Chapter 6

Maxwell’s Equations in Tensor Form

We now have learned the transformation properties of th electric and magnetic fields and

together they form an antysymmetric tensor F µν = −F νµ under Poincare transformation.

Can we write Maxwell’s equations in tensor form to show that they are in accord with special

relativity? We had for Maxwell’s equations:

1 ∂B
∇.B = 0; ∇ × E = − (6.1)
c ∂t

1 ∂E 1
∇.E = ρ; ∇ × B − = j (6.2)
c ∂t c

We saw that Eq.6.1 implies

1 ∂A
B = ∇ × A; E = −∇φ − (6.3)
c ∂t

~ and φ into a 4-vector

Let us combine A

Aµ = (A0 = φ, Ai ) (6.4)

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~ and B
E ~ are then proportional to ∂µ of Aµ . Together E and B form F µν so F µν depends on

∂µ and Aν and is anti-sym. The only possiblity would be:

F µν = ∂ µ Aν − ∂ ν Aµ ; ∂ µ = ηµν ∂ν = (−∂0 , ∂i ) (6.5)

To check this

1∂ i
E i = F 0i = ∂ 0 Ai − ∂ i A0 = −∂0 Ai − ∂i A0 = A − ∂i φ; (6.6)
c ∂t

and

Bk = F 0i = ∂ i Aj − ∂ j Ai = (∇ × A)k , ijk cyclic (6.7)

B k = 1/2ijk F ij ; F ij = ijk Bk So Eq.6.5 is indeed an elegant unification of this two parts of

Eq.6.3. Turning to Eq.6.2, let us combine j i and ρ into a 4 -vector

j µ = (j 0 = cρ, j i ) (6.8)

Where c was inserted so that j 0 and j i have same dimensions). Now Eq.6.2 is an equation

which relates ∂ν of F µν to j µ :
1
∂ν F µν = j µ (6.9)
c

In this form it would be a vector equation, and the only way to make l.h.s. is a vector

equation is by construction, e.g.,

1
∂ν F µν = j µ (6.10)
c

To check consider µ = 0
1
∂ν F 0ν = j 0 = ρ (6.11)
c

or

∂i F 0i = ρ (6.12)

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and hence

∇.E = ρ (6.13)

and for µ = i
1
∂0 F i0 + ∂j F ij = j i (6.14)
c

which is the 2nd Maxwell equation. Thus the two Maxwell eqns. are tensor equations

provided j µ is a physical contra-vector. To check on this, recall for point charges we had

d~ra (t)
j i = Σa ea vai (t)δ 3 (r − ra (t)); ρ = Σa ea δ 3 (r − ra (t))), ~va (t) = (6.15)
dt

To write these in more tensor looking form we introduce τ as the independent variable. Thus

consider the quantity,

Z ∞
µ
Q (x) = Σa ea dτ uµa (τ )δ 4 (xα − xαa (τ )) (6.16)
∞

where

δ 4 (xα − xαa (τ )) = δ 3 (xi − xia (τ ))δ(x0 − x0a (τ )) (6.17)

Now in Eq.6.16

dτ = scalar, uµ = contra − vector (6.18)

what about δ 4 ? we can lear about δ functions by what they do in the integral, Thus for an

arbitrary tensor we have

Z
µν... µν...
d4 xδ 4 (x − y)Tαβ... (x) = Tαβ... (y) (6.19)

It is easy to see that d4 x transforms as a scalar under Poincare transformation,i.e., let

x0µ = Λµ ν xα + aµ (6.20)

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Then
∂x0 4
d4 x0 = |J( )|d x = |Λµα |d4 x = d4 x since detΛ = ±1 (6.21)
∂x

Hence since Eq.6.18 holds for an arbitrary tensor

δ 4 (x − y) = scalar (6.22)

As a consequence, returning to Eq.6.16 we see Qµ is a contra-vector. Now we can actually

use the δ function to do the integral in Gµ

Z ∞
µ
Q = Σea dτ uµa (τ )δ 3 (xi − xia (τ ))δ(x0 − x0a (τ )) (6.23)
−∞

Let
dx0a
ξ = x0a (τ ) − x0 , dξ = dτ = u0a dτ (6.24)
dτ

Hence
uµa (τ ) 3 i uµa (τ ) 3 i
Z
µ i
Q = Σea dξ δ (x − x a (τ ))δ(ξ) = Σe a 0 δ (x − xia (τ )) (6.25)
u0a (τ ) ua (τ )

But ξ = 0 means

x0a (τ ) = x0 = ct or alternately τ = τ (t) (6.26)

and so

dxµa (τ )/dτ 3 i 1 dxµa (τ (t)) 3 i

Z
µ i
Q = Σea dξ δ (x − x a (τ ))δ(ξ) = Σea δ (x − xia (τ (t))) (6.27)
dx0a (τ )/dτ c dt

Hence since xia (τ (t)) = xia (t) so

1 i
Qµ = Σea δ 3 (xi − xia (t)); v (t)δ 3 (xi − xia (t)) (6.28)
c a

and so
1
Qµ = j µ (x) (6.29)
c

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Hence j µ is indeed a physical contra vector. Thus Maxwell equations can be written as

physical tensor laws:

1
∂ν F µν = j µ (x); F µν (x) = ∂ µ Aν − ∂ ν Aµ (6.30)
c

Where for point charges

Z
µ
j = cΣea dτ uµa (τ )δ 4 (x − xa (τ )) (6.31)

As we saw before that the trajectories xa (τ ) were determined by the physical tensor equation.

d2 xµa e
ma 2
= uaν F µν (xαa (τ )) (6.32)
dτ c

Together Eqs.6.30-6.32represents the coupled equations for point charges interacting with

the electromagnetic fieldd in accord with the principles of special relativity. Remarkably,

Maxwell equations are atomatically in accord with the special relativity and it was Newton’s

euations there were not and had to be modified. it was Einstein who relaized this and saw

that Newton had to be modified, no Maxwell. What special relativity shows is that the

electric and magnetic fields could be unified into a single quantity, F µν , which transforms

under a Poincare transformation and electric fields could be converted to magnetic fields etc

by simply changing the inertial frame. Thus special relativity shows that Maxwell equations

had obtained a real unfication of electric and magnetic phenomena into a unified whole! The

tensor form of equations makes it much easier to manipulate. For example, consider Eq.6.31

and take ∂µ :
1
∂µ ∂ν F µν = ∂µ j µ (6.33)
c

Now ∂µ ∂ν is symmetric under µ ↔ ν and F µν is always anti-symmetric. In general consider

the form

φ ≡ Sµν Aµν ; Sµν = Sνµ , Aµν = −Aνµ (6.34)

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In Eq.6.34 µ and ν are bothe summed. we can therefore write µ ↔ ν

φ = Sνµ Aνµ (6.35)

But

φ = (+Sµν )(−Aµν ) = −Sµν Aµν = −φ (6.36)

Hence

φ=0 (6.37)

Applying this to Eq.6.33 we have

1
0 = ∂µ j µ (6.38)
c

We can write Eq.6.38 in terms of its components

∂0 j 0 + ∂i j i = 0 (6.39)

or
1∂
(cρ) + ∇.j = 0 (6.40)
c ∂t

which is just the eqn. of continuity. Thus Maxwell equations automatically requires conser-

vation of charge and this comes from the antisymmetry of F µν . Similarly from Eq.6.30 one

sees that if we require

Aµ → Aµ + ∂ µ Λ(x) (6.41)

Then

F µν → F 0µν = ∂ µ A0ν − ∂ ν A0µ = ∂ µ (Aν + ∂ ν Λ) − ∂ ν (Aµ + ∂ µ Λ) = F µν (6.42)

and F µν is unchanged. In component form Eq.6.41 becomes.

A0 = A + ∂ i Λ, A00 = A0 + ∂ 0 Λ (6.43)

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or

A ~ + ∇Λ, φ0 = φ − 1 ∂Λ
~0 = A (6.44)
c ∂t

Thus Eq.6.41 is just a gauge transation formation and Eq.6.42 shows the gauge invariance

of the field strength. This again follows from the antisymmetry of F µν . Note how easily this

result arise in tensor notation.

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