MS.

DIANE MISKELLY (Orcid ID : 0000-0003-4212-8291)

Accepted Article
Article type : Review

Steamed Bread – A Review of Manufacturing, Flour Quality Requirements and

Quality Evaluation

1
Sidi Huang and Diane Miskelly2

1
Parramatta NSW 2015, Australia

2
Westcott Consultants, Goulburn NSW 2580, Australia

Correspondence

Diane Miskelly

Westcott Consultants

PO Box 278, Goulburn, NSW, 2580, Australia

westcottconsultants@bigpond.com

Key words

Steamed bread, styles, manufacture, flour quality requirements, laboratory

preparation, evaluation, faults

This article has been accepted for publication and undergone full peer review but has not
been through the copyediting, typesetting, pagination and proofreading process, which may
lead to differences between this version and the Version of Record. Please cite this article as
doi: 10.1002/cche.10096
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 ABSTRACT

Background and objectives

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Steamed bread is a staple food in northern China, and is also popular in the south of

China and many Asian countries. It is a fermented food made from wheat flour and

the steaming process gives a product with a thin, white skin, an upright profile and

internal crumb ranging from dense and firm to open and soft, depending on the style

and region.

Findings

This review presents an overview of the major manufacturing methods in commercial

production and the factors influencing product quality, including processing and flour

quality. Forty years of research has helped refine wheat quality requirements for the

different styles of steamed bread, but there are still conflicting reports on basic wheat

quality requirements and ingredient effects which hinder progress in the field.

Conclusions

In order for manufacturers to obtain the flour quality they require, all sectors of the

chain must work to understand the interaction of production method and flour quality

for each style of steamed bread and each region. This includes development and

implementation of objective methods of steamed bread quality assessment.

Significance and novelty

By considering both the style of steamed bread and method of manufacture as

described in this review, it is possible to select the most appropriate methods and

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 quality evaluation parameters. This should enable future researchers to present

conclusions which may be useful to later workers.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

Wheat has been grown in the north of China for more than 5000 years (Dodson et

al., 2013) and steamed products have been consumed for almost 2,000 years. Many

different types of steamed products have evolved in various regions of China

influenced by weather, available agricultural products, eating preferences and life

style. These products have been transformed over into the current range of popular

steamed bread, buns and rolls. Steamed bread is made without filling (mantou or

moo) whereas steamed buns are filled with sweet or savoury fillings (bao or bao zi).

Steamed rolls differ from bread and buns by having savoury ingredients such as oil

spread between layers within the roll such as the scallion roll (chongyu huajin).

Steamed bread is often referred to as Chinese steamed bread (CSB) but this does

not take into account the different styles and that it is consumed more widely in Asia

and not just on the Chinese mainland.

Steamed bread and buns have many formulation and production similarities to

western bread, but the fermented dough is steamed rather than baked at high oven

temperatures. Steamed breads have no crust and hence do not undergo Maillard

browning. Instead, steamed products have a thin white, smooth and shiny skin with

internal texture ranging from dense to open, based on local preferences (Huang &

Miskelly, 1991). The shape of steamed bread is either round or somewhat cylindrical

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 whereas steamed buns are round in shape with the top being either smooth or

pinched and pleated. Steamed buns can have fancy shapes in the form of peaches,
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flowers and animals which are specially made for festivals and celebrations. It should

be noted that the differences in dough formulation and preparation for steamed buns

and rolls consumed across China are less than the differences for steamed bread.

2.0 CLASSIFICATION OF STEAMED BREAD AND BUNS

On the basis of different ingredients and quality characteristics, Huang & Quail

(1996) and Huang & Miskelly (2016) have described three styles of steamed bread in

China and East and South East Asia. These are northern, southern and Guangdong

styles (Table 1).

Traditional northern style steamed bread, generically known as Qiangmian mantou,

(with regional specialities for example Gaozhuang mantou, Guanguan mo, and

Gangzi mantou), were very popular in northern China. They are still consumed in

many parts of northern China (Table 1), particularly in the countryside, where

steamed breads are still made at home. In the past twenty to thirty years, non-

traditional Jizhi mantou, which simply means “machine made” steamed bread, has

been produced and consumed in northern China. It has 2-3% higher water addition

(Su, 2005) and a less firm texture compared with the traditional northern style

steamed bread while retaining some of the traditional firm and chewy characteristics.

The market share is increasing in the cities due to availability, convenience and

quality.

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 In southern China, while rice is more popular than wheat and is a staple food,

steamed bread and buns are eaten, mainly at breakfast. A popular breakfast is
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southern style steamed bread plus rice porridge (congee). Southern style steamed

bread, Jiaomian mantou, has a soft, open and somewhat chewy texture which is

preferred by the people in the south.

Rice is the staple food in the Guangdong region, but there is also a wide variety of

different foods available including food imported from overseas and elsewhere in

China. In Guangdong, a unique steamed product has developed according to local

eating habits and preferences (Shuai, 1998). Guangdong style steamed bread

contains up to 25% sugar and 10% fat (Huang & Quail, 1997). The fat used was

originally lard, but is now usually palm or soy based. The steamed bread has a soft

and not cohesive eating quality and an open texture. Here, western influences have

resulted in the consumption of small, sweet steamed breads (naibai mantou) dipped

in condensed milk as a dessert. This is not seen elsewhere in China.

Guangdong style steamed bread and buns are popular in Guangdong, Fujian and

Hainan provinces as well as Hong Kong, Singapore and most other South East

Asian countries. In the later instances, they are mostly steamed buns in which the

dough casing is made using Guangdong style formulations. Surveys and proximate

analyses carried out on a large range of imported frozen packaged steamed

products obtained in Asian supermarkets in Sydney, Australia confirm that

Guangdong style formulations have been followed, but adapted to regional

preferences of the country of origin (Huang & Miskelly, 2016). In the case of steamed

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 bread, samples from Singapore and West Malaysia contained the highest fat (7-8%)

and the highest sugar was in samples from Hong Kong and Malaysia (12-19%),
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where a sweeter product is preferred. The bread casing of filled steamed buns was

generally lower in fat, being 2-3%, although the sugar varied from 3-14%.This is

probably due to manufacturers’ need to balance formulations when buns have fillings

with a high level of sugar.

In recent years, all types of steamed breads and buns are available in larger cities

throughout China. They are also popular in South East Asia. Both steamed bread

and buns can be found in Asian supermarkets and restaurants in many western

countries.

3.0 MANUFACTURING METHODS

Traditionally, steamed bread was made in the home, using hand mixing and shaping

methods before steaming, a common cooking method available in Chinese homes.

As living standards and incomes improved, semi-mechanised small factories and

local distribution outlets were established, providing convenient opportunities for

consumer purchase, often on the way to or from work. These in turn are being

superseded by automated and semi-automated production and organised

distribution systems. Fresh or frozen products are sold either loose or packaged, in

supermarkets. Many convenience stores, shopping centres, street vendors,

franchise outlets and wet markets sell ready-to-eat products for immediate

consumption.

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 3.1 Manufacture and processing

The processes used to make steamed bread are similar to those used in a variety of
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yeasted western breads and baked products. These include weighing, mixing a

dough, fermentation, dividing, molding, proofing, steaming, cooling and packing.

Although the steps may be similar, process conditions can differ widely from western

breads.

3.2 Unique water addition and mixing

The total water addition for steamed bread and buns is unique in that it is lower than

for western bread but is higher than for Asian noodles. For northern style steamed

bread, water addition (on a flour weight basis) is about 36-42% (Liu, 2005) with a

maximum of 45% (Huang & Miskelly, 1991; Su, 2005). For southern and Guangdong

style steamed bread and buns it can be up to 50% (Shuai, 1998).

Mixing is carried out for up to 15 minutes using medium speed spiral, planetary or

horizontal mixers. During mixing the ingredients are mixed and hydrated, and unlike

western breads where doughs are fully developed, the lower water addition results in

incomplete gluten development (Huang & Moss, 1991). Further gluten development

occurs during subsequent dough sheeting stages.

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 3.3 Dough preparation methods

Five different dough preparation methods have been identified by Huang & Miskelly
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(2016). The first three are the main methods used in steamed bread manufacture.

These are shown in Figure 1.

3.3.1 One step or “no time” dough method

The one step or “no time” dough method favored by small to medium manufacturers

and is the simplest and fastest process. Steamed bread made by this method has

less flavor than that made by the other methods and stales quickly.

Flour is mixed as described previously with the required water and 1% compressed

yeast or 0.3-0.4% dried yeast to form a dough. For Guangdong style products, fat

and sugar are also included. There is little or no intermediate fermentation prior to

dividing and molding. After this, the dough is given a final proof at 38-40ºC and 70-

90% relative humidity (RH) for about 60 minutes before steaming (Liu, 2005).

3.3.2 Sponge and dough method

In the two step or sponge and dough procedure, a portion of the flour and water is

mixed with 100% of the yeast to form a “sponge”. After fermentation at 30-33ºC and

70-80% RH for 40-90 minutes, the remainder of the flour and water are added, plus

fat and sugar if required. Sufficient alkali is added to bring the pH of the remixed

dough to 6.2-6.7, after which it is molded by hand or machine before proofing for

about 60 minutes at 38-40ºC and 80-90% RH.

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 The sponge and dough method is used by medium-sized semi- and fully automated

manufacturers. The bread has a smooth appearance and fine texture, plus good
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flavor and keeping quality. It does have a longer processing time, and requires more

labor and production space.

3.3.3 Sourdough method

To make the starter, a portion of the dough from a previous batch is mixed with

portion of the total flour and water and allowed to ferment. Fermentation of the

starter can be from overnight up several days according to regional preference

(Keeratipul & Luangsakul, 2012). A starter sourdough can also be made from other

sources such as maize and rice (Li, Li & Bian, 2016) or a commercial starter can be

used. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) such as Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis and

Lactobacillus plantarum together with yeasts such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae are

the dominant microflora that have been found in Asian steamed bread sourdoughs

(Luangsakul, Keeratipibul, Jindamorakot, & Tanasupawat, 2009; Liu et al., 2016;

Zhang et al., 2015). Sourdoughs are used not only for steamed bread, as there is

word-wide interest in the method, which improves product quality, flavor, shelf life

and nutrition of western breads and other products (He, Liu, Sadiq, Gu, & Zhang,

2017).

About one third of the flour and about half the water are mixed with 5-15% of the

sourdough (or starter) to form a soft dough which is fermented, often at ambient

conditions, before incorporation of the remaining ingredients and subsequent

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 neutralization. During fermentation the dough pH drops from 5.7 to 4.9 (Ding, Qi,

Zhang, Chen, & Li, 2007) and it is necessary to neutralise the organic acids
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produced by the LAB to achieve a dough pH of 6.2-6.7. Under neutralization results

in a greyish color, sour smell, small volume and dense texture. If the pH is too high,

the dough and bread will have strong alkali smell and the color will be yellow.

3.3.4 Liquid ferment method

A liquid ferment is made by dispersing sourdough in water before making a slurry

with flour and yeast. Breads made by this process have flavor and texture similar to

these made by the sourdough procedure, but it requires skill to control the pH of the

final dough and the correct microbiological profile of the ferment.

3.3.5 Fermented glutinous rice

The fermented glutinous rice (Tian Jiu Niang) procedure is also known as the “rice

sauce” or “rice wine” fermentation procedure. Firstly, fermented sweet rice made

from glutinous rice is allowed to ferment for 48 hours before consumption. This can

also be used as an ingredient in steamed bread, together with a proportion of the

flour and water plus a small quantity of instant yeast. This dough is fermented before

remixing with the remaining flour and water and neutralised as in the previous two

methods. Steamed bread produced by this method is inexpensive and has a very

good quality and flavor, but it is not suitable for commercial production.

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 3.4 Shaping the dough and preparing for steaming

Dough is now further processed into pieces of the required size for steamed bread
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(25-130 g depending on style) by a series of steps such as dividing before molding

by hand or machine. This can include mechanical sheeting and lamination stages,

which aids dough development. Steamed buns can be either made by hand or

mechanically where the fillings are incorporated using encrusting machines or

sheeting, filling and forming equipment. Often smaller factories use a combination of

a dough break or sheeting rolls before forming and molding.

Proofing is a key step in the manufacture of quality steamed bread and buns. Whilst

homemade products are often left to proof under ambient conditions, in the

commercial context temperature, RH and time must be controlled. Typical

temperatures are 38-40ºC with RH 70-90%. In addition, factors determining proofing

time include the type of product, softness of the dough piece, gluten content and

quality, dough preparation method and subsequent steaming conditions (Huang &

Miskelly, 2016)

3.5 Steaming, cooling and packing

In the home and small workshops, steaming is carried out using bamboo or metal

baskets over boiling water. Commercially, steaming cabinets at low or high pressure

are used in larger scale production; and in continuous production plants, steaming

tunnels are used. Steaming time is about 20 minutes, but this depends on product

size and type; and the steaming rate. Dough pieces reach 100ºC within 12 minutes

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 (Huang & Miskelly, 2016) and moisture content increases. A thin skin is formed

towards the end of steaming after starch has gelatinized (Liu, 2005). In western
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baking, water is lost through the loaf crust during baking and the moisture gradient

from crust to central internal crumb ranges from 15% to 40% (Czuchajowska &

Pomeranz, 1989). However, during steaming, moisture is not lost through the skin.

Skin was found to have a total moisture content of 41.5% compared with crumb

moisture of 39% and after rapid moisture redistribution the moisture equilibrated to

39.5% (Sha, Qian, Wang, Lu, & Li, 2007).

Steamed bread is cooled before packing to prevent condensation inside the pack.

Correct control of temperature, RH and air flow in the cooler is necessary to avoid

splitting the skin. Steamed products which are to be consumed within a few days will

be packed in low-cost polyethylene bags. More expensive, longer shelf life package

options are available which are suitable for high value products. Products which are

frozen and kept at temperatures around -20ºC may have a shelf life of up to 6

months. Modified atmosphere packaging has been reported to increase the shelf life

of steamed bread by to 12 days (Li, 2013 cited in Wang et al. 2018). A combination

of an oxygen scavenger and ethanol emitter increased the shelf life of steamed

bread up to 10 days (Sheng, Guo & Zhu, 2015).

Recently, thermal vacuum packing immediately after steaming has been investigated

as a cheap, novel aseptic technology for extending the shelf life for up to 90 days.

Starch retrogradation was delayed and eating quality was good at the end of the

period (Sheng et al., 2016). In addition to process modifications, other strategies are

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 available to improve the shelf life of steamed bread including the use of additives

such as enzymes, carbohydrates, lipids and surfactants in the formulation (Zhu,

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2016).

4.0 FLOUR QUALITY REQUIREMENTS

Wheat flour is the major ingredient for Asian steamed breads and steamed buns.

While the flour quality requirements for western style breads have been well known

for many years, research on the flour quality requirements for steamed breads and

buns has largely only been carried out since the 1980s. As steamed bread lacks the

hard crust of western bread which supports the internal structure, it is very sensitive

to variations in wheat quality and especially processing conditions which can readily

result in faults such as wrinkles, dimples, shrinkage, brown spots and possibly total

product collapse. This is further complicated by the differing wheat flour quality

requirements of the different styles of steamed bread.

Of the factors affecting steamed bread quality, protein, starch and the water soluble

fractions play a major role (Addo, Pomeranz, Huang, Rubenthaler & Jeffers, 1991;

Faridi & Rubenthaler, 1983; Huang, Yun, Quail & Moss, 1996; Huang, Quail &

Moss,1998; Huang, Quail, Jin & O’Brien, 2000;Huang, Ruang, & Quail, 2003; Huang

& Quail, 1996; Lin, 1983; Lukow, Zhang & Czarnecki, 1990; Lin, Miskelly & Moss,

1990; Rubenthaler, Pomeranz & Huang, 1992; Su, 2005; Zhou, Lin, Liu, Chao & Lu,

1994). Protein content and quality are the most important, followed by the water

soluble fraction and starch (Huang & Quail, 1999; Lin, 1983). Other important

variables influencing quality are flour color and extraction rate, falling number,

particle size and grain hardness.

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 4.1 Protein content

While there is a well-established linear relationship between protein content and

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quality for western breads, the same is not true for steamed breads (Addo et al.,

1991; Rubenthaler et al., 1992). In fact, for each style of steamed bread, there is an

optimum protein window, and outside of this, quality does not improve (Huang &

Miskelly, 2016; Su, 2005).

For northern style steamed bread, protein content has been reported to be positively

correlated with specific volume (Huang et al., 1996; Liu et al., 2000; Ma & Baik,

2016). This is true up to 10% flour protein, after which dough strength becomes more

important (Huang et al., 1996; Wang & Li, 1998). Below 10%, protein content is

correlated with total score (Huang et al., 1996; Ma & Baik, 2016; Wang & Li, 1998).

Some authors have fitted a quadratic relationship for protein with specific volume

and score (Zhang, 2003) or postulated no relationship (Zhou et al., 1994). However,

the latter study included samples which had very high protein content, and when

these samples were removed, the specific volume and score correlations became

significant. Furthermore, He, Liu, Javier Peña & Rajaram, (2003), while finding a

positive correlation of protein content with steamed bread volumes for Chinese

wheats, found differences depending on whether the method used included manual

or mechanical mixing. Recently, Ma & Baik, (2017) added gluten isolated from soft

red winter wheat (SRW) into a base flour, raising the protein from 9.6 to 11.3%, and

found an increase in specific volume and crumb structure score, but with no increase

in total score.

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 Early researchers did not differentiate between different steamed bread styles and a

retrospective review (Huang & Miskelly, 2016) has re-assigned earlier publications
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according to the correct style on the basis of reported higher water addition,

ingredients and processing. These include those of Addo et al. (1991); Faridi and

Rubenthaler (1983); Lin et al. (1990); Lukow et al. (1990); McMaster & Moss (1989)

and Rubenthaler et al. (1992), which should be more correctly classified as southern

style.

For southern style steamed bread, protein content was found to be correlated with

specific volume (Addo et al., 1991; Huang & Quail, 1996; Lin et al., 1990); spread

ratio (Huang & Quail, 1996) and total score (Lukow et al., 1990). However, Huang &

Quail (1996) did not find a significant relationship between protein content and total

score using a sample set containing Australian and Chinese wheats. Several authors

have reported a positive correlation between protein content and steamed bread

volume for soft wheat, with a not significant or negative correlation for hard wheat

(Addo et al., 1991; Faridi & Rubenthaler, 1983; Rubenthaler et al., 1992).

Less work has been carried out on Guangdong style steamed breads, which,

depending on regional preferences, contain varying levels of sugar with fat addition

being optional. Protein content is still important, with total quality score being found

to increase rapidly up to 10% protein, followed by a slower, but still positive increase

above that (Huang & Quail, 1999).

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 4.2 Protein quality and dough strength

There is general agreement that protein quality and dough strength plays a critical
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role in steamed bread quality and is certainly more important than protein content for

both northern and southern style steamed bread (He et al., 2003; Huang et al., 1996,

1998, 2000; Lukow et al., 1990; Ma & Baik, 2016, 2017; Zhang, 2003; Zhu, Huang,

Khan & O’Brien, 2001). SDS volume is significantly correlated with specific volume of

steamed bread (Liu et al., 2000; Ma & Baik, 2016). Farinograph development time

and stability, Extensigraph maximum resistance and extensibility have all been

reported to contribute positively to northern style steamed bread quality in terms of

specific volume, skin and crumb colour, structure, eating quality and total score

(Huang et al., 1996). Similar results were reported by He et al. (2003), but as with

protein content, dependent on whether manual or mechanized methods of laboratory

preparation were used. Most Mixograph strength parameters such as midline peak

time and value; peak time and bandwidth were correlated with at least one aspect of

bread quality (Ma & Baik, 2016; Zhang, 2003). For southern style steamed bread,

protein quality had a larger correlation with steamed bread quality than protein

content. It contributed significantly and positively to structure, softness, eating quality

and total score (Huang & Quail, 1996).

Wheats for these various studies came from diverse backgrounds, including

Australia, Canada, China and the US. The conflicting results reported highlight the

need for use of standardized and optimized methods for laboratory preparation of

steamed bread with appropriate consideration of the manufacturing method, either

domestic preparation or mechanized production.

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 4.3 Gluten protein composition

Gluten proteins are comprised of gliadin and glutenin which are determinants of
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functional properties and end use. Together they account for about 80% of the total

flour proteins (Uthayakumaran & Wrigley, 2017). Glutenins are made up of HMW

subunits synthesized under the control of the Glu-1 genes and LMW subunits are

coded by the Glu-3 genes. The Glu-D1 subunits 5+10 are associated with stronger

dough properties, have a higher Glu-1 dough quality score and give better steamed

bread quality. Glu-D1 subunits 2+12 are linked with low dough strength and poorer

bread quality (Lukow et al., 1990; Huang et al., 2000; Ma & Baik, 2016; Wang & Li

1998; Zhang, 2003; Zhu et al., 2001). In addition to allelic variation, nitrogen

fertilisation affects glutenin polymers (Zhu, Khan, Huang & O’Brien, 1999). The LMW

subunits also affect steamed bread quality with Glu-B3a and Glu-B3b giving better

external color and Glu-B3a having higher steamed bread score (Xia et al., 2013).

4.4 Starch and starch properties

Starch, comprised of amylose and amylopectin, is the major component of wheat

carbohydrates and contributes both to starch properties and functionality. Low

amylose content is considered desirable as it is associated with larger volume and

better texture and eating quality (Fan, 1985; Wang et al, Zhao, Cheng & Lan, 1998;

Zhang & Li, 1993). Conversely, high levels of amylose result in steamed bread with

poor appearance, smaller volume and sticky texture (Fang & Wang, 1985; Zhu,

2007). The addition of waxy wheat flour (100% amylopectin) in a blend with normal

flour has been reported to reduce staling, enhance freeze-thaw stability and lower

gelatinization temperature. Steamed breads made from such blends retained the

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 quality of re-steamed bread after freezing for three days at -18ºC (Tan, 2007). The

minimum inclusion of waxy wheat flour was 10% (Qin, Chen & Ma, 2007). These
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results were confirmed by Ma, Ji & Baik (2017) who found that inclusion of 5-10%

waxy wheat flour improved crumb structure. Inclusion of up to 15% waxy wheat flour

reduced staling and steamed breads had total scores comparable to the control

wheat flour.

Important starch viscosity parameters such as peak viscosity measured by the RVA

(Rapid Visco Analyzer) are correlated with eating quality and specific volume of

northern style steamed bread (Huang et al., 1996).

Starch granule size distribution also impacts on processing and product quality.

Quality parameters adversely affected with increasing percentages of small B

granules are specific volume, color and skin smoothness. As shown in reconstitution

studies, best crumb structure and highest score were obtained with a Chinese wheat

cultivar containing 35% small granules (Guo, He, Xiachun, Qu & Zhang, 2014).

These findings are similar to that reported for western bread (Park, Chung & Seib,

2005).

Starch is mechanically damaged during the flour milling process and if the starch

damage is too high, specific volume and color, texture and total score decreases

(Zhou et al., 1994). Optimum starch damage for steamed bread has been reported to

be in the range 6.5-9.6% (Liu et al., 2014).

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 4.5 Steamed bread color and flour extraction rate

A white, smooth and shiny skin with white crumb is preferred by consumers (Huang
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& Miskelly, 1991). Factors affecting flour color include the wheat variety, growing

conditions, milling conditions and flour extraction rate. Debranning prior to milling can

have positive effects on flour and steamed product color (Sun, Zhou, Zhi & Li, 2007).

High extraction flour with high ash content produces steamed breads with a dark skin

and poor crumb color (Huang et al., 1996). For this reason, a maximum ash of

0.55% is often specified by manufacturers (Table 2), with flours for speciality and

frozen products having a lower requirement of 0.40-0.45% ash. Bleaching of flour is

generally not used.

Recently, whole wheat grain steamed products have appeared on the market and

there is consumer interest as these are perceived as having health benefits. It is a

challenge for manufacturers to produce steamed bread with acceptable color and

specific volume using whole wheat flours. Reduction of the particle size of the bran

fractions before blending with roller milled flour streams appears to improve the

strength of the gluten network, increase specific volume and improve the color of

southern style steamed bread (Wang, Hou & Dubat, 2017). Another reported option

to improve surface smoothness and crumb structure of wholegrain products is to

incorporate a bran with low protein content, low bound and total phenolic content,

high starch and high water extractable arabinoxylan content (Ma, Lee & Baik, 2018).

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 4.6 Flour quality requirements

While different styles of steamed bread have differing flour quality requirements
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(Table 2), there is a common requirement for maximum ash, maximum starch

damage and minimum falling number.

For northern style steamed bread, flour protein content should be 10-12% with

medium to strong (but not too strong) dough properties (Huang et al., 1996; Huang &

Miskelly, 2016; Ma & Baik, 2016; Su, 2005; Zhang, 2003). Generally hard wheat flour

is superior to soft flour (Huang et al., 1996), although a recent report (Ma and Baik,

2016) suggests SRW wheat varieties with strong dough properties and without the

1B/1R rye translocation can also be used.

Southern style steamed bread requires flour protein content 9-11% with medium

dough strength (Addo et al., 1991; Faridi & Rubenthaler, 1983; Huang & Quail, 1996;

Huang & Miskelly, 2016; Lin et al., 1990; Rubenthaler et al., 1992).

Fats are important in Guangdong steamed bread as they modify dough properties

and give softer texture where the optimum level of addition is 2-4% (Huang &

Miskelly, 2016). Flour protein and dough strength should be chosen depending on

the level of fat added to the formulation. If fat is included, flours should have 9-11%

protein and medium dough strength. For a formulation without fat, optimum flour

protein content is 8-9% with medium dough strength (Table 2). For char siew bao, a

unique Guangdong style pork-filled steamed bun, Limley et al. (2013) has reported

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 that a soft wheat flour with protein content 7.5-8.0%, Extensigraph maximum

resistance below 255 BU and low flour swelling volume gives the best overall quality.
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For all styles of steamed bread, it is important to have a balance of optimum flour

protein content and dough strength to avoid product faults including product

shrinkage and collapse.

5.0 QUALITY EVALUATION

5.1 Laboratory processing methods

Reliable small scale laboratory preparation and scoring systems are crucial to

evaluating flours for steamed bread making potential. Such tests find application in

evaluating flour quality requirements, assessing new and potential cultivars in

breeding programs, evaluating new ingredients, quality assurance and research.

Basic steps in the laboratory preparation process were indicated in commercial

manufacturing (Section 3) and include mixing, sheeting, dividing and rounding,

proofing and steaming. Methods used are the one step (Huang & Quail, 1997; Kim et

al., 2001; Chinese Standard GB/T17320-2013, 2013) and the two step (Chinese

Standard SB/T 10139-93, 1993; Chinese Standard GB/T 17320-1998, 1998; Huang,

Betker, Quail & Moss, (1993); Huang et al. (1998); Su, 2005). Early versions of the

two step method were published by Faridi and Rubenthaler (1983), Lin (1983) and

Lin et al. (1990). Response surface methodology has been applied to optimization of

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 the processing procedures including water addition, mixing time, fermentation time,

sheeting, temperature and humidity (Huang et al.1993, 1998; Su, 2005). Water
Accepted Article
addition and mixing time should be adjusted, based on a proportion of Farinograph

water absorption and development time rather than using fixed values. First and

second fermentation temperatures should be standardized at no more than 40ºC and

relative humidity 80-85% (Huang et al., 1993, 1998; Su, 2005). It is essential to use a

proofing cabinet which can control temperature with ± 1ºC. Sheeting is a critical step

in the process for northern style Chinese steamed bread when medium and strong

flours are used. This serves to further develop the dough after the mixing and

fermentation stages and significantly affects steamed bread quality. The sheeter

should have a roll diameter of 120-150 mm with roll speed 9-10 rpm and the roll gap

adjusted to achieve optimum dough development (typically around 7 mm). After

dividing to a uniform dough weight (100-160 g), doughs are rounded (preferably

using a mechanical device) and steamed for 20 minutes.

While a number of methods for laboratory preparation have been published, there is

a diversity of processing conditions and some methods resemble western

breadmaking methods and fail to differentiate between the traditional steamed bread

styles described in Section 2. Key processing methods used in China and

internationally have been identified by Huang & Miskelly (2016) as Chinese Standard

SB/T 10139-93 (1993); Chinese Standard GB/T 17320-2013 (2013); Chinese

Standard GB/T 17320-1998 (1998); Huang et al. (1993, 1998); Huang & Quail

(1997); Kim et al. (2001); Sha et al. (2007) and Su (2005). Of these, the most

popular are Chinese standard methods SB/T 10139-93 (1993) and GB/T 17320-

1998 (1998) and Huang et al. (1993, 1998) or modifications of these methods.

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 Different methods give different rankings and results. He et al. (2003) compared

Chinese Standard SB/T10139-93 (1993) with the method of Huang et al. (1993). The
Accepted Article
methods differ in that the Chinese Standard method uses fixed water, manual mixing

and hand molding; whereas Huang’s method uses optimum water addition,

mechanical mixing and mechanical molding. The relationship between gluten

strength and extensibility with the appearance and stickiness of the steamed bread

was highly dependent on which method was used. The manual method favored

weak to medium gluten types more suitable for domestic use, but for mechanized

production, medium protein content and medium to strong gluten strength is

required. In a further study, Chen, Zhang, He & Pena (2010) compared GB/T 17320-

1998 (1998) and Huang et al. (1993, 1995). This Chinese standard method

estimated water addition based on Farinograph water absorption and used a

combination of one minute mixing time with a pin mixer, followed by hand mixing and

molding with no scaling of the dough piece. It was concluded that the methods of

Huang et al. (1993, 1995) gave better discrimination between flours of different

gluten strength.

5.2 Laboratory evaluation methods for finished products

Huang & Miskelly (2016) compared the scores allocated to steamed bread quality

characteristics by ten published methods (Table 3). It was commonly accepted that

external and internal quality was important. Although the ratings varied according to

the method, there was general agreement about the characteristics required to be

measured. The most common evaluation systems increasingly being used in the

literature are Chinese Standards SB/T 10139-93 and GB/T 17320-1998 and Huang

et al. (1993) for northern style and Huang et al. (1998) for southern style (Huang &

Miskelly, 2016).

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 5.2.1 Assessment of quality

Product volume is measured either by rapeseed displacement or laser scanning

Accepted Article
technology after which the bread is weighed. These values are then used to

calculate specific volume. Specific volume is defined as the ratio of volume to weight

and expressed as mL/g. Spread ratio defines the shape and is expressed as

width/height. A lower spread ratio is desirable and describes a bold, upright profile.

Typical values for the different styles can be seen in Table 1. Subjective assessment

of external and internal appearance, color, texture and flavor is often carried out

using trained panellists and the use of standardized photographs or images can

assist verbal descriptions. It is now possible to measure color and texture using

instrumental testing. Measurements can be carried out quickly and can be converted

back to a score, replacing the need for some of the sensory evaluations.

5.2.2 Instrumental assessment of quality

5.2.2.1 Color

Steamed bread skin and crumb color can be assessed using a hand held tristimulus

color meter such as the Konica Minolta Chroma Meter (Lin et al., 1990; Kruger,

Morgan, Preston & Matsuo, 1992). Tristimulus color measurements such as x, L*

and L*-b* correlate well with visual color scores (Huang, Quail, Moss & Best 1995),

so it is possible to allocate scores for color measurements in developing a scoring

system.

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 5.2.2.2 Texture analysis and guidelines

Crumb texture is important to consumer acceptance as it is perceived to indicate

Accepted Article
freshness. It is possible to objectively measure the response to compression and a

number of instruments can be used, including ones specifically developed for the

food industry such as the TA.XTplus Texture Analyser. The earliest testing of

steamed bread used single compression tests of steamed bread crumb with a

rheometer or Instron Universal Testing Machine (Rubenthaler, Huang & Pomeranz,

1990; Lin et al., 1990; Kruger et al., 1992). Using a texture profile analysis profile

(TPA), Huang et al. (1995) showed that maximum compression force was inversely

related to sensory panel evaluations of softness and cohesiveness for northern style

steamed bread. A stress relaxation (SR) profile at 50% compression, paused for a

dwell time of 4 seconds, gave a significant correlation with overall eating quality and

was shown to be capable of replacing sensory panel assessment of softness,

elasticity, non-stickiness and cohesiveness (Huang et al., 1995; Qian, 2005). The SR

profile has been adopted in subsequent studies (Chen, 2007; Chen et al., 2010; Ma

and Baik, 2016, 2017; Xia et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2008). TPA is also applicable to

the evaluation of southern style steamed bread, but as the textural properties differ

from those of northern style, different TPA parameters need to be used (Huang et al,

1998).

Product firmness increases during storage as the bread stales, therefore it is

important to maintain constant storage conditions from the time the bread is removed

from the steamer up to the commencement of instrumental testing. Samples should

be stored in a bamboo container to bring the samples to 22°C and tested 15 minutes

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 after steaming. Breads need to be sliced using an electric slicer or electric knife with

a custom template or miter box to achieve a flat level surface and consistent
Accepted Article
dimensions. A slice thickness of 28.5 mm was used by Huang et al. (1995) and most

authors use a slice thickness of between 20-30 mm (Huang & Miskelly, 2016). While

instrument settings are not prescriptive, different test profiles can affect the

magnitude of the results. A typical test profile is described by Sha et al. (2007) as: -

load cell 5 kg; pre-test speed – 3 mm/sec; test speed - 1 mm/sec; post test speed 3

mm/sec and compression 40%. It is also important to select the correct cylinder

probe for measurement, keeping in mind the slice diameter and shape.

6.0 ELIMINATING STEAMED BREAD FAULTS

Consumers expect that steamed bread should have a shiny white color, smooth skin,

good volume and uniform and symmetrical shape. Because steamed bread has no

crust, any fault will be immediately apparent and commercial products will be

unsaleable. A feature common in both laboratory preparation and commercial

production is that part of the batch may have acceptable quality and a portion will

exhibit faults, even to the point of total collapse. The majority of faults are associated

with appearance, shape and volume, but other problems occur such as poor texture

and eating quality and the development of off flavors. The production of steamed

bread at times appears to be an art as there seems to be little tolerance to changes

in flour quality and processing conditions.

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 Table 4 shows the causes of faults associated with the different quality attributes.

Faults are usually due either to the use of unsuitable raw materials such as
Accepted Article
inappropriate flour quality and/or incorrect processing procedures. There can be

multiple causes for the same problem.

Poor product color has an obvious visual impact on consumers and is often

associated with flour extraction rate. Flour ash measurements can be used to select

suitable mill streams and the darker tail end streams from the flour mill can be

diverted for other purposes (see Section 4.5). Yellow colour can be due to too high

yellow pigment in the flour. Flour yellow color is due to flour xanthophylls and major

Quality Trait Loci (QTLs) are mostly located on group 7 chromosomes. Hence it is

possible in breeding programs to routinely select wheats with suitable color for

steamed bread by the use of molecular markers. Although bleaching of flour

destroys the yellow pigments, bleached flour is not recommended for steamed bread

manufacture as the steamed bread appearance can be unnaturally white or greyish

and off-flavors can develop.

Product shrinkage is a major problem which is not apparent until the steaming

process is completed. In a batch process or in the laboratory, the steamed bread

may appear to be normal until the door of the steamer is opened or the lid is

removed. Sometimes the product (or some of the batch) will collapse completely,

resulting in a rubbery, inedible mass. Shrinkage can also occur even during storage,

or when the bread is re-steamed prior to consumption. Shrinkage can be due to a

number of causes. The most common is the use of flours with too high protein

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 content or too strong dough properties. Another cause is under-development of

doughs. Steamed bread doughs with their relatively low water addition compared
Accepted Article
with western bread are often not fully developed in the mixer and there is little

difference in dough microstructure with different mixing times. However, mixing time

does influence the nature of the gluten matrix as the subsequent quality is influenced

by mixing time. Evidence from noodle doughs, where the water addition is more akin

to that of steamed bread, is that the gluten network is developed during sheeting

rather than during mixing (Huang & Moss, 1991). The role of subsequent sheeting in

gluten development in steamed bread production is usually underrated. After mixing

and sheeting, dough will be mixed to its optimum consistency and will have a

smooth, satiny or clear appearance. Gas bubbles can be retained in the developed

gluten network and thus be able to withstand changes in temperature and pressure,

such as when it is removed from the steamer. If the gluten structure is weak, the gas

cannot be retained, and the structure is partially or completely destroyed. Sheeting

can also help reduce dimples and blisters on the surface of the steamed bread. Bai

(2010), in a systematic study of the causes of shrinkage, considered the largest

processing variable causing collapse was overproofing. Other processing variables

such as non-uniform proofer conditions or too high steaming rate can also cause

shrinkage. Although it is common practice to use scrap or re-worked dough in new

batches in many food manufacturing operations, this can also cause shrinkage in

steamed bread as it presumably also weakens the gluten structure.

Reduced volume of steamed bread can be as a result of shrinkage, or in its absence,

low water addition to the dough, weak dough strength or low yeast addition or

activity.

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 Neutralization is a critical step in sourdough fermentation. Over neutralization results

in alkaline dough conditions and in this case the naturally occurring flavonoids in the
Accepted Article
flour exhibit a yellow colour in the product. Under neutralization can result in a

product with a dull, dark surface and crumb and small volume.

CONCLUSION

Consumers require steamed bread that has a white, shiny skin, free from blemishes

and with the desirable combination of textural properties and eating quality. In order

to supply this need, steamed bread manufacturers work within the framework of

increasing automation requiring greater process control, well documented product

quality specifications and food safety programs. These trends will lead to tighter and

more targeted flour quality specifications for flour millers supplying this market

sector, particularly with regard to maximum flour ash, range of protein content and

range of acceptable dough properties including dough strength. Consistency of flour

quality is essential. Depending on the manufacturing process used, steamed bread

style and the regional preferences, flour quality requirements will differ, and change

from time to time as new products are developed or consumer preferences change.

Flour millers need access to the appropriate grades and varieties of wheat, whether

the origin is local or imported, that can be blended in the right combination in a flour

mill grist. This highlights the need for more fundamental knowledge to understand

the interaction between processing and end product quality and how this affects

wheat quality requirements. In particular, the methods used to produce steamed

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 breads in the laboratory should be reflective of the production methods used in

industry, or if for domestic use, the methods used should reflect these techniques.
Accepted Article
Also, as much as possible, standardized objective methods should be used for

quality assessment and remove the difficulties associated with the subjective

methods used in sensory assessment panels.

Many markers for quality traits which can be used to select wheats suitable for

steamed bread are available for use in breeding programs. These include hardness,

milling quality, flour yellowness, dough mixing properties and gluten strength.

CIMMYT has included these in breeding objectives for end use classes which

include steamed bread (Guzman et al. 2016). In parallel, the development of robust

laboratory steamed bread assessment will enable breeding programs to carry out

rapid and reliable product assessment for use in phenotypic evaluation of new lines.

These methods can also be used for evaluation of the effects of new ingredients and

additives on steamed bread quality.

ACKNOWLEGEMENTS

The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution of Tas Westcott for preparation of

Figure 1 and helpful discussions during the preparation of this manuscript.

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Figure 1 Major methods of steamed bread processing (modified from Huang &

Miskelly 2016).

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ccepted Articl
Table 1 Classification of Steamed Bread
Style Typical Variety Ingredients
a

Typical Specific Spread Structure Eating quality Popular area

weight (g) volume ratio
(mL/g)
Northern Qiangmian mantou Flour, water (< 40%), 130 2 1.2 Very dense Very firm, cohesive Northern China
(eg Gaozhuang, yeast or sour dough starter
Guanguan mo,
Gangzi)
Jizhi mantou Flour, water (43%), 130 2.5 1.5 Dense Firm and cohesive Northern China
yeast or sour dough starter
Southern Jiaomian mantou Flour, water (50%), 65 and 130 3 1.6 Open Soft, slight cohesive Southern China
yeast or sour dough starter
Guangdong Naibai mantou Flour, water (50%), 25 2.6-3.4 1.7 Open Very soft, not cohesive Very southern
yeast or sour dough starter, China
up to 10% fat, 25% sugar, and South-east
milk powder etc Asia
a
Modified from Huang & Miskelly (2016)

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 Table 2 Flour quality requirements for Chinese steamed bread (14% moisture basis)a
Style Northern Southern Guangdong
Accepted Article
with fat without fat

Protein (%) 10-12 9-11 9-11 8-9

Ash (%) <0.55 <0.55 <0.55 <0.55
Falling Number (sec., 5g) >230 >230 >230 >230
Starch damage (%) <9.0 <9.0 <9.0 <9.0
Farinograph water
absorption (%) 60-63 58-60 58-60 55-57
Farinograph development
time (min.) 4-5 3-4 3-4 2
a
reproduced with permission from Huang & Miskelly (2016)

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 Table 3 Comparison of ten quality evaluation scoring systems for steamed breada
Parameter Range of
scores
Accepted Article
allocated

External quality characteristics

Specific volume 10-25

Spread ratio 5-10

Skin color 5-10

Skin smoothness 10-15

Internal quality characteristics

Crumb color 5-10

Crumb softness 5-25

Crumb elasticity 10

Structure 10-15

Nonstickiness 10-15

Total score 100

a
Chinese Standard Methods SB/T 10139-93, 1993; GB/T 17320-1998, 1998; GB/T 17320-2013;
Faridi & Rubenthaler, 1983; Guo et al., 2002; Huang et al., 1993, 1998; Kruger et al., 1992; Lin et al.,
1990; Liu, 2005; Liu et al., 2006; Rubenthaler et al., 1990; Su, 2005; Wang et al., 1998.

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 Table 4 Causes of steamed bread faultsa
Quality attribute
affected Fault Cause
Over neutralization of dough
Accepted Article
Yellowish
Flour yellow pigment or b* too high
Extremely white Flour treated with bleaching agents
Alkali not sufficiently dissolved in water
Yellow spots on surface and
prior to neutralization of dough
crumb
Too high concentration of alkali
Color Flour has too high extraction rate with high ash content
Use of rusty or discolored water
Dull dark skin and crumb Under neutralized after sourdough fermentation
High RH during proofing
Insufficient dough development
Proofing temperature too high, RH too high
Dull, dimpled perforated surface
Steaming rate too low
Dough is too dry
Dough is under mixed
Proofer RH too low
Cracks
Dough pH outside optimum range
Too much dusting flour
Molder settings incorrect
Dough is too soft
Dough is under mixed
Insufficient dough sheeting/sheeting omitted
Dough is under neutralized
Dimples and blisters
Proofing temperature too high
Proofing RH too high
Smoothness
Proofing time too long
Steaming rate too high
Flour protein content too high
Dough properties too strong
Dough properties too weak
Dough is under mixed
Water used in dough is too hard
Shrinkage
Under neutralization after sourdough fermentation
Overproofing
Steaming rate too high
Uneven temperature or RH conditions in steamer
Use of scrap dough or re-work in new dough batches
Too much water added to dough
Dough strength too low
Flattened
Over mixed dough
Weight, volume and
Low yeast activity
shape
Low dough water addition
Small volume Low dough strength
Low yeast activity
Frost, rain damaged, moldy or insect damaged wheat
Tainted or contaminated ingredients
Use of non-potable water
Flavour Abnormal flavor Use of bleached flour
Use of rancid or poorly deodorized vegetable oils as tray release
agent
Incorrect neutralization
Rain damaged grain
High flour starch damage
Sticky bread
Too low steaming rate
Steaming time too short
Insufficient water added to dough
Insufficient yeast addition
Crumb texture too firm Yeast activity too low
Texture and eating Fermentation and proof times too short
quality Poor flour quality (weak and/or low protein flour)
Steaming rate too high
Steaming time too long
Base too firm
Oversized dough pieces with molding faults
Too much dusting flour
Flour too weak
Coarse crumb structure Under or over mixed doughs
Inadequate sheeting
a
Huang & Miskelly (2016)

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Accepted Article

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