Fluid Mechanics

and Measurement
Introduction
Dr. Hamdy A. Kandil
Mechanical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering
Alexandria University

Textbooks
 Cengel & Cimbala “Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications”, 2nd
Edition 2009 OR 1st edition, McGraw Hill, 2005.
 Munson, Young & Okiishi, “Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics,” 7th
edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2012 or previous editions. (GUC library has
some copies of this textbook).
 Munson, Young & Okiishi, “Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics,” Student
Solution Manual, John Wiley & Sons, 2012 or previous editions
 Cengel & Turner “Fundamentals of Thermal Fluid Sciences”, 2nd edition,
McGraw Hill, 2004. (GUC library has some copies of this textbook).
Motivation for Studying Fluid
Mechanics
 Fluid Mechanics is omnipresent in:
 Aerodynamics
 Bioengineering and biological systems
 Combustion
 Energy generation
 Geology
 Hydraulics and Hydrology
 Hydrodynamics
 Meteorology
 Ocean and Coastal Engineering
 Water Resources
 …numerous other examples…

Aerodynamics
Bioengineering

Energy generation
Geology

Hydraulic Structures
Hydrodynamics

Meteorology
 Water Resources

Channels of Rome
Alazhar
Park

‫ القاھرة‬- ‫سور مجرى العيون‬

Definitions (Fluid Mechanics)

 Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with both
stationary and moving bodies under the influence of forces.
 The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest is
called statics while the branch that deals with bodies in
motion is called dynamics.
 The subcategory Fluid Mechanics is the science that deals
with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in
motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with
solids or other fluids at the boundaries.
 Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on the basis
of their ability to resist an applied shear (or tangential)
stress that tends to change the shape of the substance.
 A fluid deforms continuously under the influence of shear
stress, no matter how small.
 What is a fluid?
 A fluid is a substance in the gaseous or liquid form
 Distinction between solid and fluid?
 Solid: can resist an applied shear by deforming. Stress is
proportional to strain
 Fluid: deforms continuously under applied shear. Stress is
proportional to strain rate

Solid Fluid
F F V
    
A A h

What is a fluid?
 A liquid takes the shape of the
container it is in and forms a
free surface in the presence
of gravity
 A gas expands until it
encounters the walls of the
container and fills the entire
available space. Gases cannot
form a free surface
 Gas and vapor are often used
as synonymous words
Properties OF A Fluid
 Any characteristic of a fluid is called a property. Some familiar
properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass
m.
 Not all properties are independent, however. Some are defined
in terms of other ones.
 For example, density is defined as mass per unit volume.
 = m/V (kg/m3)
 The density of a substance, in general, depends on temperature
and pressure.

Change of Water
Density with
Temperature

Anomalous Expansion of Water

 Specific Weight and Specific Gravity
 The specific weight of a fluid designated by the symbol  (gamma)
defined as its Weigh per unit volume.  =W/V = mg/V
 Specific weight is related to density through the equation
 =  g, where g is the local acceleration of gravity.
 In the BG system,  has units of lb/ft3 and in SI the units are N/m3
and (standard g = 32.174 ft/s2 = 9.81 m/s2),
 Water at 60 °F (15.5°C) has a specific weight of 62.4 lb/ft3 , 9810
N/m3 = 9.81 kN/m3, 1000 kgf/m3= 1 kgf/lit.
 Specific gravity, or relative density, is defined as the ratio of the
density of a substance to the density water at 4°C, for which (H2O
= 1000 kg/m3). That is,
SG.= s= /H2O@4°C = / H2O@4°C

 Note that the specific gravity of a substance is a dimensionless

quantity.

Comparison of different measuring

techniques for density
1- Hydrometer
 The hydrometer (aerometer) is a glass
body which is dipped into the sample.
After a short equilibration time it will
swim at a certain level (when the mass
of the hydrometer is equal to the
buoyancy effect).
 The higher the density of the sample,
the less the hydrometers will sink. The
level of equilibrium reads the density on
the calibrated scale.
Measuring the density of the battery acid

Density Measurement

Hydrometer
 Hydrometer
Advantages:  Disadvantages:  Main applications: 
• Simple method • Breakable glassware • Quick control of a
• Quick measurement • Long and difficult "rough" density
(*)  thermostating  value, mainly for
• Inexpensive • Very small measuring range process control
instrument  (requires several • Suitable for the
• Special instruments hydrometers to cover a measurement of the
with direct readings wider range, typically 20 same kind of sample
in Alcohol%, Sugar% units)  (wine, beer) due to
(BRIX) or other • Operator dependent the limited
density related values readings, therefore limited measuring range 
available accuracy • Not suitable for
  • No measurement protocol expensive samples
(*) if no thermostating • Large sample volume (large volume
required  required required). 
• Difficult to clean and dry   

Pycnometer
 A pycnometer is a glass beaker of defined
volume. It is weighed without sample (W1),
then filled with the sample and weighed again
(W2). The difference between W1 and W2
(=Weight of the sample) divided by the
volume of the beaker is the specific weight of
the sample.
 Divide the specific weight by g to determine
the density.
Pycnometer
Advantages: Disadvantages: Main applications:

• Simple method* • Breakable glassware • Educational: what is

• Relatively • Long and difficult density, how to
inexpensive thermostating measure density
instrument • Density must be • Production control:
• Special instruments calculated where more precision
with direct readings • Operator dependent is required
in Alcohol%, Sugar% readings, therefore • Analytical labs:
(BRIX) or other limited accuracy where GLP is not
density related • No measurement protocol required
values available (not suitable for GLP*) • Not suitable for
• Large sample volume expensive samples
(*) if no thermostating required (large volume
required required).
* GLP: Good Lab. Practice

Density kit
 The density kit is used together with a
balance
 A glass body of a defined volume is
weighed in air (W1), dipped in sample and
weighed again in the sample (W2)
 The difference between (W1 and W2)
divided by the volume of the glass body
gives the specific weight of the sample.
 W2 = W 1 – F B
 FB = V * sample = W1 – W2

 A special holder can be used to measure

the density of solids using a reference
liquid (water, ethanol, ..)
Density kit
Advantages: Disadvantages: Main applications:
• No manual reading • Long and difficult • Density of solids
• GLP printout thermostating • Density of porous
• Just an accessory • Large sample materials
to a balance, volume required • Density of viscous
therefore relatively material (using a
inexpensive gamma sphere)

Digital density meter

 A hollow glass tube vibrates at a
certain frequency. This frequency
changes when the tube is filled with
the sample: the higher the mass of the
sample, the lower the frequency. This
frequency is measured and converted
into density.
 Calibration is carried out with air and
distilled water.
 A built-in Peltier thermostat controls
the temperature very precisely,
without using a water bath.
 Digital density meter
Disadvantages: Main
Advantages:
applications:
• Build-in product management Expensive Quality control
with automatic quality of final products
control
• Build-in SOP*
• Automation (sample changer,
computer)
• Extension with other
instruments for multi-
parameter measurement

* SOP : Standard operating

procedure

VISCOSITY
 Consider the flow of a fluid over a stationary plate. The fluid can be
thought to consist of adjacent layers of molecules piled on top of each
other.
 The fluid layer in contact with the plate will try to drag the plate along
via friction, exerting a drag force (or friction force) on it.
 Likewise, a faster fluid layer will try to drag the adjacent slower layer
and exert a drag force because of the friction between the two layers.
 The friction force per unit area is called shear stress and is denoted by .

 Experimental studies indicate that the shear

stress for most fluids is proportional to the
velocity gradient and is expressed as:
  =  du/dy N/m2
  is the dynamic viscosity coefficient N/m2s
(Pa.s) = kg/m.s
 Viscosity

Water and Honey

WATER

Viscosity
 Newtonian and non-Newtonian Fluids

Newtonian fluids Newtonian and non-Newtonian

Examples
 Water and simple liquids; air and simple gases… are Newtonian
fluids.
 Fluids in food industry, gels, polymers, slurries, drilling muds,
blood… are Non-Newtonian fluids.
 The Non-Newtonian behaviour is frequently associated with complex
internal structure: fluid has large complex molecules (like a
polymer) or fluid is a heterogeneous solution (like a suspension)...

1. Coal slurries having consistency of over 80% by volume of

powdered or crushed coal in water can be pumped long distances
with much less power requirements for pumping than pure water.
2. In the fracturing treatment of oil wells, materials have been
developed which when added to water make a fluid so thick that it
suspends sand, glass or metal pellets. Yet the same fluid can be
pumped down a well at enormous rates with less than half the
friction loss of water.
 Non-Newtonian Fluids
 1. Bingham plastics
 Examples: slurries, plastics,
emulsions such as paints, and
suspensions of finely solids in a liquid
(e.g. drilling muds, which consist
primarily of clays suspended in
water).
 2. Pseudoplastic (shear thinning)
fluids
 A progressively decreasing slope of
shear stress vs. shear rate.
 Examples: paper pulp in water, latex
paint, blood, syrup, molasses,
ketchup, whipped cream, nail polish.

3. Dilatant (shear thickening) fluids

 The apparent viscosity increases with increasing shear rate.
 Examples: suspensions of corn starch or sand in water.
 Applications:
 Traction control: some all-wheel drive systems use a viscous
coupling unit full of dilatant fluid to provide power transfer
between front and rear wheels. On high traction surfacing, the
relative motion between primary and secondary drive wheels is the
same, so the shear is low and little power is transferred. When the
primary drive wheels start to slip, the shear increases, causing the
fluid to thicken. As the fluid thickens, the torque transferred to
the secondary drive wheels increases, until the maximum amount of
power possible in the fully thickened state is transferred.
 Body armour: application of shear thickening fluids for use as body
armour, allowing the wearer flexibility for a normal range of
movement, yet providing rigidity to resist piercing by bullets,
stabbing knife blows, and similar attacks.
Effect of
Temperature
on Viscosity
The viscosity of liquids
decreases with
temperature, whereas
the viscosity of gases
increases with
temperature.

Effect of Temperature on Viscosity

 The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its "stickiness" or
"resistance to deformation." This is due to the internal
frictional force that develops between fluid layers as they are
forced to move relative to each other.
 Viscosity is caused by cohesive forces between molecules in
liquids and by molecular collisions in gases, and it varies greatly
with temperature.
 The viscosity of liquids decreases with temperature, whereas
the viscosity of gases increases with temperature.
 This is because, in a liquid, the molecules possess more energy at
higher temperatures, and they can oppose the large cohesive
intermolecular forces more strongly. As a result, the energized
liquid molecules can move more freely.
 As the temp. of the gas increases, the random molecular activity
increases with a corresponding increase in viscosity.
No-Slip Condition
 No-slip condition: A fluid in
direct contact with a solid
``sticks'‘ to the surface due
to viscous effects
 Responsible for generation
of wall shear stress w,
surface drag D= ∫w dA, and
the development of the
boundary layer
 The fluid property
responsible for the no-slip
condition is viscosity

External Flow Internal Flow

Viscous vs. Inviscid Regions of Flow

 Regions where frictional effects are
significant are called viscous regions.
They are usually close to solid
surfaces.
 Regions where frictional forces are
small compared to inertial or
pressure forces are called inviscid

External Flow Internal Flow

Force required to move a plate
 Experimental studies indicate that the shear stress for most fluids is
proportional to the velocity gradient and is expressed as:
 =  du/dy N/m2
 For Newtonian fluids this variation is linear, and thus the velocity
profile is a straight line.
 The velocity gradient dU/dy is constant in this case throughout the
fluid  du/dy = U/b.

 For a given fluid, the force F required to

move the upper plate is proportional to the
velocity U and the area A of the upper
plate wetted by the fluid, and is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the fluid
layer b (Again, the constant of
proportionality is the dynamic viscosity .
Then the force F can be expressed as:
 F =  A U/b (b distance between the
plates)

Flow between Two Cylinders

 Noting that torque is T = FR (force
X the moment arm, which is the
radius R of the inner cylinder) and
the tangential velocity is V =  R
(angular velocity X the radius), and
taking the wetted surface area of
the inner cylinder to be A = 2RL
by disregarding the shear stress
acting on the two ends of the inner
cylinder.
 The equation can be expressed for
torque as:
 F =  A U/c
 F=  (2 RL) *  R /c
 T = F R =  (2 RL ) *  R /c * R
(c clearance = Ro- Ri)
 Measuring Viscosity: Falling ball
viscometer
 The falling ball viscometer is a simple method used to determine
the viscosity of a substance. A sample tube is filled with the test
substance which is to be viscosity tested. A spherical or column
shaped body with known dimensions and density is dropped in free
fall through the substance in the sample tube. The time taken for
the body to pass between two set points is used to determine the
substances viscosity.

Capillary Tube Viscometer

The most common method of determining kinematic
viscosity in the lab is the capillary tube viscometer.
In this method, the oil sample is placed into a glass
capillary U-tube and the sample is drawn through the
tube using suction until it reaches the start position
indicated on the tube’s side. The suction is then
released, allowing the sample to flow back through the
tube under gravity.
The narrow capillary section of the tube controls the
oil’s flow rate; more viscous grades of oil take longer to
flow than thinner grades of oil.
The flow-rate is governed by resistance of the oil
flowing under gravity through the capillary tube.
The viscosity is typically reported in centistokes (cSt),
equivalent to mm2/s in SI units, and is calculated from
the time it takes oil to flow from the starting point to
the stopping point.
Viscosity Measurement: Capillary Tube
Viscometer

Saybolt Viscometer
Saybolt Viscometer
 The efflux time in seconds of 60 ml of sample,
flowing through a calibrated orifice, is measured
under carefully controlled conditions. This time is
corrected by an orifice factor, and reported as
the viscosity of the sample at that temperature.

Engler Viscometer

Rotary Viscometer
 A less common method of determining an oil’s
viscosity utilizes a rotary viscometer. In this test
method, the oil is placed in a glass tube, housed in
an insulated block at a fixed temperature. A metal
spindle is then rotated in the oil at a fixed rpm, and
the torque required to rotate the spindle is
measured. Based on the internal resistance to
rotation provided by the shear stress of the oil,
the oil’s absolute viscosity can be determined.
Absolute viscosity is reported in centipoise (cP),
equivalent to mPa·s in SI units.
 Absolute viscosity are used in formulating engine
oils.
 A multi-grade engine oil that is designated as SAE
15W-40 must therefore conform to the kinematic
viscosity limits at elevated temperatures according
to Table 1 and the minimum requirements for cold
Rotary Viscometer

Rotary Viscometer
 Vibro viscometer
 The vibro viscometer works by sending uniform frequency
vibrations out from two sensor plates which sit submerged in the
sample fluid.
 The electromagnetic drive controls the vibration of the sensor
plates to keep in constant amplitude.

 The driving electric current, which is

exciting force, will be detected as the
magnitude of viscidity produced between the
sensor plates and the sample fluid. The
thicker (more viscous) the substance the
more driving current is required to maintain
the vibration frequency. The coefficient of
viscosity is obtained by the correlation
between the driving electric current and the
magnitude of viscidity.

Vibro viscometer
Units of Dynamic Viscosity, µ
 Poise (symbol: P) Named after the French physician Jean Louis
Marie Poiseuille (1799–1869), this is the cgs unit of viscosity,
equivalent to dyne-second per square centimetre. It is the
viscosity of a fluid in which a tangential force of 1 dyne per
square centimeter maintains a difference in velocity of 1
centimeter per second between two parallel planes 1 centimeter
apart. Even in relation to high-viscosity fluids, this unit is most
usually encountered as the centipoise (cP), which is 0.01 poise.
Dynamic Viscosity of water at 20ºC = 1 cP
 Pascal-second (symbol: Pa·s) This is the SI unit of viscosity,
equivalent to newton-second per square meter (N·s m–2). It is
sometimes referred to as the “Poiseuille” (symbol Pl). One poise
is exactly 0.1 Pa·s. One Poiseuille is 10 poise or 1000 cP, while 1
cP = 1 mPa·s (one milliPascal-second).

Kinematic Viscosity,  = µ/

 Stokes (symbol: St) This is the cgs unit, equivalent to square
centimeter per second. One stokes is equal to the viscosity in
poise divided by the density of the fluid in g/cm3. It is most
usually encountered as the centistokes (cSt) (= 0.01 Stokes).
Kinematic Viscosity of water at 20ºC = 1 cS
 Saybolt Seconds Universal (SSU) This is the time for 60 ml of
fluid to flow through the calibrated orifice of a Saybolt
Universal viscometer at a specified temperature, as prescribed
by test method ASTM D 88. For higher viscosities, SSF
(Saybolt Seconds Furol) is used. “Furol” comes from “fuel and
road oil”.
 Degree Engler This is the ratio of the time of flow of 200 ml of
fluid to the time of flow of 200 ml of water at the same
temperature in a standardized Engler viscosity meter.
 SI units,  = µ (N.s/m2)/(kg/m3) = (kg.m.s/s2.m2)/(kg/m3) = m2/s
Compressibility of Fluids
dp
Bulk Modulus: K K 

d


 dp is the differential pressure needed

to create a change in volume V by dV.
 Ev has units of pressure = F/area
 For water at 15 C: K = 2.15 X 109 N/m2
 For perfect gasses:
 Isothermal process: PV = const.
P1V1 = P2V2

Measuring bulk modulus of fluid

 For water of normal
temperature/pressure K =
2.06 x l09 Pa
dp
K 
d

 The bulk modulus K is closely
related to the velocity a of a
pressure wave propagating in
a liquid, which is given by the
following equation
 Surface Tension
 Liquid droplets behave like
small spherical balloons filled
with liquid, and the surface of
the liquid acts like a stretched
elastic membrane under
tension.
 The pulling force that causes
this is
 due to the attractive
forces between molecules
 called surface tension s
(Surface Tension force per
unit length N/m).
 Repulsive forces from interior
molecules causes the liquid to
minimize its surface area and
attain a spherical shape.

Applications (Surface Tension)

Pressure change across a curved interface due to surface tension: (a)

interior of a liquid cylinder; (b) interior of a spherical droplet; (c)
general curved interface.
Applications

Surface Tension (You can try at home)

Pepper-Water Trick
Capillary Effect  Capillary effect is the rise
or fall of a liquid in a small-
diameter tube.
 The curved free surface in
the tube is called the
meniscus.
 Water meniscus curves up
because water is a wetting
fluid.
 Mercury meniscus curves
down because mercury is a
non-wetting fluid.
 Force balance can describe
magnitude of capillary rise.

W   ( R 2 h)  2 R cos 
2 cos 
h
R

Capillary Tubes
Applications

Measuring Surface Tension

Measuring Surface Tension
 The figure presents a metal tool with two thin rods which can be
lowered into a liquid. If the tool is dipped into a liquid and pulled
up again a vertical film of the liquid will form on the tool.
 The surface tension of the liquid will make the liquid resist the
upward pull when trying to minimize the surface area. The work
done when pulling the tool out of the surface can be described
mathematically as a constant, times the area of the liquid film:
 F = 2 *  (2 R)  = F / 4 R
 We multiply by 2 since the soap film has two surfaces. The
constant is the surface tension, and the equation can now be used
to measure its value.
 You can use a balance to measure the weight of the tool when it is
pulled from the liquid. The liquid will pull the tool downward
because of the surface tension, and one should therefore continue
to add masses to the balance until the liquid film on the tool
breaks. We can now calculate the surface tension of the liquid