdispersion of modified polyurethane 50
Tubingal SMF microemulsified functional polysiloxane 40
*All products were supplied by CHT-Bezema, Deutchland – Swiss company
Untreated and treated fabrics were washed in Mathis (Switzerland, 2002), with standard
detergent ICE A applied in concentration of 2.5 g/l. The washing bath (BR 1:20) was
heated to 40°C. Washing was performed 5 times during the 30 minute period. The
tested fabrics were rinsed four times with distilled water and dried at the ambient
temperature.
Table 3 Labelling of cotton samples
Label Description
C Untreated cotton fabric
C_1 Untreated cotton fabric after 1 washing cycle
C_5 Untreated cotton fabric after 5 washing cycle
CCE Vitamin E cosmeto cotton
CCE_1 Vitamin E cosmeto cotton after 1 washing cycle
CCE_5 Vitamin E cosmeto cotton after 5 washing cycles
Whiteness
Due to curing conditions that can cause yellowing of cotton fabric, whiteness quality
was performed by spectral measurements using a Datacolor Spectraflash type SF 300
under the following conditions: the aperture size of 20 mm, the standard illuminate
D65, at the wavelength range from 360 to 700 nm with excluded speculum. Whiteness
quality of all set of cotton samples was estimated by parameters, whiteness degree
(WCIE), basic whiteness (Y), tint value (TV) and tint deviation (TD). The first identification
phase of Vitamin E on cotton fabrics included a drop test and FT-IR analysis.

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Drop test
As one of the preliminary test methods for fast identification of vitamin E drop test was
used (Internal CHT method 2003, Edison 2009, Fei 2013 and Matijević 2015). The test is
based on a redox reaction between α-tocopherol and iron (III)-chloride (solution A)
reduced to iron (II), whereas α- tocopherol is oxidised to tocoquinone, Figure 2a. After
addition of the dipyridyl solution (solution B), the iron (II) ions form a red coloured
metal organic chelate complex with dipyridyl, presented in Figure 2b (Patel 2014).
a b
Figure 2 Reaction mechanism: a. redox and b. complexation (Internal CHT method
2003)
FT-IR
Perkin Elmer 100 FT-IR with ATR (Attenuated Total Reflectance) technique was applied
for the spectroscopic transmission analysis of cotton fabrics. The evaluation of
Vitamin E in cosmeto cotton fabrics in comparison to untreated fabrics was done
by spectrogram curves. Measurement conditions included a resolution of 16 cm-1,
number of scans was 8 and pressure of ATR head was 125.
Isolation of α-tocopherol from cosmeto cotton
Isolation of the organic components from the cotton fabrics proceeded by the HPLC
analysis. In this study, two techniques of isolation in methanol were applied; Soxhlet
extraction and stirring. Cotton fabrics (untreated, treated and washed) in mass of 0.5
g were extracted in Soxhlet with a methanol of HPLC grade for 90 minutes (ISO/TR
5090:1977). Desorption of α-tocopherol from selected cotton fabrics was performed by
stirring of 0.6 g Vitamin E cosmeto cotton (CCE) in methanol of HPLC grade (10 ml) in
separate bottles. Aliquots (1.5 ml) from each solution were taken at the start, after 15,
30, 60, 120 and 180 minutes.
HPLC
α-tocopherol was determined indirectly by HPLC Agilent series 1220 Infinity LC (USA),
software “The Agilent Open LAB CDS ChemStation Edition” in a sample solutions. It
is separated on a column packed with 4 μm Poroshell 120, EC-C18 (4.6 x 250 mm)
operating at 1.8 mL/min. The mobile phases for α-tocopherol separations (all HPLC
grade) were 97:3 v/v methanol/water, respectively. The injection volume was 100
ml wherein all solutions were filtered through a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) filter
(average pore size = 0.45 mm) prior to injection. The measurement is performed at
35°C ± 0.8°C in duration of 15 min. Retention time for α-tocopherol was 9.4-9.9 minutes.
UV detector for α-tocopherol was set at wavelength of 292 nm. This absorption band

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is typical for α-tocopherol and correlates with the concentration in the sample (Edison
2009, Vujasinović 2012). Response is expressed in mili absorption unit (mAU).
Reference of α-tocopherol (Merck 613420 DL-α-Tocopherol-CAS 10191-41-0 Calbiochem,
purity ≥98%) was used for calibration procedure. Stock standard solution, in
concentration of 1000 µg/ml was prepared in methanol (HPLC grade) and stored at
-20 °C protected from light. Concentartion and purity tests were made according to
European standard (EN 12822:2014).
Five different concentrations of reference α-tocopherol were prepared by dilution of
stock solution (0.03 ml, 0.05 ml, 0.10 ml, 0.30 ml, 0.50 ml) with methanol in volumetric
flask (10 ml). UV absorptivity of pure α-tocopherol can be useful in checking the real
concentrations of tocopherols. Cary UV/VIS spectrophotometer (Cary 50 Solarscreen,
Varian Inc., USA) was applied to determine the concentration of the calibration
solution by UV spectrometry. Concentrations were in the range of 31.8 - 529.6 µg/ml.
Analysis of α-tocopherol isolated from cosmeto cotton by Soxlet extraction and stirring
was performed under the same chromatographic conditions (column, mobile phase,
flow rate, time of analysis and volume of injection).
RESULTS
Whiteness
Cotton samples treated with NouWell E were dried and cured at high temperatures
that can cause yellowing of samples. Since preservation of whiteness is an important
criteria, evaluation of whiteness after cosmeto finish is monitored by spectral
characteristics presented in Table 4.
Table 4 Whiteness of cotton fabrics
Sample WCIE Y TV TD
C 88.6 83.4 -1.4 R1
C_1 113.0 81.5 -1.7 R2
C_5 127.4 82.6 -1.6 R2
CCE 80.0 80.1 -1.2 R2
CCE_1 105.4 80.6 -1.9 R2
CCE_5 114.6 81.7 -1.9 R2
Whiteness degree (WCIE = 88.6) indicate bleached state of untreated cotton fabric.
Washing of this fabric with standard detergent enhanced a whiteness degree for app
15 units and proves an impact of fluorescent whitening agent (FWA) in detergent.
Further whiteness degree increase measured at 5 times washed untreated samples
(C_5) indicate cumulative effect of FWA.
Cosmeto finish with NouWell E, so as the drying and curing step caused a drop in
whiteness degree for 8.6 units (CCE). Washing of a sample with standard detergent
that contain FWA compensated a loss of whiteness, so 5 times washed cosmeto
cotton (CCE_5) possesses satisfying whiteness quality. It is evident that washing and
cosmeto-finish had the same impact on tint deviation of cotton fabric estimated by
slight red tinting (from R1 to R2), presented in Table 4.

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Qualitative testing
Wellbeing component of impregnation bath was NouWell E, a cyclodextrine-vitamin
E complex, which is anchored to the surface of cotton material together with the
additives presented in Table 2. The results of identification and quantification of
a-tocopherol are shown in Figures 3–4.
To confirm presence of α-tocopherol, very simple drop test for determination of
α-tocopherol was performed. According to the results presented in Figure 3 it is evident
that α-tocopherol is present at cosmeto cotton fabric (CCE) before and after 5 times
washings (CCE_5). The red-orange colour has indicated the presence of α-tocopherol,
while slightly yellow colouration of the stain is specific for the untreated cotton fabric.
C CCE CCE_1 CCE_5
Figure 3 Detection of vitamin E on the cotton fabric by drop test

Results of α-tocopherol identification on cosmeto cotton fabric (CCE) are presented
by FT-IR spectrograms in Figure 4.
Figure 4 FT-IR spectra of untreated cotton fabric (C) = red, untreated cotton fabric
after 5 th washing cycle (C_5) = pink, vitamin E cosmeto cotton (CCE) = blue and
vitamin E cosmeto cotton after 5th washing cycles fabric (CCE_5) = green curve
According to the results presented on Figure 4 it is clear that spectra of Vitamin E
cosmeto cotton fabric before (CCE) and after washing (CCE_5) have characteristic
peaks at 1259.17 cm-1 and 801.09 cm-1. Strong, sharp band at about 1260 cm-1
together with strong band in the range 865 - 750 cm-1 are specific for Si-OH group.
FT-IR spectrograms have not confirmed a presence of α-tocopherol on cosmeto
cotton fabric. Specific bands correspond to the polysiloxane product Tubingal SMF
(Launer 1987), which overlay surface of cotton fabric. But, to be sure and to avoid any
misinterpretation of FT-IR spectra HPLC analysis was applied for additional clarification.

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HPLC
The equation of a HPLC calibration curve corresponding to y=0.1705x−0.3274, where
R2 =0.997 illustrates the high linear correlation between the α-tocopherol concentration
and the peak area at 292 nm.
Soxlet extracts were analysed on HPLC under the same chromatographic conditions.
Extract of Vitamin E cosmeto cotton (CCE) analysed on HPLC exhibits a peak at 9.7
– 10.0 min (the same retention time has α-tocopherol in standard solution), Figure 5.
Response of α-tocopherol in Vitamin E cosmeto cotton (CCE) was 2.4 mAU.
Figure 5 HPLC curve of Vitamin E cosmeto cotton (CCE)

Concentration of α-tocopherol isolated from cosmeto cotton fabric was calculated
and corresponds to 223.86 µg/ml. Specific peak of Vitamin E cosmeto cotton after 1th
washing cycle (CCE_1) extract correspond to 0.8 mAU, concentration of α-tocopherol
13.50 µg/ml and after conversion 90.01 µg/ml. The peak of 5 times washed cosmeto
cotton extract (CCE_5) correspond to 0.3 mAU, concentration of α-tocopherol 3.68 µg/
ml, respectively 44.16 µg/ml (Table 5).
The peaks at period 0–1.8 min on both HPLC curves present “death time”, not important
for analysis. Peak at time of 12 min indicates the presence of another α-tocopherol,
which is not present in the standard of α-tocopherol.
Table 5 α-tocopherol in cotton fabrics extract
The amount of α-tocopherol
Sample g (µg/ml) w (%)
CCE 223.86 100.00
CCE_1 90.01 40.21
CCE_5 44.16 19.73
According to HPLC results concentration of α-tocopherol on CCE is 5 times higher
than on CCE_5. It is evident that washing process with alkali detergent and normal
mechanical agitation has impact on vitamin E release. The aim of a stirring procedure
during the180 minutes was to identify a desorption rate of α-tocopherol from cosmeto
cotton fabrics, Table 6.

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Table 6 α-tocopherol isolated from cosmeto cotton fabrics (CCE) by stirring

Stirring time (min) g (µg/ml) / HPLC
0 173.18
15 183.15
30 207.19
60 175.94
120 182.56
180 173.77
Results confirmed that rate of desorption α-tocopherol from cosmeto cotton in
methanol was very fast. HPLC quantification of α-tocopherol isolated by stirring during
the 180 minutes showed presence of desorption-adsorption phenomena. Obtained
results showed that stirring is not a convenient method of α-tocopherol isolation from
cosmeto cotton fabrics.
CONCLUSIONS
For identification and quantification of α-tocopherol on cosmeto cotton numerous
methods were applied up to now. Drop test proved to be fast and cheap method
of qualitative determination of α-tocopherol on cotton fabrics. In this study, HPLC was
used as advanced method of quantification because of its simplicity and sensitivity
to α-tocopherol. The possibility of α-tocopherol isolation from cosmeto cotton fabric
using Soxlet extraction or stirring technique was investigated. The results revealed
that extraction is more reliable than stirring. HPLC method proved to be convenient
method for indirect determination of α-tocopherol, so as for the washing durability
of cosmeto effects. Even in harsh washing conditions 20% of α-tocopherol remained
attached to the surface of cotton fabric.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Croatian Science Foundation has supported the work under the project 9967
Advanced textile materials by targeted surface modification, ADVANCETEX. The work
of doctoral student Iva Matijević has been fully supported by the Croatian Science
Foundation.
REFERENCES
Edison, B. 2009. Analysis of Tocopherols by High Performance Liquid Chromatography. E-Journal of
Chemistry 6 (2): 395–98.
Fei, B. et al. 2013. Supramolecular Nanocapsules for Vitamin E Release from Cloths. Journal of
Controlled Release 172 (1):76–77.
Hategekimana, J. and F. Zhong. 2015. Degradation of Vitamin E in Nanoemulsions during Storage as
Affected by Temperature, Light and Darkness. International Journal of Food Engineering 11 (2): 1–8.
Internal CHT method: Nachweis von Vitamin E mit Dipryridyl, date: 2003-03-04
ISO/TR 5090:1977. Textiles - Methods for the removal of non-fibrous matter prior to quantitative analysis
of fibre mixtures
Khan, A. et al. 2010. An Optimized and Validated RP-HPLC/UV Detection Method for Simultaneous
Determination of All-Trans-Retinol (vitamin A) and Alpha-Tocopherol (vitamin E) in Human Serum:
Comparison of Different Particulate Reversed-Phase HPLC Columns. Journal of Chromatography. B,
Analytical Technologies in the Biomedical and Life Sciences 878 (25): 2339–47.
Launer, P.J. 1987. Infrared Analysis of Organosilicon Compounds: Spectra - Structure Correlations. In

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Silicon Compd. Regist. Rev., ed. B. Arkles et al. Petrarch Systems, 100–103.
Liu L.Y. 2014. Development of Vitamin E-Loaded Gloves for Patients with ICD by Using Microencapsulation
Technology. BSc diss., The Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
Lupo, M. P. 2001. Antioxidants and Vitamins in Cosmetics: Cosmetics. Clinics in Dermatology 19 (4):
467–73.
Matijević, I., S. Bischof, A. Sutlović and T. Pušić. 2015. Determination of α-tocopherol in cosmetotextiles–
UV/VIS spectrophotometric method. In Proceedings of 8th Central European Conference, ed. Dekanić,
T. and A. Tarbuk, 121-126. Zagreb, Croatia: University of Zagreb, Faculty of Textile Technology, Zagreb.
Patel, A.R., and B. Bhandari. 2014. Nano - and Microencapsulation of Vitamins. In Nano- and
Microencapsulation for Foods, ed. H. Kwak, 225–50. John Wiley&Sons, Ltd.
Pušić, T., S. Bischof, I. Matijević and E. Vujasinović. 2015. Cellulose Fabrics – Carriers of Vitamin E? In
Proceedings of 2nd ICNF – From Nature to Market, ed. R. Fangueiro, 1–6. Azores, Portugal: University
of Minho, Guimarães.
Taepaiboon, P., U. Rungsardthong, and P. Supaphol. 2007. Vitamin-Loaded Electrospun Cellulose
Acetate Nanofiber Mats as Transdermal and Dermal Therapeutic Agents of Vitamin A Acid and Vitamin
E. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics: Official Journal of Arbeitsgemeinschaft
Für Pharmazeutische Verfahrenstechnik e.V 67 (2): 387–97.
Vujasinović, E. et al. 2012. Qualitative Characterisation of Vitaminized Cotton Textiles. In Book of
Proceedings of the 6th International Textile, Clothing & Design Conference - Magic World of Textiles,
ed. Dragčević, Z., 601–6. Dubrovnik, Croatia: University of Zagreb, Faculty of Textile Technology, Zagreb.
Yenilmez, E., E. Başaran, and Y. Yazan. 2011. Release Characteristics of Vitamin E Incorporated Chitosan
Microspheres and in Vitro–in Vivo Evaluation for Topical Application. Carbohydrate Polymers 84 (2):
807–11.

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COLOUR EXTRACTION FROM GUINEA CORN (SORGHUM BI-COLOUR L) AS TEXTILE DYE USING TREE EXTRACTS AS MORDANTS
COLOUR EXTRACTION FROM GUINEA CORN

(SORGHUM BI-COLOUR L) AS TEXTILE DYE USING
TREE EXTRACTS AS MORDANTS
Nkem Udeani1 , Dauda Adamu Milila2
1
Modibbo Adama University of Technology, (MAUTECH) Yola,
Adamawa State, Nigeria. (nkemudeani01@yahoo.com)
2
Modibbo Adama University of Technology, (MAUTECH) Yola,
Adamawa State, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
The search for natural dyes have been revived greatly due to the global environmental
issue of the recent discovery of the harmful nature of some synthetic dyes on human skin. For
this reason, the Global Organic Textiles Standard (GOTS) permits the use of safe synthetic
dyes only. Recent researches have shown that most of natural dyes and mordant are
safer to human than synthetic. Hot and cold water extracts from sorghum bi-colour plant
were applied on cotton and linen (direct dyeing) to investigate its dyeing characteristics –
dye-ability and fastness potentials. The discovery of the synthetic or chemical harmfulness
further necessitated a move away from the use of chemical substances in the improvement
of the dye-ability and fastness potentials of these extracted dyes on textile substrates.
Consequently, exploration on the possibility of plant extracts as mordant become an
option of investigation. Thus mordant used in this particular experiment were derived from
mahogany, locust bean and shear butter tree barks. The result of the experiment show
that cotton have high rate of dye intake, than linen. On a similar note the colours obtained
depend most on the use of different or no mordant. In conclusion, hot water extraction
appears more effective. While the colours obtained ranges from deep to light lilac and
various shades of brown colour. From the result samples, the three mordant dyeing show
not much difference in colour.
Keywords: Colour, Extraction, Guinea corn (Sorghum bi-colour L), Textile, dye, Fabric
INTRODUCTION
Before the ready available imported factory – made dyes, locally produced dyes
were described as colouring agents. People have dyed fabrics and other materials for
more than 5,000 years, with the use of a fixing agent (mordant) using locally produced
vegetable dyes. The discovery of synthetic dyes in 1856 became an epoch in the history
of textile which was further magnified by global industrialization. Dye which is defined as
a substance that is used to change colour of things such as clothes, hair etc (Merriam
Webster, 2015) became a necessary material in the production of industrial goods as it
creates attractiveness, variety and enables choice. The use of dye stuffs is as old as textiles
themselves and pre-dates written history. Dyes are obtained from two main sources; the
natural dyes and synthetic dyes. Natural dyes can be defined as those organic materials
that have the ability to color fiber (Saxena and Raja, 2014). These dyes can be obtained
either from plants or animals. Until the mid-19th century, all dyestuffs were made from
natural materials, mainly vegetables and animal matter. Vegetable dyes can be extracted

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from bast, fruits, leaves, bark, flowers, roots and stems of different plants. These category
of dyes are highly sought for recently because they have been investigated and found
to be eco-friendly due to their ability to be renewed and biodegraded. As a result they
are skin friendly and may also provide health benefit to the wearer and can equally be
used to dye synthetic fibers (Saxena and Raja, 2014). According to MD. Mahabub Hassan
et al, (2015), natural dyes were used to give colour to raffia, cotton cloth, as well as in the
tanning of leather and the preparation of cosmetics, food, in medicine and also possess
therapeutic properties.
Various colours can be obtained using various fixing agent called mordant. Mordant is a
chemical that fixes a dye in or on a substrate by combining with the dye to form insoluble
compound. Most plant dyes are not fast on fabric, mordant is then used to enhance the
fastness quality of such dyes. But some plants or leaves have inherent colour fastness on
fabric, they are referred to as substantive plants and those needing fixative are called
fugitive. Some of these dyes are useful as indicators, stains, or solvent dyes and the fact that
textile fibers especially cellulosic, do not have much affinity for the majority of the natural
dyes (Bailey and Bailey, 1976), makes it more imperative for addition of mordants which
acts as a link between the fiber and the dyestuff. This creates an enabling environment for
the dye molecules, especially from the fugitive plants, to be transferred into the amorphous
parts of the fiber. Sorghum can be said to be a substantive plant, but most often mordants
are added to enhance the colour output on substrates and also to achieve varying colours
on different substrates. Natural dye sorghum red pigment is a kind of natural product from
sorghum shell (Lui et al, 2013). Sorghum is a genus with many species and subspecies,
and there are several types of sorghum, including grain sorghums, grass sorghums (for
pasture and hay), sweet sorghums (for syrups), and Broomcorn. The focus of this species
page is on Sorghum bicolor L bicolor, or grain sorghum.
According to Etcher (1976), domestic dyes are gotten from the leaves and barks of many
plants and trees that are utilized in producing other colours of dyes. He also mentioned that
shades of red can be obtained from leaves of guinea corn (Sorgum vulagre), leaves of
teak (Lawsonia innermis), barks and roots of African rose wood (Pterocarpus erinaceous),
wood of the cam wood (Baphia nitida). He explained further that the sap of old physic nut
tree (Jatropha curcas) produces a black dye (Etcher 1976 in Udeani, 2015). Most of these
colours are enhanced with the use of mordant mainly in form of alkalis. This experiment is
carried out with tree liquid extracts of khaya senegalensis (mahogany), pakia biglobosa
(locust beans), and vitellaria paradoxa (shear butter) as mordants instead of the normal
alkalis.
A colourant, as described by Chemical Industry Education Center on the other hand, can
have affinity for a substance either from nature or in artificial way by mainly treatment
of the material surface or the amorphous region of the fiber polymer system in order to
add beauty to its surface (ICEC, 2013). Lately there has been increasing interest in natural
dyes as the public becomes aware of ecological and environmental problems related
to the use of synthetic dyes. Use of natural dyes cut down significantly on the amount
of toxic effluent resulting from the synthetic dye process. Natural dyes can provide
the much needed alternative to the complex world of chemical dyes. These dyes are
environmentally sound and can be grown by organic methods. They are inherently
carbon neutral. Vibrant colours can be produced from natural dyes. Apart from the
ecofriendly and the biodegradable nature of natural dyes, the new colours produced
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from natural dyes exhibit ease and simplicity of use and are generally reliable with regards
to strength and composition. The produced colours are certainly reproducible. For these
reasons the interest in the use of natural dyes is growing because it is perceived to provide
an environment-friendly fabrics and garments. Natural Dyes can make textile industries
more competitive, by reducing production costs and eliminating the huge expenses of
chemical imports and toxicity.
THE PLANT SORGHUM
Guinea corn “(sorghum guanines) is a name for durra, a grain traditionally grown in Asia,
the Middle East, Africa and southern Europe. It was typically ground into meal and made
into bread. It is known as Indian millet, African mil1et or pearl millet (Wikipedia contributors,
2006,). Africa Guinea corn grows on a variety of soils but needs well drained highly alkaline
sandy soil. Its need to rainfal1 range of about 400 - 750mm, 380 - 650mm rainfall is also
adequate (Wilson and white man 1965 in fao.org, 2015). It is grown in areas which are
too dry. Planted in May-June in the Northern Nigeria 10 - 15cm apart. Sorghum guineas is
commonly called guinea corn. It is drought tolerance. The great advantage of sorghum
is that it can become dormant under adverse condition and can resume growth after
relatively severe drought. Late drought stops leaf development but no floral imitations
(Rampho and Reynolds, 2005). Sorghum cultivation is done on wide range with good
drainage as it can extract water from low sources due to its deep roots. Sorghum requires
full seed bed preparation for good performance. Well-spaced sorghum with sufficient
rainfall do not need fertilizer for good performance (Vurv.cz, 2015). Sorghum grain ranks 5th
in cereals for global production (fao.org, 2015). The Columbian encyclopedia described
sorghum as annual or short-term perennial, culms up to 4 m or more high, sweet except in
grain types; panicle 8-40 cm long, lose or contracted; sessile spikelets 4- 6 mm long.
Sorghum is an economic plant. The leaves and stems of guinea corn serve as food
(fodder) to the animals. It equally possess other domestic uses to the society as it is used
in the production of items such as bed mat, fencing, building of hut and shades etc. It
can also be used as musical instrument such as flute. About 40 - 60cm of the stems is
consumed in the form of sugarcane. It is also used to generate income locally. The stems
are also used to extract juice as well as colour solution when wet. Guinea com is also used
to give specific colour e.g. reddish brown which is specifically prepared for medication or
to colour porridge. (De Alencar Figueiredo et al, 2010).
SORGHUM AS DYE
Sorghum bi-colour (guinea corn) is so named due to the inherent colours possessed by
the plant. The reddish brown colour is physically seen on every part of the plant and
these were used for the extraction except the seeds that is grown for food. This feature
seem to be an evidence that sorghum corn is high in tannin (wisc.com, 2015) The colour
was extracted by boiling and the quantity to be boiled and water depend wholly on the
amount of cloth to be dyed. The fact that the traditional practice of dyeing items with
natural plant dyes is fast going extinct is the attraction to this experiment.
Sorghum plants were collect from a home farm in Zango Igabi local government area of
Kaduna State Nigeria. The plant was harvested or collected by hand. It was identified by
Mr. Tunde Shodimu of Department of Forestry, Federal College of Forestry Mechanization

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Afaka Kaduna State.

PREPARATION OF SORGHUM PLANT FOR EXPERIMENT
Matured sorghum plant – leaves, stem and stalk were collected, cut into pieces, long
enough to be boiled in a pot. The leaves, stems and stalks were arranged in a pot with
water enough to cover the specimen.
DYE EXTRACTION
The dye was extracted using boiling method.
50grammes of sorghum’s leaves and stalk was gathered and boiled in 3litters of water
in a pot for 1hour. The reddish brown liquid was decanted into a container after boiling.
MORDANT FOR EXPERIMENT
The mordants used for this experiment were natural tree liquid extracts from Shear Butter
(vitellaria paradoxa) called “kadanya” in Hausa, Mahogany (Khaya Senegalensis) called
“madachi” in Hausa, and Locust Beans (Pakia biglobosa) called “dorawa” in Hausa. The
leaves and barks of each of these trees were collected, pounded and boiled separately
to extract the liquid that forms the mordant for this experiment. These liquid extracts were
used because they appear to possess high tannin content. The presence of tannin was
suspected as these plants’ extracted liquids were used traditionally to give colour to the
floor of a newly built house. This was where the inspiration of using these plants extracts as
mordant for textile dyeing was raised.
FABRIC USED FOR THE EXPERIMENT
The fabrics used for this experiment were picked from natural cellulosic fiber group
(cotton and linen). Cotton is the most common and most widely used textile fabric. It is
the cheapest natural fiber used in cloth application. The plant is indigenous to many sub-
tropical countries (especially Nigeria). Cotton is chosen for this experiment because it has
high affinity to dye, readily available and equally easily affordable. Linen, also a cellulosic
fiber is derived from the stem of flax plant and ranks second in usage and availability. It is
comfortable, hand washable and light weight. Linen also absorbs dye. These fibers were
selected for their ergonomity, availability and affinity to dye. These fibers were washed
with detergent to remove impurities like starch and other additives used during weaving
and dried in an open air drying line. After dyeing, a part of these fibers was washed with
soap to ascertain the fastness of the dye on fibers – cotton and linen. Fabric is prepared
by washing with detergent to remove impurities.
PREPARATION OF DYE SOLUTION
Each of these tree mordant extracts was used individually to form a separate solution
for this experiment. Mordants were mixed directly with the aqueous extracts of sorghum
plant.
PROCEDURE OF DYING
In carrying out this experiment, the extract of sorghum bicolour obtained from hot
aqueous extraction was used for both direct and mordant dyeing. The direct dyeing
was carried out to investigate the level of tannin present in sorghum bi colour due to the
obvious colour present in almost all the parts of the plant. Mordant dyeing on the other
hand was to investigate the result of the use of khaya senegalensis, pakia biglobosa and

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vitellaria paradoxa natural tree liquid extract application with the sorghum extract and
their reaction and fastness qualities on textile substrate (cellulose- cotton and linen).
(i) Sorghum extract without mordant.
Items for the experiment
* 400ml of sorghum dye extract
* 4 pieces of 3 by 6 inches of cotton and linen fabrics.
* Boiling Time - 1hour.
Procedure
Immense sample fabrics into a dye bath containing 400mls of sorghum bi-colour dye
extract and boil for 1hour.
(ii) Sorghum extract with mordant:
Sorghum Extract with khaya senegalensis liquid extract
* 400ml of sorghum dye extract.
* 200ml of liquid extract mordant.
Procedure
Mix 200ml of khaya senegalensis liquid extract mordant into 400ml of sorghum bi-colour
dye extract and stir to mix. The colour of the solution changed to deep brown. Pour solution
into dye bath container. Immense sample fabrics and boil for 1hour. This procedure was
used in carring out experiment on the rest of the natural tree mordant (pakia biglobosa
and vitellaria paradoxa) chosen for this study.
Sorghum extract with the three mordants
* 400ml of sorghum dye extract.
*70ml of khaya senegalensis liquid extract, 70ml of pakia biglobosa, and 70ml of vitellaria
paradoxa. These makes 210ml of liquid extract mordants
Procedure
Mix the three liquid extracts mordant of khaya senegalensis, pakia biglobosa and vitellaria
paradoxa liquid extract mordant into 400ml of sorghum bi-colour dye extract and stir to
mix. There appear to be no change in the solution colour as the colour still remained
brown. Pour solution into dye bath container. Immense sample fabrics and boil for 1hour.
Result and Discussion
The result of the experiments of direct and mordant dyeing carried out on sorghum bi-
colour (guinea corn) dye extracted through aqueous boiling with natural tree mordant
liquid extracts from khaya senegalensis, pakia biglobosa, and vitellaria paradoxa show
that various degrees of colours can be obtained, using different mordant with the same

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liquid extract, ranging basically from extract colour of reddish brown through lilac to
grayish brown and even chocolate brown.
The direct dyeing with sorghum dye extract showed the solution colour deep reddish
brown after extraction as was reported by De Alencar Figueiredo et al, (2010). After dyeing
of sample fabrics, cotton showed high rate of dye absorption as was observed by Shaukat
et al (2009) and Md. Mahabub Hassan et al (2015). The colour took a while to show but
high stain of lilac colour was observed. Linen, just as in cotton, took a while to depict
colour change. The absorption rate was less than cotton. The stain was still lilac colour but
less in intensity. After desizing, cotton lost some colour which reduced the intensity of the
dyed fabric colour. The stain still remained purple while linen showed more loss of colour
after desizing with a lighter purple stain. This reveals that cotton have more affinity and
high dye ability to sorghum dye solution than linen. The investigation with sorghum extract
using khaya senegalensis as mordant showed a change in solution colour from light to
deep brown and from brown to deep reddish peach on cotton while linen still showed
reddish brown. After desizing, the sampled fabrics, though lost colour showed colour very
close to lilac though linen’s colour is ligher. This also confirmed the tannin presence in the
liquid mordant. Cotton still exhibits more dye ability and fastness quality than linen.
The investigation of Sorghum extract with pakia biglobosa liquid extract as mordant
exhibited change in the solution colour to a slight deeper reddish brown after mixing the
two liquids. After dyeing, the sampled fabrics showed grayish lilac colour. Llinen showed
high loss of colour while cotton depicted great fastness to the dye solution confirming
an enhancement of fastness from mordant. Sorghum liquid extract when mixed with
vitellaria paradoxa showed no reaction and no change in colour. Cotton showcased a
very good stain of deep red brown with high intensity which was retained. Linen showed
high absorption of dye and even more intense in colour but lost almost all with a little stain
of gray lilac left. A further investigation was carried out on mixing all the three mordant with
sorghum extract solution to ascertain if there will be anything new but the investigation
showed no change in the solution after mixing and the results depicted cotton’s high
attraction to this liquid with the exhibition of a very good stain of deep chocolate brown
with high intensity after dyeing. Linen on the other hand, also showed high absorption of
the mixture of dye extract and the natural tree liquid extract mordant. After rinsing, cotton
exhibited high fastness quality than linen with a brighter chocolate brown colour while
linen after loss of colour left grayish reddish brown which can be used if desired. This
therefore gives excellent fast for cotton and good fast for linen.
Generally in this investigation, it was observed that hot water extract is more effective for
extraction of dye liquids from natural resources as was observed by Yusuf et al (2005)
and Hafiz et al (2012). Conclusively, the dye ability and fastness qualities of dye extract
from sorghum on cotton and linen (cellulose fibers) are not as excellent as wool or silk
(protein fiber). Udeani (2015) stated that different investigation has revealed that cotton
is less suitable for many natural dyes, although it cannot be ruled out completely as a
substrate for carring out investigations on natural dye sources as desirable strains can still
be obtained for various dyeing activities.

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CONCLUSION
This study revealed that sorghum plant is not used only as medicine, food for both man
and animal but can be useful in the textile industry for dyeing of some natural fibers using
the appropriate fixing agent. Sorghum extracted dye can be used to impart desirable
colours to textile substrates ranging from deep red violet to light lilac as demonstrated in
the tables above. It equally revealed that tannins inherent in plants can also serve as a
fixing agent in maintaining the fastness quality of plant dyes which is a plus especially at
this time when environmental safety and ecofriendly materials are in high demand.
REFERENCES
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De Alencar Figueiredo L. F, Sine B, Chantereau J, Mestres C, Fliedel G, Rami J.-F, Glaszmann J.-C, Deu
M, Courtois B (2010). Variability of grain quality in sorghum: association with polymorphism in Sh2,
Bt2, SssI, Ae1, Wx and O2. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. International Journal of Plant Breeding
Research. Volume 121, Issue 6, pp 1171-1185
Hafiz, H, Chukwu, O.O, and Nura, S. (2012). Potentials of Henna (Lawsonia Inamis L) Leaves Extracts
as Countr Stain in Gram Staining Reaction. Bayero Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
(Banjopas), Volume 5 No 2 December 2012.
Md. Mahabub H, Khandakar A. N, Abu Y, M. A. A,Nayon C. G (2015). Application of Purified Lawsone
as Natural Dye on Cotton and Silk Fabric. Journal of Textiles. Vol. 2015 (2015) Article ID 932627, 7 pages
Liu, Z.M, Song, M.S, Lu, Y.H, (2013). “Properties of Sorghum Red Pigment and its Application to Rayon
Fabric Dyeing”, Advanced Materials Research, Vols. 821-822, pp. 638-641, Sep. 2013.
Saxena, S. and Raja,A.S.M ( 2014). Natural Dyes: Sources, Chemistry, Application and Sustainability.
Central Institute for Research on Cotton Tehnology, Mumbai, India
Shaukat, A, Tanveer, H, Rakhshanda, N. (2009). Optimization of alkaline extraction of natural dye
from Henna leaves and its dyeing on cotton by exhaust method. J Clean Prod. Journal of Cleaner
Production (Impact Factor: 3.84). 01/2009; 17(1):61-66.
Udeani, N. A (2015). Potentials of Henna Leaves as Dye and its Fastness Properties on Fabric.
International Journal of Chemical, Molecular, Neuclear Materials and Metallurgical Engineering VOL.
9 NO. 12. P. 1342-1349
Yusuf, M., Shahid, M., Khan, M.I., (...), Khan, M.A., Mohammad, F. (2015). Dyeing studies with henna and
madder: A research on effect of tin (II) chloride mordant. Journal of Saudi Chemical Society. Vol 19,
No 1. Pp 64 – 72
Internet source
Merriam Webster: Dictionary and Thesaurus (2015). “Dye” An online Dictionary copyright 2015.
www.merriam-webster.com Retrieved August 9, 2015
Rampho, E. T and Reynolds, Y (2005). “Sorghum Bicolour (L) Meonch.”http://plantzafrica.com/
plantqrs/sorghum.htm Retrieved August 15, 2015
“Sorghum” http://corn.agronomy.wisc.edu/Crops/Sorghum/ Retrieved August 9, 2015
Sorghum bicolour (L) Moench http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/data/pf000319.htm
Retrieved August 22, 2015
“Sorghum” http://www.vurv.cz/altercrop/sorghum.html Retrieved August 9, 2015
The University of York - Chemical Industry Education Centre, (ICEC). (2013).
https://www.researchgate.net/. Retrieved November 9, 2015.
Books
Bailey, L.H.; Bailey, E.Z. (1976). Hortus Third: A concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States
and Canada. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0025054707.
Eicher, J. B. (1976). Nigeria Hand Crafted Textiles, University of Ife Press, Ile Ife Nigeria. ISBN 978-136-002-x.

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MELT SPUN FIBRES BASED ON COMPOSTABLE BIOPOLYMERS FOR APPLICATION IN AUTOMOTIVE INTERIORS
MELT SPUN FIBRES BASED ON COMPOSTABLE

BIOPOLYMERS FOR APPLICATION IN
AUTOMOTIVE INTERIORS
Romy Naumann1, Bernd Gulich1, Javier Pascual2
1
Sächsisches Textilforschungsinstitut e.V.(STFI), Annaberger Str. 240, 09125 Chemnitz / Germany
2
AITEX- Instituto Tecnológico Textil, Plaza Emilio Sala 1, 03801 Alcoy / Spain
(Presenting author E-mail: romy.naumann@stfi.de; Corresponding author email: jpascual@aitex.es)
ABSTRACT
The EU-project “BIOFIBROCAR – Melt spun fibres based on compostable biopolymers
for application in automotive interiors” was successfully concluded in summer
2015. Nine research and SME partners from three countries (Germany, Spain and
the Netherlands) belonged to the project consortium coordinated by the Spanish
textile research institute AITEX. The project aimed at the substitution of polyester and
polypropylene fibres currently used in car interior by PLA (polylactide) fibres produced
from renewable raw materials. Special additives led to defined improvements of
properties like abrasion resistance, light fastness or flame retardancy which are of great
importance regarding the material parameters required by the automotive industry.
Furthermore, PLA fibres with specifically adjusted melting points allow an application
of technologies generally used in the production of moulded components. The PLA
fibres, produced and modified by AITEX, were processed at STFI into different types
of nonwovens. The Institut für Textiltechnik Aachen (ITA) developed a woven fabric
based on PLA filament yarns for decorative materials. Two nonwoven layers and
the woven fabric were combined into a composite consisting of 100 % bio-based
materials and tested as a demonstrator door panel.
Keywords: technical textiles, compostable biopolymers, PLA fibres, composites,
automotive interior, door panel component
INTRODUCTION
Currently, textiles are more and more used in cars for interior applications but also for
exterior components (such as body parts). On average, a car includes 40 to 50 m²
of textile materials with an estimated weight of 15 to 20 kg. Textiles can be found in
different components, such as tires, safety belts, and airbags, in the engine bay, as filters,
for undershields, interior linings, car seats, and floor coverings. Like iron, aluminium,
rubber, and plastics, all textile parts turn into waste at the end of a car’s life cycle. To
meet the permanently increasing requirements regarding environmental protection
and sustainability, the application of bio-based and biologically degradable textile
materials for car interior offers a promising solution for reutilization.
The main objective of the BIOFIBROCAR project was the development of textile
substrates (wovens and nonwovens) made from bio-based and biologically
degradable polylactide (PLA) fibres to substitute polyester and polypropylene fibres
currently used for car interiors. Aim was to develop more environmentally-friendly
materials with novel properties that can be used in textile components to add value
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but at the same time to fulfil all current safety legislation with regard to odour or
volatile particle emissions for vehicle interior components. Defined improvements of
properties required by the car industry, like abrasion resistance, light fastness or flame
retardancy, should be achieved by special additives. After some short explanations
on the development of the basic PLA material which was done by the Spanish project
partners, the paper will focus on the development of the composite material carried
out by STFI.
First part of the project work was extensively dedicated to the development of the
basic PLA compounds for the textile production process. In a first step, possible
additives, textile materials and their combinations were selected and a range of
formulations developed. Furthermore, the most suitable processing technologies
and needed equipment were investigated. Different PLA-types available on the
market (see Figure 1) were identified and combined with selected additives, such
as plasticizers or antimicrobial substances (see Figure 2), to achieve functionalisation
of the PLA material and to improve therewith the material properties as, e.g. anti-
odour, flammability and abrasion resistance. One challenging topic was to enhance
the thermal properties of the PLA compound to increase the VICAT temperature
(softening temperature or softening point of a material) which has to be between 90
°C and 100 °C following the requirements of the automotive industry (test standard EN
ISO 306). Normally, the VICAT temperature of PLA is around 50 °C.
Figure 1: Investigated PLA compounds

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Figure 2: Selected additives for functionalisation

Finally, the several feasible fibre combinations for the production of textile substrates
(woven and nonwovens) for different applications as well as possible processing
technologies were defined (see Table 1).
Table 1: PLA compounds for woven and nonwoven substrates
Based on the results of the initial fibre developments out of the BIOFIBROCAR project,
STFI went on with the development of nonwoven substrates for the composite material
to be used in moulded parts, like door panels. Two main approaches were taken into
consideration for nonwoven structures:
1. Production of nonwovens of 100 % PLA fibres to substitute polyester fibres completely
2. Use of thermoplastic PLA fibres in blends with natural fibres (mainly hemp)
The following 3-layer structure for the demonstrator part was proposed:

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Figure 3: Layer structure of the demonstrator door panel

Natural Fibre Composite (NFC) as supporting layer based on a needle-
L1 punched nonwoven with a mass per unit area of 1700 ‑ 1800 g/m² made from
PLA and hemp fibres ([%] 50/50)
Three dimensional needle-punched nonwoven as soft touch layer with a
L2
mass per unit area of 250 - 300 g/m² made from 100 % PLA fibres
L3 Decorative woven fabric made from dark coloured PLA-filament yarns
Following these findings, the fibre requirements for the nonwoven layers could be
defined as seen below (Table 2).
Table 2: Fibre requirements for nonwoven layers
For Layer 1, a carded nonwoven was made from a blend of PLA fibres and hemp
(fibre share [%] 50/50). The PLA fibres are thermoplastic and act as full profile bonding
fibres (instead of PP-fibres). After the carding process the fibre web is mechanically
entangled by needle-punching. At STFI, both processes (carding and needle-
punching) can be done in-line. At industrial scale, both carding and airlay processes
followed by needle-punching are common for the production of nonwovens for
moulded parts.
Figure 4: Machinery for the production of carded nonwovens for Layer 1 (Photos: STFI)
The complete substitution of PES fibres by PLA fibres was realized with Layer 2 (soft
touch layer for the door panel). PLA fibres (with a high melting point) blended with a
small amount (max. 15 %) of bicomponent PLA fibres (core: high melting point/sheath:
low melting point) were used for the production of a carded nonwoven. The fibre web
was bonded by needle-punching; stitch-bonding into a three-dimensional structure
is also suitable. After web bonding, a thermofixation was done to fix the achieved

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three-dimensional structure and the pressure-elastic properties of the nonwoven. For

this, the bicomponent fibres are needed. During the fixation process the sheath of the
bico-fibres becomes adhesive; the core fibres with higher melting point remain intact
and are glued on the fibre sheath.
Figure 5: Machinery for the production of carded nonwovens for Layer 2 (Photos: STFI)
To complete the demonstrator “moulded door panel”, a decorative woven fabric
(Layer 3) was made from 100 % PLA black filament yarns from scPLA with a melting
point of around 212 °C which is necessary for the further processing to avoid a
destruction of the fabric during the lamination process. The woven fabric from PLA
filaments was delivered by the German project partner ITA.
The subsequent composite production is consisting of two processing steps:
1. Composite A à made of Layers 2 and 3
The soft touch nonwoven layer and the decorative fabric are laminated at a flatbed
lamination plant using an adhesive web (gluing web). At the same time, the sheath
of PLA bonding fibres included in the nonwoven is activated and the whole structure
will be calibrated.
3 Composite A
2
Figure 6: Flatbed lamination plant (Photo: STFI)

2. Composite B à made of Composite A and Layer 1 (NFC)
Composite A and NFC as supporting layer made from PLA and hemp are joined
together during the moulding process into the final three dimensional composite B.
The production process consists of the following steps:

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• Pre-pressing of the nonwoven material into a two-dimensional plate (processing

temperature 200 °C)
• Positioning of the decorative fabric onto the heated plate
• Inline-transport of both layers to the three-dimensional pressing process
• Pressing in a cold tool and edge cutting
The total cycle time to produce the final part is 2 min.
Composite B
Figure 7: Final demonstrator (Photo: STFI)

Finally, testing methods for nonwoven layers and the moulded part (demonstrator)
have been identified (see Table 3) to see if the nonwoven material and the moulded
part are suitable to be used as car interior. Tests were carried out by STFI supported by
two industrial partners from the automotive supplier industry and by one OEM.
•
Table 3: Overview of tests and target values required by the automotive industry

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RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS
The obtained fibre parameters (see Table 4) have shown that the PLA fibres developed
and produced within the project fulfil the processing requirements concerning
material and temperature parameters to produce the foreseen woven and nonwoven
structures. Concerning the enhancement of the thermal properties, finally a VICAT
temperature of 104 °C could be achieved. For the production of moulded parts,
needle-punched nonwovens are to prefer as base material. Such nonwovens from
PLA fibres with different melting points or blends with PLA-based bicomponent fibres
allow the production of voluminous pressure-elastic structures which can be placed
as so-called soft touch layers between the moulded part and the decorative fabric.
Table 4: Finally selected PLA fibres
The tests carried out at the nonwoven layers and the moulded part met the target
values. Finally, a demonstrator complying with the requirements of the automotive
industry and almost entirely made of bio-based material which is biologically
degradable after a vehicle’s life cycle could be presented at the end of the project.
Figure 8: Final demonstrator panel implemented into a car door (Photos: STFI)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The project was funded by the European Union’s 7th Framework Programme (FP7-
SME-2012)-1 under Grant Agreement No. 315479. Furthermore, STFI colleagues would
like to thank AITEX for the coordination of BIOFIBROCAR and all the other project
partners for a constructive project work.

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RESEARCH ON INTERNATIONALIZATION OF CHINA’S TEXTILE INDUSTRY BASED ON THE BELT AND ROAD INITIATIVE: RISK CONTROL AND COOPERATIVE DEVELOPMENT
RESEARCH ON INTERNATIONALIZATION OF
CHINA’S TEXTILE INDUSTRY BASED ON THE BELT
AND ROAD INITIATIVE: RISK CONTROL AND
COOPERATIVE DEVELOPMENT
Tao He1, Ningchuan Jiang1 , Xin Wang1
1
Chengdu Textile College 1, No.186. Taishan south street.Xipu, Chengdu，China
(Presenting author E-mail: 1070027477@qq.com; Corresponding author email: 1070027477@qq.com)
ABSTRACT
As the Belt and Road Initiative（B&R）creates a new opportunity for the internationalization
of China’s textile industry, the enterprise have to sum up the previous experience,in-
depth analysis of the current international political and economic environment and
trends, to adapt to the industrial revolution and to integrate international resources
and to achieve cooperative development. Through the effective control of various
risks in the operation of international business and economic cooperation, to establish
the cooperative development mechanism, such as depending on the political and
economic coordination, business and culture cooperation, culture and relationship
coordination, industry chain cooperation，cross-border collaboration and so on. And
the Ecosystem of informationization of Textile and Garment Industry Internationalization
(Cloud Platform of Textile and Garment Industry Internationalization Information )
based of BIG DATA and Internet-plus should be established. So, China’s textile industry
can cope with change smart calmly to build a solid and coordination international
industrial chain and value chain. It can optimize its international division of labor
system, and continuously enhance its international competitive advantage.
Keywords: the Belt and Road Initiative（B&R）; internationalization; textile; risk control;
cooperative development
INTRODUCTION
The Belt and Road (B&R) (Chart 1) refers to the Silk Road Economic Belt and 21st
Century Maritime Silk Road, it were proposed by Chinese government in 2013. Its route
will run through the world’s three major continents—Asia, Africa and Europe[1]. It is a
brand new 21st century initiative. It aims to revive the maritime and overland routes of
the ancient Silk Roads and the ultimate goal is to encourage growth and cooperation
along the routes. So B&R initiative has not only become one of the top priorities of
the Chinese government, it has also attracted considerable interest from abroad,
and particularly from neighboring Asian countries. A case in point is that 57 countries
have joined the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB). B&R is an initiative with
magnitude, encompassing 65 countries, 63% of world population and 29% of world
GDP[1]. China is already world No.3 investor and No.1 recipient country of FDI among
developing countries. In 2003 to 2013, Chinese investment in B&R countries have
already increased from US $ 0.2 billion to US $ 13.4 billion, with an annual increase of
61%[1]. In 2014, FDI of B&R countries is 13 billion 660 million dollars, of which nearly 10
billion yuan investment in the textile industry[2]. In 2015, Investment from B&R countries
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into China has increased by 25% while Chinese investment into these countries has
increased by 18% (Xiankun Lu 2016)[3].
At present, the rapid development of China’s foreign investment, foreign investment
enterprises have nearly 30000, of which 802 textile and garment enterprises, and
formed a number of strength of international enterprises.
The internationalization of China’s textile industry has a long history, by the end of
2014, the establishment of more than 2600 overseas production, trade, research and
design of enterprises, distribution of more than 100 countries and regions[2], and in
the cross-border mergers and acquisitions (M&A) of upstream raw materials and
brand is also increasing.
Chart 1: The Belt and Road (by chinadaily)

NEW OPPORTUNITIES FOR INTERNATIONALIZATION
As the world’s largest producer, exporter and consumer of textiles and garments,
China boasts a complete upstream and downstream industrial chain with a
certain number of superior enterprises as well as technological, capital, personnel
and other core resources.
China textile industry is under the dual pressure of developed economies’“re-
industrialization” on one hand and the improved competitive advantages of
South-east and South Asian economies on the other. It is necessary for the Chinese
textile industry to re-establish internationally competitive advantages, introducing
own brands to the world, encourage enterprises to integrate value-added chain
worldwide and optimize the structure of textile exports. According to the 13th Five-
year Plan (2016-20), China textile industry will focus on five directions: upgrading

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of textile chain, internationalization, domestic regional transfer, eco-friendly

sustainable development and talent cultivation.
So, international development of the industry is imperative after China textile
industry had transfer to the central and western areas from the southeast coastal
areas. In recent years, to reverse the unfavorable situation where the export quota
for textiles and garments in main export markets is decreasing and overseas orders
keep recalling, domestic textile businesses have stepped up efforts to enable
newly-added capacity to “go global” on a large scale (Guo Wei 2015) [4].
B&R as the further step up outbound investment and encourage the relocation
of advantageous industries and excess capacity of countries along and beyond
B&R. And B&R is seen by many as a key pillar in China's foreign trade and FDI drive
in recent years[5].
Southeast Asia, South Asian countries and regions are not only competitors in
China's textile industry, but also provide a rare opportunity for new cooperation,
new space, new way to China's textile industry facing the international transfer of
industry.
At present, international division of labor system presents the trend of diversification
of production layout, research and design and development globalization, the
global value chain driven by Multi-National Corporation is reconstructing.
Investment, trade and cooperation is the key content of B&R construction,
obviously, grasp this opportunity to deepen the integration of internationalization
development, use of such factors:market, capital, culture and other international
industrial resources, is one key of China textile industry participation in the global
value chain reconstruction to realize industrial upgrading.
THE NEW NORMAL INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS
The new trade theory reveals that trade and investment are the different choices of
firms' international operation in the period of economic globalization. Multi-National
Corporation splits the industry value chain and layout to the countries and regions
with comparative advantage in the implementation of specialized production, the
implementation of industrial integration in the global scope to achieve its global
strategy.
The motivation of internationalization of enterprises includes: market driven, resource
driven, technology driven and efficiency driven. The ways of internationalization
are: export, brand M&A, equity M&A, investment and set up factories, industrial
transfer, technical cooperation and management structure changes and other
strategic assets operation etc.. China Textile and garment enterprises have used
the above international ways (Chart 2).
The main motivation is to reduce the cost of products, to avoid trade barriers,
the use of raw materials resources, design research and development resources,
brands and marketing channels, etc..
Along with the global textile industry globalization and trade liberalization, textile
manufacturing transfers to developing countries and less developed regions
such as Vietnam, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Malaysia, Uzbekistan,

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Ethiopia, etc..
Under the new normal, China's economy is faced with various challenges, but
also faced with different opportunities. China's textile industrial transfer is pregnant
with the development of new trends. In the textile industry transfer, human
resource and policy advantages are two very important factors. For example,
in 2013 Tianhong Group has launched 2 projects and 1 Cotton Textile Industrial
Park project in Vietnam, production capacity of 1 million spindles. China textile
industry FDI is nearly 10 billion yuan in 2014. In the main investment direction along
B&R are two economic corridors, India Burma economic corridor and Pakistan
Economic Corridor, four hot regional are south and Southeast Asia, East Africa and
central asia. Among them, the "China + neighboring countries" the layout of the
manufacturing base mode, to maintain and enhance the international leading
edge of China's textile industry.
Free trade agreement creates the new blue ocean of the layout of the industrial
chain. Because of tariff reduction and raw material costs decreased significantly,
it enhances the export price competitiveness, the development of China's textile
and garment industry is very optimistic.
CCG Report 2015 shows that M&A has become the main way of foreign investment
of Chinese enterprises. China's investment projects abroad cover a broad range
of areas, such as trade, industrial processing, transportation, research and
development and so on.
Increasing number of cross-border M&A of upstream textile raw materials, such
as Zhejiang Fulida group M&A Canada's new CIR dissolving pulp company; for
Asian emerging market, the brands in Europe and America take M&A chances
of ownership or management right to Chinese enterprise, such as Youngor
M&A Smart etc.; in addition to the brand and technology M&A, such as Jiangsu
Jinsheng industry acquired Swiss Oerlikon natural fiber and textile machinery
special parts division; internationalization management structure changes such
as Dongdu Textile Group established high-level international operation strategy,
transformated as the "integration leader of global industrial resource".
To transformation and upgrading, China textile industry should implement a more
proactive opening-up strategy, focus on promoting the global layout, forward to
the high-end textile and garment industry. By the transnational resource allocation
to make "Made in China" transformation and upgrading to "Created in China"
(Rui-zhe SUN 2015) [6].
China's textile industry, the whole industry chain of the manufacturing sector
quality, is the world's biggest comparative advantages, and the diversification
of business internationalization can fully hedge domestic manufacturing cost of
irreversible increase, in response to the industry changes, take the opportunity to
improve the international management system and to enhance the international
competitive.

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INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS RISK CONTROL

Macro and micro risk of Internationalization are diversity and complicated. At the
same time, after financial crisis era of national economic recovery pressure increase,
there many not controllable risk factors which threaten the enterprise's survival and
development, so risk management is becoming more and more important, we must
improve the risk assessment and control system.
Usually the internationalization faces: the macro level risk such as political risk, legal risk,
economic risk (monetary, exchange rate, inflation, capital flow risk), cultural conflict risk,
social responsibility risk, technology risk (Lai, Ivan K W, Lau, Henry C W 2012) [7] , micro
level risk such as market risk, project risk management, contract risk, human resource risk
and so on. Chinese enterprises are also faced with special risks such as corporate image
recognition errors, the "legitimacy" of the state owned enterprises, the use of differences
and lack of experience and so on (Jianjun Shi, Libo Fan 2012) [8] .
International Trade: protection and technical barriers to trade as the norm. In 2014,
the foreign textile products of China launched 3 anti-dumping investigations.
Direct investment: the depth of the risk of forever. For example: even if get a strong
support of Pakistan and China government, the Masood Textile Industrial Park project
due to the commercial provisions of the securities regulatory authorities and the
requirements of the conflict, and had to temporarily suspend.
The Chinese textile enterprises must redouble vigilance, as overseas investment enterprises
of China profit and flat for the 77.2%, loss 22.8% in 2014 (Ming Zhang 2015)[9].
Moreover, the rapid growth of China's foreign investment has led to the widespread
concern of the international community, and thus highlights the four major risks.
The first is the security review policy, which has the greatest impact on the Chinese
enterprises foreign investment, which occurs in the United States, Australia and some
developing countries. Second is corporate social responsibility, such as the United
Nations advocate the three bottom line, ISO26000 guide and OECD Multi-National
Corporation guide. Third is the risk of nationalization, such as diplomatic relations with

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developing countries and the political risk of individual countries is higher. Fourth is the
"competitive neutrality" principle, it may have a more profound impact on Chinese
enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises (He Fan 2014).
In order to control the risks of international operations, in international trade, foreign
trade risk early warning platform, trade remedy mechanism and foreign trade service
platform should be further innovation mechanism and deepening of application and
play its role.
For Chinese enterprises overseas non finance direct investment (OFDI), quantitative
analysis reveals the experience, one is greater amount of investment more easily
blocked; second is investment in the form of mergers and acquisitions or investments,
through what way is very important; three is the timing of investment is very important,
such as the host country economic prosperity or depression, commodity prices are
up or down; four is the investment industry is more important (Ming Zhang 2015) [9].
Fortunately, Chinese enterprises overseas investment risk rating analysis system from
CASS can refer to the risk control method [7].It starts from the business perspective, the
risk of direct investment to the host country for full range rating, equal weights of the
five modules including a total of 37 sub indicators of the index system: the economic
basis, solvency, flexible social, political risk and the relationship with China (Chart 3).
This rating methods is in the same manner as Moody's, S& P and Fitch, from AA to
BBB is investment grade, B grade is relatively high risk level. For example, in 2013 only
Germany is AAA, emerging market countries are concentrated in BBB. Five modules of
each radar chart clearly reflects the South Asia, Central Asia, the developed countries
of the rating differences, the reference value is obvious.
Current global production entered the network era, international investment
agreements is facing reform, new rules and new agreement are being negotiated.
So actively participate in the rule making, strengthen international cooperation, can
better protect the long-term interests of China's foreign investment.
If the degree of internationalization of China's textile industry increases significantly,
more talent internationalization, more indurstry internationalization, more capital
internationalization, and market internationalization, improve the degree of industrial
cooperation and internal industrialization, the risks will translate into more opportunities.

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Chart 3: Risk rating analysis system of chinese enterprises overseas investment (by
CASS)
COOPERATIVE DEVELOPMENT AND ITS FUNCTION
Facing international risk, superior strength of the integration of large enterprises can
"go out" like Rainbow, Ruyi Group alone, and more textile and garment enterprises
must integrate various resources of political, commercial, cultural, emotional, groups
, etc., to the union international operations, and so have the odds.
In order to solve these problems, to establish the cooperative development mechanism,
such as depending on the political and economic coordination, business and culture
cooperation, culture and relationship coordination, industry chain cooperation，cross-
border collaboration and so on.
Political and economic coordination, commercial and cultural collaboration has
been a lot of successful companies international business cases such as Ruyi-Pakistan
Textile and Garment Industrial Park.This project become the successful combination
of the typical examples of industrial capital, international capital and financial capital
(cross-border collaboration (multi industry coordinating)), supported from CICB,
China and Pakistan investment fund, the Middle East Investment Fund and Pakistan’s
financial institutions and Shandong Huaneng Electric Power.
The textile supply chain management based of global factors is already a trend.
Global textile and apparel supply chain Assembly sponsored by China Textile
Industry Association has become a very effective industrial chain collaboration
mechanism, many Chinese textile and garment industry clusters, leading enterprises
and the downstream industry partners throughout the world shared the collaborative
development great benefits.
And the ecology of the industrial informationization of internationalization (Cloud
Platform of Textile and Garment Industry Internationalization Information ) based of
BIG DATA and Internet-plus should be established. So it can be built by the Chinese

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textile multinational companies, which firm and coordinated international industrial

chain and value chain.
Accelerate the Cloud Platform of Textile and Garment Industry Internationalization
Information (CPTGIII) (cloud resource) focused international operation information and
innovation factors, including, but not limited to: Collaborative Commerce International
trade and investment cloud cloud, the cloud information Textile and Apparel Industry
Association, the textile industry clusters and alliances innovation platform, ICC
information cloud, international investment and trade risk early warning platform,
cross-border e-commerce platform, foreign trade service platform, public research
institutes and think tanks, etc., form a highly efficient and productive service system
- Ecosystem of informationization of Textile and Garment Industry Internationalization
(Chart 4). Relying on its textile and garment enterprises to identify opportunities early,
early to deal with risks, early adjustment strategy to achieve integration of resources,
risk management, cooperative development, win-win opportunities.
Chart 4: Ecosystem of informationization of Textile and Garment Industry

Internationalization
CONCLUSIONS
Respond to industry changes, international operations should be an important goal
of China’s textile and garment industry to upgrade, the companies should grasp the
B&R opportunity to achieve China’s textile industry international upgrading.
Enhancing the international competitive advantage of industry can not be separated
from the perfection of the policy environment, the efforts of enterprises and the
coordinated integration of the industry associations.
In short, on the one hand, the government should continue to deepen reform of
the management of international trade and overseas investment, strengthen the
construction of public service platform, increase of financial credit support to the
“going out” textile enterprises, and to move towards high-end chain, both ends of

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the smile curve: encourage the international industrial transfer and layout, control
R & D, design, brand and marketing services value chain in domestic, transferring
OEM manufacturing and other low value chain to foreign countries. And actively
participates in international investment agreements and multilateral rule making,
strengthen international cooperation and better protect the long-term interests of
China’s foreign investment.
On the other hand, Chinese textile enterprises should optimize the internationalization
way, integration of international resources coordinated, management and control
all kinds of internal and external risk, especially to strengthen the risk identification
and risk analysis of direct investment in emerging market countries, and formulate
risk control and treatment strategy in advance. Accelerate promoting the degree of
internationalization of the industry, enhance the degree of industrial cooperation and
internalization, making the risks into opportunities.
In addition, the industry to establish the cooperative development mechanism, such
as depending on the political and economic coordination, business and culture
cooperation, culture and relationship coordination, industry chain cooperation，cross-
border collaboration, construction the ecology of the industrial informationization of
internationalization or CPTGIII , so achieve integration of resources and risk control
and win-win development. Then to promote China’s textile and garment industry shift
to services, information intensive industry from the labor intensive.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I shall extend my thanks to Dr.Xia Ping for all her kindness and help. I would also
thank all my friends who have helped me to develop the fundamental and essential
academic advices. My sincere appreciation also goes to two institutions, for their
encouragement and support by the research fund of sichuan province education
department. (number: 15SA0144), also received funding from the Chengdu Textile
College research fund. (number: 2014fzskA02).
REFERENCES
[1] The belt and road.[EB/OL]. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/silkroad/mobile.html.
[2] MINISTRY OF COMMERCE,PRC. 2015. 2014 Statistical Bulletin of China’s Outward Foreign Direct
Investment. Beijing: China Statistics Press.
[3] Xiankun Lu. China “One Belt & One Road” (OBOR) Initiative: Background, Contents and Perspective.
[EB/OL].http://www.linkedin.com/pulse/china-one-belt-road-B&R-initiative-background-contents-
xiankun-lu.
[4] Guo Wei, General Office, DRC. Pilot Practice for China’s Textile Industry to Go Global and Policy
Options: A Survey on the Industrial Park of Dongnai Province in Vietnam. Research Report No 177,
2015 (Total NO 4862).
[5] China's outbound investment set to pass FDI. CHINA TEXTILE LEADER (CTL),2015(1):9.
[6] Rui-zhe SUN. Capital market innovation boosts fashion-oriented transformation.CHINA TEXTILE
LEADER (CTL), 2015(12):18-21
[7] Lai, Ivan K W, Lau, Henry C W A hybrid risk management model: a case study of the textile industry
[J].Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, 2012, Vol.23 (5):666.
[8] Jianjun Shi, Libo Fan. The internationalization of Chinese enterprises operating risk identification
and prevention [J]. People's forum, academic frontier 2012, (10):38.
[9] Ming Zhang, Yong-zhong Wang. Country-Risk Rating of Overseas Investment from China（Croic-
Iwep） 2014. Beijing: China Social Sciences Press.

798
Posters
PROTECTION OF PERSONAL AND BIOMETRIC DATA OF INDIVIDUALS FROM THE MEASUREMENTS WITH A 3D SCANNER
PROTECTION OF PERSONAL AND BIOMETRIC

DATA OF INDIVIDUALS FROM THE
MEASUREMENTS WITH A 3D SCANNER
Grażyna Grabowska, Elżbieta Maklewska, Joanna Błaszczyk,
Agata Pawłowska
Institute of Security Technologies MORATEX., Łódź, Poland
The presented study was done under the research project No. DOBR BIO4/045/13067/2013
“Individualization of the design of multifunctional ballistic concealable vests” Acronym
SECRET, financed by Polish National Centre for Research and Development.
Project’s leader: INSTITUTE OF SECURITY TECHNOLOGIES MORATEX
Within the project the procedures will be developed for creating the manufacturing
process with the use of the most accurate method of human body measurement,
which is .3D scanning technology. That provides a better fit (individualization) of
ballistic vests made for the identified group of officers. One of project aims is the
following task:
Task II.1. : The development of the procedures for ensuring the protection of
personal data and the required ethical aspects.(1),(2), (3)
The project partner responsible for the execution of task: Police Academy in Szczytno
(Poland).
The procedures was elaborated by dr P. Łuka, dr D. Bukowiecka, J. Horoszkiewicz,
S. Górski.
Definition of Personal Data - that is any information which allow to identify a natural
person 4
Definition of Processing of Personal data – that is any operation performed on these
data, such as: collection, recording, alteration, sharing, elaboration, removal etc.
Condition of the processing admissibility of personal data is the consent of the data
subject permissibility
Entities involved in the procedure of ensuring the data protection:
- P1 – Police Unit – designates the officers who will be subjected to measurement
using a 3D scanner. Officers receive reference numbers (NR),
- P2 – the person who performs the measurement of an officer’s silhouette. The result
of scanning is a list of officer’s measurement data (DP) assigned to NR,
- P3 – the vest manufacturer – to which the DP list of measurement data will be
transferred and under which the individual concealable vest (KA) will be made with
its reference number (NR) assigned.
The completed product will go to P1.
Further, the resultant list of measurement data (DP) shall contribute to elaboration of
so called size-list (R) and the development of some universal sizes of vests.
799
Posters
N DP
R
P1 R P2 P3
R
R
DP
PP
PP
R
KA
Figure 1. Procedure of ensuring the protection of personal data. (Scheme elaborated by Police Academy)
The measurement of silhouette will not be considered as a measure of biometric

data if the measurement accuracy will be limited. In the case where the parameters
subject to the measuring will be classified in certain measuring scopes - ranges, such
data cease to be individual.
RESULTS
The developed procedure of personal data protection of the individual vest users
subjected to scanning shall allow for ensuring the protection adequate to the needs.
Data acquired from anthropometric measurements with a 3D scanner will be found
useful for the computer systems for designing technical clothes and will enable
developing the templates of clothing according to standard dimensions of human
body.
Figure 2. Method of human body

measurement with use .3D scanning
technology (picture made by E.
Knopik - Protective Equipment Plant
MASKPOL SA)

Keywords: protection of personal data, ballistic concealable vests, 3D scanner
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The presented study were done within the research project No OBR-BIO4/045/13067/2013
“Individualization of Multifunctional, Concealed Body Ballistic Vest Design” financed
by Polish National Centre for Research and Development

800
Posters
REFERENCES
(Endnotes)
1 D. Bukowiecka et al. Police Physical Security- Structure for Individualization of Ballistic Vests,
International Security, July – December 2014
2 P. Łuka et al., Indywidualizacja konstrukcji wielofunkcyjnych kamizelek balistycznych skrytego
noszenia, X Międzynarodowa Konferencja Uzbrojeniowa, Ryn 15-18.09.2014
3 Rules anonymisation http://legnica.so.gov.pl/bindata/documents/DOC6d9e2d8aca46468c0ab7a
3b7590b880b.pdf (15.07.2015)
4 The Law on Personal Data Protection Dz.U.2002.101.926 z dn.29.08.1997

801
Local Organizer:
Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants
60-630 Poznań, ul. Wojska Polskiego 71 b
tel. +48 61 845 58 65
www.iwnirz.pl

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25th – 28th April 2016

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

Presidents Welcome Message

As World President of The Textile Institute I welcome you to

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

Chair Welcome Message

90th Textile Institute World Conference 2016 titled: Textiles,

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

EVALUATION OF THERMOPHYSIOLOGICAL COMFORT PROPERTIES OF THE DESIGNED T-SHIRTS WITH

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

FUNCTIONAL CLOTHING AND TEXTILES – AN APPROACH TOWARDS FASHION

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

NEW FIBROUS SOIL IMPROVERS FOR AGRICULTURE

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

WOVEN MULTILAYER MULTILEVEL MODULAR TEXTILE ‘VERTABRAE’: AN OVERVIEW OF WOVEN

COOPERATION AND COMPETITIVENESS IN RELATIONAL PRODUCTION NETWORKS

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

FLAMMABILITY PROPERTIES AND FIRE

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

their property (adhesion, wettability).

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

absorption of water making it completely hydrophilic.

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

process as corona treatment promotes a decrease in the tensile strength value,

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

b) medium length, with staple length 20-30mm (American upland variety)

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

cultivation of non-food crops, use of co-products from processing of textile raw

Fig. 1. Examples of global EMG records

The results of study on clothing influence on parameters of human muscle activity

Fig. 2. The TAS level in people wearing linen

Linen clothing characterizing by hydrophilic properties do not cause the increase

obtaining in statu nascendi polyhydroxyalcanate (PHA) e.g.: polyhydroxy butyrate

Fig.3. Temperature and Immunoglobulin

Efforts are undertaken also to obtain the spider biosilk.

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

Textile Magazine, Spring. 1994.

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

COTTON SUSTAINABILITY: THE INFLUENCE OF

(joy.bucklow@postgrad.manchester.ac.uk, patsy.perry@manchester.ac.uk, gary.

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

the product, providing a means of differentiation (Youssef & Abderrazak 2009) in

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

generally accepted to be affected by knowledge (Spruyt et al. 2007). Persuasiveness

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

CHARACTERIZATION OF COCONUT AND FIQUE

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference:

!! = !! ! ∗ coth (Γ ! ∗ !), (2)

Where !! (!) is the characteristic impedance at normal incidence and Γ ! is

Mass per unit area

Coconut 0.008 0.015 0.006 0.005 0.026

It has been made a comparison of the average measured value of absorption

The 90th Textile Institute World Conference: