Fear, greed and glory 39

was largely fuelled by the ambitions of powerful individuals, like

Pompey and Caesar. But down to the outbreak of the Social War, in
91, the political system remained relatively stable. Why did the
Romans fight so many wars, and expand their power so widely?
Until recently, the dominant view among scholars was that
Roman imperialism was essentially defensive. The principal factor
which led the Romans to undertake their wars was, it was held, the
fear of powerful neighbours, a fear which was in some cases well-
founded, in others mistaken. Some writers also stressed the
importance of accident and misunderstanding. However, it was
thought that the prospect of economic gain did not play an important
part in bringing about the wars, and that the Romans’ territorial
expansion was largely unsought. This doctrine originated with
Mommsen (1877–80), and early in this century found notable
exponents in Frank (1914) and Holleaux (1921). More recent
statements of the case include those of Badian (1958, 1968),
Walbank (1963) and Errington (1971).
From time to time various writers expressed dissent from this
view, in this country notably Finley (1978) and Hopkins (1978, 25–
37). However, the first full-scale attack was mounted in 1979 by
William Harris in his important book War and Imperialism in
Republican Rome 327–70 BC. Harris laid stress on the fact that the
Romans had become habituated to continuous warfare, and argued
that the most important of the factors which brought about the wars
was the Romans’ desire for the glory and economic benefits which
successful warfare conferred. 1 He conceded that defensive
considerations played a part in some wars, but in general sought to
minimize this element. The core of his case is made in the first two

1
In insisting on the importance of these factors Harris stands in an old and
distinguished tradition. See, for example, Montesquieu 1734, ch. 1 (pp. 7
and 9 of Jullian’s edition):
La république ayant des chefs qui changeaient tous les ans, et qui cherchaient à
signaler leur magistrature pour en obtenir de nouvelles, il n’y avait pas un
moment de perdu pour l’ambition; ils engageaient le sénat à proposer au peuple
la guerre, et lui montraient tous les jours de nouveaux ennemis…. Or la guerre
était presque toujours agréable au peuple, parce que, par la sage distribution du
butin, on avait trouvé le moyen de la lui rendre utile…. Les consuls, ne pouvant
obtenir l’honneur du triomphe que par une conquête ou une victoire, faisaient la
guerre avec une impétuosité extrême: on allait droit à l’énnemi, et la force
décidait d’abord. Rome était done dans une guerre éternelle et toujours violente.