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Introduction to Computer
A computer is a powerful logical tool which works by using programs
given (written or coded) by user.
In other words, a computer is an electric machine that can store,
organize, find and manipulate information, do calculations and control
other devices.
The full form of the computer is somewhere predicted according
to its application and functions as below.
C: Commonly
O: Operating
M: Machine
P: Particularly
U: Used for
T: Trade
E: Education and
R: Research
Desktop computer, Laptop, micro computer, mini computer, PDA
(Personal Digital Assistant), super computer etc. are types of computer
around us.

Some Useful Terms used in the Study of Computer
Server
Server is a computer embedded with some program that controls or
supplies information to several computers connected in a network.
Port
A port is a place on a computer where you can attach another piece of
equipment, often using a cable. Moreover it is like a entrance and exit

door to transfer data from one computer to another computer or other
devices.
Micro‐chip
Micro‐chip is a very small piece of a material that is a semi conductor
used to carry a complicated electronic circuit.
Garbage
When the user enters wrong data in a computer, the result of it comes
with wrong information which can be called as garbage, in context of a
computer.
Virus
Instructions that are hidden with a computer program and are designed
which cause faults or destroy data.
A viral email
An email containing malicious codes (e.g. virus) or any harmful
materials which may have ability to self replicate itself after the
recipient executes the code. Or it can be an email which is sent from
one person to others, who then send it on again.
PDA
A personal digital assistant (PDA), also known as a palmtop computer or
personal data assistant, is a mobile device that functions as a personal
information manager.
Current PDAs often have the ability to connect to the Internet. A
PDA has an electronic visual display, enabling it to include a web
browser, but some newer models also have audio capabilities, enabling
them to be used as mobile phones or portable media players. Many
PDAs can access the Internet, intranets or extranets via Wi‐Fi or
Wireless Wide Area Networks. Many PDAs employ touch‐screen
technology.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer
Advantages of computer
‐ It saves time
‐ Solves vast equations and other mathematical problems
‐ Communicative device
‐ Creation of virtual reality (V.R.)
‐ Helps to earn money in easy steps
‐ Increases efficiency
‐ Can be used for research and other educational purposes
‐ Helps to explore world through the internet
‐ Helps to make phone call, send messages instantly etc.

Disadvantages of computer
‐ Piracy of original contents may harm a decent developer
economically
‐ Hacking may cause different physical damages to an organization
‐ Waste of time on extra stuffs (e.g. pornographic materials, games)
‐ User gets fully dependent on machines only
‐ Can cause eye and other health problems
‐ Can decrease privacy of an organization


Application of computer
Computers have affected the life of people in every field. Computers
are used in each and every field such as at home, airline and railway
reservation, telephone and electricity bills, research etc. some of the
application field are listed below.
Computer in Offices
‐ To prepare, store and retrieve data as electronic files
‐ To handle correspondence and office communications
‐ To facilitate administrative work and prepare papers
‐ To assist in decision making
Computer in book publication
The manuscripts of books are now prepared using computers.
Nowadays sketches, illustrations, diagrams etc are also prepared using
computers. For mass printing, a negative of the document is produced
and it is used to prepare plates for offset printing
Computers in Desktop publishing system
Nowadays, all magazines, newspapers, books, comics etc. are
produced using computers. Modern DTP software makes it easy to
apply styles and layout texts and graphics.
Computer aided manufacturing (CAM)
Engineers and operators who are the in‐charge of manufacturing
use computers to control manufacturing machines such as drill, milling
machines etc. CAM system is used to automate the production such as
quality control, measuring the size of the items during production,
measuring quantity, packaging the items after productions and many
more.
Computers in graphics Designing

Computers are being used to draw drawings, graphics and
pictures. Some of the graphics software packages are Coral Draw,
Microsoft Paint, Adobe Photoshop, Ulead Photo Studio, 3D Max Studio
etc.
Computer in communication
Computers are extensively used in sending and receiving
information. Data communication packages are available which are
used to send or receive information. Different communication services
such as electronic mail, internet phone, bulletin board system (BBS),
chatting, telex, video conferencing, satellite communication are
possible due to computers.
Computer in education
In educational institutions, computers are used as a teaching aid,
information resources and computing and research tool. The computer
also asks questions to the students and also prepares questions banks
and test questions.
Computer in airlines and railways ticket reservation
The computer stores all necessary information in connection with ticket
reservation. The computer also prints the reservation charts. The
passengers can also book ticket for onward journey. They can also get
information about seats in hotels in other cities, climate of other cities
through a computer network.
Computer in military
Computers are used in military smart weapons are microprocessor
based control system. In such weapon computer memory holds the
detail of the target area. Photographs of the target area are taken and
compared with the photographs stored in memory. Computers control
the speed of missiles so that they run faster. Computer play very

important role in military communication. Radar system employs
computers for processing data and images.

Computers in banks
Banks use computers for many purposes like to maintain ledger, to
provide online services to customers who want to perform bank
transaction from home. Computer allows customers to make
withdrawals via Automated Telling Machine (ATM). With the use of
computer electronic transfer of funds from one account to another has
become possible.

History of Computer
As the civilization started and they feel the need to count large number
and remember them for a long time people felt the need of calculating
devices for that they had used to draw lines on the ground in order to
find out the quantity. As a result, during the fifth century, the Hindu
philosophers developed a new method of counting system using
numeric digits from 0 to 9, which is called decimal numeric system.

Mechanical calculating Era
ABACUS
It was derived from the Latin word ABAX. An ABAX is a flat piece of
material that is covered with sand. Abacus was one of the first
mechanical aids used for calculation created by Chinese 3000 years ago.


Napier’s bone
It was invented by John Napier in 1617 AD. In 1614 he published the
first table of logarithm in the book called Rabdologia which was much
helpful in simplifying the multiplication of large numbers. In 1617, he
invented a small instrument constructed of ten rods called Napier’s
bone which were multiplication table inscribed on strips of wood or
bone.

Slide rule
In 1620 AD, slide rule was discovered by William Aughtred, an English
mathematician of the UK which is an analog device. It was used by
engineers for multiplication and division.

Blaise PASCAL
In 1642 AD, a French scientist Blaise Pascal invented a first true
mechanical calculating device called Pascaline. Pascaline consist of
toothed wheels or gears with each wheel or gear having digits 0 to 9
engraved on it. The machine had capacity to add, subtract 8‐bit
number. He had invented this machine to assist his father Ethinne
Pascal who was a tax superintendent of ROYAN.

Leibniz Calculating Machine
In 1671 a German mathematician Gottfried Wilhem Von Leibniz
invented a calculating machine called Leibniz calculating Machine. The
stepped Reckoner could perform addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division. Leibniz was the first to advocate the use of the binary
number system which is fundamental to the operation of modern

computers. Leibniz is considered one of the greatest of the
philosophers but he died poor and alone.

Jacquard’s loom
Jacquard’s loom’s technology was a real advantage to mill
owners, but put many loom operators out of work. Angry loom
operators damaged Jacquard’s looms and once attacked Jacquard’s
himself.

Electro mechanical era
Mark – I
It was the first electromechanical computer i.e. combination of
electrical and mechanical technology. Output was by card punch and
electric typewriter. It was slow requiring 3 to 5 seconds for a
multiplication, but it was fully automatic and could complete long
computations without human intervention.

Atnasoff Berry Computer (ABC)
John Vincent Atnasoff, professor of mathematics and physics of Jowa
state collage, with the help of his graduate student Clifford Berry,
invented ABC computer in 1937 AD. It was the first electronic special
purpose computer.

Electronic computer Era

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical and Integrated Calculator)
In 1946, John William Mauchly and Jeorge (J) Persper Eckert at the
Moore School of Electrical engineering of university of Pennsylvania

constructed an ENIAC. It was developed for military needs. It consists of
18000 vacuum tubes, 300 times faster that any other devices invented
at that times. It could add two numbers in 200 microseconds and
multiply them in 2000 microseconds.

John Von Neumann
Von Neumann contributed a new understanding of how practical fast
computers should be organized and built; these ideas, often referred to
as the stored – program techniques became fundamental for future
generations of high‐speed digital computers and were universally
adopted. In 1945 he purposed,
a. A stored program techniques inside the computer
b. Binary number to be used in computer

EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer)
It was invented by Murice Wilkes at Cambridge University in 1949. In
EDSAC, addition operations took 1500 microseconds and multiplication
operation took 4000 microseconds.

EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
In 1952, John Maunchly and JP Eckert and John Von Neumann invented
EDVAC. It used 4000 Vacuum Tubes and 10000 crystal diodes. The
EDVAC used the stored program concept in its design.

UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer)
It was the first general purpose electronic computer designed for
commercial use. UNIVAC was the first digital computer that was not of

a kind. UNIVAC marked the arrival of commercially available digital
computers for business and for scientific applications.

Generations of computer
Each generation of computer is characterized by the major
technological development that fundamentally changed the way
computer operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper and more
powerful and more efficient and reliable devices. There are totally five
generations known till today.

First generation (1942‐1955)
The first generation computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and
magnetic drums for memory and often enormous taking up entire
room and halls.
Characteristics:
a. They were the fastest calculating devices invented at that time.
b. Storage capacity was too small (1 to 4 K)
c. They were very huge in size
Defects of the first generations
a. There computers were difficult to program and use
b. Vacuum tubes used to get very hot while using
c. Difficult to link program

Second generation (1955‐1964)
These were the first computer that stored their instructions in their
memory which moved from magnetic drum to magnetic core
technology.

Characteristics:
a. They consume less power
b. Magnetic core memory was used as internal storage
c. They could understand high level language such as COBOL
d. Input and output devices were much faster.
Third generation (1964‐1975)
The development of the integrated circuit (IC) was the hallmark of the
third generation computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed
on silicon chips called semiconductors which drastically increased the
speed and efficiency of computers.
Characteristics
a. Integrated circuits as main features
b. Much powerful than second generation computers
c. They consumed less power
d. Supported different high level language
e. Semi‐conductors memory was used as primary storage

Fourth generation computers (1975‐1989)
The microprocessor bought the fourth generation of computers as
thousands of integrated circuits were built on to a single silicon chip.
What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the
palm of the hand.
Characteristics
a. Smaller and cheaper
b. Could understand billions of instructions within a second
c. General purpose machines

d. They had faster and larger primary memory and secondary storage
devices
e. Use of the standard high‐level languages

Fifth generation (1989‐present)
The fifth generation of computers are based on artificial intelligence are
still under development though there are some application such as
voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel
processing and semiconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence
a reality. A computer which will have a brain of own which can make
decisions without taking any commands from user is still under
construction up to now, hope we shall get it on our local market very
soon.
Characteristics
a. Understands natural language and thinking
b. They have faster and larger primary memory
c. They have Gallium arsenide in microprocessor
d. They are general purpose computers
e. They have faster and larger primary and secondary storage as
compared to their predecessors.


Classifications of computers
Computers are classified on the basis of their work, size, brand and
model.

Classification of computers on the basis of work
Analog computer
It is a computer or computational device in which the problem variables
are represented as continuous varying physical quantities such as
temperature and pressure.

Digital computer
A digital computer is an electronic computing machine that uses the
binary digits (bits) 0 and 1 to represent all forms of information
internally in digital form.

Hybrid computer
Hybrid computers are those computers that contain the features of
analog computers and digital computers. A combination of computers
is capable of inputting and outputting in both digital and analog signals,
e.g. FMC, EICS etc.

Classification of computer on the basis of size and volume
Super computer
Super computer are the fastest, most expensive and the most powerful
computers made to process complex and scientific jobs. They are
typically used for simulation, animated graphics, weather forecasting,
weapon research and development, rocketing and nuclear plasma,
physics and meteorology and so on.

Main frame computer
It is a very large and expensive computer capable of supporting
hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. In the hierarchy
that starts with a small microprocessor (in watches for example) at the
bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just
below super computers.

Mini computer
A mini computer is a midsized computer. In size and power, mini
computers lie between workstation and mainframe computers.

Micro computer
A micro computer is the smallest general purpose processing system
based on microprocessor or chip. It consists of CPU in a single chip
which supports backing storage of a much smaller scale like hard disk or
floppy disk.

Classification of computer on the basis of brand
IBM PC (International Business Machine Personal Computer)
The computers developed by International Business Machine (IBM)
Company are called IBM PCs. The technology used in IBM PC is
designed by the engineer of IBM company. IBM PCs are more reliable,
durable and have better quality.

IBM compatible
IBM compatible computers are developed by other than IBM
companies using the technology of IBM PC. They are easily available.

Apple/Macintosh
Apple computers are developed by Apple Co‐operation which was
established in late 1970s in the USA. Apple computers are costlier than
IBM computers. They are available in different capacity, cost and sizes.

Personal computer
A personal computer is a single user oriented and general purpose
micro computer processing system that can execute the program
instruction to perform a wide variety of tasks.

Types of personal computers
Desktop computers
Desktop computers are the single user personal computers that can be
placed on a desk and hence called desktop.

Laptop computer
Laptop computers are portable computers mainly used by the people
who need computing resources wherever they go.

Hand held computer
A hand held computer is a device whose size weight and design are
such that it can be sued comfortably by holding in hand. It is also
known as palmtop computer because it can be kept on palm and
operated. PDAs and mobile devices can be illustrated as example of
palmtop computers.


Classification of computer on the basis of model

XI computer (extended technology)
The computer which uses 8086 pr 8088 microprocessor and having
processing speed 4.77 MHz is known as an XT computer.

AT Computer
The computer which uses 80286, 80335, 80486 or 80586 series of
microprocessor is known as an AT computer.

PS/2 (Personal System ‐2)
These types of computers came in the market after 1990 manufactured
by IBM company. Most of the computers developed after 1990s
including laptop computer belong to PS/2 model.


Some important Questions with Answers
Discuss about how the development of the PCs has extended the use
of computer at present days.
A computer is a powerful logical tool which works by using programs
given by user. Personal computers are the micro computers which are
used by an individual at home, office, college etc. Now, the PC has
entered a new era of intelligence and science, now the development of
PC has provided the operating systems like Microsoft Windows XP/NT,
Linux, UNIX and Macintosh for a user. The huge and giant computers
are replaced by compact and micro sized PC which is not only small in
size but smarter than the computers of old days which has also been
affordable. Now, we may hardly find a home without a PC at least one
PC is there. Due to such reasons PC has extended the use of computers.

Write a short note on Lady Augusta.
She was the daughter of great poet Lord Bayron. She gave idea to
use binary numbers to Charles Babbage in his analytical machines. She
was known as the first programmer in the computer history. The
analytic engine remained un‐built but Augusta earned a position of
honour in history as the first computer programmer. She invented the
subroutine and was the first to recognize the importance of looping.


What do you mean by generation of computer?
Originally, the term ‘generation’ was used to distinguish between
varying hardware technologies but it has now been extended to include
both hardware and software that together make up a computer
system.
Difference between Control unit and ALU
Control unit ALU
a. The CU provides the necessary a. ALU is the area of the
timing and control signals. computer where various
computing functions are
performed on the data.
b. The unit is responsible for the b. All the arithmetic and logical
sequencing jobs of computer calculations are performed by
(synchronization). ALU.

Difference between RAM and ROM
RAM ROM
a. RAM is main memory from a. ROM is the type of the
where any location in the primary memory whose
memory can be randomly contents are permanently
and quickly accessed. etched into the memory chip
at the manufacturing stage.
b. RAM is volatile which holds b. ROM is non‐volatile which
memory in presence of always holds memory in
power supply. presence as well as in lack of
power.
c. RAM processes the data. c. ROM stores the processed
data.


Difference between Keyboard and Mouse
Keyboard Mouse
a. It contains various alphabets a. It doesn’t contains any
and symbols. alphabet or symbol
b. It is developed by a concept of b. Its shape is like that of a
typewriter. simple living mouse with a
tail.
c. Keyboard is larger in size as c. It is small and portable as
compared to mouse. compared to keyboard.
d. A computer cannot function d. A computer can function
without keyboard. without mouse.

System of Measurement Units in Computer
The smallest named unit of data measurement is bit which is the
smallest increment of data on a computer. A bit can hold only one of
two values: 0 or 1, corresponding to the electrical values of off or on
respectively which means the value ‘0’ is used to off and ‘1’ for on.
Because bits are so small, it is assembled into a group of eight to form a
byte. A byte contains enough information to store a single ASCII
character, like ‘h’.
A kilobyte (KB) is 1,024 bytes, not one thousand bytes as might be
expected, because computers use binary (base two) math, instead of
decimal (base ten) system. Nowadays, computer storage and memory
is often measured in megabytes (MB) and gigabytes (GB).
Many hard drive manufactures use a decimal number system to
define amounts of storage space. As a result, 1 MB is defined as one
million bytes, 1 GB is defined as one billion bytes and so on. Since our
computer uses a binary system as mentioned above, you may notice a
discrepancy between your hard drives’ published capacity and the

capacity acknowledge by your computer. For example, a hard drive that
is said to contain 10 GB of storage space using a decimal system is
actually capable of storing 10000000000 bytes. However, in a binary
system, 10 GB is 10737418240 bytes. As a result, instead of
acknowledging 10 GB your computer will acknowledge 9.31 GB. This is
not a malfunction but a matter of different definitions and non‐
uniformity. The case of USB drives and memory cards are the same.
The largest unit is heileybyte which is equal to
1211288155777568604160000 bytes. The largest reachable amount of
data (currently) is the Petabyte which is equal to 1100585369600 bytes.
The current wide used file system NTFS can only address hard drives up
to 25 petabytes. Here is the list of currently used data units of
measurements:
Name of Unit Equivalent
1 kilobyte (KB) 1,024 bytes
1 megabyte (MB) 1,048,576 bytes = 1024 KB
1gigabyte (GB) 1,073,741,824 bytes = 1024 MB
1 terabyte (TB) 1,009,511,627,776 bytes = 1024 GB
1 petabyte (PB) 1,125,899,906,842,624 = 1024 TB

Note: The names and abbreviations for numbers of bytes are easily
confused with the notations for bits. The abbreviations for numbers of
bits use a lower case “b” instead of an upper case “B”. The upper case is
used to denote Bytes.

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