Hindu Temple Panorama-Celestial

Mysteries
Dr. Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
MBA CALSATATE USA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN

Indo Swedish Author’s Collective, Stockholm SWEDEN and Nagpur INDIA

Hindu Temple Panorama
 Hindu Temple Panorama-Celestial
Mysteries

DrUday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
MBA CALSATATE USA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN

CONSULTANT Human Resource and Administration, FDCM ESSELWORLD GOREWADA ZOO Pvt. Ltd..

Indo Swedish Author’s Collective, Stockholm SWEDEN and Nagpur INDIA

 rst Edition 2020
Copyright 2020 Uday Dokras. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by means of electronic, mechanical, photocopy, micro-
film, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the copyright holder.
ISBN No. applied for. Cost US $150. I N R 1500/- Euro 120
 C O N T E N T S

 Contents page 9
 Acknowledgment & Introduction page 10
 Forward P. 41
Part I Architectural Design Concepts of the Borodudur pp 40
 CHAPTER 1 Foreword 41
 C H A P T E R 2 The Temple as a Mandala- p 60
 C H A P T E R 3. Reliefs in the Borobudun Templed pages 79
 CH A P T E R 4- Stupa Design Elements p 119
 C H A P T E R 5. Indian Design Influences on Borobudur pages 127
 PART II Mysteries Solved page 153
 C H A P T E R 6. Temple Triad p 155
 C H A P T E R 7. Archeoastronomy p 180
 C H A P T E R 8 Mathematics and Numerology 192
 CHAPTER 9 Fractals & Lotus-Design Elements of Borobodur page 201
 CHAPTER 10 The Temple as a Mandala page 222
 About the Author page 243
 Pre-publication Reviews Page 448-452
 Acknowledgement and Introduction
Hindu religion does not consist in struggles and attempts to believe a certain doctrine or dogma,
but in realizing not in believing, but in being and becoming.
Swami Vivekanand

"I find I think of myself not as a writer so much as someone who provides a gateway, a
tangential route for readers to reach the circus again, if only in their minds, when they are
unable to attend it physically, I relay it through printed words on crumpled newsprint, words
that they can read again and again. returning to the circus whenever they wish, regardless of
time of day or physical location. Transporting them at will.
When put that way, it sounds rather like magic, doesn't it? -Friedrick Thiessen, 1898"

To all the temples that provided me spiritual succour, knowledge; gave

me peace and tranquillity, made that lotus of love bloom in my chest and
lighted that lamp of knowledge- I dedicatge this work about them.

They are the guiding lights in all our lives.

Go to a temple JUST NOW and feel the truth of these my words.
DR Uday Dokras

God and architecture

 Abstract: A temple/Church (from the Latin word templum) is a building reserved
for religious or spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. It is typically used
for such buildings belonging to all faiths where a more specific term such
as church, mosque or synagogue is not generally used in English. These
include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism among religions with many modern followers, as
well as other ancient religions such as Ancient Egyptian religion.
The form and function of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered by
believers to be in some sense the "house" of one or more deities.

The word comes from Ancient Rome, where a templum constituted a sacred precinct as
defined by a priest, or augur. It has the same root as the word "template", a plan in preparation
of the building that was marked out on the ground by the augur.

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In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.

And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep.
And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.
And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.
And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness.
And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night.
And the evening and the morning were the first day.
And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters
from the waters.
And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from
the waters which were above the firmament: and it was so.
And God called the firmament Heaven. And the evening and the morning were the second
day.
And God said, Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one place, and let
the dry land appear: and it was so. And God called the dry land Earth; and the gathering
together of the waters called he Seas: and God saw that it was good.
Genesis 1 (Bible: King James Version)
For millennia, houses are being built not only as dwellings but also places where one could
keep God- a dwelling place for God. In fact, amongst the Hindu Temples, there is a
presumption that the diety is living and needs to sleep eat and rest. However since long places
of worship channelised the design and construction talents of the populations onto their love
of God. Traditional religious architecture is above all an architecture of life, from the overall
form down to the smallest ornamental detail, because God is identified with life and with
love. The need to provide shelter from the elements and serve everyday needs led to the
construction of roofs and walls that defined spaces adapted to human use. Traditional
buildings and cities were assemblies of such basic components, put together in ways that had
been found to promote particular and overall functioning. More importantly, going beyond
mere function, those structures combined ornament and other details that somehow seemed
necessary. Even when structures were designed as a whole, their form and organization
followed the evolved principles that had led to successful construction in the past. The results
included the great historical styles of architecture, and the most-loved and most functional
buildings and cities East and West.

According to Christianity, God is an architect. After darkness and chaos God swept across
the formless void and lifted up an enormous dome to separate water from water, thereby
opening up space for all living things to become. Without the help of the sun or stars, God
commanded light to pierce the solid darkness. With Spirit alone, God brought order to the
universe. Then, within an ordered universe, intelligent life—society, civilization— could
begin. When finished, God was satisfied and observed that it was very good. Humanity
reflects the image of the Great Architect who set the earth on its foundation (Ps 104:5). Psalm
104:5 He set the earth on its foundations; it can never be moved.

Just as God set the foundation of Earth, Architecture defines how we live and expresses our
thoughts. It reflects our shaping of the world in order to inhabit it, and the geometry of what
we build is far from neutral. The built environment, like the biological and other natural
systems that it engages, needs to function reliably in complex and adaptive ways on many
different levels. Such adaptive and sustainable systems have similar characteristics that,
despite distinct origins, develop in a broadly similar manner.

There is then, a heightened sensitivity for faithful architecture in what one might call sacred
space; the physical localization wherein God’s presence is guaranteed. The ideology of
contemporary architecture is detached from nature and from God. It creates buildings that are
dangerously detached from human beings. Traditional religions, despite periodic failings and
fanaticisms, arose out of the evolution of human culture, and are thus far more grounded in
real human needs. More importantly, they celebrate humans as rich and complex beings, with
capabilities far beyond those of a machine. This makes religions more rational, and less
divisive, than pseudo-religions based on irrational will. A Greek or Hindu temple, a sixteenth-
century mosque, or a Gothic cathedral connects us to each other, to the past, and to the world.
A modernist building or urban design does not. Even someone from a different civilization
and religious tradition can tell the difference. "

Sacred places are often pictorial reflections of the universe and its design and partake of its
holiness. The domes of Christian churches are symbols of heaven, the altar a symbol of
Christ, the Holy of Holies of the Temple of Jerusalem a symbol of the Lord, the Holy of
Holies in Hindu shrines (Temples) a symbol of the divinity, and the prayer niches in mosques

a symbol of the presence of Allah. As soon as the early Christians were at liberty to build

churches according to their own mind, they took pains to make them significant of their
religion. Probably at first the Christians took for the purposes of their worship such buildings
as they could get, adapting them to their uses as best they might. But when they grew strong
enough and independent enough to build as the heart and imagination dictated, then they
showed themselves careful to make their houses of God in shape and dimension suggestive of
what they believed." These old builders were Churchmen, and made their Churchmanship and
their belief felt in their work. A deep and true symbolism was carried out in the plan and
construction of their churches. Thus Christian churches at an early day came to be built in the
form of a cross. This was not only the most ornamental form of structure; it was much more:
it made the very fabric of the church the symbol of our faith in Christ crucified. Some
chancels of old churches were even built with a slight deflection from the line of direction of
the nave, thus representing the inclination of our Saviour's head upon the Cross. It made also
the gathering together of each congregation of His Church -- which is His mystical Body --
the symbol of that body itself: that part in the nave representing His body, that in the transepts
His outstretched arms, that in the choir His head. And so, also, "the united prayers and praises
of the congregation make, as it were, in their very sound the sign of the Cross."

When human architects set out to create sacred space, we look to breach the chaos and give
order to our lives. As modern people, we are constantly bombarded by information, noise, and
news and aggressively marketed to by those who want to sell us something. Sacred space can
lift up a dome of silence and hold back the tide of modern life. A sacred space can allow
contemplation, reflection, and the overview required to make moral choices.
Moreover, architecture is not only a means by which humans communicate and relate to one
another; architecture is the avenue by which God and His creation relate to one another. Let us
not forget that.

Church Architecture:The church architecture refers to the buildings of Christian churches. It

has evolved over the two thousand years of the Christian religion, partly by innovation and
partly by imitating other architectural styles as well as responding to changing beliefs,
practices and local traditions. From the birth of Christianity to the present, the most
significant objects of transformation for Christian architecture and design were the great
churches of Byzantium, the Romanesque abbey churches, Gothic cathedrals and Renaissance
basilicas with its emphasis on harmony. These large, often ornate and architecturally
prestigious buildings were dominant features of the towns and countryside in which they
stood. However, far more numerous were the parish churches in Christendom, the focus of
Christian devotion in every town and village. While a few are counted as sublime works of
architecture to equal the great cathedrals and churches, the majority developed along simpler
lines, showing great regional diversity and often demonstrating local vernacular technology
and decoration.

With the rise of distinctively ecclesiastical architecture, church buildings came to influence
secular ones which have often imitated religious architecture. In the 20th century, the use of
new materials, such as steel and concrete, has had an effect upon the design of churches. The
history of church architecture divides itself into periods, and into countries or regions and by
religious affiliation

From house church to church

From the first to the early fourth centuries most Christian communities worshipped in private
homes, often secretly. Some Roman churches, such as the Basilica of San Clemente in Rome,
are built directly over the houses where early Christians worshipped. Other early Roman
churches are built on the sites of Christian martyrdom or at the entrance to catacombs where
Christians were buried.
With the victory of the Roman emperor Constantine at the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312
AD, Christianity became a lawful and then the privileged religion of the Roman Empire. The
faith, already spread around the Mediterranean, now expressed itself in buildings. Christian
architecture was made to correspond to civic and imperial forms, and so the Basilica, a large
rectangular meeting hall became general in east and west, as the model for churches, with
a nave and aisles and sometimes galleries and clerestories. While civic basilicas had apses at
either end, the Christian basilica usually had a single apse where the bishop and presbyters sat
in a dais behind the altar. While pagan basilicas had as their focus a statue of the emperor,
Christian basilicas focused on the Eucharist as the symbol of the eternal, loving and forgiving
God.
The first very large Christian churches, notably Santa Maria Maggiore, San Giovanni in
Laterano, and Santa Costanza, were built in Rome in the early 4th century.
Characteristics of the early Christian church building

Plan of Old St Peter's Basilica, showing atrium (courtyard), narthex (vestibule),

central nave with double aisles, a bema for the clergy extending into a transept, and
an exedra or semi-circular apse.
The church building as we know it grew out of a number of features of the Ancient
Roman period:
 The house church
 The atrium
 The basilica
 The bema
 The mausoleum: centrally-planned building
 The cruciform ground plan: Latin or Greek cross
Atrium
When Early Christian communities began to build churches they drew on one particular
feature of the houses that preceded them, the atrium, or courtyard with
a colonnade surrounding it. Most of these atriums have disappeared. A fine example remains
at the Basilica of San Clemente in Rome and another was built in the Romanesque period
at Sant'Ambrogio, Milan. The descendants of these atria may be seen in the large
square cloisters that can be found beside many cathedrals, and in the huge colonnaded squares
or piazza at the Basilicas of St Peter's in Rome and St Mark's in Venice and the Camposanto
(Holy Field) at the Cathedral of Pisa.
Basilica
Early church architecture did not draw its form from Roman temples, as the latter did not have
large internal spaces where worshipping congregations could meet. It was the Roman basilica,
used for meetings, markets and courts of law that provided a model for the large Christian
church and that gave its name to the Christian basilica.
Both Roman basilicas and Roman bath houses had at their core a large vaulted building with a
high roof, braced on either side by a series of lower chambers or a wide arcaded passage. An
important feature of the Roman basilica was that at either end it had a projecting exedra,
or apse, a semicircular space roofed with a half-dome. This was where the magistrates sat to
hold court. It passed into the church architecture of the Roman world and was adapted in
different ways as a feature of cathedral architecture.
The earliest large churches, such as the Cathedral of San Giovanni in Laterano in Rome,
consisted of a single-ended basilica with one apsidal end and a courtyard, or atrium, at the
other end. As Christian liturgy developed, processions became part of the proceedings. The
processional door was that which led from the furthest end of the building, while the door
most used by the public might be that central to one side of the building, as in a basilica of
law. This is the case in many cathedrals and churches.
Bema
As numbers of clergy increased, the small apse which contained the altar, or table upon which
the sacramental bread and wine were offered in the rite of Holy Communion, was not
sufficient to accommodate them. A raised dais called a bema formed part of many large
basilican churches. In the case of St. Peter's Basilica and San Paolo Fuori le Mura (St Paul's
outside the Walls) in Rome, this bema extended laterally beyond the main meeting hall,
forming two arms so that the building took on the shape of a T with a projecting apse. From
this beginning, the plan of the church developed into the so-called Latin Cross which is the
shape of most Western Cathedrals and large churches. The arms of the cross are called
the transept.
Mausoleum
One of the influences on church architecture was the mausoleum. The mausoleum of a noble
Roman was a square or circular domed structure which housed a sarcophagus. The Emperor
Constantine built for his daughter Costanza a mausoleum which has a circular central space
surrounded by a lower ambulatory or passageway separated by a colonnade.Santa Costanza's
burial place became a place of worship as well as a tomb. It is one of the earliest church
buildings that was central, rather than longitudinally planned. Constantine was also
responsible for the building of the circular, mausoleum-like Church of the Holy
Sepulchre in Jerusalem, which in turn influenced the plan of a number of buildings, including
that constructed in Rome to house the remains of the proto-martyr Stephen, San Stefano
Rotondo and the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna.

The circular or polygonal form lent itself to those buildings within church complexes that
perform a function in which it is desirable for people to stand, or sit around, with a centralized
focus, rather than an axial one. In Italy, the circular or polygonal form was used throughout
the medieval period for baptisteries, while in England it was adapted for chapter houses. In
France, the aisled polygonal plan was adopted as the eastern terminal and in Spain, the same
form is often used as a chapel.
Other than Santa Costanza and San Stefano, there was another significant place of worship in
Rome that was also circular, the vast Ancient Roman Pantheon, with its numerous statue-
filled niches. This too was to become a Christian church and lend its style to the development
of Cathedral architecture.

Latin cross and Greek cross

Most cathedrals and great churches have a cruciform groundplan. In churches of Western
European tradition, the plan is usually longitudinal, in the form of the so-called Latin Cross,
with a long nave crossed by a transept. The transept may be as strongly projecting as at York
Minster or not project beyond the aisles as at Amiens Cathedral.
Many of the earliest churches of Byzantium have a longitudinal plan. At Hagia Sophia,
Istanbul, there is a central dome, the frame on one axis by two high semi-domes and on the
other by low rectangular transept arms, the overall plan being square. This large church was to
influence the building of many later churches, even into the 21st century. A square plan in
which the nave, chancel and transept arms are of equal length forming a Greek cross, the
crossing generally surmounted by a dome became the common form in the Eastern Orthodox
Church, with many churches throughout Eastern Europe and Russia being built in this way.
Churches of the Greek Cross form often have a narthex or vestibule which stretches across the
front of the church. This type of plan was also to later play a part in the development of
church architecture in Western Europe, most notably in Bramante's plan for St. Peter's
Basilica.
Comparative plans

Early Christian: House Church at Dura, Syria, domestic rooms around a courtyard were
adapted as a meeting place and baptistry.

Byzantine: Chora Church, Istanbul: a domed church with an apsidal chancel, galleries at
either side and a narthex. A modified cross-in-square plan.
Romanesque: Eschau Church, France: a cruciform plan with apse and aisles, west portal, and
side entrance.The division of the Roman Empire in the fourth century AD, resulted in
Christian ritual evolving in distinctly different ways in the eastern and western parts of the
empire. The final break was the Great Schism of 1054.

Eastern Orthodoxy and Byzantine architecture

Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity began to diverge from each other from an early
date. Whereas the basilica was the most common form in the west, a more compact
centralized style became predominant in the east. These churches were in origin martyria,
constructed as mausoleums housing the tombs of the saints who had died during the
persecutions which only fully ended with the conversion of Emperor Constantine. An
important surviving example is the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, which has
retained its mosaic decorations. Dating from the 5th century, it may have been briefly used as
an oratory before it became a mausoleum.
These buildings copied pagan tombs and were square, cruciform with shallow projecting arms
or polygonal. They were roofed by domes which came to symbolize heaven. The projecting
arms were sometimes roofed with domes or semi-domes that were lower and abutted the
central block of the building. Byzantine churches, although centrally planned around a domed
space, generally maintained a definite axis towards the apsidal chancel which generally
extended further than the other apses. This projection allowed for the erection of
an iconostasis, a screen on which icons are hung and which conceals the altar from the
worshippers except at those points in the liturgy when its doors are opened.

The architecture of Constantinople (Istanbul) in the 6th century produced churches that
effectively combined centralized and basilica plans, having semi-domes forming the axis, and
arcaded galleries on either side. The church of Hagia Sophia (now a museum) was the most
significant example and had an enormous influence on both later Christian and Islamic
architecture, such as the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Umayyad Great Mosque in
Damascus. Many later Eastern Orthodox churches, particularly large ones, combine a
centrally planned, domed eastern end with an aisled nave at the west.
A variant form of the centralized church was developed in Russia and came to prominence in
the sixteenth century. Here the dome was replaced by a much thinner and taller hipped or
conical roof which perhaps originated from the need to prevent snow from remaining on
roofs. One of the finest examples of these tented churches is St. Basil's in Red Square in
Moscow.

Medieval West
Participation in worship, which gave rise to the porch church, began to decline as the church
became increasingly clericalized; with the rise of the monasteries church buildings changed as
well. The 'two-room' church' became, in Europe, the norm. The first 'room', the nave, was
used by the congregation; the second 'room', the sanctuary, was the preserve of the clergy and
was where the Mass was celebrated. This could then only be seen from a distance by the
congregation through the arch between the rooms (from late mediaeval times closed by a
wooden partition, the Rood screen), and the elevation of the host, the bread of the
communion, became the focus of the celebration: it was not at that time generally partaken of
by the congregation. Given that the liturgy was said in Latin, the people contented themselves
with their own private devotions until this point. Because of the difficulty of sight lines, some
churches had holes, 'squints', cut strategically in walls and screens, through which the
elevation could be seen from the nave. Again, from the twin principles that every priest must
say his mass every day and that an altar could only be used once, in religious communities a
number of altars were required for which space had to be found, at least within monastic
churches.

Apart from changes in the liturgy, the other major influence on church architecture was in the
use of new materials and the development of new techniques. In northern Europe, early
churches were often built of wood, for which reason almost none survive. With the wider use
of stone by the Benedictine monks, in the tenth and eleventh centuries, larger structures were
erected.
The two-room church, particularly if it were an abbey or a cathedral, might acquire transepts.
These were effectively arms of the cross which now made up the ground plan of the building.
The buildings became more clearly symbolic of what they were intended for. Sometimes this
crossing, now the central focus of the church, would be surmounted by its own tower, in
addition to the west end towers, or instead of them. (Such precarious structures were known to
collapse – as at Ely – and had to be rebuilt.) Sanctuaries, now providing for the singing of the
offices by monks or canons, grew longer and became chancels, separated from the nave by a
screen. Practical function and symbolism were both at work in the process of development.

Factors affecting Church Architecture

Across Europe, the process by which church architecture developed and individual churches
were designed and built was different in different regions, and sometimes differed from
church to church in the same region and within the same historic period.

Local Issues: Among the factors that determined how a church was designed and built are the
nature of the local community, the location in city, town or village, whether the church was an
abbey church, whether the church was a collegiate church, whether the church had the
patronage of a bishop, whether the church had the ongoing patronage of a wealthy family and
whether the church contained relics of a saint or other holy objects that were likely to draw
pilgrimage.
Collegiate churches and abbey churches, even those serving small religious communities,
generally demonstrate a greater complexity of form than parochial churches in the same area
and of a similar date.Churches that have been built under the patronage of a bishop have
generally employed a competent church architect and demonstrate in the design refinement of
style unlike that of the parochial builder.

Many parochial churches have had the patronage of wealthy local families. The degree to
which this has an effect on the architecture can differ greatly. It may entail the design and
construction of the entire building having been financed and influenced by a particular patron.
On the other hand, the evidence of patronage may be apparent only in accretion of chantry
chapels, tombs, memorials, fittings, stained glass, and other decorations.

Churches that contain famous relics or objects of veneration and have thus become pilgrimage
churches are often very large and have been elevated to the status of basilica. However, many
other churches enshrine the bodies or are associated with the lives of particular saints without
having attracted continuing pilgrimage and the financial benefit that it brought.
The popularity of saints, the veneration of their relics, and the size and importance of the
church built to honor them are without consistency and can be dependent upon entirely
different factors.
After the second world war, modern materials and techniques such as concrete and metal
panels were introduced in many such places some even in reinforced concrete.

American church architecture

The split between Eastern and Western Church Architecture extended its influence into the
churches we see in America today as well. America's churches are an amalgamation of the
many styles and cultures that collided here.There are remnants of the Byzantine inspired
architecture in many of the churches, such as the large domed ceilings, extensive stonework,
and a maximizing of space to be used for religious iconography on walls and such.

Churches classified as Ukrainian or Catholic also seem to follow the trend of being overall
much more elaborately decorated and accentuated than their Protestant counterparts, in which
decoration is simple.
Church architecture shows the values and personal beliefs of the architects who created them,
while also showcasing Texan cultural history. Both the Catholic and Protestant buildings
showed things such as the architectural traditions, economic circumstances, religious
ordinances, and aesthetic tastes of those involved. The movement to keep ethnicities
segregated during this time was also present in the very foundations of this architecture. Their
physical appearances vary wildly from area to area though, as each served its own local
purpose, and as mentioned before, due to the multitude of religious groups, each held a
different set of beliefs.

English church architecture

The history of England's churches is extensive, their style has gone through many changes
and has had numerous influences such as 'geographical, geological, climatic, religious, social
and historical, shape it. One of the earliest style changes is shown in the Abbey Church of
Westminster, which was built in a foreign style and was a cause for concern for many as it
heralded change. A second example is St Paul's Cathedral, which was one of the earliest
Protestant Cathedrals in England. There are many other notable churches that have each had
their own influence on the ever-changing style in England, such as Truro, Westminster
Cathedral, Liverpool and Guildford. Between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the style
of church architecture could be called 'Early English' and 'Decorated'. This time is considered
to be when England was in its prime in the category of a church building. It was after
the Black Death that the style went through another change, the 'perpendicular style', where
ornamentation became more extravagant.

An architectural element that appeared soon after the Black Death style change and is
observed extensively in Medieval English styles is fan vaulting, seen in the Chapel of Henry
VII and the King's College Chapel in Cambridge. After this, the prevalent style was Gothic
for around 300 years but the style was clearly present for many years before that as well. In
these late Gothic times, there was a specific way in which the foundations for the churches
were built. First, a stone skeleton would be built, then the spaces between the vertical supports
filled with large glass windows, then those windows supported by their own transoms and
mullions.[16] On the topic of church windows, the windows are somewhat controversial as
some argue that the church should be flooded with light and some argue that they should be
dim for an ideal praying environment. Most church plans in England have their roots in one of
two styles, Basilican and Celtic and then we see the later emergence of a 'two-cell' plan,
consisting of nave and sanctuary.
In the time before the last war, there was a movement towards a new style of architecture, one
that was more functional than embellished. There was an increased use of steel and concrete
and a rebellion against the romantic nature of the traditional style. This resulted in a 'battle of
the styles' in which one side was leaning towards the modernist, functional way of design, and
the other was following traditional Romanesque, Gothic, and Renaissance styles, as reflected
in the architecture of all buildings, not just churches.

Gothic era architecture originated in France during the 12th century. Gothic architecture is a
style where curves, arches, and complex geometry are highly emphasized. This emphasis
came about because of the true feat it was to be able to create such intricate structures where
large amounts of engineers and planning were involved. Creating this feat was meant to be a
tribute to god, the more astonishing the church the more commendable.

Characteristics
The characteristics of a Gothic style church are largely in congruence with the ideology that
the more breath-taking a church is the better it represents god. This was accomplished through
clever math and engineering. In a time period where complex shapes, especially in huge
cathedrals, were not typically found in structures. Through this newly implemented skill of
being able to design complex shapes churches consisted of namely pointed arches, curved
lights and windows, and rib vaults. Since these newly popular designs were implemented with
respect to the width of the church rather than height, width was much more desired rather than
height.[20]
Art Gothic architecture in churches had a heavy emphasis on art. Just like the structure of the
building, there was an emphasis on complex geometric shapes. An example of this is stained
glass windows, which can still be found in modern churches. Stained glass windows were
both artistic and functional in the way that they allowed colored light to enter the church and
create a heavenly atmosphere. Other popular art styles in the Gothic era were sculptures.
Creating lifelike depictions of figures, again with the use of complex curves and shapes.
Artists would include a high level of detail to best preserve and represent their subject.

Time periods and styles

The Gothic era began in 12th-century France. It was first coined by historiographer Giorgio
Vasari. The era began in north-eastern France and slowly spread throughout the rest of
Europe. Multiple styles of Gothic architecture occurred, notably Rayonnant in the 13th
century. A style known for its exaggerated geometrical features, making everything as
astounding and eye-catching as possible. Shortly after an emerging style was born known as
decorated gothic where these geometrical features were being applied to already complex
structural forms. Nearing the end of the Gothic period the art style had transcended to being
just churches attempting to align themselves with god. Residences, guilds, government
buildings all adopted this new architectural style.

Reformation : In the early 16th century, the Reformation brought a period of radical change
to church design. On Christmas Day 1521, Andreas Karlstadtperformed the
first reformed communion service. In early January 1522, the Wittenberg city council
authorized the removal of imagery from churches and affirmed the changes introduced by
Karlstadt on Christmas. According to the ideals of the Protestant Reformation, the spoken
word, the sermon, should be central act in the church service. This implied that the pulpit
became the focal point of the church interior and that churches should be designed to allow all
to hear and see the minister. Pulpits had always been a feature of Western churches. The birth
of Protestantism led to extensive changes in the way that Christianity was practiced (and
hence the design of churches).
During the Reformation period, there was an emphasis on "full and active participation". The
focus of Protestant churches was on the preaching of the Word, rather than a sacerdotal
emphasis. Holy Communion tables became wood to emphasise that Christ's sacrifice was
made once for all and were made more immediate to the congregation to emphasise man's
direct access to God through Christ. Therefore catholic churches were redecorated when they
became reformed: Paintings and statues of saints were removed and sometimes the altar table
was placed in front of the pulpit, as in Strasbourg Cathedral in 1524. The pews were turned
towards the pulpit. Wooden galleries were built to allow more worshippers to follow the
sermon.

Modernism:The idea that worship was a corporate activity and that the congregation should
be in no way excluded from sight or participation derives from the Liturgical Movement.
Simple one-room plans are almost of the essence of modernity in architecture. In France and
Germany between the first and second World Wars, some of the major developments took
place.
.
Postmodern movements : As with other Postmodern movements, the Postmodern
movement in architecture formed in reaction to the ideals of modernism as a response to the
perceived blandness, hostility, and utopianism of the Modern movement. While rare in
designs of church architecture, there are nonetheless some notable examples as architects have
begun to recover and renew historical styles and "cultural memory" of Christian
architecture.Architects rediscovered the expressive and symbolic value of architectural
elements and forms that had evolved through centuries of building—often maintaining
meaning in literature, poetry and art—but which had been abandoned by the modern
movement.

Temple architecture
A Hindu temple is a symbolic house, seat and body of god. It is a structure designed to bring
human beings and gods together, using symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs
of Hinduism. The symbolism and structure of a Hindu temple are rooted in Vedic traditions,
deploying circles and squares. It also represents recursion and equivalence of the macrocosm
and the microcosm by astronomical numbers, and by "specific alignments related to the
geography of the place and the presumed linkages of the deity and the patron". A temple
incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmos—presenting the good, the evil and the human, as
well as the elements of Hindu sense of cyclic time and the essence of life—symbolically
presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksa, and karma.

The spiritual principles symbolically represented in Hindu temples are given in the ancient
Sanskrit texts of India (for example, Vedas and Upanishads), while their structural rules are
described in various ancient Sanskrit treatises on architecture (Brhat Samhita, Vastu
Sastras). The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals,
geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of
Hinduism. A Hindu temple is a spiritual destination for many Hindus, as well as landmarks
around which ancient arts, community celebrations and economy have flourished.

Temple architecture of high standard developed in almost all regions during ancient India.
The distinct architectural style of temple construction in different parts was a result of
geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic diversities. Ancient Indian
temples are classified in three broad types. This classification is based on different
architectural styles, employed in the construction of the temples. Three main style of temple
architecture are the Nagara or the Northern style, the Dravida or the Southern style and the
Vesara or Mixed style. But at the same time, there are also some regional styles of Bengal,
Kerala and the Himalayan areas.

One important part of the ancient Indian temples was their decoration. It is reflected in the
multitude details of figured sculpture as well as in the architectural elements. Another
important component of Indian temples was the garbha-griha or the womb chamber,
housing the deity of the temple. The garbha-griha was provided with a circumambulation
passage around. However, there are also many subsidiary shrines within temple complexes,
more common in the South Indian temple.

In the initial stages of its evolution, the temples of North and South India were
distinguished on the basis of some specific features like sikhara and gateways. In the north
Indian temples, the sikhara remained the most prominent component while the gateway
was generally unassuming. The most prominent features of South Indian temples were
enclosures around the temples and the Gopurams (huge gateways). The Gopurams led the
devotees into the sacred courtyard. There were many common features in the Northern and
the Southern styles. These included the ground plan, positioning of stone-carved deities on
the outside walls and the interior, and the range of decorative elements.
Design
The very essence of a Hindu temple is believed to have developed from the ideology that
all things are one and everything is associated. The four essential and significant principles
which are also aims of human life according to Indian philosophy are the quests for artha -
wealth and prosperity; kama - sex and pleasure; dharma - moral life and virtues; and
moksha - self knowledge and realisation. The mathematically structured spaces, intricate
artworks, decorated and carved pillars and statues of Hindu temples illustrate and revere
such philosophies. A hollow space without any embellishments situated at the centre of the
temple, usually below the deity, may also be at the side or above the deity symbolises the
complex concept of Purusha or Purusa meaning the Universal principle, Consciousness, the
cosmic man or self without any form, however, omnipresent and associates all things. The
Hindu temples suggest contemplations, encouragement and further purification of mind
and prompt the process of self-realisation in devotees; however the preferred process is left
to the convention of individual devotees.

Site
The areas of Hindu temple sites are usually vast with many of them built near water bodies,
in the lap of nature. This is probably because according to ancient Sanskrit texts the most
suitable site for a Hindu temple referred as ‘Mandir’ is at close proximity to water bodies
and gardens where flowers blossom, chirping of birds and sounds of ducks and swans can
be heard and animals can rest without any fear. These places exhibiting peace and
tranquillity are recommended by the texts for building Hindu temples elucidating that Gods
reside in such places. Although, leading Hindu temples are suggested near natural water
bodies like confluence of rivers, river banks, seashores and lakes, according to the
‘Puranas’ and ‘Bharat Samhita’, Mandirs can even be constructed in sites devoid of natural
water bodies. However, such suggestions include building up of a pond with water gardens
in front of the ‘Mandir’ or towards left. In the absence of both natural and man-made water
bodies, water remains typically present during consecration of the deity or the Mandir. Part
III of Chapter 93 of the Hindu text Vishnudharmottara Purana also recommends building
of temples within caves and chiselled out stones; atop hills amidst spectacular and serene
views; within hermitages and forests; beside gardens; and at the upper end of a street of a
town.
Layout
Layout of a Hindu temple pursues a geometrical design known as vastu-purusha-mandala,
the name of which is derived from the three vital components of the design namely Vastu
meaning Vaas or a place of dwelling; Purusha, meaning the Universal principle; and
Mandala meaning circle. Vastupurushamandala is a mystical diagram referred in Sanskrit
as a Yantra. The symmetrical and self-repeating model of a Hindu temple demonstrated in
the design is derived from the primary convictions, traditions, myths, fundamentality and
mathematical standards.
According to Vastupurushamandala, the most sacred and typical template for a Hindu
temple is the 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan also referred as Bhekapada
and Ajira. The layout displays a vivid saffron centre with intersecting diagonals which
according to Hindu philosophy symbolises the Purusha. The axis of the Mandir is created
with the aid of the four fundamentally significant directions and thus, a perfect square is
created around the axis within the available space. This square which is circumscribed by
the Mandala circle and divided into perfect square grids is held sacred. On the other hand,
the circle is regarded as human and worldly that can be perceived or noticed in daily life
such as the Sun, Moon, rainbow, horizon or water drops. Both the square and the circle
support each other. The model is usually seen in large temples while an 81 sub-square grid
is observed in ceremonial temple superstructures.
Each square within the main square referred as ‘Pada’ symbolise a specific element that
can be in the form of a deity, an apsara or a spirit. The primary or the innermost square/s of
the 64 grid model called Brahma Padas is dedicated to Brahman. The Garbhagruha or
centre of the house situated in the Brahma Padas houses the main deity. The outer
concentric layer to Brahma Padas is the Devika Padas signifying facets of Devas or Gods
which is again surrounded by the next layer, the Manusha Padas, with the ambulatory. The
devotees circumambulate clockwise to perform Parikrama in the Manusha Padas with
Devika Padas in the inner side and the Paishachika Padas, symbolising facets of Asuras
and evils, on the outer side forming the last concentric square. The three outer Padas in
larger temples generally adorn inspirational paintings, carvings and images with the wall
reliefs and images of different temples depicting legends from different Hindu Epics and
Vedic stories. Illustrations of artha, kama, dharma and moksha can be found in the
embellished carvings and images adorning the walls, ceiling and pillars of the temples.
Pillared outdoor halls or pavilions called Mandapa meant for public rituals with the ones in
the east serving as waiting room for devotees adorns the large temples. The Mandir’s spire,
usually a tapering conical or pyramidal superstructure with a dome designed adhering
principles of concentric squares and circles and referred in North India as Shikhaa and
Vimana in South India is symmetrically aligned exactly above the Brahma Pada or the
central core of the Mandir. Compounds of many larger temples house smaller temples and
shrines that also follow fundamental aspects of grids, symmetry and mathematical
perfection. Repetition and mirroring of fractal-like design structure forms a significant
principle of Hindu temple designs.
The manuals comprising of Hindu temple layouts elucidates plans with squares in the
count of 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 and thus, reaching up to 1024. Each plan of different Padas has
individual significance, for instance in one pada plan the pada is regarded as the seat for a
devotee or hermit to perform yoga, meditation or offer Vedic fire; a four Padas plan, also a
meditative design represents a core at the center; and a nine Padas layout that generally
forms model of smallest temples has a divine surrounded centre. Although the perfect
square grid principle is primarily found in different temples of India, some others hold
exception such as the Teli-ka-mandir and the Naresar temple in Madhya Pradesh and the
Nakti-Mata temple in Rajasthan, indicating that Hinduism welcomed flexibility, creativity
and aesthetic independence of artists.
he Nagara style that is palpable in different parts of India with varied elaborations in
different localities has two particular features. The first being presence of several graduated
projections or rathakas in the centre of all sides of the square temple, thus bearing a cross-
shape with several re-entrant angles on all sides. The second feature includes design of the
spire or Shikhara that follow principles of concentric squares and circles and gradually
taper in a convex curve while stretching upwards. The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in
Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh is a fine example of this style.
Dravidian
Dravidian temple architecture evolved in South India predominantly comprise of temples
built of sandstone, soapstone or granite. The square-shaped temple called Vimana has one
or more storied pyramidal roof while its cell houses the image or emblem of the God. The
Mandapas/Mandapams or porches are built in such a way that these precede and cover the
door that leads to the cell. The Gopurams/Gopuras or elaborate gateway-towers or gate-
pyramids encloses the temples. The Chaultris or pillared halls employed for different
purposes forms one of the principal and constant features of this style. Temple tanks, wells,
abodes of priests and other important buildings form part of this temple style. The famous
Thanjavur temple of Tamil Nadu typifies this style.
Badami-chalukya
ndian architecture saw an illustrious phase during the Badami Chalukyas rule. The
foundation of cave temple architecture was laid by them on the banks of Malaprabha River
in Karnataka during 500 and 757 CE. The Badami Cave temples situated in the town of
Badami in northern Karnataka dating back to the 6th century is one of the finest examples
of this architecture that consist of decorative pillars, finely chiselled ceiling panels and
sculptures. More than 150 temples in the historic temple complex situated in the village of
Aihole called ‘Cradle of Indian architecture’ and also Group of Monuments of Pattadakal
are marked by UNESCO as World Heritage site comprising of architectural edifices like
the Virupaksha temple and the Mallikarjuna temple are also brilliant examples of this style.
Gadag
he Western Chalukya architecture or Gadag style of architecture is a specific style of
decorative architecture that originated from the old dravida style and defines the Karnata
dravida tradition. Evolved during 11th century it prospered for around 150 years till 1200
CE during the reign of Western Chalukya Empire in the Tungabhadra region of Karnataka
and saw construction of around 50 temples. A distinct feature of this style was articulation.
Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi and Saraswati temple in the temple complex of
Trikuteshwara at Gadag are some of the temples that illustrate this style.
Kalinga
This style having three specific types of temples prospered in Odisha and Northern Andhra
Pradesh. The three styles are Pidha Deula, Rekha Deula and Khakhara Deula with the first
two linked with Shiva, Surya and Vishnu and the latter is predominantly associated with
Goddesses Durga and Chamunda. Again the first type comprises of outer halls for offerings
and dancing while the latter two comprise of the sanctum sanctorum. The word Deula
means temple. The famous Jagannath Temple of Puri and Lingaraj Temple of
Bhubaneswar portray Rekha Deula style while Vaital Deula of Bhubaneswar typifies
Khakhara Deula and the Sun Temple at Konark remains a prominent example of Pidha
Deula.
Maru-Gurjara
 This temple architecture with two notable styles namely Maru-Gurjara and Maha-Maru
originated in Rajasthan and its vicinity sometime around 6th century. M?ru-Gurjara temple
architecture is considered by scholars as an exclusive Western Indian architectural style
that differs distinctly from temple architecture of North India. However, it is regarded to
have some associative features with Hoysala temple architecture as sculpturally rich
architecture is palpable in both the styles. The Nagda temple in Rajasthan illustrates this
style.
Significance: A Hindu temple reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma, beliefs,
values, and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. It is a link between man, deities, and
the Universal Purusa in a sacred space. It represents the triple-knowledge (trayi-vidya) of the
Vedic vision by mapping the relationships between the cosmos (brahmanda) and the cell
(pinda) by a unique plan that is based on astronomical numbers. Subhash Kak sees the temple
form and its iconography to be a natural expansion of Vedic ideology related to recursion,
change and equivalence.
The 9x9 (81) grid ‘’Parama Sayika’’ layout plan found in large ceremonial Hindu Temples, is
one of many grids used to build Hindu temples. In this structure of symmetry, each concentric
layer has significance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas, signify aspects of Asuras and
evil; while inner Devika padas signify aspects of Devas and good. In between the good and
evil is the concentric layer of Manusha padas signifying human life; All these layers surround
Brahma padas, which signifies creative energy and the site for temple's primary idol for
darsana. Finally at the very center of Brahma padas is Grabhgriya (Purusa Space), signifying
Universal Principle present in everything and everyone. In Hindu tradition, there is no
dividing line between the secular and the lonely sacred. In the same spirit, Hindu temples are
not just sacred spaces, they are also secular spaces. Their meaning and purpose have extended
beyond spiritual life to social rituals and daily life, offering thus a social meaning. Some
temples have served as a venue to mark festivals, to celebrate arts through dance and music,
to get married or commemorate marriages, commemorate the birth of a child, other significant
life events, or mark the death of a loved one. In political and economic life, Hindu temples
have served as a venue for the succession within dynasties and landmarks around which
economic activity thrived. Hindu temple Design: Almost all Hindu temples take two forms: a
house or a palace. A house-themed temple is a simple shelter which serves as a deity's home.
The temple is a place where the devotee visits, just like he or she would visit a friend or
relative. The use of moveable and immoveable images is mentioned by Pāṇini. In Bhakti
school of Hinduism, temples are venues for puja, which is a hospitality ritual, where the deity
is honored, and where devotee calls upon, attends to and connects with the deity. In other
schools of Hinduism, the person may simply perform “jap”, or meditation, or yoga,
orintrospection in his or her temple. Palace-themed temples often incorporate more elaborate
and monumental architecture. Functions in Society: Hindu temples served as nuclei of
important social, economic, artistic and intellectual functions in ancient and medieval India.
South Indian temples managed regional development function, such as irrigation projects,
land reclamation, post-disaster relief and recovery. These activities were paid for by the
donations (melvarum) they collected from devotees. These donations came from a wide
spectrum of the Indian society, ranging from kings, queens, officials in the kingdom to
merchants, priests and shepherds. Temples also managed lands endowed to it by its devotees
upon their death. They would provide employment to the poorest. Some temples had large
treasury, with gold and silver coins, and these temples served as banks. Hindu temples over
time became wealthy from grants and donations from royal patrons as well as private
individuals. Major temples became employers and patrons of economic activity. They
sponsored land reclamation and infrastructure improvements, including building facilities
such as water tanks, irrigation canals and new roads. A very detailed early record from 1101
lists over 600 employees (excluding the priests) of the Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur, still
one of the largest temples in Tamil Nadu. Most worked part-time and received the use of
temple farmland as reward. For those thus employed by the temple, according to Michell,
"some gratuitous services were usually considered obligatory, such as dragging the temple
chariots on festival occasions and helping when a large building project was
undertaken.Temples also acted as refuge during times of political unrest and danger.

The Vastu Purusha Mandala( VPM) in Temple Architecture

Before venturing into explaining VPM, it is necessary to create an understanding of ‘Vastu
Shasthra’, the branch of architectural science to which VPM belongs. ‘Vastu’ is derived from
the root Sanskrit sound ‘Vas’which encompasses a range of words related to objects that are
used as a surround by human beings like cloths,house and habitation. ‘Vastu’ in the context of
Vastu Shastra means places where immortals and mortals dwell. Vastu is classifiedin to earth
(bhumi), house (harmya), vehicle (yana) and furniture/seating (sayana). The general meaning
of ‘Shastra’ is science, which makes the translation of Vastu Shastra , the science of places
where immortals and mortals live. Vastu Shastra comprises of a body of knowledge that was
fully developed before the advent of 1st century AD but most of the literary material between
6th century BC and 6th century AD are lost. Vastu Shastra was developed and modified by a
successive generation of architectural scholars through a range of Sanskrit and Tamil literary
works till 15th century. Most of the translated and interpreted books on Vastu Shastra are
based on six ancient Sanskritbooks- 1. Mayamata, 2. Manasara, 3. Samaranganasuthradhara,
4. Rajavallabha, 5. Vishwakarmaprakasha and 6. Aparajitapraccha

Vastu Purusha and Vastu Purusha Mandala – How He Came To Existence & Became the
Basis of Vastu Shastra

Vastu Purusha Mandala is a fascinating story from ancient Indian texts depicting the birth of
Vastu Purusha, the chaos he caused and how he was overpowered by collective efforts of
different Gods.This story also elaborates Vastu Purusha Mandala (the basis of Vastu Shastra).

The story of Vastu Purusha: It all started when Lord Brahma created The Universe and was
experimenting to make some creatures. He thought that a ”man” would be the best option for
this and so he created a man.But this was no ordinary man, he was huge and had enormous
powers to grow.Soon after his creation the man started growing.As time passed, he became
extremely huge and with his size, his hunger also increased.He started to eat anything and
everything that came his way.In no time he became so big that his shadow had cast a
permanent eclipse on earth.This whole episode was enough for Gods(Shiva and Vishnu) to
press the panic button.They immediately rushed to God Brahma and requested him to stop the
man from spreading chaos.God Brahma understood that he has made a terrible mistake and he
needs to rectify it.But the man was too powerful for God Brahma, hence he requested the
Gods of eight directions (Astha Dikapalakas) to come and help him. Upon hearing his request,
Gods came for rescue, they grabbed the man and overpowered him.They pinned the man
against ground with his head in North-East and legs in South-West direction.During all this
event God Brahma jumped into the center and held the man down.Going through all this the
“Man” started crying and asked God Brahma, “Why are you doing this to me?”,“You have
created me and now why this treatment is done to me?” As soon as the”man” realized that he
has been pinned down he started to cry and asked God Brahma “You created me, and now
you are doing this treatment to me? What’s my fault?” Hearing his question God Brahma
thought for a moment and answered “I know its not your fault, but you have become a threat
to everyone. I don’t want to destroy what I have created and hence you have to remain like
this forever.” “But what’s my benefit in all this?” the man asked. Brahma said “I will make
you immortal and all mortal people who build any sort of structure on earth will worship you.
You can tease, devour and trouble these people if they don’t worship you and don’t keep you
happy.You will be present in all the land and you are from now onwards known as Vastu
Purusha”.
To this deal, the man agreed and became an inseparable part of earth forever.
Vastu Purusha Mandala: From the story of Vastu Purusha you can recollect that Gods have
pinned down Vastu Purusha to ground, hence the section of the ground where Vastu Purusha
was pinned down is called as Vastu Purusha Mandala. Since God Brahma said that Vastu
Purusha will be worshiped all over earth hence any plot or land used for construction is
automatically a Vastu Purusha Mandala.
You might have heard the saying “A picture is worth thousand words”, hence a better way of
understanding Vastu Purusha Mandala is to have a look at the image below. Having seen the
diagram, let’s start to understand what actually Vastu Purusha Mandala means and how can
we keep Vastu Purusha happy at all times.

Vastu Purusha Mandala: Detailed Explanation

In the diagram we see Vastu Purusha pinned down facing earth with his head in the North-
East direction and leg towards South-West direction. It was a collective effort of 45 Gods
(including Brahma) to pin Vastu Purusha down.
Vastu Purusha Mandala is divided in to 9×9= 81 parts (as shown in the diagram), each part
names the God holding Vastu Purusha down in respective part. There are 32 Gods in outer
part and 13 Gods in inner part. This means that there is presence of different Gods in Vastu
Purusha Mandala and each of these Gods rule different parts of a human life as per their
qualities. This is the reason why while making rooms in a home, we make sure not to offend
any deity of that area. Vastu Shastra lays guidelines and principles to keep all deities happy at
all times. Hence as per vastu shastra if any building is constructed as per Vastu Purusha
Mandala then prosperity prevails in the building and inhabitants are always happy, healthy,
wealthy and satisfied. As humans, depending upon the time, we perform many functions
throughout a day. For example, we sleep at night, get-up in the morning, work in daytime and
again go to sleep at night. Also, we perform all these activities at different locations in a
home or any other building, such as office, workshop etc. We all know that we have 24 hours
in a day due to rotation of earth on its axis and the position of sunlight changes constantly
during 24 hours due to this rotation. Depending upon the position of Sun in relation to earth
during a 24 hour period, our ancient Sages structured various rooms of a home in such a way
so that during anytime in a day, depending upon the location of work, humans get the best
rays of sun on them. Let’s understand the importance of location of rooms based on
direction:-

1. North-East: In morning, from 3:00 am to 6:00 am, Sun is in the North-East part of house.
This patch of time between 3:00 am to 6:00 am is called as Brahma Mahurat and is best for
meditation, yoga, exercise or study. Hence North-East part of a home is best suited for a
pooja/prayer room, living room or even study room. 2. East: The Sun remains from 6:00 am
to 9:00 am in East portion of a home, this time is best to get ready for the day ahead and
hence East is best suitable for a bathroom (only bathroom, not toilet). However, this portion
can also be used for living room, unmarried children’s bedroom, guest bedroom, dining room,
pooja room and even study room. 3. South-East: 9:00 am to 12:00 noon is the time when Sun
is in the South-East part of home and this time is best for preparing food and going to job.
Hence this location is best suited to place a kitchen, office or unmarried son’s bedroom in a
home. 4. South: The time between 12 noon and 3:00 pm is time to work, during this time the
Sun is in southern portion of a building and hence this location is good for office. In this
portion, the intensity of sunlight is very high and hence South can also be used as a store
room, staircase and even toilets. 5. South-West: Post lunch is the time to rest i.e. from 3:00
pm to 6:00 pm. During this time the sun is in South-West portion of a home and hence this
location is best for master bedroom. Also a staircase or strong room can be located here. 6.
West: The time between 6:00 pm to 9:00 pm is best time to relax and dine. Thats why this is
the best location to have dining room in a home. One can also use this portion to locate
children’s bedroom, prayer room, study room or a staircase. 7. North-West: The time between
9:00 pm to 12:00 am is the time to relax and sleep. Hence this location is best suited for a
bedroom. However, this portion can also be used as living room 8. North: The time between
12:00 am and 3:00 am is the time of secrecy and darkness; hence this portion of home is best
suitable for cash room or strong room. However this portion is also used as living room or
dining room.The diagram below helps you to identify the best location for different rooms in
home as per vastu shastra. literally translates to -science of architecture. Ancient Vastu
Shastra principles include those for the design of Mandir (Hindu temples), and the principles
for the design and layout of houses, towns, cities, gardens, roads, water works, shops and
other public areas. These are texts found on the Indian subcontinent that describe principles
of design, layout, measurements, ground preparation, space arrangement, and spatial
geometry. Vastu Shastras incorporate traditional Hindu and in some cases Buddhist beliefs.
The designs are intended to integrate architecture with nature, the relative functions of various
parts of the structure, and ancient beliefs utilising geometric patterns (yantra), symmetry, and
directional alignments. Vastu Shastra are the textual part of Vastu Vidya, the latter being the
broader knowledge about architecture and design theories from ancient India. Vastu Vidya
knowledge is a collection of ideas and concepts, with or without the support of layout
diagrams,that are not rigid. Rather, these ideas and concepts are models for the organisation of
space and form within a building or collection of buildings, based on their functions in
relation to each other, their usage and to the overall fabric of the

Vastu. The Sanskrit word vāstu means a dwelling or house with a corresponding plot of land.
The vrddhi, vāstu, takes the meaning of "the site or foundation of a house, site, ground,
building or dwelling-place, habitation, homestead, house". The underlying root is vas "to
dwell, live, stay, reside". The term shastra may loosely be translated as "doctrine, teaching".
Vāstu-Śastras (literally, science of dwelling) are ancient Sanskrit manuals of architecture.
These contain Vastu-Vidya (literally, knowledge of dwelling).

Ancient India produced many Sanskrit manuals of architecture, called Vastu Sastra.
Many of these are about Hindu temple layout (above), design and construction, along with
chapters on design principles for houses, villages, towns. The architect and artists (Silpins)
were given wide latitude to experiment and express their creativity. There exist many Vāstu-
Śastras on the art of building houses, temples, towns and cities. One such Vāstu Śastra is by
Thakkura Pheru, describing where and how temples should be built. By 6th century AD,
Sanskrit manuals for constructing palatial temples were in circulation in India. Vāstu-Śastra
manuals included chapters on home construction, town planning, and how efficient villages,
towns and kingdoms integrated temples, water bodies and gardens within them to achieve
harmony with nature. While it is unclear, states Barnett, as to whether these temple and town
planning texts were theoretical studies and if or when they were properly implemented in
practice, the manuals suggest that town planning and Hindu temples were conceived as ideals
of art and integral part of Hindu social and spiritual life.

The Silpa Prakasa of Odisha, authored by Ramachandra Bhattaraka Kaulachara sometime in

ninth or tenth century CE, is another Vāstu Śastra Silpa Prakasa describes the geometric
principles in every aspect of the temple and symbolism such as 16 emotions of human beings
carved as 16 types of female figures. These styles were perfected in Hindu temples prevalent
in eastern states of India. Other ancient texts found expand these architectural principles,
suggesting that different parts of India developed, invented and added their own
interpretations. For example, in Saurastra tradition of temple building found in western states
of India, the feminine form, expressions and emotions are depicted in 32 types of Nataka-stri
compared to 16 types described in Silpa Prakasa. Silpa Prakasa provides brief introduction to
12 types of Hindu temples. Other texts, such as Pancaratra Prasada Prasadhana compiled by
Daniel Smith and Silpa Ratnakara compiled by Narmada Sankara provide a more extensive
list of Hindu temple types.

Ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple construction discovered in Rajasthan, in

northwestern region of India, include Sutradhara Mandana's Prasadamandana (manual for
planning and building a temple) with chapters on town building. Manasara shilpa and
Mayamata, texts of South Indian origin, estimated to be in circulation by 5th to 7th century
AD, is a guidebook on South Indian Vastu design and construction. Isanasivagurudeva
paddhati is another Sanskrit text from the 9th century describing the art of building in India in
south and central India. In north India, Brihatsamhita by Varāhamihira is the widely cited
ancient Sanskrit manual from 6th century describing the design and construction of Nagara
style of Hindu temples.

These ancient Vāstu Śastras, often discuss and describe the principles of Hindu temple design,
but do not limit themselves to the design of a Hindu temple. They describe the temple as a
holistic part of its community, and lay out various principles and a diversity of alternate
designs for home, village and city layout along with the temple, gardens, water bodies and
nature. The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Vastu Purusha Mandala layout for Hindu Temples. It is
one of 32 Vastu Purusha Mandala grid patterns described in Vastu sastras. In this grid
structure of symmetry, each concentric layer has significance.
The central area in all mandala is the Brahmasthana. Mandala "circle-circumference" or
"completion", is a concentric diagram having spiritual and ritual significance in both
Hinduism and Buddhism. The space occupied by it varies in different mandala – in Pitha (9)
and Upapitha (25) it occupies one square module, in Mahaapitha (16), Ugrapitha (36) and
Manduka (64), four square modules and in Sthandila (49) and Paramasaayika (81), nine
square modules. The Pitha is an amplified Prithvimandala in which, according to some texts,
the central space is occupied by earth. The Sthandila mandala is used in a concentric
manner.The most important mandala is the Manduka/Chandita Mandala of 64 squares and the
Paramasaayika Mandala of 81 squares. The normal position of the Vastu Purusha (head in the
northeast, legs in the southwest) is as depicted in the Paramasaayika Mandala. However, in
the Manduka Mandala the Vastu Purusha is depicted with the head facing east and the feet
facingwest. As is believed that every piece of a land or a building has a soul of its own and
that soul is known as Vastu Purusha a site of any shape can be divided using the Pada
Vinyasa. Sites are known by the number of squares. They range from 1x1 to 32x32 (1024)
square sites. Aspects in Temple Construction

1. There are many aspects involved in constructing a temple. Acarya, director for the temple
construction and shilpi (sculptor) play major role in the construction of a temple. The temple's
acarya is expected to know silpa sastra although not in as much detail as a shilpi. Temple
construction begins with search of a proper site. Soil and location are examined by acarya and
shilpi. This is called Bhupariksha.

2. This is followed by nagara/grama nirmana. Here, the layout of town, its size, breadth of
different levels of streets, locations and sizes of facilities like water tanks are determined
based on the size of town. There are different names for different sizes of towns, like grama,
kheta, kharvata, durga, nagara. Then the location of temple (brahma sthana) in the town is
decided. Temple is usually in the center of village so that every villager has access to it. The
entire arrangement is called grama vinyasa.

3. Then the size of temple is determined. For this, size of the image of main deity is to be
known, since the size of a temple is always a fixed multiple of the size of image of main deity.
Then wood/metal/stone is selected for the image. The icon has three parts, main icon
(vigraha), pedestal (peetha) and platform (adhisthana or upa peetha).
4. Then tests to determine quality of stone are prescribed by the Agamas. There are three
kinds of stone, male female and neuter. When hit with an iron rod if the stone produces good
sound and spark, it is male and should be used for the main icon. If it produces sound but not
spark it is female and should be used for pedestal. If it produces neither, it is neuter and
should be used for platform. There are various standards for the relative proportions of image,
gopura, prakara etc. and also the relative proportions of various parts of the vigraha. The units
for measuring vigraha are tala, angula and yava. Tala is a multiple of angula and angula is a
multiple of yava. More than the specific size of each unit, the multiplicity and relative sizes
are important. The proportions of Head-Trunk-Arms-Legs of images are specified. The finer
specifications like nose, nail, ears and their shapes are also mentioned. Generally the standard
is to use dasatala (ten talas) for the height of image of male deity, navatala (nine talas) for His
consort and astatala (eight talas) for bhakta. 5. The teams that built Hindu temples The 6th-
century Brihat samhita is a Sanskrit encyclopedia. Its chapters 57-60 discuss different styles
and design of Hindu temples. Above: the text and commentary in Nepalaksara, Devanagari
and Tamil Grantha scripts. Indian texts call the craftsmen and builders of temples as ‘‘Silpin’’
, derived from ‘‘Silpa’’. One of earliest mentions of Sanskrit word Silpa is in Atharvaveda,
from about 1000 BC, which scholars have translated as any work of art. Other scholars
suggest that the word Silpa has no direct one word translation in English, nor does the word
‘‘Silpin’’. Silpa, explains Stella Kramrisch, is a multicolored word and incorporates art, skill,
craft, ingenuity, imagination, form, expression and inventiveness of any art or craft. Similarly
a Shilpin, notes Kramrisch, is a complex Sanskrit word, describing any person who embodies
art, science, culture, skill, rhythm and employs creative principles to produce any divine form
of expression. Silpins who built Hindu temples, as well as the art works and sculpture within
them, were considered by the ancient Sanskrit texts to deploy arts whose number are
unlimited, Kala (techniques) that were 64 in number, and Vidya (science) that were of 32
types. The Hindu manuals of temple construction describe the education, characteristics of
good artists and architects. The general education of a Hindu Shilpin in ancient India included

Lekha or Lipi (alphabet, reading and writing), Rupa (drawing and geometry), Ganana
(arithmetic). These were imparted from age 5 to 12. The advanced students would continue in
higher stages of Shilpa Sastra studies till the age of 25. Apart from specialist technical
competence, the manuals suggest that best Silpins for building a Hindu temple are those who
know the essence of Vedas and Agamas, consider themselves as students, keep well verse
with principles of traditional sciences and mathematics, painting and geography. Further they
are kind, free from jealousy, righteous, have their sense under control, of happy disposition,
and ardent in everything they do.

According to Silparatna, a Hindu temple project would start with a Yajamana (patron), and
include a Sthapaka (guru, spiritual guide and architect-priest), a Sthapati (architect) who
would design the building, a Sutragrahin (surveyor), and many Vardhakins (workers, masons,
painters, plasterers, overseers) and Taksakas (sculptors. While the temple is under
construction, all those working on the temple were revered and considered sacerdotal by the
patron as well as others witnessing the construction. Further, it was a tradition that all tools
and materials used in temple building and all creative work had the sanction of a sacrament.
For example, if a carpenter or sculptor needed to fell a tree or cut a rock from a hill, he would
propitiate the tree or rock with prayers, seeking forgiveness for cutting it from its
surroundings, and explaining his intent and purpose. The axe used to cut the tree would be
anointed with butter to minimize the hurt to the tree. Even in modern times, in some parts of
India such as Odisha, Visvakarma Puja is a ritual festival every year where the craftsmen and
artists worship their arts, tools and materials.

Duties of temple administration are also specified in the Agamas - organizing festivals,
encourage art forms and conduct shows to encourage artists, create accommodation for
pilgrims from other towns, run hospitals, regularly conducting religious discourses etc. Town
planning, engineering, architecture, fine arts, civics, and many other subjects are dealt in the
agamas, which relate to the various interests of people and involve them at different capacities
and also direct their work towards a higher goal.

Steps in Temple Construction The procedure for building a temple is extensively discussed,
and it could be expressed in short as "Karshanadi Pratisthantam", meaning beginning with
"Karshana" and ending with "Pratistha". The details of steps involved vary from one Agama
to another, but broadly these are the steps in temple construction: 1. Bhu pariksha: Examining
and choosing location and soil for temple and town. The land should be fertile and soil
suitable. 2. Sila pariksha: Examining and choosing material for image 3. Karshana: Corn or
some other crop is grown in the place first and is fed to cows. Then the location is fit for
town/temple construction. 4. Vastu puja: Ritual to propitiate vastu devata. 5. Salyodhara:
Undesired things like bones are dug out. 6. Adyestaka: Laying down the first stone 7.
Nirmana: Then foundation is laid and land is purified by sprinkling water. A pit is dug, water
mixed with navaratnas, navadhanyas, navakhanijas is then put in and pit is filled. Then the
temple is constructed. 8. Murdhestaka sthapana: Placing the top stone over the prakara,
gopura etc. This again involves creating cavities filled with gems minerals seeds etc. and then
the pinnacles are placed. 9. Garbhanyasa: A pot made of five metals (pancaloha kalasa
sthapana) is installed at the place of main deity. 10. Sthapana: Then the main deity is installed.
11. Pratistha: The main deity is then charged with life/god-ness. Before the temple is opened
for daily worship, there are some preparatory rituals to be done, like: Anujna: the priest takes
permission from devotees and lord Ganesha to begin rituals Mrit samgrahana: Collecting
mud Ankurarpana: Sowing seeds in pots of mud collected and waiting till they germinate
Rakshabandhana: The priest binds a holy thread on his hand to take up the assignment.
Punyahavacana: Purifying ritual for the place and invoking good omens Grama santi:
Worship for the good of village and to remove subtle undesired elements Pravesa bali:
Propitiation of various gods at different places in the temple, rakshoghna puja (to destroy
asuric elements) and of specific gods like Kshetra palaka (devata ruling the town) Vastu
Santi: Pacifying puja for vastu (this happens twice and this is the second time)

Yagasala: Building the stage for homas, along with vedika. Kalasasthapana: Installing
kalasam Samskara: Purifying the yaga sala Kalasa puja, yagarambha: Woshipping the kalasa
as god and propitiating deities through fire Nayanonmeelana, Pratimadhivasa: Opening eyes
of the god-image, installing it and giving it life. Then specific worship is done to deity, as
prescribed. For instance in the case of Siva, this is followed by astabandhana and
kumbhabhisheka. Temple Design From the proportions of the inner sanctum to the motifs
carved into the pillars, the traditional temple takes its first form on the master sthapati's
drawing board. The architect initially determines the fundamental unit of measurement using
a formula called ayadhi. This formula, which comes from Jyotisha, or Vedic astrology, uses
the nakshatra (birth star) of the founder, the nakshatra of the village in which the temple is
being erected matching the first syllable of the name of the village with the seed sounds
mystically associated with each nakshatra and the nakshatra of the main Deity of the temple.
This measurement, called danda, is the dimension of the inside of the sanctum and the
distance between the pillars. The whole space of the temple is defined in multiples and
fractions of this basic unit. The Shastras are strict about the use of metals, such as iron in the
temple structure because iron is mystically the crudest, most impure of metals. The presence
of iron, sthapatis explain, could attract lower, impure forces. Only gold, silver, and copper are
used in the structure, so that only the most sublime forces are invoked during the pujas. At
especially significant stages in the temple construction (such as ground-breaking and
placement of the sanctum door frame), pieces of gold, silver and copper, as well as precious
gems, are ceremoniously embedded in small interstices between the stones, adding to the
temple's inner-world magnetism. These elements are said to glow in the inner worlds and, like
holy ash, are prominently visible to the Gods and Devas. The ground plan is described as a
symbolic, miniature representation of the cosmos. It is based on a strict grid made up of
squares and equilateral triangles which are imbued with deep religious significance. To the
priest-architect the square was an absolute and mystical form. The grid, usually of 64 or 81
squares, is in fact a mandala, a model of the cosmos, with each square belonging to a deity.
The position of the squares is in accordance with the importance attached to each of the
deities, with the square in the center representing the temple deity; the outer squares cover the
gods of lower rank.

Agamas say that the temple architecture is similar to a man sitting - and the idol in garbagriha
is exactly the heart-plexus, gopuram as the crown etc. The construction of the temple follows
in three dimensional form exactly the pattern laid out by the mandala. The relationship
between the underlying symbolic order and the actual physical appearance of the temple can
best be understood by seeing it from above which was of course impossible for humans until
quite recently. Another important aspect of the design of the ground plan is that it is intended
to lead from the temporal world to the eternal. The principal shrine should face the rising sun
and so should have its entrance to the east. Movement towards the sanctuary, along the east-
west axis and through a series of increasingly sacred spaces is of great importance and is
reflected in the architecture. A typical temple consists of the following major elements 1. an
entrance, often with a porch 2. one or more attached or detached mandapas or halls 3. the
inner sanctum called the garbagriha, literally 'womb chamber' 4. the tower build directly
above the garbagriha. Significance of the number eight in temple design Vastu Shastra
describes the inner sanctum and main tower as a human form, structurally conceived in
human proportions based on the mystical number eight. According to Dr. V. Ganapati
Sthapati, Senior Architect at the Vastu Government College of Architecture, the vibration of
the spaceconsciousness, which is called time, is the creative element, since it is this vibratory
force that causes the energetic space to turn into spatial forms. Therefore, time is said to be
the primordial element for the creation of the entire universe and all its material forms. When
these vibrations occur rhythmically, the resultant product will be an orderly spatial form. This
rhythm of the time unit is traditionally called talam or layam. Since every unit of time
vibration produces a corresponding unit of space measure, vastu science derives that time is
equal to space. This rhythm of time and space vibrations is quantified as eight and multiples
of eight, the fundamental and universal unit of measure in the vastu silpa tradition. This
theory carries over to the fundamental adi talam (eight beats) of classical Indian music and
dance. Applying this in the creation of a human form, it is found that a human form is also
composed of rhythmic spatial units. According to the Vastu Shastras, at the subtle level the
human form is a structure of eight spatial units devoid of the minor parts like the hair, neck,
kneecap and feet, each of which measures one-quarter of the basic measure of the body and,
when added on to the body's eight

units, increases the height of the total form to nine units. Traditionally these nine units are
applied in making sculptures of Gods. Since the subtle space within our body is part of
universal space, it is logical to say that the talam of our inner space should be the same as that
of the universe. But in reality, it is very rare to find this consonance between an individual's
and the universal rhythm. When this consonance occurs, the person is in harmony with the
Universal Being and enjoys spiritual strength, peace and bliss. Therefore, when designing a
building according to vastu, the architect aims at creating a space that will elevate the
vibration of the individual to resonate with the vibration of the built space, which in turn is in
tune with universal space. Vastu architecture transmutes the individual rhythm of the
indweller to the rhythm of the Universal Being.
Small Hindu Temple of Kidel, Java- Marianne North
The Vastu-Purusha-Mandala- The goal of a temple's design is to bring about the descent or
manifestation of the unmanifest and unseen. The architect or sthapati begins by drafting a
square. The square is considered to be a fundamental form. It presupposes the circle and
results from it. Expanding energy shapes the circle from the center; it is established in the
shape of the square. The circle and curve belong to life in its growth and movement. The
square is the mark of order, the finality to the expanding life, life's form and the perfection
beyond life and death. From the square all requisite forms can be derived: the triangle,
hexagon, octagon, circle etc. The architect calls this square the vastu-purusha-mandalavastu,
the manifest, purusha, the Cosmic Being, and mandala. The vastu-purusha-mandala represents
the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the temple is built and in whom the
temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him, and is a manifestation of Him.
The vastu-purusha-mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being and a bodily device by
which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in temple building. In
order to establish the vastu-purusha-mandala on a construction site, it is first drafted on
planning sheets and later drawn upon the earth at the actual building site. The drawing of the
mandala upon the earth at the commencement of construction is a sacred rite. The rites and
execution of the vastupurusha-mandala sustain the temple in a manner similar to how the
physical foundation supports the weight of the building. Based on astrological calculations the
border of the vastu-purusha-mandala is subdivided into thirtytwo smaller squares called
nakshatras. The number thirty-two geometrically results from a repeated division of the
border of the single square. It denotes four times the eight positions in space: north, east,
south, west, and their intermediate points. The closed polygon of thirty-two squares
symbolizes the recurrent cycles of time as calculated by the movements of the moon. Each of
the nakshatras is ruled over by a Deva, which extends its influence to the mandala. Outside
the mandala lie the four directions, symbolic of the meeting of heaven and earth and also
represent the ecliptic of the sun-east to west and its rotation to the northern and southern
hemispheres.

The center of the mandala is called the station of Brahma, the creator of the universe.
Surrounding Brahma are the places of twelve other entities known as the sons of Aditi, who
assist in the affairs of universal management. The remaining empty squares represent akasha
or pure space. The vastupurusha-mandala forms a diagram of astrological influences that
constitute the order of the universe and the destinies of human lives. When placed on the
building site, along with astrological calculations, can the auspicious time to begin temple
construction be determined. The ground breaking ceremony From the diagram of the vastu-
purusha-mandala the architect proceeds to develop the vertical and horizontal dimensions of
the temple. The plotting graphs of the temple are divided into two main sections-the ground
plan and the vertical alignment. The square, the rectangle, the octagon and the pentagon are
fundamental patterns in the horizontal or ground plan. In the vertical alignment the pyramid,
the circle and the curve are most prominent. The subdivisions of the ground plan include the
brahmasthana (the main shrine and smaller chapels) and the mandapam (balconies, assembly
halls and auditoriums). The vertical plan consists of drawings for the gopuram, entrance ways,
the vimana, the structure above the main shrine, and the prakara, walls. The brahmasthana is
the principal location in a temple and is where the seat of the presiding Diety will be placed.
At the base of the foundation of the brahmasthana, located at the station of Brahma on the
vastu-purusha-mandala, a ritual called the garbhadhana is performed called. The ritual invites
the soul of the temple to enter within the buildings confines. During this ritual, a golden box is
placed in the earth as part of the ground-breaking ceremony. The interior of the box is divided
into smaller units exactly resembling the vastu-purusha-mandala. All the units of the gold box
are first partially filled with dirt. In the thirty-two units representing the nakshatras, the units
of Brahma, and the twelve sons of Aditi, the priest places an appropriate mantra in written
form to invoke the presence of the corresponding Devata.

The sanskrit mantras chanted by the priest are as important as the actual mandala. The mantra
infuses the mandala with spiritual powers. The mantras are the subtle form of the mandala and
therefore the two are inseparable. In the unit of Brahma, Ananta, a golden serpent with many
raised hoods is placed. It is then surrounded with nine precious jewels or navaratna. Ananta
represents the energy of God in which the universe rests in space. The nine jewels invoke the
astrological influence of the nine planets and are composed of a diamond, emerald, ruby,
pearl, yellow sapphire, blue sapphire, red coral, cats-eye and jade. A gold lid with the seven
continents of the earth engraved on it is placed on top of the box following which the agni-
hotra, or sanctification ceremony. During the agni-hotra the priest offers clarified butter, the
symbol of religious principles, into the fire, which represents the mouth of the Cosmic Being.
Along with the offering of clarified butter five types of grains-rice, wheat, barley, rye and
dhal, are also offered with the chanting of mantras. Temple Layout Ancient Scripts on Temple
Construction in Hindu Shastras: The Shilpa text Shiva-prakasha in its chapter titled vastu-
bhumi-bedha, describes sixteen (Shodasha) types of temple layouts: 1. Square (Chandura); 2.
Rectangle (Agatra); 3. Trapezium ( with uneven sides – like a cart – shakata); 4. Circle
(Vritta); 5. Elliptical (kritta vritta); 6. triangular (dwaja); 7. diamond or rhombus (vajra) ;
8. Arrow (shara);umbrella (chatra) ; 9. fish (meena); 10. back of a tortoise (kurma); 11. conch
(shanka); 12. crescent (ardha-chandra); 13. pot (kumbha); 14. sword (khadga); 15. and lotus
(kamala).
South elevation plan of Kailash temple is Plate LXXX11 from the book “Cave temples of
India” by Ferguson, James and James Burgess
These layouts have specific applications; and are not to be used generally. For instance: the
back of a tortoise (kurma), pot (kumbha), conch (shanka) and lotus (kamala) are
recommended only for Vishnu and Shiva temples. Similarly the Square (Chandura),
Rectangle (Agatra), fish (meena), diamond or rhombus (vajra) and sword (khadga) are
recommended for Devi temples. The rest of the lay outs are for other (lesser) deities. But all
texts generally agree that the square or the rectangular shape of layout are the best and most
auspicious. Varaha-samhita calls such layouts as Siddha-bhumi, the best of all. In case the
layout is rectangula, the North South dimension should be greater than East-west dimension.
It is also said, it would be better if the elevation on the west or the South is slightly higher.

The drawing of the court yard of the Shiva temple at Thiruvālangādu, by Tamil illustrator,
best known for his detailed renditions of Tamil architecture and sculpture P.M. Sreenivasan
(1919-1983), who adopted the name Silpi,
Temple layout Sreeneevasan’s Blog

Having determined the suitability of the land for constructing a temple, and having drawn up
the Vastu Mandala of the town and identified the temple location ; the next stage is to draw up
a construction plan. This specifies the location, the size and the orientation of the various
temples to come up in the proposed complex. This again involves preparation of another
Vastu Mandala.
Pada Vinyasa: In Vastushastra (architecture means “scheme of plot- or disposition”). This is
the name of secondary conceptual instruments, used in the art of ancient Hindu architecture
(vāstuśāstra). This term is commonly used in literature such as the Mānasāra. It is a particular
diagram (one only) traced on the building terrain during the padavinyāsa ceremony, before
starting the construction. Each square of a diagram is assigned to a different deity. In certain
texts, the compartments (koṣṭha) of the deposit casket are referred to by the names of deities
associated with the plots of the site diagram. In the Kāśyapaśilpa there are the letters of the
Sanskrit ‘alphabet’ and the names of the eight Vidyeśvaras assigned to or placed in the casket
at the beginning of the ceremony, which serve as menas of identifying the compartments later
on.1
It is the process under which the Mandala (architectural plan which represents the cosmos) is
put to use in site planning and architecture - a method whereby any site can be divided into
grids/ modules or pada. Depending on the position of the gods occupying the various
modules, the zoning of the site and disposition of functions in a building are arrived at. A
Mandala They are
proportional relationships of the squares and the diagonals.The text first gives a list of thirty-
two such schemes.
1. sakala, whole; 2. pecaka, couch; 3. pīṭha, pedestal; 4. mahāpīṭha, great pedestal; 5.
upapīṭha, low pedestal; 6. ugrapīṭha, high pedestal; 7. sthaṇḍila, altar; 8. caṇḍita, circumcised;
9. paramaśayika, primal rectiner; 10. āsana, seat; 11. sthānīya, local; 12. deśya, regional; 13.
ubhayacaṇḍita; twice-circumcised; 14. bhadra, auspicious; 15. mahāsana, great seat; 16.
padmagarbha; lotus-womb; 17. triyuta; thrice-yoked; 18. karṇāṣṭaka, eight-cornered; 19.
gaṇita; computed; 20. sūryaviśālaka, extensive as the sun; 21. susaṃhita, well-endowed; 22.
supratikānta, beautiful rival-spouse; 23. viśālaka, capacious; 24. vipragarbha, Brāhmaṇa-
womb 25. viśveśa; lord of the world; 26. vipulahhoga, copious enjoyment; 27. viprakānta;
Brāhmaṇa-spouse 28. viśālākṣa, large-eyed; 29. viprabhakti, Brāhmṇa’s portion; 30.
viśveśasāra, essence of lord of the world, 31. īśvarakānta; lord’s spouse, 32. candrakānta,
moon’s spouse.
Among these thirty-two schemes, only seven are treated in more detail: sakala, single-plot
(which does not have much detail, to begin with); pecaka, four-plot; pīṭha, nine-plot;
mahapīṭha, sixteenplot; upapīṭha, twenty-five-plot; maṇḍuka, sixty-four-plot, and
paramaśayika, eighty-one-plot, schemes. The further elaboration of these schemes inc1udes
the assignment of deities to the plots. The padavinyāsa, placing (marking) of the plots and
assigning deities on the floor of the pavilion and on the altar, is conducted next (see Mānasāra
chapter 70). He marks either the sthaṇḍila of forty-nine squares or the pīṭha of nine squares
with grain powder on the fioor of the pavilion. On the altar, he

marks either the upapīṭha diagram of twenty-five plots or pīṭha of nine plots. He also marks
two circles, one on the floor of the pavilion and the other on the altar. During padavinyāsa,
ritual marking of the plots in the delineated site, the sthapati visualizes the form of
vāstupuruṣa, man or “spirit” of the site (who “inhabits” it), as lying face down and stretched
out across it, while reciting the mantra of obeisance to him. He also visualizes the
vāstumaṇḍala, cluster of forty-five deities, who, in order to subjugate vāstupuruṣa, sit upon his
limbs and thus occupy plots in the four quarters of the site. He invokes the deity
corresponding to each plot and “situates” it thereupon by touching the plot and visualizing its
form in all iconic detail and vocalizing its specifie venerational mantra.

2) Padavinyāsa scheme of plot-disposition”.—Chapter VII of the Mānasāra is titled

Padavinyāsalakṣaṇam, “Characteristics of the Disposition of Plots”. The chapter outlines a
number of schemes by which the delineated site is divided into plots. A typical scheme of
plot-disposition is a conceptual instrument intended to “order” the delineated site. This tool is
constructed out of geometrical and numerical principles of quadratic division. Therefore the
number of plots in the scheme is always a perfect square.

Land: The land considered suitable for the purpose of constructing the temple (vastu bhumi)
and placed at the center (Brahma Sthana) of the Vastu mandala of the township must be in
the shape of a rectangle or a square. The ratio between the breadth and the length of the area
may be 4:8; 4:7; 4:6; or 4:5. (The square would be 4:4). Shapes of sites to be avoided are: 1.
circular (vritta), 2. triangular (trikona), 3. rod shaped (dandakriti), 4. bow shaped (dhanur
akara) 5. other irregular shapes. And, in case it becomes necessary to construct a temple on a
land of such “un approved” shape, the area meant for the temple should be demarcated and
rendered a square or a rectangle in shape. Buddhist and Jain temples too follow the same
principles. Even the Sri Harmandir Sahib, the Golden Temple at Amritsar is structured in a
square shape; with the Sanctum placed in the Brahma sthana. In case of a rectangular site, it
must have north – south orientation. The depth of the site (Aaya-profit) should be more than
its breadth (vyaya-loss). That is the reason we find our temple walls (prakara) on north-south
shorter than the walls on east-west. The slope of the land surrounding the temple in the east
and the north direction should be in the northeast corner. Fountains or lotus ponds of the
temple should be in the northeast direction.In the open space surrounding the temple, Tulsi (
Basil) plants with raised bed should be in the east; the Jasmine, white Champak, Star Coral
plants etc. should be in the northwest corner or the east. Four approach roads are much
recommended. The preliminaries for construction of a shrine include preparations of a plan,
Vastu Purusha Mandala, a Yantra, with unit cells (pada) of 64, 81 or 256 in number. The
entire process is rich in symbolism. The square shape of the Mandala is symbolic of earth,
signifying the four directions which bind and define it; and the Vastu is the extent of existence
in its ordered site; Purusha being the source of existence. The ground plan, again, is symbolic
and is the representation of cosmos in miniature. The Vastu Purusha represents terrestrial
world with constant movements. The grid made up of squares and equilateral triangles is
imbued with religious significance; with each cell belonging to a deity. The position of the
deity is in accordance to the importance assigned to him .The central portion of the square
(Brahma Sthana) is occupied by the presiding deity of the temple ; while the outer cells house
deities of lower order.

Another important aspect of the design of the ground plan is that it is intended to lead from
the temporal world to the eternal. The principal shrine should face the rising sun and so
should have its entrance to the east. Movement towards the sanctuary, along the east-west axis
and through a series of increasingly sacred spaces is of great importance and is reflected in the
architecture. This process of drawing the Mandala , known as Pada-vinyasa or Vastu mandala
Vinyasa is essential not only for construction of the main temple but also for deciding upon
the location, the orientation and the size of the sanctum; and for placement of retinue-
divinities. Let us look at the following example of an 81 cell parama-saayika layout.

The site-plan is to be regarded as the body of the Vastu-purusha whose height extends from
Pitrah (in the bottom left corner) to Agni (top right corner). The Vastu purusha mandala is in
some ways a development of the four pointed or cornered earth mandala having astronomical
reference points. The mandala of 81 squares has 32 squares around the border representing the
four cardinal points and the lunar constellations. It is the representation of all cyclical time;
lunar and solar. Brahma is the God at the centre. The Manduka Mandala (8×8) the whole
square would be divided by the two axes that go North-south and East-west.

In the case of Parama Saayika Mandala (9×9)- the entire square would be unevenly divided.

The center of the mandala consisting nine cells is dedicated to Brahma, the first of beings and
the engineer of universal order. The Three cells to its east are for Aryaman, three cells to its
west are for Mitra and three cells to its north are for Prihvidhara. In this site plan 32 spirits
reside in the outer ring. There are 8 spirits in four corners. There are four spirits surrounding
Brahma. Thus there are in all 45 spirits (including Brahma). Dikpalas or guardian deities of
different quarters, who assist in the affairs of universal management, are an important part of
the Vastu. Indra, Agni, Yama, Niritti, Varuna;, Vayu , Kubera and Isana; reside in the East ,
South-East , South, South-West, West, North-West, North and North-East respectively. All
except Kubera are principal Vedic deities. This provides a method that determines the
requirements of architecture in relation to its directions. Establishing Vastu Mandala on the
site The vastu-purusha-mandala, forming a sort of map or diagram of astrological influences
that constitute the order of the universe, is now complete. When placed on the building site
the vastupurusha-mandala determines the positions and orientations of the temples and the
time for

commencing the construction. Only by the combination of the vastu-purusha-mandala and the
astrological calculations can this factor be ascertained. Horizontal and vertical dimensions:
From the diagram of the vastu-purusha-mandala the architect next proceeds to develop the
vertical and horizontal dimensions of the temple. The square, the rectangle, the octagon and
the pentagon are fundamental patterns in the horizontal or ground plan. In the vertical
alignment the pyramid, the circle and the curve are more prominent. The subdivisions of the
ground plan include thebrahmasthana (the main shrine and smaller chapels) and the
mantapa(balconies, assembly halls and auditoriums). The vertical plan consists of drawings
for the gopura (entrance ways), the vimana (the structure above the main shrine or chapel) and
the prakara (the walls). The construction of the temple follows in three dimensional forms, in
exactly the patterns laid out by the mandala. The relationship between the underlying
symbolic order and the actual physical appearance of the temple can best be understood by
viewing it from above (top elevation). In order to establish the vastu-purusha-mandala on the
construction site, it is first drafted on planning sheets and later drawn upon the earth at the
actual building site. The ground for civil construction is demarcated by dividing the site into
81 cells, by drawing 10 lines from East to West and 10 lines from North to South in which
Vastu Mandala deities are installed. In addition the deities of the Sarvathobhadra-mandala are
also established after performing Vastu Homa. The drawing of the mandala upon the earth at
the commencement of construction is a sacred rite in itself. The cells sustain the temple in
their own sphere of effectiveness, in the manner that the actual foundation supports its weight.
Vastu Shanti Puja is a spiritual and religious process to offer prayers to the Vastu Purush who
is the Lord, protector and soul of the house and seek the blessings for positivity and
prosperity. During this worship, people also pay their tribute to the deity of directions, five
elements of nature, and natural forces. Some of the major objectives of performing Vastu
Shanti Pooja are – To eliminate any kind of faults relating to interiors exteriors, or structures
of buildings. To seek forgiveness of God for the damage done to the nature during
construction. To ask for the blessings of Vastu Purush for happiness, wealth and good health.
Offer prayers to Vastu Purush for protection of home or office from natural calamities. To
appease any form of supernatural force which might be dangerous for the occupants

Significance of Vastu Shanti Puja Vastu is a place where nature and human beings live
together in harmony. Vastu Shanti Puja, also known as Vastu Dosh Nivaran Puja, brings a
striking balance between both of them by removing all the hurdles or negativities present in
the environment and preventing unforeseen destruction and misfortune to finally improve the
Vastu of a place. The puja is performed to appease Vastu Devta to seek his blessings and
bless one’s home or workspace with prosperity and harmony. Vastu Puja is also conducted to
reduce the harmful impacts of the Vastu Dosha caused by the construction faults in the Vastu
of a place and to maintain a balance between the eight directions and the five elements of
nature. People worship Vastu Purush or Vastu deva on several occasions such as land
worship, Griha Pravesh, door installation, well mining, foundation laying, foundation mining,
and others.
Garbhadhana, Shilanyasa is the ceremony for laying foundation stone. It is the laying of the
first stone (square in shape) or a brick signifying the start of construction. It is laid in the
north-western corner of the building plan, drawn on the ground. After this, the construction of
the foundation is taken up. The foundation is built and the ground filled up, up to the plinth
level, except in the middle portion of the garbhagraha area, which is filled up three-fourths.
The sanctum is technically known as Garba-Griha. This part of the temple is usually
constructed first. The ceremony related to it is known as Garba-dana or Garba-nasya; and, it
involves letting in to the earth a ceremonial copper pot, containing nine types of precious
stones, several metals, minerals, herbs and soils symbolizing creation and prosperity. The
following is a little more detail about it.
The Brahmasthana , the principal location in a temple where the Garbagraha will eventually
come up, is the nucleus of the Vastu Purusha Yantra. At thebrahmasthana, as drawn on the
grounda ritual is performed calledgarbhadhana, inviting the soul of the temple (Vastu
Purusha) to enter within the buildings confines. In this ritual, a golden box is imbedded in the
earth. The interior of the box is divided into smaller units exactly resembling thevastu-
purusha-mandala. All the units of the gold box are first partially filled with earth. In the thirty-
two units representing the nakshatras (lunar mansions), the units of Brahma and the twelve
sons of Aditi, the priest places an appropriate mantra in written form to invoke the presence of
the corresponding divinity .An Image of Ananta , the hooded serpent , is also placed in the
box. Ananta, meaning eternal or timeless, also represents theenergy that supports the universe.
The box also contains nine precious stones – diamonds, emeralds, rubies, pearls, yellow
sapphire, and blue sapphire, red coral, cats-eye and jade – to appease the nine planets. A stone
slab (adhara-shila) is thereafter placed over the spot the copper pot is buried.And, over this
slab will rise the foundation for installing the Mula-bhera. The copper pot signifies the womb;
and icon the life arising out of it. The sanctum constructed around it is the body. That pot
represents the roots of the “temple-tree”; and the icon its sap. The four walls around the icon
represent the branches spreading around. The structure of the Vimana rises above it in a series
of tiers. The roof resting over the walls is called Kapotha, meaning where the doves rest. The
imagery suggested is that of a tree with birds perched on its branches. The sanctum is thus a
model of a growing tree. Another set of symbolism is that the foundation of the temple
represents the Earth (prithvi); the walls of the sanctum the water (apaha); and the tower over it
the fire (tejas). The final tier of the Vimana is air (vayu) and above it is the form-less space
(akasha).The sanctum is thus a constellation of five elements that are basic building blocks of
all existence. Once the garbhadhana and agni-hotra ceremonies are complete the actual
construction of the temple commences according to the plan. When the foundation is finished
the vertical structure is raised. The external features of the temple are brought to life through
finely sculpted figures and paintings. The art and sculpture frequently portray the forms of
divine entities and the different stages of consciousness in the gradual evolution of life
throughout the universe. It is believed that the Vastu Purusha sleeps during Bhadrapada,
Ashviyuja and Karhika months facing east. During Margashira, Pushya and Magha months he
sleeps facing south; In phalguna, Chaitra and Vaishaka, he sleeps facing west. And, in Jeysta
Ashada and Shravana, he sleeps facing north. The doors facing towards those directions are
fixed in the respective months.
Temple Layout and its symbolism The Agama Shastras say that the Temple structure is a mini
cosmos. The Temple entrance should face east – the direction of the Rising Sun. The ideal
Temple should have at least one entrance, an ArdhMandapa, a Mandapa or a large hall, a
Garba-Griha and a Shikara directly above the Garbha-Griha. The design comprises:

1. A Towering structure called the Rajagopuram (pyramid in pattern) on the Eastern side at
the entrance to the Temple. 2. A Dwajasthamba (pillar) in line with the main shrine
immediately after the Rajagopuram. 3. Near the Dwajasthamba is a lotus shaped pedestal for
offerings, called the Balipeeta. 4. A large Mandapa or hall for assembly of devotees. 5. The
passage through the Mandapa leads to the “Garba-Griha” (womb chamber) where the Main
Deity is installed. 6. Ardha Mandapa adjacent to the main Mandapa and before the “Garba-
Griha”. 7. The Main Deity faces East word inside and the Garba-Griha is located inside a
structure or sanctuary called the “Vimana”. 8. The pyramidal or tapering roof over the Deity
is called “Shikara” or “Gopuram” which is a dome. 9. There is a circumnutating passage or
“Pradakshira Patha” around the Garba Griha and Mandapa.

The above design applies both to the “Shiva” and “Vaishnava” Temples with small variations.
Architecture is otherwise called “Shilpa” and the one who constructs the Temple is called a
“Sthapathi”. The “Sthapathi” is an expert in Temple architecture and idol creation. The
procedure of worship in the Temple is known as “Agama Vidhi”.
1. TEMPLE LAYOUT The basic purpose of Hindu temple is to give shelter for a deity
and to facilitate its worship by its devotees . The style and Architecture of a Hindu
temple is a symbol of Hindu. The Hindu temple is laid out on an east-west alignment;
the temple entrance is on the eastern side and the sanctuary is on the western side. The
entire temple complex is placed on a high plinth or platform to symbolize its
significance. Vaikanasagamas and the silapashastras stipulate the rules for the
selection of the site and construction of the temple buildings. Most of the temple
adhere to this rule. The Indian temple architecture also seems to be based on the
concept of main shrine as being composed of multiple images of small shrines
normally leading up to the building us of towering the super structure. The region wise
categories have got the following distinguishing characteristic features. Region
Architectural shape Presiding god/deity North India Nagara Square Brahma South
India vesara Circular Siva Far south Octagonal Vishnu The temple type that is popular
in the Tamil country is the octagonal Dravida-Vimana which is also known as
Dravida-Satanga-Vimana. This type consists of six important parts from the base to
the final. These six parts are linked to the angas of human beings. There are 1.
upapitha, 2. adhisthana, 3. pada or bhiti, 4. prastara, 5. sikhara and 6. griva (Kalasa)
humans parts are as follows. Upapitha : Feet Adhisthana : Thigh , up to hip Pada :
Forso Prastara : Head Griva(Kalasa) : Neck (top knot) The upapitha and adhisthana
 constitute the basement. The upapitha is an additional part meant to increase the height
of the basement.The pada or bhitti is the wall part of htehouse that houses themulbera.
It is fitters with additional architectural moldings such as the kumbha panjara and
kostha panjara that add to the aesthetics of the edifice. The kumbhapanjara is of the
shape of the full pitheher at its base and is an architectural addition. The kosthapanjara
houses Avaranamurts.

2. WALLED TEMPLE ENCLOSURE This is a unique feature of the South India temple
style. Temples are usually encircled by protective, concentric enclosure walls, with
entrances through large gateways (called gopurams) that sometimes even dwarf the
enclosed temples. This walled design was perhaps precipitated by the increased
fragility of Hindu empires in the wake of ongoing Islamic

Angkor layout
invasions that jeopardized the sacred structures of their civilization. As a result, the temple
complex came to include not only the temple, but also the surrounding city itself.
Accordingly, the templecities now even more accurately symbolized the divine city
surrounded by its mountain ranges (city walls). PRIMARY STRUCTURES The chief temple
structures (moving from east to west) include: Ardha-mandapa. This is a largely open
entrance vestibule, entered by passing under a gopuram (arched gateway), symbolic of the
passage from the world of the profane to the sacred. Temple-goers ascend stairs, pass under
the gopuram to the level of the ardha-man- dapa, and then proceed into the mandapa.
Mandapa. The mandapa is positioned directly between the entrance vestibule and the garb- ha
griha; it is a columned or hypostyle hall, in which devotees assemble (to view the deity in the
garbha griha) and ritual dances are performed. Some more advanced temples will have a
second mandapa — called the maha mandapa — that is located in between the external
mandapa and the garbha griha. Garbha griha. The square-shaped garbha griha holds the core
sanctuary, cella, or Holy of Holies where the resident deity resides. The vimana, the main
tower of the temple, sits directly above the garbha griha. The images since the early chola
period that decorate the kosthapanjara are the following Ardha-mandapa South Ganapathi
Garbhagrha South Daksinamurti Garbhagraha West Lingodbhavamurth Far south Octagonal
Vishnu Vishnu (or) Ardhanarisvara Garbhagraha North Brahma Ardhamandapam north
Mahissuramardini In view of the six-fold division of the Hindu temple in its vertical order in
comparison with the human angas. It is called parusa. That is to say the temple is equal to that
of the cosmic man virat purusa or human form . In its horizontal order of the temple site is
divided into a number of squares that is called Vastupurusa. Therefore the Hindu temple is
Vastupurusa.

3.THE SQUARE AND CIRCLE: The square sanctuary (garbha griha) is the core of the
temple complex, positioned directly under the mountain tower (vimana); it houses the resident
deity. The overall plan of the temple is dictated by this central square, as its form is mirrored
by surrounding structures. To return briefly to cosmology: The square form is associated in
Hinduism with divinity (hence the square sanctuary), whereas the circle is associated with
humanity. The transition from profane (circle) to sacred (square) is most profoundly indicated
by the half-circle stones positioned at the base of the entrance stairways to temples’ ardha-
mandapas. It is interesting to note that the apsidal

form used as the floorplan for Buddhist sanctuaries (cha- itya) fuses the circular with the
square; this was likely the inspiration for the use of these basic, symbolic architectural forms.

4.MOUNT of the God AT THE ENTRANCE The approach to the temple entrance (ardha-
mandapa) is indicated by the presence of the resident divinity’s mount or transport: Temples
venerating Shiva (and his consort, Parvati) display stone images of his mount, Nandi (a seated
bull), facing the main shrine. Temples dedicated to Vishnu (and his consort, Lakshmi)
display stone images of his mount, Garuda (a mythical bird), facing the main shrine.

There are often three entrances to the South India temple, on the east, north, and south sides
of the external ardha-mandapa. This compares versus the Northern temple’s single eastern
entrance. The progression of rooms follows the same pattern as in the North: the internal
mandapa is shown in yellow highlights and the garbha griha sanctuary is shown in red
highlights. Vast hypostyle halls. Later in the Southern style’s development, the internal
mandapa was replaced by vast hypostyle halls, with as many as one thousand pillars. Later,
even the external ardha-mandapa was expanded, becoming a small hypostyle hall that fed an
even larger one.

5. SOURTHERN STYLE TEMPLE, The Southern style’s tower exhibits sharp vertical sides
that proceed to the summit in a series of diminishing storey’s to form a pyramidal outline
(rather than a curved, corn cob like shape). This is perhaps the most easily identifiable feature
of the Southern style temple. Further, the clearly visible horizontal lines indicative of the
storeys contrast with the Northern style’s strong vertical lines. The tower shape was originally
inspired by Buddhist vihara monastery antecedents — specifically, the parapets (discussed
below) represent the cells around a squareshaped room in which Buddhist monks were
allowed to sleep. This core “cell-surrounded square” form is merely superimposed in ever-
smaller layers until the desired temple height is achieved.

6. HINDU TEMPLE IN TAMILNADU The Hindu temple in Tamil Nadu was an evolving
phenomenon since the pallava to the Vijayanagara Nayaka period. The simple vimana on the
Mamallapuram beach(the mukunda Nayanar Temple) has a micro structure which became a
macro during the Nayaka period as the temple in Srirangam. Madurai and Tiruvanamalai are
the early temples consists of the six vertical parts (Upapitha to kalasa) and the basic plan
includes the garbhagraha antarala and Mukhamandapa. From the pallava to Nayaka period a
lot of development took place both vertically and horizontally in the format of the Hindu
temple building. A number of gopuras, mandapas, subsidiary chapels, tirthas, vahanas and so
on were added. The micro gopura that peeps in the kailasanatha temple at Kanchi acquire a
pyramidal proportion in the latter temples at Srirangam, Madurai and Tiruvanannamalai .
Gopuras were set in all cardinal directions and at the entry of each prakara, the total number
reaching its peak in the Srirangam and Madurai temples. Mandapas of intricate workmanship
were in various locations. These catered to the needs of the increasing utsavas;
Kalyanamandapa for holding the marriage festival s and Vasantamandapa for holding the
spring festival. Subsidiary chapel were added for Devis,Nandi,Garuda, Acaryas and so on. A
number of uhanas for processional purpose were added. In short, the Hindu temple reached
the optimum level of its evolution under the Nayakas in the Tamil country. Against this
background the temple chosen or the present study are examined.
The Temple is not only a home of God but his representation in the structure of temple which
resembles human form. The symbolism of the temple plan and elevation suggests that the
garbhagrha represents the head and the gopuram the feet of the deity. Other parts of the
building complex are identified with other parts of the body. For instance, the sukhanasi or
ardhamantapa (the small enclosure in front of the garbhagrha) is the nose; the antarala (the
passage next to the previous one, leading to passage next to the previous one, leading to the
main mantapa called nrttamantapa) is the neck; the various mantapas are the body; the prkaras
(surrounding walls) are the hands and so on. Vertically, the garbhagrha represents the neck,
the sikhara (superstructure over the garbhagrha) the head, the kalasa (finial) the tuft of hair
(sikha) and so on.

Another interesting symbolism is that when a devotee enters the temple, he is virtually
entering into a mandala and therefore participating in a power-field. His progress through the
pavilions to reach the sanctum is also symbolic. It represents the phases of progress in a man’s
journey towards divine. In accordance with this scheme, the architectural and sculptural
details vary from phase to phase ; gradually leading him to the experience, which awaits him
as he stands in front of the deity in the in the sanctum. This is explained in the following way.
On reaching the main gateway, a worshipper first bends down and touches the threshold
before crossing it. This marks the transition from the way of the world to the world of God.
Entering the gateway, he is greeted by a host of secular figures on the outer walls;
representing the outward and diverse concerns of man. As he proceeds, the familiar
mythological themes, carved on the inner walls attune his attitude. The immediate pavilion
and vestibule near the sanctum are restrained in sculptural details and decorations; these
simpler motifs and the prevailing semi darkness help the worshipper to put aside distractions
and try focusing his attention on the sanctum. Finally the shrine, devoid of any ornamentation,
and with its plainly adorned entrance, leads the devotee further to tranquility, to fulfilment
and to the presence of God. The garbhagriha is usually surrounded by a circumambulatory
path, around which the devotee walks in a clockwise direction. In Hindu and Buddhist
thought, this represents an encircling of the universe itself. Positions and orientations of the
temples. The following plan indicates the position of gods and goddesses in an 81 celled
temple-site. This plan relates to construction of a Vishnu temple.

Atri Samhita ( 2.38.42) prescribes that the central Brahma bagha must be divided into four
equal parts and the main shrine facing east must be located on the North-western side thereof.
The shrine must have five sanctums, to house five forms of Vishnu; and the shrine should
have three stories. The icon of Vishnu , the principal object of worship, may be represented in
the shrine in one of his many forms . It could be single ( eka-murti-vidana) or many ( aneka-
murti-vidana). The aneka forms might be : 5 (pancha murti); 6 ( shan murti); or 9 ( nava
murti). The opening of the sanctum on the Eastern side is preferred , specially in a shrine
dedicated to Vishnu. The shrine must never have a door in the intermediate direction (Vidik)-
Atri Samhita (2.3233) And, generally, the doorway to the East is the best , most auspicious
(utta-mottamam) ;to the West is next best (uttama); to the South is middling (madhyama);
and, to the North is not desirable ( adhama) – Vimanarchana kalpa (patala 3)

PART I
Architecture and Design Concepts of the Hindu
Temple
 From the solemn gloom of the temple children run out to sit in the dust,
God watches them play and forgets the priest.
Rabindranath Tagore

We Begin the main contents describing the most important hindu temple that is going go be built at
AYODHA, in India. The Temple or Mandir on the birgthplace of Ram which stood for many years but
was razed by invading Uzbek Muslims who built a mosque in its Place.
 The Temple of Ram at AYODHYA his birthplace

Ram Janmabhoomi (literally, "Rama's birthplace") is the name given to the site that is
hypothesized to be the birthplace of Rama, believed to be the seventh avatar of the Hindu
deity Vishnu. The Ramayana states that the location of Rama's birthplace is on the banks of
the Sarayu river in a city called "Ayodhya". A section of Hindus claim that the exact site of
Rama's birthplace is where the Babri Masjid once stood in the present-day Ayodhya, Uttar
Pradesh. According to this theory, the Mughals demolished a Hindu shrine that marked the
spot, and constructed a mosque in its place. People opposed to this theory state that such
claims arose only in the 18th century, and that there is no evidence for the spot being the
birthplace of Rama.

The political, historical and socio-religious debate over the history and location of the Babri
Mosque, and whether a previous temple was demolished or modified to create it, is known as
the Ayodhya dispute.

In 1992, the demolition of the Babri Masjid by Hindu nationalists triggered widespread
Hindu-Muslim violence.

Several other sites, including places in other parts of India, Afghanistan, and Nepal, have been
proposed as birthplaces of Rama.

The five judges Supreme Court bench heard the title dispute cases from August to October
2019. On 9 November 2019, the Supreme Court ordered the land to be handed over to a trust
to build the Hindu temple. It also ordered to the government to give alternate 5 acre land to
Sunni Waqf Board to build the mosque. On 5 February 2020, the trust known as Shri Ram
Janmabhoomi Teerth Kshetra was created by the Government of India. The trust will oversee
the construction of the Ram Mandir.

Baqi Tashqandi, also known as Mir Baqi or Mir Banki, was a Mughal commander (beg)
originally from Tashkent (in modern Uzbekistan) during the reign of the first Mughal emperor
Babur. He is widely believed to have been made the governor of the province of Awadh. He
was believed to have razed the Ram mandir and built Babri Mosque in Ayodhya in 1528,
which later became the focal point of the Babri Masjid–Ram Janmabhoomi dispute. However,
the historical evidence for these beliefs is scant.

Baburnama (Chronicle of Babur) mentions a commander called Baqi Tashkindi (Baqi of

Tashkent). His name also appears with other suffixes: Baqi Shaghawal, Baqi Beg
(commander) or Baqi Mingbashi (commander of a thousand troops). However, the chronicle
does not describe him as a Mir (prince or noble). Police officer-turned-scholar Kishore Kunal
believes that the appellation "Mir Baqi" was constructed in 1813–1814 in a forged inscription
on Babri Masjid for the benefit of the British surveyor Francis Buchanan, and there was in
fact no prince called "Mir Baqi" in Babur's regime.

Baqi Tashqandi served as a commander in the Mughal force of Emperor Babur.

In 932 AH (January or February 1526 AD), Baqi, described as "Shaghawal", was given
Dibalpur in Punjab as a fief (near Lahore), and sent to help quell a rebellion in Balkh. After
his return, Baqi appears to have been assigned as a commander in a force of six or seven
thousand troops headed by Chin-Timur Sultan. In 934 AH (1528 AD) the force was sent on an
expedition to Chanderi. The enemy fled and Chin-Timur Sultan was ordered to pursue them.
The subordinate commanders were given instructions "not to go beyond this [Sultan's] word".

In March 1528, the same force headed by Chin-Timur Sultan was sent in pursuit of Afghan
nobles Bāyazīd and Biban (formerly in the employ of Ibrahim Lodi) near Awadh. The duo
however took control of Lucknow by May 1529 (935 AH), signalling a loss for the Mughal
force. The defeat was attributed to Baqi, who was possibly in charge of the Mughal fort in
Lucknow. Babur sent reinforcements under the command of Kuki and others. Bāyazīd and
Biban fled at the news of reinforcements. However, Baqi and his team could not catch hold of
them. The temporary loss of Lucknow to the rebels as well as Baqi's inability to capture them
annoyed Babur. The monsoon had set in and the horses needed rest. So Babur called a halt to
the pursuit. On 13 June, Baqi called on Babur, who was apparently dissatisfied, and, on 20
June 1529, Babur dismissed Baqi (issued rukhsat) along with the army of Awadh that he was
commanding.[b] No more is known of Baqi Tashqandi until his mysterious reappearance on a
supposed inscription on the Babri Masjid as "Mir Baqi", as reported by the British East India
Company's surveyor in 1813.

Francis Buchanan (also called Buchanan-Hamilton) did a survey of the Gorakhpur Division
in 1813–14 on behalf of the British East India Company. Buchanan's report, never published
but available in the British Library archives, states that the Hindus generally attributed
destruction of temples "to the furious zeal of Aurangzabe [Aurangzeb]", but the large mosque
at Ayodhya (now known as Babri Masjid) was ascertained to have been built by Babur by "an
inscription on its walls". Buchanan had the said inscription in Persian copied by a scribe and
translated by a Maulvi friend. The translation however showed two inscriptions. The first
inscription said that the mosque was constructed by 'Mir Baqi' in the year 935 AH or 923 AH.
The second inscription narrated the genealogy of Aurangzeb. The translator had a difficulty
with the anagram for the date, because one of the words was missing, which would have
resulted in a date of 923 AH rather than 935 AH. These incongruities and mismatches made
no impression on Buchanan, who maintained that the mosque was built under the orders of
Babur.

The Babri Masjid stands at a location believed by Hindus to be the birthplace of Rama.
There are no records of a mosque at the site till 1672 and no known association with Babur or
Mir Baqi prior to Buchanan's discovery of these inscriptions in the 19th century. The
Baburnama does not mention either the mosque or the destruction of a temple. The Ramcharit
Manas of Tulsidas (AD 1574) and Ain-i Akbari of Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak (AD 1598) made
no mention of a mosque either. Kishore Kunal states that all the claimed inscriptions on the
Babri mosque

were fake. They were affixed sometime around 1813 (almost 285 years after the supposed
construction of the mosque in 1528 AD), and repeatedly replaced. In a petition filed by Syed
Mohammad Asghar, the Mutawalli (guardian) of the Babri Masjid, with the Commissioner of
Faizabad in 1877, it was stated that the word "Allah" above the door was the only inscription.
The inscription mentioned by Buchanan was apparently not in evidence.[4] In 1889,
archaeologist Anton Führer recorded two inscriptions. One said that the mosque was erected
by a noble 'Mir Khan' of Babur.[f] Another said that the mosque was founded in the year 930
AH by a grandee of Babur, who was (comparable to) "another King of Turkey and China". [g]
The year 930 AH corresponds 1523 AD, three years before Babur's conquest of Hindustan.
Moreover, the texts of these inscriptions were completely different from those documented by
Buchanan.

The Ramayana, a Hindu epic whose earliest portions date back to 1st millennium BCE, states
that the capital of Rama was Ayodhya. According to the local Hindu belief, the site of the
now-demolished Babri Mosque in Ayodhya is the exact birthplace of Rama. The Babri
mosque is believed to have been constructed during 1528-29 by a certain 'Mir Baqi'
(possibly Baqi Tashqandi), who was a commander of the Mughal emperor Babur (r. 1526–
1530). However, the historical evidence for these beliefs is scant.

In 1611, an English traveller William Finch visited Ayodhya and recorded the "ruins of the
Ranichand [Ramachand] castle and houses". He made no mention of a mosque. In
1634, Thomas Herbert described a "pretty old castle of Ranichand [Ramachand]" which he
described as an antique monument that was "especially memorable". However, by 1672, the
appearance of a mosque at the site can be inferred because Lal Das's Awadh-Vilasa describes
the location of birthplace without mentioning a temple or "castle".In 1717, the Moghul Rajput
noble Jai Singh II purchased land surrounding the site and his documents show a
mosque.[11] The Jesuit missionary Joseph Tiefenthaler, who visited the site between 1766-
1771, wrote that either Aurangazeb (r. 1658–1707) or Babur had demolished the Ramkot
fortress, including the house that was considered as the birthplace of Rama by Hindus. He
further stated that a mosque was constructed in its place, but the Hindus continued to offer
prayers at a mud platform that marked the birthplace of Rama. In 1810, Francis
Buchanan visited the site, and stated that the structure destroyed was a temple dedicated to
Rama, not a house. Many subsequent sources state that the mosque was constructed after
demolishing a temple.

Police officer and writer Kishore Kunal states that all the claimed inscriptions on the Babri
mosque were fake. They were affixed sometime around 1813 (almost 285 years after the
supposed construction of the mosque in 1528 AD), and repeatedly replaced.

Before the 1940s, the Babri Masjid was called Masjid-i-Janmasthan ("mosque of the
birthplace"), including in the official documents such as revenue records. Shykh Muhammad
Azamat Ali Kakorawi Nami (1811–1893) wrote: "the Babari mosque was built up in 923(?)
A.H. under the patronage of Sayyid Musa Ashiqan in the Janmasthan temple in Faizabad-
Avadh, which was a great place of (worship) and capital of Rama’s father"

H.R. Neville, the editor of the Faizabad District Gazetteer (1870), wrote that the Janmasthan
temple "was destroyed by Babur and replaced by a mosque." He also wrote "The Janmasthan
was in Ramkot and marked the birthplace of Rama. In 1528 A.D. Babur came to Ayodhya and
halted here for a week. He destroyed the ancient temple and on its site built a mosque, still
known as Babur's mosque. The materials of the old structure [i.e., the temple] were largely
employed, and many of the columns were in good preservation."

Opposition to the claim

A section of historians, such as R. S. Sharma, state that such claims of Babri Masjid site being
the birthplace of Rama sprang up only after the 18th century.[12] Sharma states that Ayodhya
emerged as a place of Hindu pilgrimage only in medieval times, since ancient texts do not
mention it as a pilgrim centre. For example, chapter 85 of the Vishnu Smriti lists 52 places of
pilgrimage, which do not include Ayodhya. Sharma also notes that Tulsidas, who wrote
the Ramcharitmanas in 1574 at Ayodhya, does not mention it as a place of pilgrimage.

Many critics also claim that the present-day Ayodhya was originally a Buddhist site, based on
its identification with Saketa described in Buddhist texts. According to historian Romila
Thapar, ignoring the Hindu mythological accounts, the first historic mention of the city dates
back to the 7th century, when the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang described it as a Buddhist site.
Proposed Ram Janmabhoomi temple

In 1853, a group of armed Hindu ascetics belonging to the Nirmohi Akhara occupied the
Babri Masjid site, and claimed ownership of the structure. Subsequently, the civil
administration stepped in, and in 1855, divided the mosque premises into two parts: one for
Hindus, and the other for Muslims.

In 1883, the Hindus launched an effort to construct a temple on the platform. When the
administration denied them the permission to do this, they took the matter to court. In 1885,
the Hindu Sub Judge Pandit Hari Kishan Singh dismissed the lawsuit. Subsequently, the
higher courts also dismissed the lawsuit in 1886, in favour of status quo. In December 1949,
some Hindus placed idols of Rama and Sita in the mosque, and claimed that they had
miraculously appeared there. As thousands of Hindu devotees started visiting the place, the
Government declared the mosque a disputed area and locked its gates. Subsequently, multiple
lawsuits from Hindus, asking for permission to convert the site into a place of worship.

In the 1980s, the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) and other Hindu nationalist groups and
political parties launched a campaign to construct the Ram Janmabhoomi Mandir ("Rama
birthplace temple") at the site. The Rajiv Gandhi government allowed Hindus to access the
site for prayers. On 6 December 1992, Hindu nationalists demolished the mosque, resulting in
communal riots leading to over 2,000 deaths.[23]

In 2003, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) conducted excavations of the site on court
orders. The ASI report indicated the presence of a 10th-century north Indian style temple
under the mosque. Muslim groups and the historians supporting them disputed these findings,
and dismissed them as politically motivated. The Allahabad High Court, however, upheld the
ASI's findings. The excavations by the ASI were heavily used as evidence by the court that
the predating structure was a massive Hindu religious building.

In 2009, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) released its election manifesto, repeating its promise
to construct a temple to Rama at the site.

In 2010, the Allahabad High Court ruled that the 2.77 acres (1.12 ha) of disputed land be
divided into 3 parts, with 1⁄3 going to the Ram Lalla or Infant Lord Rama represented by
the Hindu Maha Sabha for the construction of the Ram temple, 1⁄3 going to the Muslim Sunni
Waqf Board and the remaining 1⁄3 going to a Hindu religious denomination Nirmohi Akhara.

The five judges Supreme Court bench heard the title dispute cases from August to October
2019. On 9 November 2019, the Supreme Court ordered the land to be handed over to a trust
to build the Hindu temple. It also ordered to the government to give alternate 5 acre land to
Sunni Waqf Board to build the mosque.[4]On 5 February 2020, the trust known as Shri Ram
Janmabhoomi Teerth Kshetra was created by the Government of India.

Those who believe that Rama was a historic figure, place his birth before 1000 BCE.
However, the archaeological excavations at Ayodhya have not revealed any settlement before
that date. Consequently, a number of other places have been suggested as the birthplace of
Rama.

In November 1990, the newly appointed Prime Minister Chandra Shekhar made an attempt to
resolve the Ayodhya dispute amicably. Towards this objective, he asked Hindu and Muslim
groups to exchange evidence on their claims over Ayodhya. The panel representing the
Muslim organization Babri Masjid Action Committee (BMAC) included R. S. Sharma, D. N.
Jha, M. Athar Ali and Suraj Bhan. The evidence presented by them included scholarly articles
discussing alternative theories about the birthplace of Rama. These sources mentioned 8
different possible birthplaces, including a site other than Babri Masjid in
Ayodhya, Nepal and Afghanistan. One author - M. V. Ratnam - claimed that Rama
was Ramses II, a pharaoh of ancient Egypt.

In his 1992 book Ancient geography of Ayodhya, historian Shyam Narain Pande argued that
Rama was born around present-day Herat in Afghanistan. In 1997, Pande presented his theory
in the paper "Historical Rama distinguished from God Rama" at the 58th session of the Indian
History Congress in Bangalore. In 2000, Rajesh Kochhar similarly traced the birthplace of
Rama to Afghanistan, in his book The Vedic People: Their History and Geography.
According to him, the Harriud river of Afghanistan is the original "Sarayu", and Ayodhya was
located on its banks.

In 1998, archaeologist Krishna Rao put forward his hypothesis about Banawali being Rama's
birthplace. Banawali is an Indus-Sarasvati civilization archaeological site located in
the Haryana state of India. Rao identified Rama with the Sumerian king Rim-Sin I and his
rival Ravana with the Babylonian king Hammurabi. He claimed to have deciphered Indus
seals found along the Sarasvati rivers, and found the words "Rama Sena" (Rim-Sin) and
"Ravani dama" on those seals. He rejected Ayodhya as the birthplace of Rama, on the grounds
that Ayodhya and other Ramayana sites excavated by B. B. Lal do not show evidence of
settlements before 1000 BCE. He also claimed that the writers of the later epics and
the Puranas got confused because the ancient Indo-Aryans applied their ancient place names
to the new place names as they migrated eastwards.

The Shri Ram Janmabhoomi Teerth Kshetra trust began the first phase of construction of
the Ram Temple on March, 2020.

During excavation of the construction site a five-foot Shivaling, seven pillars of

black touchstone, six pillars of red sandstone and broken idols of Devi-Devtas were found.
Shri Ram Janmabhoomi Teerth Kshetra Trust, said that since 10 days the ground at the site
was being levelled and that is when the ancient artefacts were discovered.

RANDEZVOUS with Shri RAM

Nagara architecture of the new RAM MANDIR
 KEY HIGHLIGHTS

 Proposed Ram temple would have a height of 161 feet along with five domes
 PM Narendra Modi is expected to do Bhoomi Pujan for the temple in Ayodhya on August 3
or 5
 Would take around 3 and a half years to complete the construction

Introduction: After the Supreme Court paved the way for the construction of a Ram Temple
on November 9, 2019,the work on the much-awaited Ram temple in Ayodhya has started after
an elaborate 'Rudra Abhishek' ceremony. Ram Temple construction begins, model proposed
by VHP in 1992 is to be implemented. The VHP’s Ram Janmabhooml Temple model has
been designed by renowned architect Chandrakant Sompura. Nearly 40 per cent of the stone
carvings completed

In view of the corona crisis, plans to hold a grand "bhumi pujan" ceremony has been put off
for now.“We will be following the tradition of Lord Rama by offering prayers first to Lord
Shiva,” he had said. Special prayers were performed by Mahant Kamal Nayan Das along with
other priests on behalf of Ram Mandir Trust president and the ceremony lasted about two
hours.
Chandrakant Sompura's design was finalized in February this year as the Vishwa Hindu
Parishad (VHP) had requested the Ram Janmabhoomi Teertha Kshetra Trust to keep the
design finalized by the Ram Janmabhoomi Nyas with VHP working president Alok Kumar
saying that they wanted the original design as it had been widely endorsed by the Ram Mandir
movement.
Sompura’s grandfather Prabhashanker Sompura, who has authored 14 books on temple
architecture now considered classics, had redesigned the Somnath Temple. Sompura has also
designed Swaminarayan temple built at Neasden in London in a record period of 28 months.
Nagara architecture will be used which is prevalent in the north and west India and only stone
slabs will be used and not cement or steel.
The Architect believes that the construction will be finished within 24 and 30 months.

Design Elements: According to the design approved by the trust, the temple will be 161 feet
in height, 20 feet taller than the earlier design prepared in 1988. The earlier design was
prepared in 1988, said Nikhil Sompura, architect and the son of C Sompura, chief architect of
the temple. “Now over 30 years have been passed…the footfall will increase with time.
People are very enthusiastic about visiting the temple so we thought its (temple) size should
be increased,” ANI reported Nikhil Sompura as saying.
In the new design, two new mandaps are added, he informed. All the pillars and stones that
were carved according to the earlier design will be used. “They will not be wasted,” he added.
Once the bhoomi-pujan is done, construction work for the temple will start. Nikhil expects it
will take nearly 3-3.5 years for the shrine to be ready for the devotees.
According to reports, the temple will have three floors and will be built in 10 acres. The trust
will develop the rest 57 acres as the Ram Temple Complex. For meditation, a Nakshatra
Vatika will be created in the temple complex and 27 Nakshatra trees will be planted there.
The foundation of the temple will be 15 feet deep and it will consist of eight layers (2-feet
wide each).
A team from construction major Larsen & Toubro who have been entrusted with the tgask of
construction has already reached the spot along with materials and machinery. Construction
work will start soon after the bhoomi-pujan.
Ram Janmabhooml Temple model designed by Chandrakant Sompura

Background: What ultimately proved to be the key factor in building a movement for the
construction of the Ram Temple in Ayodhya, the birth place of Ram, was the work of Hindu
saint and poet Goswami Tulsidas’s -‘Ramcharitmanas’, which is credited with taking the
story of Lord Ram to every household in north and central India, creating an emotional
connect between an average Hindu household and Lord Ram.

The movement had gained momentum when the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP) took over the
mantle to nmake it a nationwide movement. Before he wrote Ramcharitmanas in the local
Hindi dialect called ‘Awadhi’ around 400 years ago, the story of Lord Rama was largely
recited in Sanskrit in northern and central India through Valmiki’s Ramayana. But Tulsidas,
despite being a Sanskrit scholar, chose Awadhi. He began writing it in Ayodhya and finished
it in Kashi (Varanasi).
The birth anniversary of Goswami Tulsidas is on Monday, 27 July, 2020- just a week
before the construction work for the Ram Temple is set to begin formally. Philip Lutgendorf,
an American Indologist and professor of Hindi and Modern Indian Studies in the US, says in
his seminal work, The Life of a Text Performing the Ramcaritmanas of Tulsidas, that anyone
interested in the religion and culture of Northern India invariably encounters a reference to
Ramcharitmanas.
his sixteenth-century retelling of the legend of Ram by the poet Tulsidas has been hailed not
merely as the greatest modern Indian Tulsidas wrote around a dozen texts on Lord Ram’s life
— the two most popular being Ramcharitmanas and Hanuman Chalisa (40 verses in praise of
Lord Hanuman). The massive following of Lord Hanuman today can be attributed to the
latter.
The poet himself founded a large number of Hanuman temples and is known to have set up a
large number of ‘akharas’ with Lord Hanuman’s statue being enshrined there. The tradition
continues even today as all the Indian ‘akharas’, in north and central India, have a statue of
Lord Hanuman.

Some of the unknown feats of Tulsidas include his initiation of Ramleela (theatrical
performance of Lord Rama’s story) across the region. The tradition of holding Ramleela for
nine days prior to the festival of Vijayadashami (Dussehra) still holds strong not only in India
but also in several countries of south-east Asia.
The popular appeal of Ramcharitmanas can be gauged from the fact that when migrant
labourers were moved during British rule from India to Mauritius, Fiji, Suriname and
many other countries, they carried with them the rich tradition of reciting the poem and
performing Ramleela, which has thrived there over the time.
A pioneer of Hindu renaissance: Tulsidas is in fact one of the most understated pioneers
of Hindu renaissance in medieval India. “The legend suggests Tulsi’s success at
transcending sectarian differences and at synthesizing diverse strands of the Hindu
tradition,” Lutgendorf wrote. Another indologist and British Civil Servant F.S. Growse
noted in The Ramayana of Tulsidas (1883) the overarching impact of the poet.
“There are Vallabhacharis and Radha-Vallabhis and Maluk Dasis and Pran Nathis, and so on,
in interminable succession, but there are no Tulsidasis,” he wrote. “Virtually, however, the
whole of Vaishnava Hinduism has fallen under his sway; for the principles that he expounded
have permeated every sect and explicitly or implicitly now form the nucleus of the popular
faith as it prevails throughout the whole of the Bengal Presidency from Haridwar to Calcutta.”
In the medieval era, when Hindu society was struggling with several divisions and facing an
onslaught from Islamic invaders, according to Lutgendorf, Ramcharitmanas played a key role
in uniting Hindu society. “Reconciliation and synthesis are indeed underlying themes of
Tulsi’s epic: the reconciliation of Vaishnavism and Shaivism through a henotheistic vision
that advocates worshiping Shiva as father of the Universe while making him the archetypal
devotee of Ram,” Lutgendorf wrote. “A similar rapprochement is effected between the nirgun
and sagun traditions —between worship of a formless God and of a God with attributes.”
“His hero is at once Valmiki’s exemplary prince, the cosmic Vishnu of the Puranas, and the
transcendent brahman of the Advaitins,” Lutgendorf added. “What weaves together such
‘inconsistent’ theological strands is the overwhelming devotional mood of the poem,
expressing fervent love for the divine through poetry of the most captivating musicality.”
Frank Whaling says in his The Rise of The Religious Significance of Rama (1980) that
Tulsidas created “an integral rather than a new symbol” of Lord Rama.
Chandrakant Bhai Sompura's family has devised the blueprint.

Design History: Three decades ago, celebrated temple architect Chandrakant Sompura had
taken measurements of the Ram Janmabhoomi site with his feet to make design for a grand
temple. The septuagenarian had his hands folded in gratitude after the Ayodhya verdict on
Saturday as the order would give him the honour of seeing the design take shape of a glorious
Ram mandir.
“VHP leader Ashok Singhal had taken father to the Ram Janmabhoomi site in 1989. As the
site was protected by the military under court orders, he was not allowed to take any
equipment inside prompting him to take estimated measurements with his feet. Three decades
later, he is looking forward to his dream getting realized in concrete,” said Ashish, son of 76-
year-old Chandrakant Sompura.

The father-son duo hails from the celebrated Sompura family that has built 131 temples across
India and the world.
Special pink stones from Bansi Pahadpur in Rajasthan are being used for the Ram Mandir,
said celebrated temple architect Chandrakant Sompura, who had readied the design for the
Ram Mandir a good three decades back.
“Work on nearly 40% of the carved stone blocks for the temple is complete. Artisans have
been working at 10 to 12 locations to build various elements for the temple,” said Sompura.
“Usually, it takes between 24 and 30 months to complete the construction of a temple once its
foundation has been laid,” Sompura’s son Ashish said.

Sompura and Ashish, who has also followed in his father’s footsteps, say the challenge now
will be to design and complete the foundation work of the temple — because the proposed
site is close to the river Sarayu. The temple has been conceived in the Nagara style, the
prominent architectural genre of north India. Sompura said that most of the famous temples of
Gujarat, from Modhera’s Sun temple to Somnath, follow the Nagara aesthetic.
Sompura told TOI that the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) had approached him to create a
draft plan for the temple in 1989. “The draft was approved at the ‘dharam sansad’ at a Kumbh
Mela in the early nineties, after which work on sculpting the stones began,” Sompura said.

Former international president of VHP, Pravin Togadia, who now heads Antarashtriya Hindu
Parishad, said: “In 1989, Singhalji and I had asked Sompura to start the stonework.” Togadia
went on to say: “We collected Rs 8 crore from crores of Ram bhakts. I expect government
will construct a grand temple as designed, using the carved stones readied over the years.”

Ashok Raval, the secretary and spokesperson of the VHP-Gujarat, said: “The temple,
visualized by the Sompura family, and the work on the stones have kept our morale high over
the years.”
The Sompuras of Ahmedabad, the family behind some of India’s most famous temples,
including the Akshardham and Somnath temples of Gujarat, will now see their vision
materialise in Ayodhya in the form of the Ram Mandir, whose construction is expected to
start next month.
The family claims to have designed at least 131 temples in India and abroad — including the
Swaminarayan temple in London, and a few others in the US — over 15 generations.
The Ram Temple project is being handled by two of the youngest members of this clan,
Nikhil (55) and Ashish (49), under the wings of their father Chandrakant (77), who now
works from home due to his age.
According to Ashish, Nikhil’s elder son has also made a start in the family business.
“We have been doing this over (15) generations. My father Chandrakant Bhai Sompura
designed Gujarat’s Somnath Temple (reconstructed after India’s Independence) with my
great-grandfather.”
Asked if they know the first temple built by their ancestors, Ashish replied in the negative.
“The Sompura family has been designing temples for the last 15 generations. It is not new to
us, and that is why it is difficult to tell who designed the first temple or which one was the
first to be designed.”
Chandrakant Sompura started learning the ropes of temple design, including the nuances
of Vastu shastra, as a child from his grandfather Prabhashankar Sompura, said Ashish.
“My (great) grandfather Prabhashankar designed the Somnath temple. He has written 14
books on the Shilpa shastras. He had been awarded the Padma Shri,” he added.
Chandrakant’s father Baldev Sompura died in an accident at the age of 51.
After years in the thick of things, Ashish said, Chandrakant now guides them from home,
while he and Nikhil attend the meetings of the Shri Ram Janmabhoomi Teertha Kshetra Trust,
which was set up to oversee the Ram Temple construction.
“My elder brother Nikhil and I have been engaged in temple construction and design work.
Our elder brother’s son has also joined us now,” he added.
“Our father is 77 years old but he continues to work. He works from the home office every
day,” he said. “He sees whatever we design and also offers suggestions. Usually, we sit with
him after breakfast to seek his inputs. At the moment, there are eight ongoing projects. We are
also working on the famous Devasthan Pavagadh in Gujarat.”

‘Working on Ram Temple since 1989’

As mentioned earlier, it was in November 2019 that the Supreme Court set the stage for the
construction of a temple at the disputed Ayodhya site where Lord Ram is believed to have
been born.
The court’s nod followed a bitter years-long campaign that included the demolition of the
Babri Masjid, built at the site by the eponymous Mughal ruler, in 1992. The Sompuras say
they have been in talks with the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP), the Hindu right-wing body
that has been at the head of the Ram temple campaign, for the design since 1989.
“We have been associated with the VHP regarding the design of the temple since 1989. We
have been doing temple construction work for the Birla family for generations. They were the
ones who introduced us to Ashok Singhal of the VHP,” Ashish said. “Our work has been
limited to designing the temple. It was the job of the VHP to pay for the materials and the
labour costs.”
Ram Mandir design — ‘Nagara’ style, 366 pillars
Explaining the essence of the design, Chandrakant Sompura said the temple has been
modelled in keeping with the ‘Nagara’ style — one of the three primary architecture systems
that govern temple construction in India, the others being Dravidian and Basar — and adheres
to the principles of Vastu shastra.
“This (Nagara) style is prevalent across north India but not in south India. The sanctum
sanctorum of the temple is in the shape of an octagon. The perimeter of the temple is
circular,” he added.
Famous examples of the Nagara style of temple construction include the Somnath shrine in
Gujarat. Its distinctive characteristics include a tower that gradually curves inwards, as
opposed to the pyramidal towers of the Dravidian school. Basar is a combination of the two.
The Ram Temple design has been tweaked from the one proposed 30 years ago. Instead of
two storeys, the temple will now have three storeys. The length, width and height of the
temple are now 360 feet, 235 feet, and 161 feet, respectively.
“The core structure of the Ram Temple has been kept the same as it was in the proposed
model,” said Ashish. “Another floor is being added by increasing the height of the temple by
33 feet. Apart from this, five domes will be built in three places. A total of 366 pillars will be
built in the entire temple — there will be 160 pillars on the first floor, 132 on the second, and
74 on the third. The sanctum sanctorum will be octagonal,” he added.
PM Modi is expected to attend a scheduled bhoomi pujan — a ceremony to mark the
beginning of construction — in Ayodhya on 5 August.

Temples Styles in North India (Nagara Style)

Ancient Indian temples are classified in three broad types. This classification is based on
different architectural styles, employed in the construction of the temples. Three main style of
temple architecture are the Nagara or the Northern style, the Dravida or the Southern style and
the Vesara or Mixed style.
Elements:

 literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave like sanctum

Garbhagriha
 Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity)

 It is the entrance to the temple

Mandapa  May be a portico or colonnaded (series of columns placed at
regular intervals) hall that incorporate space for a large number
 of worshipers
 Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes named
as Ardhamandapa, Mandapa and Mahamandapa

 They are mountain like spire of a free standing temple

 Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found
Shikhara or
in South Indian temples
Vimana
 Shikhara has a curving shape while vimana has a pyramidal like
structure

Amalaka  a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple shikara

Kalasha  topmost point of the temple above Amalaka

Antarala  a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple’s main
(vestibule) hall (mandapa)

Jagati  a raised platform for sitting and praying

 vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar

Vahana
or Dhvaj
CHAPTER The Hindu order in Architecture

Dr. UDAY DOKRAS

B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India

Certificat' en Droit, Queens University, Canada,
MBA CALSTATE, USA,
Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden,
Management and Efficacy Consultant, India

SRISHTI DOKRAS
B.Arch. (Institute for Design Education and Architectural Studies) Nagpur India
Visiting Architect, Australia & USA
Consultant - Design and Architecture, EsselworldGorewada International Zoo
Largest Zoo in India
Figure 9 – The basic structure of the Hindu order

The Hindu order consists of four principles:

- The upapítha or pedestal

- The athisthána or base
- The sthamba or pillar
- The prastára /entablature

These four will now be described.

Upapítha or pedestal
Upapítha is derived from upa (under) and pítha (seat or bench). It is placed not only
under the base of a column or pilaster, but it is frequently employed, both singly and
together with the base, as a pavement for temples and porticoes, over cornices of
edifices consisting of several stories in height, as a platform for thrones, and as seats for
statues.

The pedestal is the lowest division in a column consisting of three principal parts,
namely, the die, the cornice, and the base. It is employed for support, heightening the
column, and increasing the beauty.

Pedestals can be divided into three sorts, according to the magnitude of the buildings in
which they are to be employed. The first sort is called védibhadra, the second
pratibhadra, and the third manchabhadra. Each of these are then again divided into four
sorts.

The védibhadra is suited for all kinds of buildings. The pratibhadra is suited for the
edifices of gods, Brahmins, and Kings. The location of the last sort isn’t clear.
Mánasára writes that the manchabhadra is described separately49, but it doesn’t state
where this is.

The height of the pedestal is determined by the base of the pillar. The height of this base
is divided into four parts. Of these four parts the first part from the plinth to the fillet is
divided in 8 parts. The height of the pedestal is then defined by a certain number of
these parts. This number is defined by what kind of building it is used for.

In Figure10 the different kinds of pedestals can be seen.

Figure 10 - The three kinds of pedestals of the Hindu order
Athisthána or base
The Mayamatam describes that the base is that upon which the buildings rest52. In this
way it makes clear that the pillar has a constructive character. It must be able to
withstand the forces in the building.

There are two ways to determine the height of a base. It can be done according to the
number of storeys of a building, or according to the cast. The Mayamatam and the
Mánasára differ in how high the base may be, but since the Mánasára “forgets” to
describe the height of the buildings for the Gods, the description from the Mayamatam
will be taken.

For buildings for the Gods it is 4 cubits high, for Brahmins (intellectual and priests) 3½
cubits, for kings (the government) 3 cubits, for crown princes (the military and
administrative classes) 2½ cubits, for the Vaisyas (the farmers and businessmen) 2
cubits and lastly for the Sudras (the workers) 1 cubits

About the forms of bases the literature is not clear. The Mánasára says there are 12
varieties of bases, but later on it describes 18 varieties. Rám Ráz writes in his “Essay on
the architecture of the Hindús” that there are six sorts and the Mayamatam describes 14
different ones. In Figure11 and Figure12 the forms described by Rám Ráz can be seen.
His description seems to be the most reasonable one, because the Hindu entablature and
the Greek and Roman orders also consist of six different ones.

The base may be reinforced to make it more solid. The architect can add or subtract 1, ¾,
½, ¼ parts. He can also add or subtract 2, 1½, ½ or ¼ digit. The most important thing
here is that the proportions of the base must be related to those of the building. In
response to that the rest of the pillar relates to the base of the pillar.1
 Figure 11 – The first three kinds of bases of the Hindu order

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22
Figure 12 – Kinds four till six of the bases of the Hindu

23
Sthamba or pillar and the thickness of walls
In Indian architecture there are seven sorts of pillars and these are related to the base or
to the amount of floors in the building.

When the base is taken as a reference point for the length of a pillar, than it may be 1¼,
1½, 1¾ or 2 times the height of the base. In total there are 12 varieties of the height of a
pillar. For the pilaster (in other words a wall-pillar) it is either 3, 4, 5 or 6 angulas. The
diameter of a pillar is 2, 3 or 4 times the width of the pilaster.

When the amount of floors in a building is taken as a reference points for determining
the height of the pillars, then the ground floor pillars of a twelve storey building are 8½
cubits in height. By subtracting one span for each storey a height of 3 cubits is obtained
for the pillars of the top storey. The diameter of the ground floor pillars of a twelve
storey building is 28 digits. By subtracting two digits for each storey 6 digits are
obtained for the diameter of the pillars of the top-storey.

There are 6 forms of pillar. Namely: square, pentagonal (5 sides), hexagonal (6 sides),
octagonal (8 sides), 16 sided and circular. These shapes are uniform from bottom to top,
but the base and top may be square. The top of a pillar consists of 7 elements62: The
bracket capital, the dye (featuring a human figure), the abacus, the bell capital, the
support, the lotus and the band ornamented with garlands.

Pillars are used for all kinds of buildings. Like palaces, pavilions, auxiliary temples,
gate- houses and the dwellings of the lower castes. For erecting the pillars worship
ceremonies are carried out.

For the design of the seven different pillars a lot of rules are given. These can for
instance be found in the Mánasára. In Figure 13, Figure 14 and Figure 15 examples of
the different sorts of pillars can be found.

About the walls of a building not a lot of information can be found in the documents,
but in the Mayamatam a description for the width of the walls are given. A wall is 2, 3,
4, 5 or 6 times the diameter of a pilaster. A pilaster is ½, two-thirds or ¾ of the pillar.

63

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 Figure 13 – First three pillars of the Hindu Order

25
Figure 14 - Pillars four till six of the Hindu Order

26
Fig 15 – Pillar 7 of the Hindu order

27
Prastára or entablature
The last part of the Hindu order is defined by the entablature. It is the element between
the pillar and the roof of a building.

There are six varieties of entablature in the Hindu order67 (Figure16 and Figure17)68.
Each of them serves another class. These are the Gods, the Brahmans (intellectual and
priests), the Kings or the government, the crown princes or the military and
administrative classes, the vaisyas (the farmers and businessmen) and finally the sudras
(the workers)69. Here a similarity can be found with the Greek and Roman orders. Also
in those orders there are also six entablatures: Doric-, Ionic-, Corintic-, Tuscan-, Doric-
roman and Composite order70.

There are three ways to define the height of the entablature. In the first one the height of
the entablature are ¾, 1, 1¼, 1½, 1¾ or 2 times the base.

In the second method the six varieties of height of the entablature are ½, ¾, 1, 1½, 1¾
or 2 times the pillar.

In the third method, which only the expert architect may use, the height of the pillar is
divided into 8 equal parts. Of these 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, and 2 parts are the six kinds of height of
the entablature. This last method has been derived from the Vedic literature.

For the design of the entablature a lot of rules are given. These can for instance be found
in the Mánasára.

Figure 16 - Entablature

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 Fig 17- Entablatures

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28
Intercolumniation
For the intercolumniation two different approaches can be used. The first one is relative to the rest of
the building74: “The intercolumniation may be either two, three, four, or five diameters; it is
measured in three ways, first from the inner extremity of the base of the pillar to that of another;
secondly from the centre of the two pillars, and, thirdly from the outer extremities of the pillars
including the two bases.”

The second approach to intercolumniation is not relative to the building. In this approach the
intercolumniation consists of 9 different possibilities. These are defined by 2 or 4 cubits, where each
time 6 digits can be added. The architect can chose all of the 9 possibilities. Here it doesn’t matter
what its type is, but the disposition of the pillars has to be regular, because otherwise it is believed to
bring destruction upon the building and upon its site75.

The building order

When the architect had made a design the building could start. For instance the building order of a
one level South Indian temple consisted of 9 steps:

1. A base would be made

2. Placing of the pillars
3. Putting the walls up
4. Placing the handrail
5. Adding the entablature
6. Adding the roof
7. Adding of the attic
8. Adding of the summit
9. Adding the final elements

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The role of the architect
In the Mánasára it is explained where the architect comes from and what his tasks are. First you have
the architect of the universe. That is Visva-karman and he comes from Siva, Brahma and Indra78.
Visva-karman has four faces. The eastern face is called Visva-bhu and he is the progenitor of the
universe. The southern face is called Visva-vit and he is the knower of the universe. The northern
face is called Visvastha and he is the resident of the universe. Finally, the western face is called
Visva-srastar and he is the creator of the universe.

From these four faces four children were born. From the eastern face Visva-karma was born. From
the southern face Maya was born, from the northern face Tvashtar was born. And from the western
face Manu was born. All these children then married. Visva-karma to the daughter of Indra, Maya to
the daughter of Surendra, Tvashtar married the daughter of Vaisravana and Manu married the
daughter of Nala.

Each of these couples got one son who is important for the role of the architect. The son of Visva-
karman is called sthapati or master-builder. The son of Maya is known as sutra- grahin or draftsman.
The son of Tvashtar is known as vardhaci or designer. The son of Manu is called takshaka or
carpenter.

Of these four architects the master builder (sthapati) is the most important one. He is the guide or
guru of the other three, but he also needs to have the best knowledge. He needs to know all the
branches of knowledge, knows the Vedas, is deeply learned in the science of architecture and knows
how to direct.

The draftsman (sutra-grahin) also knows the different branches of knowledge, knows the Vedas and
he is an expert in drawing.

The designer (vardhaki) knows the Vedas, has a capability of judging correctly in architectural
matters, and is an expert in the work of painting.

The carpenter (takshaka) knows carpentry well, is sociable, helpful to colleagues, faithful to his
friends and kind in nature. He should study the Vedas.

The Mánasára describes that building-work can nowhere in the world be done without the help of
these four people

REFERENCES

1. Essay On The Architecture Of The Hindús. By Rám Ráz, Ramaraja. LJ Cox & Sons,Lond

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 CHAPTER
God or Man who built the magnificent Hindu Mandirs?

Na tatra suryo bhaati na chandra

taarakam Nemaa vidyuto bhaanti
kutoyamagnib Tameva bhaantam
anubhaati sarvam Tasya bhasa sarvam
idam vibhaati

He is there where the sun does

not shine, Nor the moon, stars
and lightning.
then what to talk of this small flame (in my hand),
Everything (in the universe) shines only after the Lord,
And by His light alone are we all illumined.
Upanishds-Indian
Philosophy.http://www.poetseers.org/the_poetseers/sri_chinmoy/library/vol2/16/

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The above saying is true when one looks at Hindu mandirs or Temples as they will be referred to in
this piece are called. For as one looks at them, one cannot imagine that a human could have built
these structures.Not just gigantic but also so intricate that they verge on the “marvelous” or “divine”.
I hope this paper will give some knowledge of the temperol creations on this earth made only by
GOD.

God, who made the world and everything in it, since He is Lord of heaven and earth, does not

dwell in temples made with hands.” 1This could very well have been a Hindu saying-but
unfortunately is a quote from the Bible. The Temple of God is universal, non-sectarian, charged

with Cosmic.2 But what do the Hindus say about the Mandirs-their temples and what is the
Truth?

Kailasa Temple. Top Down construction.,It begam here and then went down

2
 SECTION A

In 2003 I was posted in Aurangabad the home of the Ellora and Ajanta Caves. Located in Ellora,
Maharashtra, the Kailasa Temple is truly one of man’s most amazing ancient creations. Built in 760
AD by King Krishna I, this temple was carved from a huge solid rock by hand using chisels, hammers
and picks. Because this temple — which was built to represent Mt. Kailasa, the deity Shiva’s home —
is so amazing, some people have even theorized that aliens may have built it.
And it’s not hard to see why once you visit Kailasa Temple. Although the exterior of the temple is
relatively plan, the interior is covered in intricate designs and reliefs and boasts columns that have
been carved from solid rock. The temple is just one of 34 man-made caves at the site. Of those caves,
12 are considered Buddhist temples, 17 are Hindu and 5 are Jain.
The Kailasha or Kailashanatha temple is the largest of the rock-cut Hindu temples at the Ellora
Caves.
A megalith carved from a rock cliff face, it is considered one of the most remarkable cave temples in
the world because of its size, architecture and sculptural treatment, and "the climax of the rock-cut
phase of Indian architecture".The top of the superstructure over the sanctuary is 32.6

3
metres (107 feet) above the level of the court below, although the rock face slopes downwards from
the rear of the temple to the front. The Kailasa temple (Cave 16) is the largest of the 34 Buddhist,
Jain and Hindu cave temples and monasteries known collectively as the Ellora Caves, ranging for
over 2 kilometres (1.5 miles) along the sloping basalt cliff at the site. Most of the excavation of the
temple is generally attributed to the eighth century Rashtrakuta king Krishna
I (r. c.  756 – 773), with some elements completed later. The temple architecture shows traces of
Pallava and Chalukya styles. The temple contains a number of relief and free-standing sculptures on
a grand scale equal to the architecture, though only traces remain of the paintings which originally
decorated it.

Kailasa temple lacks a dedicatory inscription, but they say that it was commissioned by a
Rashtrakuta ruler. Its construction is generally attributed to the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (r. 756-
773 CE), based on two epigraphs that link the temple to "Krishnaraja" (IAST Kṛ ṣ ṇ arā ja):
 The Vadodara copper-plate inscription (c. 812-813 CE) of Karkaraja II (a ruler of
a Rashtrakuta branch of Gujarat) records the grant of a village in present-day Gujarat. It
mentions Krishnaraja as the patron of Kailasanatha, and also mentions a Shiva temple at
Elapura (Ellora). It states that the king constructed a temple so wondrous that even the gods
and the architect were astonished. Most scholars believe that this is a reference to the Kailasa
Shiva temple at Elora.
 The Kadaba grant of Govinda Prabhutavarsha similarly appears to credit Krishnaraja with
the construction of the temple.
However, the attribution of the temple to Krishna I is not completely certain because these
epigraphs are not physically connected to the caves, and do not date Krishnaraja's reign.
Moreover, the land grants issued by Krishna's successors do not contain any references to the
Kailasa temple. Therefore not much can be said about its human origin.

The Kailasa temple features the use of multiple distinct architectural and sculptural styles. This,
combined with its relatively large size, has led some scholars to believe that its construction spanned
the reigns of multiple kings. Some of the temple reliefs feature the same style as the one used in the
Dashavatara cave (Cave 15), which is located next to the temple. The Dashavatara cave contains an
inscription of Krishna's predecessor and nephew Dantidurga (c.  735–756 CE).

4
Based on this, art historian Hermann Goetz (1952) theorized that the construction of the Kailasa
temple began during the reign of Dantidurga. Krishna consecrated its first complete version, which
was much smaller than the present-day temple. According to Goetz, Dantidurga's role in the temple
construction must have been deliberately suppressed, as Krishna sidelined Dantidurga's sons to claim
the throne after his death. Based on analysis of the different styles, Goetz further hypothesized that
the later Rashtrakuta rulers also extended the temple. These rulers include Dhruva Dharavarsha,
Govinda III, Amoghavarsha, and Krishna III. According to Goetz, the 11th century Paramara ruler
Bhoja commissioned the elephant-lion frieze on the lower plinth during his invasion of Deccan, and
added a new layer of paintings.

No major part of the monolithic temple appears to have been an afterthought: architectural evidence
suggests that the entire temple was planned at the beginning. The main shrine is very similar to
(although much larger than) the Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal, which itself is a replica of the
Kailasa temple at Kanchi. The Pattadakal Virupaksha Temple was commissioned by the Chalukyas of
Badami to commemorate their victory over the Pallavas, who had constructed the Kailasa temple at
Kanchi. According to the Virupaksha temple inscriptions, the Chalukyas brought the Pallava artists
to Pattadakal after defeating the Pallavas. Dhavalikar theorizes that after defeating the Chalukyas,
Krishna must have been impressed by the Virupaksha Temple located in their territory. As a result,
he brought the sculptors and architects of the Virupaksha Temple (including some Pallava artists) to
his own territory, and engaged them in the construction of the Kailasa temple at Ellora.

5
If one assumes that the architects of the Virupaksha temple helped construct the Kailasa temple at
Ellora, the construction of a massive temple during the reign of a single monarch does not seem
impossible. The architects already had a blueprint and a prototype, which must have significantly
reduced the effort involved in constructing a new temple. Moreover, quarrying a monolithic temple
would have actually involved less effort than transporting large stones to build a new temple of similar
size. Assuming that one person can cut around 4 cubic feet of rock every day, Dhavalikar estimated
that 250 labourers would have managed to construct the Kailasa temple at Ellora within 5.5 years. The
presence of non-Rashtrakuta styles in the temple can be attributed to the involvement of Chalukya
and Pallava artists.

Construction method

Vertical excavation : The Kailasa Temple is notable for its vertical excavation—carvers started at the
top of the original rock and excavated downward. The traditional methods were rigidly followed by
the master architect which could not have been achieved by excavating from the front.
A medieval Marathi legend appears to refer to the construction of the Kailasa temple. The earliest
extant text to mention this legend is Katha-Kalapataru by Krishna Yajnavalki (c. 1470- 1535 CE).
According to this legend, the local king suffered from a severe disease. His queen prayed to the god
Ghrishneshwar (Shiva) at Elapura to cure her husband. She vowed to construct a temple if her wish
was granted, and promised to observe a fast until she could see
the shikhara (top) of this temple. After the king was cured, she requested him to build a temple
immediately, but multiple architects declared that it would take months to build a temple complete
with a shikhara. One architect named Kokasa assured the king that the queen would be able to see
the shikhara of a temple within a week's time. He started building the temple from the top, by carving
a rock. He was able to finish the shikhara within a week's time, enabling the queen to give up her fast.
The temple was named Manikeshwar after the queen. M. K. Dhavalikar theorises that Kokasa was
indeed the chief architect of the Kailasa temple, which may have been originally known as
Manikeshwar. Multiple 11th-13th century inscriptions from central India mention architects born in
the illustrious family of Kokasa.
Futile attempt of destruction

6
Mughal ruler Aurangzeb had made a strong attempt to vandalise the Kailash Temple, but he was
unable to get much success in his plans. All he could do was a minor damage here and there but not
to the main structure. He finally gave up, fearing the sacredness of this divine place of worship.

The Kailasa temple architecture is different from the earlier style prevalent in the Deccan region. As
stated above, it appears to be based on the Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal and the Kailasa temple
at Kanchi, but it is not an exact imitation of these two temples. The southern influence on the temple
architecture can be attributed to the involvement of Chalukya and Pallava artists in its construction.
The indigenous Deccan artisans appear to have played a subordinate role in the temple's
construction.

The entrance to the temple courtyard features a low gopuram. Most of the deities at the left of the
entrance are Shaivaite (affiliated with Shiva) while on the right hand side the deities
are Vaishnavaites (affiliated with Vishnu). A two-storeyed gateway opens to reveal a U-shaped
courtyard. The dimensions of the courtyard are 82 m x 46 m at the base.[1] The courtyard is edged by
a columned arcade three stories high. The arcades are punctuated by huge sculpted panels, and
alcoves containing enormous sculptures of a variety of deities. Originally flying bridges of stone
connected these galleries to central temple structures, but these have fallen.

7
Some of the most famous sculptures are Shiva the ascetic, Shiva the dancer, Shiva being warned by
Parvati about the demon Ravana, and river goddess.

See size of Human and the height all carved from Up to down.
Within the courtyard, there is a central shrine dedicated to Shiva, and an image of his mount
Nandi (the sacred bull). The central shrine housing the lingam features a flat-
roofed mandapa supported by 16 pillars, and a Dravidian shikhara. The shrine – complete with pillars,
windows, inner and outer rooms, gathering halls, and an enormous stone lingam at its heart – is
carved with niches, plasters, windows as well as images of deities, mithunas (erotic male and female
figures) and other figures. As is traditional in Shiva temples, Nandi sits on a porch in front of the
central temple. The Nandi mandapa and main Shiva temple are each about 7 metres high, and built on
two storeys. The lower stories of the Nandi Mandapa are both solid structures, decorated with
elaborate illustrative carvings. The base of the temple has been carved to suggest that elephants are
holding the structure aloft. A rock bridge connects the Nandi Mandapa to the porch of the temple.
The base of the temple hall features scenes
from Mahabharata and Ramayana.

8
Kailasa Temple Was Carved Out of One Rock from the Top Down!

The Kailasa Temple Mystery: How Was It Built?

The mystery revolves around how the temple was built. It is most notable for its vertical excavation;
if the the carvers began at the top of the rock then carved their way downward how did they find
their upside down bearings of the statutes carved- as amazingly, the temple stands 60 feet (18.29
meters) tall and 200 feet (60.69 meters) wide.

9
 Picture of the hall on one side of the main structure of Kailash Temple

Shikhara, Kailasah temple.

No one knows how long it took to carve Kailasa temple, or even how such a masterpiece was
accomplished given the time period and resources available. Only one thing is certain, that it will
remain a great mystery and a marvel of engineering.

10
How statutes are carved?; For most of human history, sculptors used hammer and chisel as the basic
tools for carving stone.
The process begins with the selection of a stone for carving. Artists begin with a form already in mind
and find a stone to complement their vision. The sculptor may begin by forming a model in clay or
wax, sketching the form of the statue on paper or drawing a general outline of the statue on the stone
itself.
When ready to carve, the artist usually begins by knocking off large portions of unwanted stone. This
is the "roughing out" stage of the sculpting process. For this task they may select a point chisel,
which is a long, hefty piece of steel with a point at one end and a broad striking surface at the other. A
pitching tool may also be used at this early stage; which is a wedge- shaped chisel with a broad, flat
edge. The pitching tool is useful for splitting the stone and removing large, unwanted chunks. Those
two chisels are used in combination with a masons driving hammer.
Once the general shape of the statue has been determined, the sculptor uses other tools to refine the
figure. A toothed chisel or claw chisel has multiple gouging surfaces which create parallel lines in the
stone. These tools are generally used to add texture to the figure. An artist might mark out specific
lines by using calipers to measure an area of stone to be addressed, and marking the removal area with
pencil, charcoal or chalk. The stone carver generally uses a shallower stroke at this point in the
process, usually in combination with a wooden mallet.

11
Eventually the sculptor has changed the stone from a rough block into the general shape of the
finished statue. Tools called rasps and rifflers are then used to enhance the shape into its final form. A
rasp is a flat, steel tool with a coarse surface. The sculptor uses broad, sweeping strokes to remove
excess stone as small chips or dust. A riffler is a smaller variation of the rasp, which can be used to
create details such as folds of clothing or locks of hair.
The final stage of the carving process is polishing. Sandpaper can be used as a first step in the
polishing process, or sand cloth. Emery, a stone that is harder and rougher than the sculpture media, is
also used in the finishing process. This abrading, or wearing away, brings out the color of the stone,
reveals patterns in the surface and adds a sheen. Tin and iron oxides are often used to give the stone a
highly reflective exterior.
Sculptures can be carved via either the direct or the indirect carving method. Indirect carving is a way
of carving by using an accurate clay, wax or plaster model, which is then copied with the use of a
compass or proportional dividersor a pointing machine. The direct carving method is a way of carving in
a more intuitive way, without first making an elaborate model. Sometimes a sketch on paper or a
rough clay draft is made.
Stone has been used for carving since ancient times for many reasons. Most types of stone are easier
to find than metal ores, which have to be mined and smelted. Stone can be dug from the surface and
carved with hand tools. Stone is more durable than wood, and carvings in stone last much longer than
wooden artifacts. Stone comes in many varieties and artists have abundant choices in color, quality
and relative hardness.
Soft stone such as chalk, soapstone, pumice and Tufa can be easily carved with found items such as
harder stone or in the case of chalk even the fingernail. Limestones and marbles can be worked using
abrasives and simple iron tools. Granite, basalt and some metamorphic stone is difficult to carve even
with iron or steel tools; usually tungsten carbide tipped tools are used, although abrasives still work
well. Modern techniques often use abrasives attached to machine tools to cut the stone.
Precious and semi-precious gemstones are also carved into delicate shapes for jewellery or larger
items, and polished; this is sometimes referred to as lapidary, although strictly speaking lapidary refers
to cutting and polishing alone.
When worked, some stones release dust that can damage lungs (silica crystals are usually to blame), so
a respirator is sometimes needed.

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Basic stone carving tools fall into five categories:
1. Percussion tools for hitting - such as mallets, axes, adzes, bouchards and toothed
hammers.
2. Tools for rough shaping of stone, to form a block the size needed for the carving. These
include feathers and wedges and pitching tools.
3. Chisels for cutting - such as lettering chisels, points, pitching tools, and claw chisels.
Chisels, in turn, may be handheld and hammered or pneumatic powered.
4. Diamond tools which include burrs, cup wheels, and blades mounted on a host of power
tools. These are used sometimes through the entire carving process from rough work to
the final finish.
5. Abrasives for material removals - such as carborundum blocks, drills, saws, grinding and
cutting wheels, water-abrasive machinery and dressing tools such as French and English
drags.
More advanced processes, such as laser cutting and jet torches, use sudden high temperature with a
combination of cooling water to spall flakes of stone. Other modern processes may involve
diamond-wire machines or other large scale production equipment to remove large sections of
undesired stone.
The use of chisels for stone carving is possible in several ways. Two are:
 The mason's stroke, in which a flat chisel is used at approximately 90 degrees to the surface
in an organized sweep. It shatters the stone beneath it and each successive pass lowers the
surface.
 The lettering stroke, in which the chisel is used along the surface at approximately 30
degrees to cut beneath the existing surface.
There are many types and styles of stone carving tools, each carver will decide for themselves which
tools to use. Traditionalists might use hand tools only.
 Lettering chisels for incising small strokes create the details of letters in larger applications.
 Fishtail carving chisels are used to create pockets, valleys and for intricate carving, whilst
providing good visibility around the stone.
 Masonry chisels are used for the general shaping of stones.
 Stone point tools are used to rough out the surface of the stone.
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  Stone claw tools are used to remove the peaks and troughs left from the previously used
tools.
 Stone pitching tools are used to remove large quantities of stone.
 Stone nickers are used to split stones by tracing a line along the stone with progressive
strikes until the stone breaks along the line.
Powered pneumatic hammers make the hard work easier today but what about the ancient days?.
Progress on shaping stone is faster with pneumatic carving tools. Air hammers (such as Cuturi) place
many thousands of impacts per minute upon the end of the tool, which would usually be
manufactured or modified to suit the purpose. This type of tool creates the ability to 'shave' the stone,
providing a smooth and consistent stroke, allowing for larger surfaces to be worked.
Among modern tool types, there are two main stone carving chisels:
 Heat treated high carbon steel tools - Generally forged
 Tungsten carbide tipped tools - Generally forged, slotted, and carbide inserts brazed in to
provide a harder and longer-wearing cutting edge.
Why I feel that the Temples must be created by the mental powers of Gods?
There are two types of temples.Those created by man and those by God. To understand why
God created temples we need to address the Creation of time and its passage through the ages.

14
15
16
 WHEN GODS WALKED THE EARTH
A Yuga (Sanskrit: युग, lit. 'age') is an epoch or era in Hindu cosmology. "Yuga" can refer to a
Yuga Cycle if the specific yuga isn't named and the description matches. Example: Bhagavad-
gita 8.17 (yuga) matches Bhagavata Purana 12.4.2 (chatur-yuga). There are a total of four
yugas : Satya Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga, and Kali Yuga, each having 1/4th less duration
and dharma than the previous (Satya most, Kali least). The descending yugas see a gradual
decline of dharma, wisdom, knowledge, intellectual capability, lifespan, emotional and physical
strength.
17
In Brahma's calendar, we are in his 51st year of 100 — 1st month of 12 — 1st day (Shveta-Varaha
Kalpa) of 30 — 7th manvantara (Vaivasvatha) of 14 — 28th maha-yuga of 71 — 4th yuga (last, Kali-yuga).
According to Puranic sources, Krishna's departure marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali
Yuga, which is dated to 17/18 February 3102 BCE. Kali Yuga ends in 428,899 CE (432,000 years). (See
Kali Yuga).

1000 Pillars in this Temple. Erected without modern engineering in Tamil Nadu,India-
Ekambareshwar Temple.

18
19
I. Satya Yuga (Krita Yuga, "the age of truth", or "hindu golden age") : the first and best yuga.
It is the age of truth and perfection. This yuga has no crime, and all humans are kind and
friendly. The Krita Yuga is so named because there is one religion, and all men are saintly :
therefore they are not required to perform religious ceremonies. Humans are long living,
powerfully built, honest, youthful, vigorous, erudite and virtuous. The Vedas are one. All
mankind can attain to supreme blessedness. There is no agriculture or mining, as the earth
yields those riches on its own. Weather is pleasant, and everyone is happy. There is no religious
sect. There is no disease, decrepitude, or fear of anything. virtue reigns supreme. Human
stature is 21 cubits (33 ft, 6 inches). Average human lifespan is 100,000 years. The Yugas are
said to succeed each other almost endlessly. After the perfect Satya Yuga, a decline marks the
Treta Yuga. Further decline brings about the Dwapara Yuga, and after it comes the final and
dark Kali Yuga, a time of wickedness, when man kills another man. At the end of the cycle Kalki
is said to take birth and reestablish righteousness, thus beginning a new Satya Yuga or yuga of
truth.

II. Treta Yuga : this is the second yuga in chronological order. However, "treta" means the
"third". In this age, virtue diminishes slightly. At the beginning of the age, many emperors rise
to dominance and conquer the world. Wars become frequent and weather begins to change to
extremities. People become slightly diminished, compared to their predecessors. Agriculture,
labour and mining become existent here are 3 quarter virtues and 1 quarter sin. Normal human
stature is 14 cubits (22 ft, 4 inches). Average human lifespan is 10,000 years

III. Dvapara Yuga : this is the third yuga in order. However, "dvapara" means "two"/"second".
In this age, people become tainted with qualities, and aren't as strong as their ancestors.
Diseases become rampant. Humans are discontent and fight each other. Vedas are divided into
four parts. People still possess characteristics of youth in old age. Average lifespan of humans is
around a few centurieshere are 1 half virtue and 1 half sin. Normal human stature is 7 cubits (11
ft, 2 inches). Average human lifespan is 1,000 years. Kali Yuga : the final age. It is the age of
darkness and ignorance. People stop following dharma, and lack virtue. They become slaves to

20
 their passions and are barely as powerful as their earliest ancestors in the Satya Yuga. Society
falls into disuse and people become liars and hypocrites. Knowledge is lost and scriptures are

diminished. Humans eat forbidden and dirty food. The environment is polluted, water and food
become scarce. Wealth is heavily diminished. Families become non-existent. There is 1 quarter virtue,
and 3 quarter sins. Normal human stature is 3.5 cubits (5 ft, 3 inches). Average human lifespan is 100
years

IV. Kali Yuga: Kali Yuga (Sanskrit: कलियुग, romanized: kaliyuga, lit. 'age of Kali') is the last of
the four stages (or ages or yugas) the world goes through as part of a 'cycle of yugas' (i.e.
mahayuga) described in the Sanskrit scriptures.[1] The other ages are called Satya Yuga,
Treta Yuga, and Dvapara Yuga. The "Kali" of Kali Yuga means "strife", "discord", "quarrel" or
"contention" and Kali Yuga is associated with the demon Kali (not to be confused with the
goddess Kali). According to Puranic sources, Krishna's departure marks the end of Dvapara
Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga, which is dated to 17/18 February 3102 BCE.Based on a starting
year of 3102 BCE and a duration of 432,000 years (1200 divine years), Kali Yuga began roughly
5,121 years ago and has 426,879 years remaining as of 2020 CE. Kali Yuga will end in the year

21
 428,899 CE.

Jambukeshwar Temple in Tamilnadu.

Gods came on earth in the Satya Yuga: Amongst the four eras, the Satya Yuga is the first and the
most significant one. Knowledge, meditation, and penance hold special importance in this era. All the
pillars of Dharma are present in totality. During Satya Yuga, all people engage only in good, sublime
deeds. Ashrams become devoid of wickedness and deceit. Natyam (such as Bharatanatyam),
according to Natya Shastra, did not exist in the Satya Yuga "because it was the time when all people
were happy". This Yuga extends up to 1,728,000 years.
22
Lord Vishnu incarnated in four forms i.e. Matsya, Kurma, Varaha and Narsimha in this era.The only
text which was considered credible and was followed was Manu’s Dharma Shastra. The average
human lifespan in Satya Yuga began with 100,000 years and gradually decreased to 10,000 years.

Here humanity is governed by gods, and every manifestation or work is close to the purest ideal and
humanity will allow intrinsic goodness to rule supreme. It is sometimes referred to as the "Golden
Age". The Satya Yuga lasts 1,728,000 years or 4800 divine years. The god Dharma
(depicted in the form of a bull), which symbolises morality, stood on all four legs during this period.
Later on in the Treta Yuga, it would become three, followed by two in the Dvapara Yuga. Currently,
in the immoral age of Kali, it stands on one leg.

23
20 storeyed temple in Karnataka.Made entirely of stone. Today an elevator carries us to the TOP but how could
it have been constructed in the ancient times?

Satya Yuga as per Mahabharata: there were no poor and no rich; there was no need to labour,
because all that men required was obtained by the power of will; the chief virtue was the
abandonment of all worldly desires. The Krita Yuga was without disease; there was no lessening with
the years; there was no hatred or vanity, or evil thought; no sorrow, no fear. All mankind

24
 could attain to supreme blessedness. The Vaishya (traders) of this era shall engage in trade and

business very justly and honestly. Brahmins shall be engaged continually in religious sacrifices, study,
teaching, charity etc. The Kshatriya (warriors) shall be inclined towards the exhibition of valiance and
might. The Shudras shall sincerely serve the Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. This form of religion
shall remain intact and absolute in the Satya Yuga.

One shall witness the total establishment of Sanatan Dharma (eternal religion). All the
deities, demons, Gandharvas, and Yaksha would give up their hatred and differences. The Rig, Sama
and Yajurveda were not separate and demarcated. This era was devoid of agricultural activities or any
other type of activity. Just by mere contemplation one would beget desired results. People in this era
would never fall ill. No one would try to point out faults or demerits in anyone’s personality. The
personality was not plagued by demerits like ego, sorrow, violent thought (aggression), jealousy,
hatred, backbiting, fear, anger and lethargy.

25
At that time, the colour of the Supreme cosmic soul that was situated in the heart of one and all and
the saviour of all the sages was white.

All the people that are Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras were embellished with all the
good qualities. People would practice austerities and penance to attain Brahman. All would be inclined
towards the supreme knowledge and all actions performed would be in the intention of attaining
celestial bliss.

In this way all these divine people would be bestowed with sublime faith and piousness. Albeit,
people were segregated on the basis of the Varnashram method, they would all response their faith in
the Vedas and the Sanatan Dharma because these people were devoid of selfishness, and they would
effortlessly attain sublimity or union with God, which is a salient feature of Satya Yuga. Very valiant,
mighty, intelligent and people gifted with all good qualities would be born in this era. They would
surprisingly give birth to thousands of children. Great sages embellished with divinity would be born
in this era.
End: The tenth avatar of the Lord Vishnu in the current Mahayuga is foretold to appear at the end of
Kali Yuga, the current epoch. The Purana scriptures foretell that Kalki will be atop a white horse with
a drawn blazing sword. He is the harbinger of the end time in Hindu eschatology, after which he will
usher in Satya Yuga.
Astrology
II. Treta Yuga (Sanskrit: तततततत ततत) is the second of the four yugas, or ages ofmankind,
in the religion of Hinduism. It follows the Satya Yuga and is followed by the Dvapara Yuga and Kali
Yuga. Treta means 'a collection of three arousing things' in Sanskrit, and is so called because during
the Treta Yuga, there were two Avatars of Vishnu that were seen, the sixth and seventh incarnations
as Parashurama and Rama, respectively. The name could also be derived from the fact that the Treta
Yuga lasted 3,600 divine years, or 1,296,000 human years.[1] The bull of Dharma symbolises that
morality stood on three legs during this period. It had all four legs in the Satya Yuga and two in the
succeeding Dvapara Yuga. Currently, in the immoral age of Kali, it stands on one leg.

26
During the Treta Yuga, the power of humans diminishes slightly. Kings and Brahmins need to
actively fulfill their desires instead of using mere fiat of will. People grow more materialistic and less
inclined towards spirituality. Wars broke out frequently and climate changes became common place,
giving rise to deserts and oceans.
Despite these seemingly negative effects, the Treta Yuga also brought knowledge of universal
magnetism. This knowledge allowed humans to understand the forces of nature and the true nature of
the universe. Agriculture and mining came into existence along with norms and rules to keep society
under control.

Vishnu's guardians Jaya-Vijaya, were cursed by 4 kumara sages (Bramha's sons) to incarnate on
Earth either 3 times as enemies of Lord Vishnu OR 10 times as devotees of Lord Vishnu. They chose
to take birth on earth 3 times. In the first birth (During Satya Yuga), they were born as
Hiranyakashipu and Hiranyaksha. In the second birth (During Treta Yuga), they were born as
Ravana and Kumbhakarna. In the third birth (During Dwapara Yuga), they were born as
Shishupala and Dantavakra. The references are from stories of Bhagavata Purana.
Many Avatars of Lord Vishnu Manifested themselves in this Yug:
Parashurama
Rama
The hallmark of this era was the rise of evil in the form of the demon king of Sri Lanka, Ravana. He
conquered the three worlds namely, Earth, Heaven and the Netherworld (Patala) and terrorized
everyone. Even the Devas were subordinate to him - his son Meghanada had earned the title Indrajit
by defeating Indra, the King of heaven in battle; and even the Sun had to obey the king. In this
scenario, Lord Vishnu incarnated himself as the son of King Dasharatha of the Suryavamshis or
Ikshvaku dynasty and was named Rama. Due to his stepmother- Kaikai's wish, Rama was sent away to
a forest in exile for 14 years, during which time he confronted and killed Ravana for kidnapping his
wife, and thus restored peace on earth. He is said to have afterwards established Rama-rajya or
Rama's Kingdom over the entire earth from his throne at Ayodhya for 11,000 years, before
eventually returning to his Mahavishnu form.
3. Dvapara or Dwapara Yuga is the third Yuga described in the scriptures of Hinduism. In Sanskrit,
Dwapara means "two ahead," or something in the third place. Dvapara Yuga follows the Treta Yuga
and precedes the Kali Yuga. According to the Puranas, Dwapara Yuga ended

27
when Lord Krishna returned to his abode of Vaikuntha. As per the Bhagavata Purana, the Dvapara
Yuga lasted about 864,000 years.

There were only two pillars of religion during the Dvapara Yuga, compassion and truthfulness. Lord
Vishnu assumed the color yellow and the Vedas were categorized into four parts, Rig Veda, Sama
Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. People in the Dvapara Yuga were desirous of achievement of
the scriptural dharma which is prescribed to each class, valiant, and competitive by nature. They were
engaged only in penance and charity. They were kingly and pleasure- seeking. In Dwapar Yuga, the
divine intellect was ceased, and hence anyone hardly was wholly truthful. As a result of it, people were
plagued by ailments, diseases and various types of desires. After suffering from these ailments, people
realized their misdeeds and performed penance. Some also organized Yagya for material benefits as
well as for divinity.
Glimpses of Dwapar Yug: Dwapar Yuga lasted for 864,000 years and witnessed the great war of
Mahabharata.People in Dwapar Yuga started indulging in class differences. Everyone wanted to
achieve scriptural dharma of the particular class. Diseases became more rampant, and the humans
became weaker than their ancestors..

Vedas were divided into four parts- Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda. The end of
Dwapar yuga took place when Lord Krishna exited from the earth.n Dwapar age, people become
tainted with Tamasic qualities and weren't as strong as their ancestors. Diseases become rampant.
Humans are discontent and fight each other. Vedas were divided into four parts. People still
possessed characteristics of youth in old age. The average lifespan of humans was around a few
centuries.

In Dvapara Yuga, the religious qualities of austerity, truth, mercy, and charity were reduced to one-
half by their irreligious counterparts such as dissatisfaction, untruth, violence, and enmity.
In the Dvapara age, people were interested in glory and were very noble. They devoted themselves to
the study of the Vedas, supported large families and enjoyed life with vigor.
The Supreme Personality of Godhead appeared with a dark blue complexion, wearing yellow attire.
The Lord’s transcendental body was marked in this incarnation with distinctive ornaments, and he
manifests his weapons.

28
What happened in the Kali Yuga: According to the Surya Siddhanta, Kali Yuga began at midnight
(00:00) on 18 February 3102 BCE. This is also considered the date on which Krishna left
the earth to return to Vaikuntha. This information is placed at the temple of Bhalka, the place of
this incident (see photo).

According to the astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata the Kali Yuga started in 3102 BCE. He
finished his book Aryabhattiyam in 499 CE, in which he gives the exact year of the beginning of Kali
Yuga. He writes that he wrote the book in the "year 3600 of the Kali Age" at the age of
23. As it was the 3600th year of the Kali Age when he was 23 years old, and given that Aryabhata was
born in 476 CE, the beginning of the Kali Yuga would come to (3600 - (476 +
23) + 1 (As only one year elapses between 1 BCE and 1 CE)) = 3102 BCE.

The starting point of Kali Yuga is an extremely rare planetary alignment, which is depicted in the
Mohenjo-daro seals. Going by this alignment the year 3102 BCE is slightly off. The actual date for this
alignment is 7 February 3104 BCE. There is also sufficient proof to believe that Vrdhha Garga knew
of precession at least by 500 BCE. Garga had calculated the rate of precession to within 30% of what
the modern scholars estimate.

29
Contemporary analysis of historical data from the last 11 millennia matches with the indigenous
Saptarishi Calendar. The length of the transitional periods between each yuga is unclear, and can only
be estimated based on historical data of past cataclysmic events. Using a 300 year (10% of the length
of a particular yuga) period for transitions, Kali Yuga has either ended recently in the past 100 to 200
years, or is to end soon sometime in the next 100 years.

Hindus believe that human civilization degenerates spiritually during the Kali Yuga. Common
attributes and consequences are spiritual bankruptcy, mindless hedonism, breakdown of all social
structure, greed and materialism, unrestricted egotism, afflictions and maladies of mind and body.

Hinduism often symbolically represents morality (dharma) as an Indian bull. In Satya Yuga, the first
stage of development, the bull has four legs, but in each age morality is reduced by one quarter. By the
age of Kali, morality is reduced to only a quarter of that of the golden age, so that the bull of Dharma
has only one leg.

Hindu Architecture during this time: Beginning with humble caves and squat flat-roofed
temples, Hindu architecture, then, evolved over the centuries and, despite some regional
variation, arrived at a standard arrangement which involved a huge walled complex with
massive decorative gateways giving entrance to a sacred space of lesser shrines dominated by
the main temple and its monumental series of towers. The design has become so standard that
it is copied even today in temples across the world from New Delhi to Malibu, California.

Hindu architecture evolved over the centuries from simple rock-cut cave shrines to massive and
ornate temples which spread across the Indian sub-continent and beyond, forming a canonical style
which is still adhered to today in modern Hindu temples across the globe. Essential elements of the
style are precise and harmonious geometry when viewed from all four sides and above, the square
form and grid ground plans, soaring towers, and elaborate decorate sculpture which
includes gods, worshippers, erotic scenes, animals, and floral and geometric patterns.

Beginnings & Purpose

30
From the 1st century CE a new type of worship known as Bhakti or devotional Hinduism spread
across the Indian sub-continent, and the old Vedic gods were replaced in importance by deities like
Shiva, Vishnu, Krishna, Brahma, and Devi. These gods would become the central figures of
Hinduism and their worship required temples where the devoted could offer their thanks and reveal
their hopes for a better life.

Buildings were constructed which could house a sacred symbol of a particular god, which could be
decorated with sculptural figures of them so recalling episodes from their mythological adventures,
and which provided a space for worshippers to leave offerings and perform rituals such as bathing
and dancing by professional female dancers (devadasi). The temple was considered the dwelling place
of a particular god (devalaya). It was, therefore, a sacred place (tirtha) where heaven and earth meet
and, as a god’s home, it must be a suitably splendid palace (prasada). The needs of the god
would, additionally, be supervised by a dedicated body of priests (pujaris) who attended the temple.
First of all, it depends on what you classify and call as "Hinduism". If you consider only Vedic
tradition as synonymous with Hinduism, then the dates would be around 5th century. But long before
this time, there was a strong widely spread non-Vedic and non-agamic sect of religion in Tamil
Nadu. There were other parts of India with such religions too. Most non-
Hindus associate temples with idols and therefore associate Hinduism with idol worship. This is true ,
yet very misleading. A temple is attended not because people wish to worship an idol( over time it has
come to be understood as such), but because it is a place that induces a sense of divinity in you and at
the same time allows you to express your devotion. Do you know that there is no mention of temples
in either the Mahabharata or the Vedas? Temples came as a part of modern Hinduism , when people
found it hard to think of God without having an image or a structure to link it to. So in a sense, it is
just another path to the realisation of God, an easy path in the world of today when man's mind is
increasingly cluttered with dozens of things and he needs some physical structure or image to be able
to evoke his spirituality. So in my answer, I will avoid mentioning idols and instead say why temples
are important in the larger picture.

1) People come to a temple with good thoughts in their mind, a sense of common purpose and
a submission of their ego. All of this combines to produce a holy or sattvic atmosphere around
the

31
place. To provide an analogy, why does it feel so very liberating to be part of a rock concert or a
cricket stadium? It feels so because people come to these events with a common purpose and with the
aim to relax. Now you might understand why visiting temples gives so much peace and joy to those
who visit it and believe in it.

2) A temple is a place meant to remind you of God. In particular, A Hindu temple reminds us
Hindus that we are just a part of that eternal Brahman, the godly soul that pervades the
universe. All the practices of a Hindu temple-be it the tolling bells, the frankincense sticks, the
burning fires and the chantings of Mantras, they all add up to make the whole experience seem
timeless, serene and magical. Of course the experience varies from person to person. But if
anyone goes with an open mind, one is bound to see why a temple inspires one with a sense of
spirituality and oneness with humanity and God.

3) The Church and the Mosque have always been the centerpieces of their respective religions.
This is not so with Hinduism. One does not learn or practise Hinduism by going to a temple. We
treat our Pundits as masters of ritual but do not treat them as authorities who may advise us in
temples on what our religious texts mean . Indeed, one may be a devout Hindu and yet never
visit temples. In a nutshell, a temple is one of the many ways that a Hindu may express his
devotion to God ( the way of Bhakti). In fact, the greatest big tenet of Hindusim is to do one's
job with the utmost sincerity and yet expect no returns from it. Therefore a Hindu temple must
not be seen as a Church or a Mosque of Hinduism. It serves an entirely different purpose.
Indeed, it is this very liberal nature of Hinduism which has ensured that it has survived through
the ages.

I have tried to express what my understanding of Hinduism is. I understand that it may not concur
with the views of many others. But then again, this diversity of beliefs and practices is the very beauty
of Hinduism.
The Hindu temple is built strictly in accordance with the Sanskrit texts specifying the minutest details.

The basic fundamental principle behind temple construction is this: a temple is a cosmic
representation, which represents, in essence the entire cosmos.

32
 1. At its inner core is the Garbhagriha, the sanctum Sanctorum wherein is seated the
eternal Lord, just as the Almighty is at the very core of this universe.

2. All elements inside temples, be they the Pradakshinalaya (the circumambulatory) or the
Mandapam, everything has a definite purpose and a reason. To get an idea, see my
explanation of the purposr of the temple circumambulatory, Pradaskhina path. See my
answer to:

3. Why do we do the 'pradakashan' when we go to temples?

4. By imitating the entire cosmos at the macro level, and the Purusha at the micro level, a
temple concentrates divine energies within so the devotees experience a divine state of
mind and consciousness while they pray, and unite with the Lord.

Ancient Times: There was no idol worship in ancient India. Gods were worshiped through fire only.

In Srimad Ramayana, we will come across Sage Agasthya offering his prayers through fire only.
त तततत तततततततत ततततततत तततततत ततततततत ततततत|| त-तत-तत
ततततततत ततततततत ततततततततततत ततततततत ततत तततततततत |
ततत ततततततत तत ततततततत ततततततत ततततततत तत त || त-तत-तत
तततततत ततततततत ततततततत त ततततत ततततततततत | ततततततत त ततत
ततततततत तततततततत तततततततत || त-तत-तत

ततततततत तततत ततततततततत ततततततत ततततत त | ततततततत त

ततततततततत तततत ततततततत तत त || त-तत-तत तततततततततततत त
ततततततत तततत ततततततत त तततततत |

Rama entered inside the hermitage and saw therein the sanctus of Brahma, Fire-god, Vishnu, Indra,
Vivasvat - the Sun-god, Soma - the Moon-god, Bhaga - one among the twelve Suns, and the
sanctusms of Kubera, [Wealth-Management-god, are seen and passed by the three of them, sanctums
of Dhaata, Vidhaata - Vedic deities created by Brahma to help Svayambhuu Manu, santucm of Vaayu
- the Air- god, and also like that the sanctum of great-soloed VaruNa - the Rain-god who also wields
noose, and the sanctum of Gayatri - the presiding deity of gnosis, sanctum of Vasus - eight of them,
and the sanctum of cobra's king - aadi sheSa, the divine Thousand-headed serpent that bears this
globe on its head, and on which Vishnu reclines, and even the sanctum of GaruDa - the Divine Eagle
and the vehicle of Vishnu, and the half brother of aadi sheSa, and the sanctum of Kaartikeya - chief of
gods army, second son of Shiva, and the sanctum of Dharma - Dharmaraaja, presiding deity of Virtue-
Vice- Time of living beings, in-charge of the hell.

33
Idol worship is relatively new concept. The origin of Idol worship cannot exactly be fixed.However, if
we ponder over the incidents took place in India, we can vaguely conclude that
dol worship might have started somewhere after Mahabharata war.Many kings participated in that
Great war and got eliminated and the Yadava army that survived the war, got extinct due to infighting
that took place after 36 years of the war.

Normally, a powerful and strong administration and patronage is necessary for any arts, culture to
thrive and make advancement.Owing to elimination of many kings and decadence of human thinking,
the earlier vedic way offering prayers might have slowly got replaced with Idol worship.This might
have taken place after the advent of Buddhism and Jainism (or) after the rule of Arjuna's great-
grandson Janamejaya.

Significance part of Idol worship: It is like elementary school education.The children will be asked to
write very big letters first, so that the children will get accustomed to it.Slowly, a smaller and still
smaller letters will replace that big letters. In the next step, the children will learn words, sentences,
etc. When grows up, the children will read books on their own.As the spiritual aspirant progresses, he
has to leave Idol worship and resort to internal DHYANA for getting realisation."Muktinath" or
mistakenly called "Mukthinath" word is derived from "Mukti" and "Nath". "Mukti" means "Salvation
or Nirvana" and "Nath" means "God or Master". Mukti holds great significance for all spiritual
people in the south Asian sub-continent. Muktinath this Sanskrit name itself has religious overtone
and a sort of emotional ring to it for the devout Hindus.

Living Diety: In the absence of God, humans succumbed to Myth which is a belief that this world is
"MAYA" (an illusion) of a life cycle of birth and rebirth. Everybody seeks to get rid of this cycle and
get nirvana. The philosophical construct termed the “ultimate truth” is an abstraction that is beyond
human comprehension. So Hindu philosophy improvises to give you a feel for the “ultimate truth”, a
path or focal point for your “bhakti”, by using natural phenomena as constant reminders of the
abstract.

Over thousands of years, these became personalized so that people find it easier to relate to them.
This is the colorful stories in our Smriti, which attempts to explain the abstract philosophical
constructs of the Veda in a simple, easy to remember format, and usually combines this with some
phenomena or event that would also indicate the date or period in which this was written, so that as

34
knowledge grows, these stories can also be updated periodically (this isn’t happening)nce you give this
deity a persona, it becomes easy for people to relate to it as an entity with an abode, the temple. What
must be remembered is that temples have thousands of designs based on a science, each with its
specific purpose.

To the Hindu, the temple is not a structure, it is an abode of the “living deity”, a personification of the
ultimate truth about our own true nature, and that of the world around us. It is a outward
representation of an inward view, the union, a representation of a darshan of the highest reality. The
environment in temples is designed in a manner that, for those who follow the practice of
“bhaktiyog”, opens the portals of higher spiritual dimensions in time.

Temple designs are also an aspect of the diversity of Hindu philosophical practices. Some temple
practices, like Sabarimala for instance, is laid out in the form of a syllabus for the apprentice seeker of
the brahmavidya.

SECTION C

TEMPLES ARE BUILT TO HOUSE A SACRED SYMBOL OF A PARTICULAR GOD AND WERE
DECORATED WITH SCULPTURAL FIGURES RECALLING EPISODES FROM MYTHOLOGY.

Hindus need not attend regular services, but an occasional walk around the temple interior
(circumambulation), known as pradaksina and done in a clockwise direction, was considered
auspicious. Further, they could say prayers, look at the god’s representation – a specific act of piety
known as darsan – and leave offerings of food and flowers (puja). Temples, inevitably, became the very
centre of a community and, accordingly, their upkeep was guaranteed by land grants and endowments
from the ruling class, as indicated by inscriptions on many temples.
Early Influences
Influenced by early Buddhist structures such as the stupa, the first Hindu temples were built from
rock-cut caves and repeated the idea of relief panels and the decorative gavaska window form. Then,
with the arrival of Gupta architecture in the 4th to 5th century CE, the first free-standing Hindu
temples were constructed with features such as towers and projecting niches.

35
The first materials used were wood and terracotta, but architects gradually moved on to brick and
stone, especially sandstone, granite, schist, and marble. No mortar was used in the older temples and
so precise cutting of dressed stones was required. Outstanding examples of influential cave temples
include those at Udaigiri in Malwa and date to the 5th century CE. Early free-standing temples survive
at Deogarh and include the 6th century CE Dasavatara temple dedicated to Vishnu.

Hindu Temple Features

The Hindu temple (mandir) is laid out according to the eight cardinal directions, and a god
representing each one (dikpala) may sometimes be represented in sculpture on the temple’s exterior.
Built on an elaborately carved platform (adhisthana), the temple is often referred to in ancient Hindu
texts on architecture (the Vastu Shastras) as the sacred mountain Meru or Kailasa, the dwelling of
Shiva in the Himalayas. Indeed, seen from afar, and especially from above, many Hindu temples, with
their multiple towers, appear very much like a mountain mass. The 11th century CE Kandariya
Mahadeva temple at Khajuraho and 12th century CE Rajarani temple at Bhubaneswar are
outstanding examples of this effect.
The most important part of a Hindu temple is the garbhagriha (translated as ‘womb-chamber’), which is
a small window-less shrine room located at the very heart of the temple. Within, a symbol or
representation of a specific god was placed, for example, the linga (phallus) for Shiva. Worshippers
consider that energy flows out in all directions from the garbhagriha, and this is reflected in the
architecture of the surrounding parts of the temple. For example, on three sides temples have blind
doors which symbolically allow the deity’s energy to leave the inner garbhagriha. These portals
(ghana dvara) may also act as secondary niche shrines for the deity too.

Early temples consisted of only a garbhagriha, but over time additions were built and copied across
temple sites to create, by the 10th century CE, a canonical architectural style. The most obvious of
these features were a portico entrance (ardhamandapa) and pillared hall (mandapa) which led to the
garbhagriha – features which developed in the Deccan from the 8th century CE. Even more
impressive, above the garbhagriha a huge corbelled tower was constructed, the sikhara. One of the
earliest examples incorporating these features can be found in Aiholi and

36
the 8th century Durga temple, whilst one of the most ornate is the 12th century CE Nataraja Temple
at Chidambaram in the Tamil Nadu.

Nagara & Dravida Temples

Architecture evolved slightly differently in different regions, such as the distinct features of Orissa,
Kashmir and Bengal temples, but two general types are identified as the Nagara (North) and Dravida
(South) styles. The sikhara tower in Nagara temples have a sloping curve as they rise, have decorative
arches known as gavakshas, and are topped by an amalaka – a large fluted stone disk – and also a small
pot and finial. The walls of Nagara temples present a complex exterior of projections (known as ratha
and ultimately there would be seven on each side) which create many recesses. In contrast, Dravida
towers (known separately as vimana) are more dome- like with cornices, and they are topped by
another smaller dome. The exterior walls of Dravida temples have regular entablatures which often
contain sculpture. Southern Indian temples can also have a ritual bathing tank or pool (nandi mandapa),
may have a barrel-vaulted (shala) roof, and are typically enclosed within a walled courtyard with a gate
(gopura) which over time would become even more massive and ornate than the temple itself. The
11th century CE Brihadishvara Temple complex at Tanjavur is a wonderful example which
incorporates all of these features.

Historians say Hindu Temples did not exist during the Vedic period (1500 - 500 BC).
The remains of the earliest temple structure were discovered in Surkh Kotal, a place in
Afghanistan by a French archeologist in 1951. It was not dedicated to a god but to the
imperial cult of King Kanishka (127 - 151 AD). The ritual of idol worship which became
popular at the end of the Vedic age may have given rise to the concept of temples as a place
of worship.
This is a great question and one that doesn't have a straight forward answer.
First of all, which is the oldest Hindu temple that still exists? I haven't been able to find any one
temple that Historians have labelled as the oldest temple. In my view, the Dashavatara Vishnu Temple
(meaning "ten incarnations") located at Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh in Central India built around 500 CE
may be one of the earliest Hindu stone temples still surviving today. Picture below -

37
These deities are known as 'Kaval dheivam' (guardian deity) or 'Kula dheivam' (family gods) in Tamil
Nadu/Andhra Pradesh. The deities may be a representation of local folklore depicting a local hero or
a village protector. A lot of these deities have been sanskritised and amalgamated into the later Vedic
religion. One of the biggest such example is 'Seyyon' or Kumara kadavul (aka Karthikeyan), who was
mentioned in early texts as the God of the Tamil diaspora. Also Kotravai (aka Durga) and Maayon
(Vishnu) have been amalgamated in to Vedic gods. The rural

38
areas of TN and Andhra Pradesh still have these temples and unique rituals. Some of their deities are
still independent of the Vedic deities. Ayyanar, Kali, Madurai Veeran, Karupannan Swamy,
Sudalaimaadan, Muniyandi are few of the famous deities that play an important part in rural
spiritualism in South India.These deities have always had temples dedicated to them, usually built in
the border of the villages. Note that temple worship is not an essential part of Vedic religion, whereas
the temple tradition have always been a part of these Dravidian religions.
Here is a excavated brick temple of Karthikeya in Tamilnadu, which dates back to 3rd Century BC.
Note that the temple has features of temple built with agamic tradition, with a bali-peetam,
dwajasthambam, sanctum sanctorum, etc.

IMPORTANCE OF TEMPLE IN HINDUISM

A Hindu temple is believed to be the earthly seat of a god or the deity and hence embodies divinity.
Man likes to grasp the infinite in some concrete form. This explains why temples have come into
existence. Hindus believe that a temple is a place where god may be approached, where divinity may
be experienced and where divine knowledge may be discovered.Historically, temples have served
several purposes, some of which are listed below:

1. A temple well sited and built in accordance with the Shastras can define a place.
Tirupathi, for instance, has come to be defined by the presence of the
Venkateswara temple. Kanchipuram in the south and Kashi in the north are places
famous for the presence of several important temples.
2. A temple that can attract pilgrims in significant numbers can contribute considerably to
the economy of that village or town. A temple that can attract pilgrims throughout the
year has an even more significant impact, economically and culturally on the place of
it’s siting.

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3. A temple also demonstrates the wealth, status and piety of the personage who
commissioned it. The more ornate the temple, the greater the wealth and the power of
the builder. Personages belonging to the royalty, the nobility or the cream of the
mercantile class were the ones who usually commissioned temples.
4. They not only had to pay for the construction of the temple but also for it’s maintenace.
They did this by giving grants of large tracts of land, the produce of which went to the
upkeep of the temple and also by contributing sums of money, livestock and quantities
of jewels or precious metals. Temple inscriptions and Sthala Puranas attest to this.

5. The Mandapas or the halls of the temple were/are places where people gather(ed)
for social and cultural intercourse.

40
6. The temples also helped fulfill public utility functions. For instance, the temple tank
served as a reservoir of water which could be used by the public. The tank also helped
store rainwater and replenish water aquifers around the temple area, benefiting all
those who had laid wells in that area.
7. Temples also served as centres of art and culture. Even the building of a temple with
it’s ornamented pillars, walls and roof, it’s murals and frescoes and other adornments
like sculptures and jewelled elements required a large number of skilled artists and
artisans of different categories and made it a treasure house of art.

41
The performing arts including traditional dance and music also found a permanent home in and
around major temples. In fact the tradition of devadasis or temple dancers and classical music and
composition owes much to religion and the institution of the temple.
We often worship in temples without knowing much about the significance of each of them.
But it is important to acquaint ourselves with the mythology behind a temple, its significance
and stories that relate to it. That would make our worship more meaningful. Often even the
names of the temple towns have a story behind them. For example, there are stories about
why Naimisaranya got its name. Nemi in Sanskrit means a circle. It is said that when celestial
beings asked Brahma where they should do penance, Brahma flung his ring, and told them
that they should do penance in the place where the ring fell. It fell in the place we now know a
Naimisaranya. It acquired its name from Brahma’s ring. Another story says that after Lord
Narayana used His discus (Sudarsana) to slay demons, He told Sudarsana to clean himself up
in the place now called Naimisaranya.
Because the discus bathed there, it came to be called Naimisaranya.
In some temples, the Lord appeared of His own accord. Then there are other temples where
the image was installed by sages, celestial beings or human beings. Seven places are said to be
very holy — Ayodhya, Kasi, Mathura, Puri, Kanchi, Avantika and Dwaraka. It is important to
visit these places.

Mathura is the place where Ambarisha did penance. It was at Mathura that the young boy Dhruva did
penance. It used to be originally known as Madhu vanam. It was here that Krishna was born. In
Kanchipuram, there is a temple where the deity is known as Deepa Prakasa. Vedanta Desika
composed a Sanskrit work in praise of this deity. In one of the verses, he points out that Narayana is
worshipped in temples according to one of two agamas — Pancharatra or Vaikhanasa. The
Pancharatra was taught by the Lord Himself. As for the Vaikhanasa agama, it was taught by the sage
Vikhanasa. Although the celestial beings worshipped the Lord on many occasions, their worship was
invariably for a purpose. They wanted to get back lost power, or they sought protection of their
status. But when we worship God, we must not seek such trivial things from Him. We should be

motivated by love for Him.3

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 There are many available reasons for going to a temple, we can of course focus on three
basic reasons for which every Hindu at one point or the other would have gone to a
temple.

1. Divine Energy generated from Deity in the Temple

First and foremost, the Hindu temple is, according to the Hindu belief, a site of the divine. Located
strategically and built for a particular deity, the temple houses the divine energy of that particular
deity in its optimum state. The location, the architecture, and the temple’s connection with the
planetary systems, all come together, in the best possible alignment for the maximum possible
benefit. So a devotee worshiping at the temple stands to gain more than if he or she were
worshiping at home. This is also the reason why Temples have more crowds on particular days, days
that are marked for particular deities.
2. Pariharam or Doshas
The second important reason, is a more selfish reason, is to visit temples for the Pariharam or the
Doshas. According to Hindu belief, every person born is under the influence of planets and for
some, the unlucky ones, this influence can be more pronounced. The planetary influence, good or
bad, can be therefore either utilized or countered by visiting temples and performing set Pariharam
rituals. A large proportion of the temple goers in India, belong to this category.
3. Spirituality
The last but not unimportant reason is a more rational one. Many who visit temples to worship are
not necessarily religious, they are instead spiritual. The Kashi Vishwanath temple is a case in point,
where people from all over the world come flocking; they come more for spiritual reasons than for
religious reasons. It is believed that the ambience at these temples, the sounds, the sights, the smells–
the cymbals, the vision of the deity, the incense– all add to the environment, creating a considerable
impact on the senses of the devotee, taking them to a state of altered consciousness, wherein
communion with the divine becomes easier.
These three main reasons aside, there can be a plethora of personal reason for us to worship at our
favourite temples and not all of them will fall within the domain of the explicable– As the saying
goes, to each his own.

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 REFERENCES

1. The New Testament (Acts 17:24) “24

2. The True and Invisible Rosicrucian Order: An Interpretation of the Rosicrucian
Allegory & An Explanation of the Ten Rosicrucian Grades by
Paul Foster Case (Author) Format: Kindle Edition
3. The Life of Hinduism,edited by John Stratton Hawley, Vasudha Narayanan,
University of California Press, USA 2006

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 CHAPTER 3
Part I
Shikhara or Vimana of Hindu Temples

NOTE: This is the first part of a series of articles that deal with the architecture of temples.
Pages 1 to 22 focus on introducing the temple architecture to the readers. Should you only
be interested in SHIKHARA or VIMANA please read directly from Page 23 onwards

VIMANA the flying chariots of Gods. Vimana Or Shikara is designed to represent these?

In this mega-article, we shall discuss about the Indian temple architecture and sculpture in detail.
Basic form of a Hindu temple
Temple architecture have been a gradual evolution starting from the rock cut- cave
temples to monolithic rathas which finally culminated in structural temples. Before we come to
the basic form of a Hindu structural temple we must consider the following architectural steps or
nuances:

45
Steps in Temple Construction 1. Bhu pariksha: Examining and choosing location and
soil for temple and town. The land should be fertile and soil suitable.
2. Sila pariksha: Examining and choosing material for image
3. Karshana: Corn or some other crop is grown in the place first and is fed to cows. Then
the location is fit for town/temple construction.
4. Vastu puja: Ritual to propitiate vaastu devata.
5. Salyodhara: Undesired things like bones are dug out.
6. Adyestaka: Laying down the first stone
7. Nirmana: Then foundation is laid and land is purified by sprinkling water. A pit is dug,
water mixed with navaratnas, navadhanyas, navakhanijas is then put in and pit is filled.
Then the temple is constructed.
8. Murdhestaka sthapana: Placing the top stone over the prakara, gopura etc. This again
involves creating cavities filled with gems minerals seeds etc. and then the pinnacles are
placed.
9. Garbhanyasa: A pot made of five metals (pancaloha kalasa sthapana) is installed at the
place of main deity.
10. Sthapana: Then the main deity is installed.
11. Pratistha: The main deity is then charged with life/god-ness.

THE GEOMETRY OF HINDU TEMPLE Vastupurashamandala is the square

which represents the earth and the circle represents the universe suggesting
timelessness and infinity (see Fig. below). The mandala is actually a square divided
into smaller squares arranged in the form of a grid. Each smaller square depicts the
area of the respective Gods. The most commonly used mandala is the square
subdivided into 64 and 81 squares. Figure-: The image of Vastupurushamandala with
64 blocks for different deities. See my detailed article on Vastupurushamandala on
academia.edu and researchgate.net

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 VINYASASUTRA (LAYOUT & ORIENTATION) of Ancient Temples: In Hindu
temple manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to
1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee
to sit and meditate on, do yoga, or make offerings with Vedic fire in front. The second
design of 4 padas has a symbolic central core at the diagonal intersection, and is also a
meditative layout. The 9 pada design has a sacred surrounded center, and is the
template for the smallest temple. Older Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the 9
through 49 pada series, but 64 is considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu
temples. Figure-: Typical Temple Plan (a)Shrine alone (b)Shrine with porch (c)Shrine
with Antarala and porch. (d) Sarvatobhadra shrine with four entrances Figure-:
Typical Temple plan of temple : temple of Tanjavur

Tanjavar layout plan above

The temple architecture portrays the advancement of ancient Indian building sciences.
The styles, design and geometry, structural system and construction materials and
technology of the Indian temples, their distinctive architectural styles of Hindu temples
are all a ancient science emulated temple after temple. It also focus on geometric
excellence of the layout plans of the ancient temples. The balance, hierarchy, regulation

47
and symmetry like architectural concepts was well developed in ancient India before
thousand of years.

Tanjavar
1. Garbhagriha:
 It literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave like a sanctum.
 In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance.
 Later it grew into a larger complex.
 The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of
much ritual attention.
2. Mandapa:
 It is the entrance to the temple.
 It may be a portico or colonnaded (series of columns placed at regular intervals) hall that
incorporates space for a large number of worshippers.
 Dances and such other entertainments are practiced here.
 Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes named as Ardhamandapa,
Mandapa, and Mahamandapa.
3. Shikhara or Vimana:
 They are mountain like the spire of a free-standing temple.
 Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples.
 Shikhara has a curving shape while vimana has a pyramidal-like structure.

48
4. Amalaka:
 It is a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple and they are common in North
Indian temples.
5. Kalasha:
 It is the topmost point of the temple and commonly seen in North Indian temples.
6. Antarala (vestibule):
 Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple’s main hall
(mandapa).
7. Jagati:
 It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in North Indian temples.
8. Vahana:
 It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar
or Dhvaj which is placed axially before the sanctum.
Classification of Indian Temples
Indian temples can be classified into two broad orders as
 Nagara (in North India)
 Dravida (in South India)

49
  At times, the Vesara style of temples as an independent style created through the mixing
of Nagara and Dravida orders.
Sculptures, Iconography, and Ornamentation
 Iconography is a branch of art history which studies the images of deities.
 It consists of identification of image based on certain symbols and mythology associated
with them.
 Even though the fundamental myth and meaning of the deity may remain the same for
centuries, its specific usage at a spot can be a response to its local or immediate social,
political or geographical context.
 Every region and period produce its own distinct style of images with its regional
variations in iconography.
 The temple is covered with elaborate sculptures and ornament that form a fundamental
part of its conception.
 The placement of an image in a temple is carefully planned: for instance, river goddesses
(Ganga and Yamuna) are visually found at the entrances in a Nagara
temple, Dwarapalas are usually found on the gateway or gopurams of Dravida
temples, similarly mithunas (erotic images), navagrahas ( the 9 auspicious planets) and
Yakshas are also placed at the entrances to guard them.
 Various forms or aspects of the main divinity are to be found on the outer walls of the
sanctum.
 The ashtadikpalas (deities of direction) face eight key directions on the outer walls of the
sanctum and/or on the outer walls of the temple.
 Subsidiary shrines around the main temple are dedicated to the family or incarnations of
the main deity.
 The various elements of ornamentation are gavaksha, vyala/ yali, kalpa-lata, amalaka,
kalasha, etc.
The Nagara or North Indian Temple Architecture
 Nagara is the style of temple architecture which became popular in Northern India.
 It is common here to build an entire temple on a stone platform with steps leading up to
it.
 Unlike in south India, it doesn’t usually have elaborate boundary walls or gateways.

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  Earliest temples had only one shikhara (tower), but in the later periods, multiple
shikharas came.
 The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.
Nagara temples can be subdivided mainly into three – based on the shikhara type.
1. Latina/ Rekha-Prasada:

 It is the simple and most common type of shikhara.

 It is square at the base and the walls curve or slopes inwards to a point on top.
 Latina types are mainly used for housing the garbhagriha.
 Later on, the Latina buildings grew complex, and instead of appearing like a single tower,
the temple began to support many small towers, which were clustered together like
rising mountain type with the tallest one being in the centre, and this was the one which
was always above the garbhagriha.
2. Phamsana type shikhara:

 They are broader and shorter than Latina type.

 Their roof is composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the centre
of the building, unlike the Latina ones which look like sharply rising towers.
 Phamsana roofs do not curve inwards; instead, they slope upward on a straight incline.

51
  In many north Indian temples, the phamsana type is used for mandapas while the main
garbhagriha is housed in a Latina building.

3. Valabhi type shikhara:

 These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.
 The edge of the vaulted chamber is round, like the bamboo or wooden wagons that would
have been drawn by bullocks in ancient times.
 The form of this temple is influenced by ancient building forms that were already in
existence.
We can also classify the Nagara Temples on the basis of region as follows:
Central India
 In the later periods, the temples grew from simple four pillared structures to a large
complex.
 This means that similar developments were incorporated in the architecture of temples of
both the religions.
 Two such temples that survive are; temple at Udaygiri which is on the outskirts of
Vidisha (it is a part of a large Hindu temple complex) and a temple at Sanchi, which
was a Buddhist site.
 The early temples were modest looking shrines each have four pillars that support a small
mandapa before an equally small room that served as garbhagriha.
 Some of the oldest surviving structural temples of Gupta period are in Madhya Pradesh.
 The ancient temple sin UP, MP and Rajasthan share many traits and the most visible is
that they are made of Sandstone.
1. DASHAVATARA VISHNU TEMPLE, DEOGARH, UP:
 Even though the patrons and donors of the temple are unknown, it is believed that this
temple was built in the early 6th century CE.

52
  This is a classical example of the late Gupta period.
 This temple is in the Panchayatana style of architecture. [Panchayatana is an
architectural style where the main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with four
smaller subsidiary shrines at the four corners and making it a total of five shrines – i.e.,
Pancha]
 There are 3 main reliefs of Vishnu on the temple walls.
 In fact, it is not actually known to whom the four subsidiary shrines were originally
dedicated.
 The temple depicts Vishnu in various forms due to which it was assumed that the four
subsidiary shrines must also house Vishnu’s avatars and the temple was mistaken for a
dashavatara temple.
 The grand doorway of the west facing temple (west facing is less common) has the
sculptures of Ganga on the left and Yamuna on the right side.
 The shikhara is in latina/ prasada style which makes it clear that this is an early example
of a classical nagara style of the temple.
 Sheshayana – on the south (Vishnu reclining on the sheshanaga called Ananta)
 Nara-Narayana – on the east (discussion between human soul and the eternal divine)
 Gajendramoksha – on the west (story of achieving moksha , symbolically
communicated by Vishnu’s suppression o an asura who had taken the form of an
elephant)
 The temple is west facing, which is less common, as most of the temples are east or north
facing.
2. TEMPLES AT KHAJURAHO, MADHYA PRADESH:
 The temples at Khajuraho were made in the 10th century, about 400 years after the temple
at Deogarh and the complex is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 The temples were patronized by Chandela kings.
 We can see how dramatically the shape and style of the nagara temple architecture had
developed.
 The temples at Khajuraho are all made of Sandstone.
 The largest temple at Khajuraho is the Kandariya Mahadeva temple which is attributed to
king Ganda.

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  The Lakshmana temple dedicated to Vishnu was built in 954 by Chandela king, Dhanga.
 All the towers or shikhara of the temple rise high, upward in a curved pyramidal fashion,
emphasizing the temple’s vertical thrust ending in a horizontal fluted disc called an
Amalaka topped with a Kalasha or a vase.
 The crowning element Kalasha and Amalaka are to be found on all nagara temples of this
period.
 The Khajuraho temples are also known for their extensive erotic sculptures (about 10%
of total sculptures); the erotic expression gives equal importance in human experience as
a spiritual pursuit, and it is seen as a part of the larger cosmic whole.
 Many Hindu temples, therefore feature Mithuns (embracing couples-erotic sculptures)
sculptures, considered auspicious.
 Khajuraho sculptures are highly stylized with typical features.
 There are many temples at Khajuraho, most of them dedicated to Hindu gods.
 There are some Jain temples as well as a Chausanth Yogini temple.
 Chausanth Yogini is a temple of small square shrines dedicated to esoteric devis or
goddesses associated with the rise of Tantric worship after the 7th
 [Khajuraho dance festival is organized by MP Kalaparishad and is one week long (first
week of February) festival of classical dances celebrated annually against the
spectacular backdrop of Khajuraho]
West India
 There are too numerous temples in the northwestern parts of India, including Gujarat and
Rajasthan, and stylistically extendable, at times, to western Madhya Pradesh.
 The stones to build temples ranges in colour and type.
 While sandstone is the commonest, a grey to black basalt can be seen in some of the
10th to 12th-century temple sculptures.
 The most exuberant and famed are the manipulatable soft white marble which is also seen
in some of the 10th to 12th-century Jain temples in Mount Abu and the 15th-century
temple at Ranatpur.
 Among the most important art, historical sites in the region are Samlaji in Gujarat.
 It shows how earlier artistic traditions of the region mixed with a post-Gupta style and
gave rise to a distinct style of sculpture.

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  A large number of sculptures made of grey schist have been found in this region.
1. SUN TEMPLE, MODHERA, GUJARAT:
 The temple dates back to the early 11th century and was built by Raja Bhimdev I of
the Solanki dynasty.
 The Solanks were a branch off later Chalukyas.
 There is a massive rectangular stepped tank called Surya Kund in front of it.
 The hundred square metre rectangular pond is perhaps the grandest temple tank in India.
A hundred and eight miniature shrines are carved in between the steps inside the tank. A huge
ornamental arch-torana leads one to the sabha mandapa (the assembly hall) which is open on all
sides, as was the fashion of the times in western and central India temples.
East India
 East Indian temples include those found in the North-East, Bengal, and Odisha and each
of these three areas produces a distinct type of temple.
 The history of architecture in the northeast and Bengal is hard to study because a number
of ancient buildings in those regions were renovated, and what survives now is later
brick or concrete temples at those sites.

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MODHERA TEMPLE

 It appears that terracotta was the main medium of construction.

 A large number of sculptures have been found in Assam and Bengal, which shows the
development of important regional schools in those regions.

ASSAM:

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  An old 6th century sculpted door frame from DaParvatia near Tezpur and another few
stray sculptures from Rangagora Tea Estate near Tinsukia in Assam bear witness to the
import of the Gupta idiom in that region.
 The post-Gupta style continued in the region well in the 10th
 However, by the 12th to 14th centuries, a distinct regional style developed in Assam.
 The style that came with the migration of the Tais from upper Burma mixed with the
dominant Pala style of Bengal and led to the creation of what was later known as
the Ahom style in and around Guwahati.
 Kamakhya temple, a Shakti peeth, is dedicated to goddess Kamakhya and was built in the
17th century.
BENGAL:
 The style of sculptures during the period between the 9th and 11th centuries in Bengal
(including Bangladesh) and Bihar is known as the Pala style, named after the ruling
dynasty at that time.
 That style in the mid 11th and mid 13th centuries is named after the Sena kings.
 While the Palas are celebrated as patrons of Buddhist monastic sites, the temple of the
region is known to express the Vanga style.
 The Siddheswara Mahadeva temple in Burdwan, W.B, built in the 9th century, shows a
tall curving shikhara crowned by a large amalaka, is an example of early Pala style.
 Many of the temples from 9th to 12th centuries were located at Telkupi in Puruta district,
W.B.
 They were submerged when dams were constructed in the region.
 The architecture of these temples heavily influenced the earliest Bengal Sultanate
buildings at Gaur and Pandya.
 Many local vernacular building traditions of Bengal also influenced the style of the
temple in that region.
 The most prominent of these was the shape of the sloping or curving side of the
bamboo roof of a Bengali hut.
 This feature was eventually even adopted in Mughal buildings and is known as across
India as the Bangla Roof (word Bungalow derived from this).
ODISHA (KALINGIA ARCHITECTURE):

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The main architectural features of Odisha temples are classified in three orders:
A. REKHAPIDA/ REKHA DEULA/ RATHAKA DEULA:

Rekha means line and it is a tall straight building with a shape of a sugar loaf. It covers the
garbhagriha.
B. PIDHADEULA:

It is a square building with a pyramid shaped roof and is mainly found

for housing the outer dancing and offering halls.
C. KHAKRADEULA:

It is a rectangular building with a truncated pyramid shaped roof. Temples of

the female deities are usually in this form (garbhagriha usually) and will have a resemblance
with Dravidian temples of the south.
 Most of the ancient temples are located in ancient Kalinga – modern Puri district,
including Bhuvaneswar or ancient Tribhuvaneswar, Puri, and Konark.
 The temples of Odisha constitute a distinct sub-style within nagara order.
 In general, here the Shikhara called Deul in Odisha is vertical almost until
the top when it suddenly curves sharply inwards.
 Mandapas in Odisha are called Jagamohanas.
 The ground plan of the main temple is almost always square, which, in the upper reaches
of its superstructure becomes circular in the crowning
 The exterior of the temple is lavishly curved while their interiors are generally quite bare.

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  Odisha temples usually have outer walls.
1. Sun temple, Konark, Odisha:
 It is built around 1240 on the shores of the Bay of Bengal.
 The temple is set on a high base, its walls covered in extensive, detailed ornamental
carving.
 These include 12 pairs of enormous wheels sculpted with spokes and hubs, representing
the chariot wheels of the sun God who, in mythology, rides a chariot driven by 8 horses,
sculpted here at the entrance staircase.
 The whole temple thus comes to resemble a colossal processional chariot.
 On the southern wall is a massive sculpture of Surya carved out of green stones.
 It is said that there were 3 such images, carved out of a different stone placed on the three
temple walls, each facing different directions.
 The fourth wall had the doorway into the temple from where the actual rays of the sun
would enter the garbhagriha.
2. Jagannatha temple, Puri, Odisha:
 It is also located on the eastern coast, at Puri, Odisha.
 The temple is a part of Char Dham (Badrinath, Dwaraka, Puri, Rameswaram)
pilgrimages that a Hindu is expected to make in one’s lifetime.
 When most of the deities in the temples of India are made of stone or metal, the idol of
Jagannatha is made of wood which is ceremoniously replaced in every twelve or
nineteen years by using sacred trees.
 The temple is believed to be constructed in the 12th century by King Anatavarman
Chodaganga Deva of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty.
 The temple is famous for its annual Ratha Yatra or Chariot festival.
The Hills
 A unique form of architecture developed in the hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and
Kashmir.
 Kashmir’s proximity to Gandhara site (such as Taxila, Peshawar and northwest frontier)
left the region a strong Gandhara influence by the 5th century CE.
 This began to mix with the Gupta and post-Gupta traditions that brought to it from
Sarnath, Mathura, and even centres in Gujarat and Bengal.

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  Both Buddhist and Hindu traditions began to intermingle and spread in the hills.
 The hills also had their own tradition of wooden building with pitched roofs and as a
result, while the main garbhagriha and shikhara are made in latina/rekha-prasada type,
the mandapa is an older form of wooden architecture.
 Sometimes, the temple itself takes on a pagoda shape.
 The Karkota period of Kashmir is the most significant in terms of architecture.
 The most important temples of these regions are Pandrethan, Laksna-devi Mandir,
Jageswar near Almora, Chambavat near Pithoragarh, etc.
The Dravida or South Indian Temple Architecture
 Unlike the nagara temple, the Dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall.
 The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as Gopura/
Gopuram.
 The shape of the main temple tower is known as Vimana (shikhara in nagara style).
 The vimana is like a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically rather than the curving
shikhara of north India.
 In south India, the word Shikhara is used only for the crowning element at the top of the
temple which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola (this is
equivalent to the amalaka or kalasha of north Indian temples).

 In north Indian temples, we can see images such as Mithunas (erotic) and the river
goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna guarding the temple. But in the Dravida style of temple

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 architecture, instead of these sculptures, we can see the sculptures of fierce dvarapalas
or door keepers guarding the temple.
 A large water reservoir or a temple tank enclosed in the complex is general in south
Indian temples.
 Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower or located as a
distinct, separate small shrine beside the main temple.
 The north Indian idea of multiple shikharas rising together as a cluster was not popular in
Dravida style.
 At some of the most sacred temples in south India, the main temple in which the
garbhagriha is situated has, in fact, one of the smallest towers.
 This is because it is usually the oldest part of the temple.
 When the population and the size of the town associated with the temple increased, it
would have become necessary to make a new boundary wall around the temple (and
also associated structures).
 An example for this is the Srirangam temple at Thiruchirapally, which has as many as
seven concentric rectangular enclosure walls, each with gopurams.
 The outermost is the oldest while the tower right in the centre housing the garbhagriha is
the oldest.
 Just as the nagara architecture has subdivisions, dravida temples also have subdivisions.
These are basically of five different shapes:
1. Kuta or caturasra – square
2. Shala or ayatasra – rectangular
3. Gaja-prishta or vrittayata (elephant backed) –elliptic
4. Vritta – circular
5. Ashtasra – octagonal
PALLAVAS:
 The Pallavas were one of the ancient south Indian dynasties that were active in Andhra
region from the 2nd century onwards and moved south to settle in Tamil Nadu.
 Their history is better documented in the inscriptions in stone and several monuments.

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  Although they were mostly Shaivites, several Vaishnava shrines also survived from the
reign, and there is no doubt that they were influenced by the long Buddhist history of the
Deccan.
 The early buildings of Pallavas were rock-cut; while the later ones were structural
(structural buildings were well known to them when rock cut ones being excavated).
 The early buildings are generally attributed to Mahendravarman I, contemporary of
Chalukya king, Pulikeshi II of Karnataka.
 Narasimhavarman I, who was also known as Mamalla, acceded the throne around 640
CE.
 He expanded the empire and also inaugurated most of the building work at
Mahabalipuram which is known after him as Mamallapuram.
THE SHORE TEMPLE AT MAHABALIPURAM, TAMIL NADU
 It is a structural temple and was built during the reign of Narasimhavarman II, also
known as Rajasimha.
 The temple is facing east towards the sea and has three shrines – east and west to Shiva
and the middle for Vishnu (Anantashayana).
 This is unusual because temples generally have a single main shrine and not three areas
of worship. This shows that it was probably not originally conceived like this and
different shrine may be added at different times.
 In the compound, there is an evidence of a water tank, an early example of a gopuram,
and several other images.
 Sculpture of the bull, Nandi, Shiva’s mount, lines the temple walls.
 The temple has suffered severe disfiguration due to erosion by salt water laden air over
the centuries.
The Pallava temple architecture can be classified into four groups according to the rulers and the
features of temples they constructed.
a. Mahendravarman Group:
 Early temples of the Pallavas belong to King Mahendravarman I (7th century).
 They were rock-cut temples (may be influenced by rock-cut architecture).
 g. Manndagapattu, Mahendravadi, Tircuchirapally, etc.
b. Narasimha/Mamalla Group:

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  It is the second stage of Pallava architecture which started when Narasimhavarman I
(Mamalla) came to the throne.
 The architecture is represented by Monolithic rocks.
 The monolithic rathas and mandapas of Mamallapuram are examples.
 The five rathas are popularly known as Panchapandava rathas.
c. Rajasimha Group:
 The group was under Narasimhavarman II who was also known as Rajasimha.
 He introduced the structural temples and Gopura style in Pallava architecture.
 The Kailasnath temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at Mahabalipuram are examples.
d. Nandivaram Group:
 Architecture mainly under the Pallava king, Nandivaram Pallava.
 They also represented structural temples.
 The temples were generally small compared to the other groups.
 The Vaikundaperumal temple, Tirunelveli and Mukteswara temple are examples.
Cholas
 The best example of Chola temple architecture is the Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore.
 The temple is also known as Rajarajeswara temple.
 It was completed around 1009 by Rajaraja Chola and is the largest and tallest of all
Indian temples.
 The temples pyramidal multi-storeyed Vimana rises a massive seventy metres, topped by
a monolithic shikhara, and the kalasha on top by itself is about three metres and eight
centimetres in height.
 The main deity of the temple is Shiva, who is shown as a huge lingam set in a two
storeyed sanctum.
 Painted Murals and sculptures decorate the walls surrounding the sanctum.
The Vesara or the Deccan Temple Architecture
 The buildings in the Deccan region are hybridized style, which contains both elements
from nagara and Dravida architectural styles and is known in some ancient texts as
the Vesara style (not all temples of Deccan are the vesara type).
 The vesara style became popular after the mid 7th century.
Chalukyas

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1. Ravan Phadi cave, Aihole, Karnataka:
 The Ravan Phadi cave at Aihole is an example of the early Chalukya style which is
known for its distinct sculptural style.
 One of the most important sculptures at the site is of Nataraja, surrounded by a large
depiction of saptamatrikas: three to Shiva’s left and four to his right.
2. Lad Khan Temple at Aihole, Karnataka:
 The temple is dedicated to Shiva and is one of the oldest Hindu temples.
 Built in the 5th century by the Kings of the Chalukya Dynasty.
 It seems to be inspired by the wooden – roofed temples of the hills except that it is
constructed out of stone.
 The temple is named after a person named Lad Khan, who turned this temple into his
residence for a short period.
3. Durga Temple at Aihole, Karnataka:
 The temple is built in between 7th and 8th century.
 The architecture of the temple is predominantly Dravida with Nagara style also in certain
areas.
 The temple is considered as a unique and magnificent temple of the Chalukya period.
 The Lad Khan Temple of Aihole is located to its South.
4. Temples at Pattadakkal, Karnataka:
 There are ten temples at Pattadakkal including a Jain temple and is a UNESCO
world Heritage Site.
 A fusion of various architectural styles can be seen here.
 Out of ten temples, four are in Dravida style, four are in nagara style and one is a Jain
temple, while the Papanatha Temple is built in a fusion of both nagara and Dravida
styles.
 The Jain temple (Jain Narayana temple) was built by Rashtrakutas in the 9th
 The Virupaksha temple at Pattadakkal is also known as Sri-Lokeswar-Maha-Sila-Prasad,
was built by Loka Mahadevi, the Queen of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (733-44).
 It was probably built around 740 CE to commemorate her husband’s victory over the
Pallavas of Kanchipuram.
 It closely resembles the Kailasnath temple at Kanchipuram on plan and elevation.

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  It represents a fully developed and perfect stage of the Dravida architecture.
Rashtrakutas
 By about 750 CE, the early western Chalukya control of the Deccan was taken by the
Rashtrakutas.
 Their greatest achievement in architecture is the Kailasnath Temple at Ellora.
 The Jain temple at Pattadakkal was also built by Rashtrakutas.
Hoyasalas
 With the waning Chola and Pandya power, the Hoyasalas of Karnataka grew into
prominence in south India and became the most important patrons centred at Mysore.
 The three main temples of Hoyasala are the temples at Belur, Halebid and
Somanathpuram.
 The most characteristic feature of these temples is that they grow extremely complex
with so many projecting angles emerging from the previously straightforward square
temple so that the plan of these temples starts looking like a star.
 As the plan looks like a star, it is known as stellate plan.
 They are usually made out of soapstone.
Temples at Halebid, Karnataka:
 The temple is also known as Hoyasaleswara temple.
 Built in dark schist stone by the Hoyasala king Vishnuvardhan in 1150.
 Dedicated to Shiva as Nataraja and contains a large hall for the mandapa to facilitate
music and dance.
 In the bottom frieze of the temple featuring a continuous procession of hundreds of
elephants with their mahouts, no two elephants are in the same position.
Vijayanagara
 The Vijayanagara Empire, which was founded in the 14th century, attracted a number of
international travelers such as the Italian, Nicoclo di Conti, the Portuguese Domingo
Paes, Fernao Nuniz and Duarte Barbosa and the Afghan Abd, al- Razzaq, who have left
vivid accounts of the city.
 Architecturally, Vijayanagara synthesizes the centuries old dravida temple architecture
with Islamic styles demonstrated by the neighbouring Sultanates.

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  Their sculptures too, which were consciously seeking to recreate Chola ideals,
occasionally shows the presence of foreigners.
Buddhist and Jain Architectural Developments
The period of 5th to 14th centuries was not only the period of the development of Hindu temples
but also were the equally vibrant period for the Buddhist and Jain architectures.
Buddhist Architecture
 When the Gupta empire crumbled in the 6th century CE, the eastern region of Bihar and
Bengal, historically known as Magadha, appears to have remained unified whilst
numerous small Rajput principalities sprang up to the west.
 In the 8th century, the Palas came to power in the region.
 The 2nd Pala ruler, Dharmapala, became immensely powerful and established an empire
by defeating the powerful Rajput Pratiharas.
 Dharmapala consolidated an empire whose wealth lay in a consolidation of agriculture
along the fertile Ganges plain and international trade.
BODHGAYA, BIHAR:
 Bodhgaya became a pilgrimage site since Siddhartha achieved enlightenment here and
became Gautama Buddha.
 The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya is an important reminder of the brickwork of that
time.
 The first shrine here, located at the base of the Bodhi Tree, is said to have been
constructed by King Ashoka.
 The vedika (fence) around it is said to be Post-Mauryan, of about 100 BCE.
 Many sculptures in the temple are dated to the 8th century Pala period.
 The actual Mahabodhi temple as it stands now is largely a colonial period reconstruction
of the old 7th
 The design of the temple is unusual and is neither Dravida nor nagara style.
NALANDA, BIHAR:
 The monastic University of Nalanda is a Mahavihara as it is a complex of several
monasteries of various sizes.

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  Only a small portion of this ancient learning centre has been excavated till date, as most
of it lies buried under contemporary civilization, making further excavations almost
impossible.
 Most of the information about Nalanda is based on the records of Xuan Zang/Hsuan
Tsang (Chinese traveller).
 It states that the foundation of the monastery was laid by Kumaragupta I in the
5th century CE.
 All three Buddhist doctrines – Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana – were taught here.
 Monks came to here from the different regions of the world such as China, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Burma, etc.
 Monks and pilgrims who came here take back small sculptures and illustrated
manuscripts to their homeland, which resulted in a decisive impact on the arts of the
Buddhist countries in Asia.
 The sculptural art of Nalanda was developed out of a heavy dependence on the Buddhist
Gupta art of Sarnath.
 The Sculptures were mainly made in stucco, stone, and bronze.
 By the 9th century, Nalanda school of sculpture was formed which was characterized by
distinctive facial features, body forms, and treatment of clothing and jewellery.
 The Nalanda sculptures initially depict Buddhist deities of the Mahayana tradition, such
as standing Buddhas, bodhisattvas, etc.
 During the 11th and 12th centuries, Nalanda emerged as an important tantric centre and the
sculptures during that period dominated by deities of Vajrayana tradition, such as
Vajrasharada (a form of Saraswati), Khasarpana, Avalokiteswara, etc.
 Various Brahmanical images have also been found at Nalanda.
Jain Architecture
 Jains were also prolific temple builders like Hindus and their sacred shrines and
pilgrimage spots can be found across the country.
 The oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are to be found in Bihar.
 In the Deccan, some of the most architecturally important Jain sites can be found at
Ellora and Aihole.

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  Karnataka has a rich heritage of Jain shrines and the Sravana Belagola, the famous
statue of the Gomateswara, the granite statue of Lord Bahubali which stands
eighteen metre, is the world’s tallest monolithic free-standing structure.
 It was commissioned by Camundaraya, the General-in-Chief and Prime Minister of the
Ganga Kings of Mysore.
 Gujarat and Rajasthan have been strongholds of Jainism since early times.
 The Jain temples at Mount Abu (Dilwara Temples) were constructed by Vimal
Shah.
 One can see a complex of temples carved of white marble
 The temples are famous for its unique patterns on very ceilings, and graceful bracket figs
along the domed ceiling.

Introduction to the SHIKARA: During the Gupta Empire, when Buddhist practices
began to fuse with the surviving Vedic practices of pre-Buddhist times, Which lead to
new and well- organized religion that we now call Hinduism. The Gupta revival of a
transformed Vedic Hinduism was a skillful exercise in adaptation and invention.
Vedic institutions were reinvented to serve the purposes of their new champions. Old
fire sacrifices were transformed into courtly ritual, oral Vedic literatures were
rewritten to integrate contemporary social and cultural norms. Vedic gods were
supplanted by new, more agential and personal gods— particularly Shiva and Vishnu.

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Sanskrit became the language of the court and the medium of an official high culture
that revolved around the reinvented institution of the temple. Though the new
Hinduism challenged Buddhism theologically, the latter’s institutions and practices
were assimilated into the Hindu temple. Buddhist practices were not prohibitedin fact,
their institutions continued to thrive. By this time, the Buddhists were themselves
routinely making stone images of the Buddha.

To start with in Hindu worship, the antarala (doorway or threshold) between the
garbha - griha and a mandapa marks the all- important moment of transition at which
the worshipper and the deity come into direct visual contact and enact the critical
transaction called darshana (“beholding of an auspicious deity”). A sanctum inside the
Hoysaleshwara templein Halebidu the whole temple can be considered a two-way
portal between the worlds of the worshipper and the deity. In essence, the deity
descends into the lingam or statue while the worshipper ascends to the sacred
threshold. The deity is considered to be a guest in the world of the worshipper.

The Hindu temple Temple Architecture of architecture developed over two thousand
India years. It is said thatbthe architectural evolution of the indian temples took place
within the rigid frameworks derived entirely from religious thoughtfulness. Therefore
the architect was bound to keep to the ancient primary dimensions and strict
configurations, which remained unaltered over the period of time.

The architectural elements and decorative details in the temple had their origin in the
early wood, timber and thatch buildings.It had persisted for centuries in one form or
another in the stone structures even though the original purpose and context was lost.
This can be studied from the horseshoe shaped window. The origin of this type of
window can be traced from the chaitya arch doorway first at the Lomash Rishi cave in
the Barabar Hills used in the 3rd century BC.It was transformed later into a dormer

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window known as a gavaksha and eventually it was used strictly as the decorative
design of interlaced forms seen on the towers of medieval temples.

The architect and sculptor were given a plenty of freedom in the ornamentation and
decoration of the temples. This resulted in an overwhelming riches of architectural
elements, sculptural forms and decorative ebullience that is the characteristic feature
of Indian temple architecture has few analogues in the aesthetic manifestation of the
whole world.

The distinct architectural styles of temple construction of the north India and the
south India was the result of the broad geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical
and linguistic differences resulted, from early on, in.The Vastu Shastras, the ancient
canonical texts on architecture, classify temples into three different orders: the Nagara
or the Indo-Aryan or Northern style, the Dravida or the Southern style and the Vesara
or Mixed style of temple architecture.There are also definite regional styles in
peripheral areas like Bengal, Kerala and the Himalayan areas.

In the early years, when the temple building had just begun, the shape of their
superstructures can distinguish the two styles. The most significant difference
between the later northern and southern styles are the gateways. The shikhara in the
north Indian temples remained the most prominent component of the temple and the
gateway was ordinarily unassuming. In the south Indian temples, the enclosure walls
were built around the whole complex.• Elaborate and often magnificent gateways
called gopurams were ideally set along the east-west and north-south axes of these
walls, which led the devotees into the sacred courtyard. Less obvious differences
between the two main temple types include the ground plan; the selection and
positioning of stone-carved deities on the outside walls and the interior, and the range
of decorative elements that are sometimes so numerous as to almost obscure the
underlying architecture.

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Parts of a Hindu temple:

Examples The best examples of the north Indian style of temple architecture are the
Khajuraho Group of temples, Sun temple, Konark, Surya temple, Modhera, Gujarat
and Ossian temple, Ossian, Gujarat.

The finest examples of Dravidian style are temples of Tanjore, Madurai,

Mahabalipuram, Badami, Pattadakal and Kanchipuram.

Sikhara”refers to the spire or the tower. It is shaped as pyramidal and tapering

representing the mythological “Meru” or the highest mountain peak. The shikhara
marks the vertical axis in the form of the cosmic mountain. Its purpose is to enable the
worshipper to visualize the order of the complete universe as described by Hindu
cosmogony. A shikhara, therefore, is a three- dimensional model of the Hindu
cosmos. All temples culminate in a finial, the conceptual center of the structure. From
there, the “cosmos” splays outward, cascading down the building along radial lines.

Shikhara ( Śikhara), a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak", refers to the
rising tower in the Hindu temple architecture of North India, and also often used in Jain
temples. A shikhara over the garbhagriha chamber where the presiding deity is enshrined is
the most prominent and visible part of a Hindu temple of North India.
In South India, the equivalent term is vimana; unlike the shikhara, this refers to the whole
building, including the sanctum beneath. In the south, shikhara is a term for the top stage of

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the vimana only, which is usually a dome capped with a finial; this article is concerned with
the northern form. The southern vimana is not to be confused with the elaborate gateway-
towers of south Indian temples, called gopuram, which are often taller and more prominent
features in large temples.

The vertical axis: the mountain as a link between the upper and lower worlds The
axis of access Sikhara or tower. Shikharas conceived of as solid and are for the most
part, even though for structural reasons some may have internal hollows. The actual
geometries of the shikhara are determined by its mandala, or astrological diagram.
They can best be understood ood, as Adam Hardy has recently described, as complex
assemblages of mini-temples, or aediculae, intended to depict the composite nature of
the Hindu cosmos.

During the 6th and 7th centuries, Hindu architecture in South Asia entered an
experimental phase, and rock-cut temples competed for prominence with the new
structural-stone and brick temples. The plethora of styles and approaches was a
product of the numerous kingdoms, that of Harshavardhana (606– 47 CE ) in the
north, and, moving southward, the Chalukyas, the Pallavas, the Cholas, and the
Pandyas. An interesting comparison can be made between two 6th-century Gupta
period temples: the Shiva shrine on Elephanta Island, a rock-cut structure built by
Shaivite monks for their own use, and the Dasavatara Vishnu Temple at Deogarh, a
brick-and-stone structure built for a large devotee population.

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Deogarh is a new invention a shrine constructed with rock to appear as if it is monolithic
(i.e., rock-cut). The Deogarh has a representational mountain as its shikhara, begin with a
square garbha-griha. Deogarh would have had originally held an image of Vishnu,
Deogarh is accessible only from the west (the direction of Vishnu) and has three implied
doors (ghana-dwaras, literally “blind doors”) along its remaining cardinal directions.
Deogarh’s main shrine is at the center of a nine-square mandala, with four subsidiary
shrines interlocked at its corners.

In North Indian temple architecture, the superstructure, tower, or spire above the sanctuary and
also above the pillared mandapas (porches or halls); it is the most dominant and characteristic
feature of the Hindu temple in the north. The North Indian shikhara is basically of two types: (1)
the latina, curvilinear in outline, the type most usually found above the sanctuary; and (2)

73
the phamsana, rectilinear in outline and capped by a bell-shaped member, the form more usually
found above the mandapa.

The latina shikhara is composed of a series of horizontal roof slabs gradually receding
toward the top and provided with projections that extend from the base and wall of the
temple. The surface of the shikhara is covered with a vinelike tracery composed of
diminutive chandrashalas

74
(ogee arches). Above the truncated top (skandha) projects a necking on which rests a large
grooved disk (amalasaraka), and above it sits a pot with a crowning finial. Each story is
indicated by miniature amalasarakas at the four corners, repeated all the way to the top.

75
The latina shikhara has two further variations: the shekhari and the bhumija.
The shekhari consists of the central latina spires with one or more rows of half spires added on
either side and miniature shikharas clustered along the base and corners. The shekhari was
popular from the 10th century onward and can be observed on most Central Indian temples;
the Lakshmana and Kandarya Mahadeva temples at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, have excellent
examples.

The bhumija variation has a flat vertical projection in the centre of each of the four sides, the
quadrants between being filled with rows of miniature shrines all the way up to the top of the
tower. The bhumija temple was particularly popular in Malwa, in the western part of Madhya
Pradesh, and in the Deccan; an example is the 11th-century Udayeshvara temple at Udayapur,
Madhya Pradesh.

According to South Indian architecture texts, the term shikhara is reserved for the dome-shaped
crowning cap, though art historians have generally used the term to designate all temple spires,
north and south. The South Indian spire, known as the kutina type, is quite different in shape
from the North Indian shikhara, having a pyramidal storied arrangement, with each story
(bhumi) stepped and relatively realistically delineated. The other forms of the Shikara are :

Sekhari. The latina shape has added engaged (attached) sub-spires or spirelets
called urushringa echoing the main shape. These may run up most of the face. There may be
more than one size of these, sometimes called secondary and tertiary. Tertiary spirelets are
typically near the ends of the face or on the corners.

Bhumija. The tower has miniature spires, in horizontal and vertical rows, all the way to the top,
creating a grid-like effect on each face. The tower is generally less strongly vertical in overall
shape, often approaching a pyramidal shape. Mainly found in the northern Deccan and West
India.

The early history of the Hindu shikhara is unclear, but the Buddhist Mahabodhi
Temple at Bodh Gaya has a straight-sided shikhara tower over 55 metres (180 feet) high, with
an amalaka near the top. The current structure dates from the Gupta Empire, in the 5th–6th

76
century CE. When the temple acquired its shikhara tower, today considered more characteristic
of Hindu temples, is uncertain.

However the current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple may represent a restoration of earlier
work of the 2nd or 3rd century CE. A plaque from Kumrahar dated 150-200 CE, based on its
dated Kharoshthi inscriptions and combined finds of Huvishka coins, already shows the
Mahabodhi Temple in its current shape with a stepped truncated pyramid and a stupa finial on
top, together with devotional images of the Buddha and the elephant-crowned Pillar of
Ashoka next to the entrance. It is thought that this shape of a truncated pyramid was derived
from the design of the stepped stupas which had developed in Gandhara, as seen in the stupas
of Jaulian, with an elongated structure formed of a succession of steps with niches containing
Buddha images, alternating with Greco-Roman pillars, and topped by a stupa.

By at least 600 CE in Odisha, and perhaps somewhat later in the Deccan Plateau and West
India, the Latina form of the shikhara is well-established, with an amalaka disk-stone at the top,
and then a kalasha urn. There is often a sukanasa feature over the entrance door.

The forms with smaller subsidiary spires begin in the 10th century, and from then on tend to
predominate. The Khajuraho Group of Monuments has several early forms from early in the
century, though Latina ones reappear after about 1050, in examples like the Vamana
Temple. The bhumija spire probably first appears around 1000-1025, with other temples begun

in the 1050s, such as the Shiv Mandir, Ambarnath

Homogeneous Shikhara (but with rathas) of the Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneswar

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Shikharas form an element in the many styles of Hindu temple architecture, of which the three
most common are:

 the Nagara style prevalent in northern India. The shikhara is a high curved shape, and so
called. In the north-east, the local term deul or deula is more often used, both for towers and
often the whole temple. In Odisha a Rekha Deula is the sanctum and the tower over
it; gandi is also a term for the upper tower only, equating to shikhara. In Odisha the curve is
very slight until the top, and the amalaka rather large, typically supported by four lion
sculptures facing out.[20] Of the many temples in Bhubaneswar, only the Rajarani Temple has
significant spirelets.
 the Vesara style, a synthesis of the two others, seen mostly in Karnataka and most commonly
in Hoysala and later Chalukya temples. In the vesara style, the tower moves towards a lower
conical shape, with highly ornate carving.
 the Dravidian style prevalent in southern India : The equivalent of the shikhara is the vimana.
The superstructure above the sanctum is typically more like a four-sided pyramid in overall
shape, consisting of progressively smaller storeys of pavilions (talas), with a profile that is
normally straight rather than curved. The Dravidian superstructure is generally highly ornate.

In every style of shikhara/vimana, the structure culminates with a "kalasha", or urn for offerings,
or water-pot, at its peak.

Mini Shikhara the Indian temple 'orders Indo-Aryan (north)Sculpture on a mass scale
has these repeating themselves Dravida (south) 2 types making up little structural
inventiveness or technical ingenuity. These structure of massive blocks one on top of the
other ensured stability without using mortar Fine appreciation of mass & value & effects
of shadow to a marked degree can be seen here. Sikhara tower in Nagara temples have a
sloping curve as they rise • have decorative arches known as gavakshas and are topped by
an amalaka – a large fluted stone disk – and also a small pot and finial • walls of Nagara
temples present a complex exterior of projections (ratha), with seven on each side which
create many recesses.

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Another name for the Shikhara is Vimana which is the structure over the garbhagriha or inner
sanctum in the Hindu temples of South India and Odisha in East India. In typical temples of
Odisha using the Kalinga style of architecture, the vimana is the tallest structure of the temple, as
it is in the shikhara towers of temples in West and North India. By contrast, in large South Indian
temples, it is typically smaller than the great gatehouses or gopuram, which are the most
immediately striking architectural elements in a temple complex. A vimana is usually shaped as
a pyramid, consisting of several stories or tala. Vimana are divided in two groups: jati
vimanas that have up to four tala and mukhya vimana that have five tala and more.

In North Indian temple architecture texts, the superstructure over the garbhagriha is called
a shikhara. However, in South Indian Hindu architecture texts, the term shikhara means a dome-
shaped crowning cap above the vimana.

A typical Hindu temple in Dravidian style have gopuram in the four directions i.e. East - main
entrance, North and south - side entrances, West - only opened on auspicious day where it is
believed we will go directly to Heaven.The temple's walls are typically square with the outer
most wall having four gopura, one each on every side, situated exactly in the center of each wall.
This will continue to next tier depending upon the size of the temple. The sanctum sanctorum
and its towering roof (the central deity's shrine) are also called the vimana. Generally, these do
not assume as much significance as the outer gopuram, with the exception of a few temples
where the sanctum sanctorum's roofs are as famous as the temple complex itself.

The kanaka-sabai (Golden Stage) at Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram, is another example. This
shrine is entirely covered with golden plates, but is different in its structure and massive in size
when compared to most other vimanas. Historical evidence states that during the ninth
century, Parantaka I funded to cover this vimana with ornamental gold and it retains its glory
even today.
The Ananda Nilayam vimana of the Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala, is a famous example
where the gopuram of the main shrine occupies a very special place in the temple's history and
identity.

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Meenakshi Temple has two golden vimana, the huge one for Shiva and the second one for his
consort, Meenakshi.
The vimana of the Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur, is another example, with a very exaggerated
height. This form is not very common.
The Jagannath Temple, Puri, has the Neelachakra on the sikhara, i.e., the top of the vimana. It is
a representation of Vishnu's most powerful weapon, the sudarshana chakra.
The vimana of the Konark Sun Temple was the tallest of all vimana before it fell.

VIMANA

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81
FLYING TEMPLE or VIMANA

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 CHAPTER 2
Hindu Temple Architecture and Sculpture
Part II
GOPURA of Hindu Temples

नारायणं नमस्कृत्य नरं चैव नरोत्तमम् ।

दे व ं सरस्वत ं व्यासं ततो जयमुद रयेत् ।।

nārāyaṇaṁ namaskṛtya naraṁ caiva narottamam

devīṁ sarasvatīṁ vyāsaṁ tato jayam udīrayet

When translated: Om ! Having bowed down to Narayana and Nara, the most exaltedmale being,
and also to the goddess Sarasvati, must the word Jaya be uttered.

History of Temples
In the Vedic period, there were no temples. The main object of worship was the fire that stood
for God. This holy fire was lit on a platform in the open air under the sky, and oblations were
offered to the fire. It is not certain when exactly the Indo-Aryans first started building temples
for worship. The scheme of building temples was perhaps a concomitant of the idea of idol
worship.
Locations of Temples
As the race progressed, temples became important because they served as a sacred meeting place
for the community to congregate and revitalize their spiritual energies. Large temples were
usually built at picturesque places, especially on river banks, on top of hills, and on the seashore.
Smaller temples or open-air shrines can crop up just about anywhere - by the roadside or even
under the tree.

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Holy places in India are famous for its temples. Indian towns — from Amarnath to Ayodha,
Brindavan to Banaras, Kanchipuram to Kanya Kumari — are all known for their wonderful
temples.
Temple Architecture
The architecture of Hindu temples evolved over a period of more than 2,000 years and there is a
great variety in this architecture. Hindu temples are of different shapes and sizes — rectangular,
octagonal, semicircular — with different types of domes and gates. Temples in southern India
have a different style than those in northern India. Although the architecture of Hindu temples is
varied, they mainly have many things in common.

The 6 Parts of a Hindu Temple

1. The Dome and Steeple: The steeple of the dome is called ‘shikhara’ (summit) that represents
the mythological ‘Meru’ or the highest mountain peak. The shape of the dome varies from region
to region and the steeple is often in the form of the trident of Shiva.

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2. The Inner Chamber: The inner chamber of the temple called ‘garbhagriha’ or ‘womb-
chamber’ is where the image or idol of the deity (‘murti’) is placed. In most temples, the visitors
cannot enter the garbhagriha, and only the temple priests are allowed inside.
3. The Temple Hall: Most large temples have a hall meant for the audience to sit. This is also
called the ‘nata-mandira’ (hall for temple-dancing) where, in days of yore, women dancers or
‘devadasis’ used to perform dance rituals. Devotees use the hall to sit, meditate, pray, chant or
watch the priests perform the rituals. The hall is usually decorated with paintings of gods and
goddesses.
4. The Front Porch: This area of the temples usually has a big metallic bell that hangs from the
ceiling. Devotees entering and leaving the porch ring this bell to declare their arrival and
departure.
5. The Reservoir: If the temple is not in the vicinity of a natural water body, a reservoir of fresh
water is built on the temple premises. The water is used for rituals as well as to keep the temple
floor clean or even for a ritual bath before entering the holy abode.
6. The Walkway: Most temples have a walkway around the walls of the inner chamber for
circum-ambulation by devotees around the deity as a mark of respect to the temples god or
goddess.

Significance of the "Gopuram" in Indian temples?

All Indian temples (12th century onwards) were surrounded by series of concentric protective
walls called the prakaras. Towers erected over the entrance gateways of these walls are known as
Gopuras or Gopurams. These towers can go over fifty meters tall.

A Gopura is generally constructed with a massive stone base and a superstructure of brick and
pilaster. It is rectangular in plan and topped by a barrel-vault roof crowned with a row of finials.
It differs from the Vimana over the central shrine in that it need not necessarily be square-based.

When viewed from top, the Gopura too resembles a Mandala; With sculptures and carvings of
Yalis and mythical animals located in the outer enclosure. Humans and divine beings are in the
inner enclosures. The peak of the Gopura, the Kalasha, is at the centre of the Mandala

85
These sculptures follow a variety of themes derived from the Hindu mythology, particularly
those associated with the presiding deity of the temple where the gopuram is located.

Symbolically, the Gopura or the entrance to the temple represent he feet of the deity. A devotes
bows at the feet of the Lord at the entrance as he steps into the temple and proceeds towards the
sanctum, leaving behind the world of contradictions. It is believed that construction of temples
started in Kaliyug. In the earlier Satya Yuga, Treta Yuga and Dwapar Yuga, the devotees were
able to make direct union with God.

Meaning of Go- Puram

In sanatana Sampradaya All Temples have a GOIPURAM or Sikharam on the sanctum
sanctorum or Garbha gudi where MOOLA VIRAAT is there.

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If One is unable to enter into Temple and Have Darshan of eswara or Parameswari there, the
Shastraas say that have a DARSHAN OF THE GOPURAM.
On the Gopuram there will be a small Moorthy of moola Vit\raat.
This is Called VIMAANA MOORTHY.
it is equal to the Moola Viraat in the Garbha Gudi.
So those who could not have an opportunity to have a darshan inside the Garbha Gudi, for
reasons of RUSH OR HEALTH OR ANY OTHER THING , they CAN SEE THIS
VIMAANAM OR AALAYA SIKHARAM AND IT IS EQUAL TO ENTERING AND
HAVING DARSHAN INSIDE.
This Vimaana or GOPURA DARSHANAM IS SO PAAPA VIMOCHANAM as you are are we
are seeing the Parameswara in GOPURA.
That is the meaning.
Tamil terms like 'ko' 'koil' in Tamil makes us wonder whether the word gopuram was
originally pronounced as 'kopuram' but transformed into 'gopuram' as the word came to
symbolise the temple gopuram in sanskrit. The word 'ko' in Tamil stands for king and also God.
In early works, ko+il
(koil) was meant for the king's palace and it came to signify temple only much later. Similarly,
ko+puram might have meant the outer portion of the king's / god's dwelling

Another interesting theory :

"gopuram" comes from "go puram" where "gO" probably refers to cows or cow-shed, "gO
shAla", and "puram" means "city", "neighbourhood" or "residence".
In ancient days, temples in India did have separate quarters inside the temple precincts to house
many cow-sheds. Often these cowsheds were built abutting the temple tower (as can be seen
even now in the Kanchi Varadaraja temple), giving hence the temple-tower its unique name of
"gO puram" - the "residence of cows".

Origins: The Gopuram's origins can be traced back to early structures of the Tamil kings
Pallavas; and by the twelfth century, under the Pandyarulers, these gateways became a dominant
feature of a temple's outer appearance, eventually overshadowing the inner sanctuary which
became obscured from view by the Gopuram's colossal size. It also dominated the inner sanctum

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in amount of ornamentation. Often a shrine has more than one Gopuram. They also appear in
architecture outside India, especially Khmer architecture, as at Angkor Wat.
A koil may have multiple Gopurams, typically constructed into multiple walls in tiers around the
main shrine. The temple's walls are typically square with the outer most wall having gopuras.
The sanctum sanctorum and its towering roof (the central deity's shrine) is also called the
Vimanam.
Seeing Gopura is as good as seeing God and therefore if one sees God, papa vimochana is done.
Elders say that Morning Gopura Darshan is punniyam.

Visual Context of the GOPURA DHARSHAN IN TEMPLES ;-

As soon as we enter into the temple (or even before entering) we should do pranams
(Namaskarams ) to the Gopuram.
In fact those who are in a hurry and who do not have time to enter into a temple will have the
blessing of the almighty just by doing worship to the Gopuram.
But some people take it for granted that it is just enough if they worship the Gopuram and they
need not even enter into the temple.

What is the significance of the Gopuram?

Our scriptures confirm that the Gopuram is nothing but the symbol of the feet of God!
When we have the darshan of the feet of God- what else do we need?
Now you can guess why the Gopuram was built so high! You can have the darshan of the
Gopuram- rather the feet of god from any distance! Thus away from temple may not make us
away from GOD! God's grace is very high! That is why Gopuram is very high!
Symbolically, the Gopura or the entrance to the temple represent he feet of the deity. A devotes
bows at the feet of the Lord at the entrance as he steps into the temple and proceeds towards the
sanctum, leaving behind the world of contradictions.
In concept, the crest of the Gopuram has the same significance of representing the central
Brahmasthan which is the energy field of any building. This energy field in three dimension is
taken to the top level of the gopuram and this confers spiritual benefits to the visitors of the
temple.

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In the Sri Rangam temple the seven concentric prakara walls are said to represent the seven
layers of matter-earth, water, fire, air, either, mind and intelligence-that envelop the
consciousness of the living entities in the material world. The Gopuras are symbolic of being
liberated from the bondage of matter as one enters the temple and proceeds toward the central
shrine
The Gopura also emphasizes the importance of the temple within the city.
Gopuras came in rather late during the mid-12th century in evolution of Dravidian or South
Indian Temple Architecture and probably due to security reasons.
With the increasing threat from invading armies, the temple cities found it expedient to erect a
series of protective walls to safeguard and defend their temples, palaces and cities. The Gopuras
constructed on the gateways leading from one enclosure to the next, initially, served as watch
towers for defense.
Among the finest examples are the Sundara Pandya Gopura of the Jambukesvara temple at
Tiruchchirappalli, the Gopuras of the great Shiva temple at Chidambaram and the Gopuras of the
Meenakshi temple at Madurai.
Meenakshi temple has twelve impressive Gopuras over the three tier Prakara walls. The outer
four towers are nine -storied with heights ranging from 161 feet to 170 feet.
Gopuras appear to have influenced revision in the temple design and layout. The spaces around
the shrine became hierarchical; the further the space was from the main shrine, the lesser was its
eminence. The outermost ring had buildings of a more utilitarian or a secular nature - shops,
dormitories, sheds, workshops etc., thus transforming the temple from a purely place of worship
to the hub of a vibrant living city.

In concept, the crest of the Gopuram has the same significance of representing the central
Brahmasthan which is the energy field of any building. This energy field in three dimension is
taken to the top level of the gopuram and this confers spiritual benefits to the visitors of the
temple.
In the Sri Rangam temple the seven concentric prakara walls are said to represent the seven
layers of matter-earth, water, fire, air, either, mind and intelligence-that envelop the
consciousness of the living entities in the material world. The Gopuras are symbolic of being

89
liberated from the bondage of matter as one enters the temple and proceeds toward the central
shrine
The Gopura also emphasizes the importance of the temple within the city.
Gopuras came in rather late during the mid-12th century in evolution of Dravidian or South
Indian Temple Architecture and probably due to security reasons.
With the increasing threat from invading armies, the temple cities found it expedient to erect a
series of protective walls to safeguard and defend their temples, palaces and cities. The Gopuras
constructed on the gateways leading from one enclosure to the next, initially, served as watch
towers for defense.
Among the finest examples are the Sundara Pandya Gopura of the Jambukesvara temple at
Tiruchchirappalli, the Gopuras of the great Shiva temple at Chidambaram and the Gopuras of the
Meenakshi temple at Madurai.
Meenakshi temple has twelve impressive Gopuras over the three tier Prakara walls. The outer
four towers are nine -storied with heights ranging from 161 feet to 170 feet.

Gopuras appear to have influenced revision in the temple design and layout. The spaces around
the shrine became hierarchical; the further the space was from the main shrine, the lesser was its
eminence. The outermost ring had buildings of a more utilitarian or a secular nature - shops,

90
dormitories, sheds, workshops etc., thus transforming the temple from a purely place of worship
to the hub of a vibrant living city.
A particularly interesting example of this is the Sri Ranganatha temple at Sri Rangam, which has
seven enclosure walls and as many as twenty-one Gopuras, the seventh, the outer most enclosure
encloses an area of about six hundred acres.
The gopuram was constructed to large heights this is because the old people who cannot come to
temple can also pray their god by sitting at their place just seeing the gopuram.

Cultural Importance:
In ancient days, Temples served as the major landmarks of the land. A place was identified either
using the palaces or temples. As the palaces were prone for being ruined due to invasion, temples
served as the major landmark for the passengers.
In order to facilitate the traveling folk to identify the locations easily, the Gopuram’s of the
temples have to be built at high. Thatpaved way for the high Gopuram’s.

By means of seeing the Gopuram’s from distance, passengers calculated the approximate
distance of their destination from their location. Gopuram’s were built very high to serve as
landmarks as well as for passenger distance’s

Further, temples served as the main shelter for travelers. When people travel between places,
they stay at the temple premises to take rest. Before they begin the new part of their journey, they
would worship GOD and start.

Scientific Reason:

Gopuram acts as a lightning arrest. A metallic object mounted on top of a building, electrically
bonded using a wire or electrical conductor to interface with ground or "earth" through an
electrode, engineered to protect the building in the event of lightning strike. If lightning targets
the building it will preferentially strike the rod and be conducted to ground through the wire,
instead of passing through the building, where it could start a fire or cause electrocution.

The science behind these constructions is that, the temple architecture gives cosmic energy to the
main deity in the Garbha Griha. Firstly, the Juathaskambam acts like an antenna and receives the

91
cosmic energy from the space and through an underground channel it is connected to the main
deity in the Garbha-graha. The cosmic energy constantly flows through the Jathuskambam to the
idol and energies the it. Secondly, the celestial power drawn through the dome gives the deity
effulgence and metaphysical powers. The cosmic-energy is further maintained by sound waves
(Vedic chants) and the pyramid like tomb. The pyramid like structure helps to amplify and
preserve the cosmic energy. These are the reasons for anyone to feel a positive energy, goodness,
calmness or divinity when we approach the inner sanctum.

The copper plate has the tendency to suck part the Ether when that penetrates through the copper
and the Herbal resulting in powerful atomic energy that penetrates through the skin to cure the
human, and that’s why the copper plate is put on the temple tower.

GO PURAM-COW SHED

Gates: Gopurams act as a gates to the temple-town. Speaking from the context of Tamil Nadu,
there are a lot of temple-towns (like Chidambaram, Rameshwaram, Palani etc..) . In these towns,
almost the entire population is concentrated in the area around the temples. During the ancient
times, the temples were used not just as a place of worship, but also a place of learning (schools),
a place for trade (markets ) and also as a Dharamshala (resting place for tired travelers). You
need to be adequately protected as forts were not an intricate part of Tamil architecture back
then. The four gopurams, one facing each direction acted as a gate.

Watch-towers: As another answer pointed out, gopurams are also used as a watch-towers by the
kings to watch out for any invading enemy. As I said, forts were a recent addition and before
that, it was the temples which did a good job.

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Architecture: I am a novice when it comes to art and architecture, but the gopurams were also a
show-case of creativity . It is also proof that ancient India had supreme building artists and
designers. A classic case is the gopuram of the Thanjavur main temple.

Impressionistic: Tall gopurams are a way of creating a first impression for any new comer
entering the city. Before the advent of modern buildings, the temple gopuram is usually the
tallest building in the town that could be seen at a distance of even more than 10 kms. Even
today, when you take a drive along National Highway-45, near Trichy, you can see the gopuram
of Srirangam temple from the Kaveri bridge. Even though the Kaveri is completely dry, the sight
of gopurams would not be lost on someone who admires Tamil Nadu’s rich history.

Srirangam gopuram as seen from the bridge, a distance of more than 5 kms.

Showcasing the history: Gopurams show-case the history is pics or by statues. Thats what the
statues of the gods are for. They show case the mythology and the history behind that place.

A Gopura is generally constructed with a massive stone base and a superstructure of brick and
pilaster. It is rectangular in plan and topped by a barrel-vault roof crowned with a row of finials.
When viewed from top, the Gopura too resembles a Mandala; With sculptures and carvings of
Yalis and mythical animals located in the outer enclosure. Humans and divine beings are in the
inner enclosures. The peak of the Gopura, the Kalasha, is at the centre of the Mandala

ETMOLOGY : The Sanskrit word, गोपुर, is often translated as "town gate". Separately, it
consists of two words go, with the possible meanings of "cow" or "sky", and pura, meaning city.
The word was borrowed into Tamil where it is pronounced kopuram and given a folk etymology
of derivation from the two words: (Kō) and (puram) meaning 'King' and 'exterior' respectively.It
originates from the Sangam age when it was known as meaning 'Imperishable gateway'.Adhering
to the orthodox grammar of sankattamiḻ (Classical Tamil), it would be pronounced koh-puram as
the velar is always voiceless in the Tamil language.

By means of seeing the Gopuram’s from distance, passengers calculated the approximate
distance of their destination from their location. Further, temples served as the main shelter for
travelers. When people travel between places, they stay at the temple premises to take rest.In

93
ancient days, Temples served as the major landmarks of the land. A place was identified either
using the palaces or temples. In order to facilitate the traveling folk to identify the locations
easily, the Gopuram’s of the temples have to be built at high.

PHYSICAL IMPORTANCE:
Gopuram acts as a lightning arrest. A metallic object mounted on top of a building, electrically
bonded using a wire or electrical conductor to interface with ground or "earth" through an
electrode, engineered to protect the building in the event of lightning strike. If lightning targets
the building it will preferentially strike the rod and be conducted to ground through the wire,
instead of passing through the building.

Symbolism of ‘Gopuram’
Symbolically, the Gopura or the entrance to the temple represent he feet of the deity. A devotes
bows at the feet of the Lord at the entrance as he steps into the temple and proceeds towards the
sanctum, leaving behind the world of contradict ions. n the Sri Rangam temple the seven
concentric prakara walls are said to represent the seven layers of matter-earth, water, fire, air,
either, mind and intelligence-that envelop the consciousness of the living entities in the material
world. The Gopuras are symbolic of being liberated from the bondage of matter as one enters the
temple and proceeds toward the central shrine. Gopuras appear to have influenced revision in the
temple design and layout. The spaces around the shrine became hierarchical; the further the
space was from the main shrine, the lesser was its eminence. The outermost ring had buildings of

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a more utilitarian or a secular nature –

shops, dormitories, sheds, workshops etc., thus transforming the temple from a purely place of
worship to the hub of a vibrant living city.

A particularly interesting example of this is the Sri Ranganatha temple at Sri Rangam, which has
seven enclosure walls and as many as twenty-one Gopuras, the seventh, the outer most enclosure
encloses an area of about six hundred acres.

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Chidambaran

Meenakshi Temple,Madurai 7 GOPURAMS

Decorations: Gopurams are exquisitely decorated with sculpture and carvings and painted
with a variety of themes derived from the Hindu mythology, particularly those associated

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with the presiding deity of the temple where the gopuram is located. EPILOGUE:A
gopuram is usually rectangular in form with ground-level wooden doors, often richly
decorated, providing access. Above is the tapering gopuram, divided into many storeys
which diminish in size as the gopuram tower narrows. Usually the tower is topped with a
barrel vaulted roof with a finial.

Form: The form began rather modestly in the 10th century, as at Shore Temple,
Mahabalipuram, with the 11th century Brihadeeswarar Templein Thanjavur marking a
crucial step forward with two multi-storey gopurams from that period, much larger than any
earlier ones, though much smaller than the main tower of the temple. The four gopurams of
the Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram are important early examples, begun in the mid-
13th century but completed over a longer period.

It also dominated the inner sanctum in amount of ornamentation. Often a shrine has more
than one gopuram.They also appear in architecture outside India, especially Khmer
architecture, as at Angkor Wat.The gopuram's origins can be traced back to early structures
of the Tamil kings Pallavas; and by the twelfth century, under the Pandyarulers, these
gateways became a dominant feature of a temple's outer appearance. This forms a
prominent feature of Koils, Hindu temples of the Dravidian style.They are topped by the
kalasam, a bulbous stone finial. A Gopura (singular) (Sanskrit: गोपुर) or Gopuram (plural) is
a monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of any temple, especially in Southern
India.

Generally, these do not assume as much significance as the outer gopurams, with the
exception of a few temples where the sanctum sanctorum's roofs are as famous as the temple
complex itself. The Ananda Nilayam gopuram- vimanam of the Tirumala Venkateswara
Temple is a famous example where the gopuram of the main shrine occupies a very special
place in the temple's history and identity.A koil may have multiple gopurams, typically
constructed into multiple walls in tiers around the main shrine. The temple's walls are
typically square with the outer most wall having four gopura-vimanas, one each on every

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 side, situated exactly in the center of each wall. The sanctum sanctorum and its towering roof
(the central deity's shrine) are also called the vimanam.

Tallest Gopurams:
Murudeshwara Temple 236 FT Annamalaiyar Temple 216 FT Srivilliputhur Andal Temp
193 FT Tallest gopurams :
Ulagalantha Perumal Temple 192 FT Meenakshi Amman Temple 170 FT Rajagopalaswamy
Tem 154 FT

An example of a Gopiram with exquisite design is found at Thirukkurungudi in Thirunelveli

District is famous as it is home to a large and beautiful temple for Vishnu dedicated to
Azhagiyanambi. This temple is a Divya Desam (sacred abodes of Vishnu sung in praise of by
the Azhvars or important Vaishnava devotees). The deity has been praised in the Tamil
verses (Pasuram) of Nammazhvar, Periazhvar, Thirumazhisai Azhvar and Thirumangai
Azhvar. At the entrance is a gopuram which is incomplete.
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Next is the Chittirai gopuram which has many unique sculptures on the stone base and wood
carvings inside. In front of this gopuram is a mandapam, which has exquisite stone sculptures
which are part of the huge monolithic pillars. Azhagiyanambi, the principal image, in a
standing posture is made of stucco (sudhai) and painted in the traditional mode (varna
kalapam). This image is a very beautiful one about whom Nammazhvar has waxed eloquent.
There are two more sanctums in this temple for Vishnu in seated and reclining postures also.
The image in a seated pose is known as Veetrirunda Narayanan and is seen with Godde sses
Sridevi and Bhudevi. Pallikonda Nambi is Vishnu reclining on Adisesha with Brahma seated
on the lotus emanating from Vishnu’s navel. Goddess Lakshmi is worshipped as
Thirukkurungudi Nachiyar. The image of Andal here is unique as this deity is seen wit h four
hands.
The upper hands hold lotuses while the lower right hand is in abhaya hasta and lower left
hand is in varada hasta. In the Thirunelveli region, Andal is generally seen like this.
Ramanujacharya, the famous Sri Vaishnava preceptor (Acharya) had a close connection with
this temple. This temple is associated with a moving episode of Nampaduvan, a devotee of

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God Nambi who sung before this deity every day. He was so sincere that he was prepared to
give himself up to a Brahmarakshasa (evil sprit). This is mentioned in the Kaisika Puranam
and celebrated during the Kaisika Ekadasi in this temple.
Three forms of Vishnu
The standing, seated and reclining forms of Vishnu are worshipped in this temple
Ramanujacharya
This preceptor had a close connection with this temple
Inscriptions
Many epigraphs mentioning donations are found here.

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Vijayanagara-era ‘gopuram’ in a state of neglect

A view of the ‘Gopuram’ near Chandragiri fort. | Photo Credit: SpecialArrangementower

may collapse because it has developed a six inch-wide vertical crack

An ancient ‘gopuram’ in the vicinity of the famed Chandragiri fort symbolising the
architectural grandeur of the Vijayanagara era is in a state of neglect, indicative of both
civic indifference and official apathy.
The 100-ft tall structure is made of granite stone up to the roof, with brick and lime mortar
forming part of the super structure. The tower has developed a six inch-wide vertical
crack, the plastering has peeled off and the stucco sculpture is in a bad shape, not to
mention the wild growth of shrubs in the vicinity of the ‘uncared for’ structure. The
Gopuram is located near Reddivaripalle village in Chandragiri mandal, dotted with such
dilapidated structures of the Vijayanagara era, many of them built when the dynasty ruled
the region with Chandragiri as its capital.

This Reddyvaripalle was known as Siddhankuttai in the erstwhile Valanadu district. The
link has been established by noted archaeologist E. Sivanagi Reddy, Chief Executive
Officer of ‘The Culture Centre of Vijayawada and Amaravati’. The village finds a mention
in an inscription engraved on the outer wall in the first precincts (Prakara) of Tirumala
temple, which dates back to 1433 AD during the reign of Sri Veera Pratapa Devaraya II
(Praudha Devaraya).

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According to Gopi Krishna, a senior research scholar on the TTD temples, the inscription
records an agreement among Sri Venkateswara temple treasury, the temple authorities and
the Mahajanas of the village. It grants 50% of revenue of Siddhankuttai village in Kottala
Sthalam within Vaikuntha Valanadu district to the 24 Mahajanas of the Srinivasapuram
Agraharam for performing Veda Parayanam in Srivari temple, on condition of having two
persons among them each day in the presence of the deity of ‘Tiruvenkatamudaiyan’ (the
Tamil name for Lord Venkateswara).

“Based on this inscription, we have identified Siddhankuttai as Reddivaripalli,” Dr.

Sivanagi Reddy told The Hindu. Under the scheme ‘Preserve heritage for posterity’, he
recently visited the site along with heritage activist B.V. Ramana and ‘Sthapathi’ Dr.P.
Subramani. Interestingly, the ‘Kottala Sthalam’ mentioned in the inscription is the current
day Kotala, the nearest railway station on the Tirupati-Pakala route, located 3 km from the
ruins.

Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram – Towers (Gopurams)

The temple has nine major gopuram gateways connecting the various courtyards. Four of these
are huge and colorful, visible from afar, a symbolic and convenient landmark for pilgrims. The
temple has 9 gateways and four of these have towering pagodas or gopurams each with 7 levels
in the East, South, West and North. The first edition of the four gopuram superstructures were
likely built between 1150 and 1300 CE. The earliest was likely the western gopuram, which is
also the smaller of the four. This is generally dated to about 1150 CE. The eastern gopura was
likely completed by about 1200 CE, southern gopura by mid-13th century, while the northern was
added in late 13th century.

The four high gopurams were destroyed, rebuilt, repaired, enlarged and redecorated several
times after the 13th century. This has made the gopurams difficult to place chronologically, yet
useful in scholarly studies of the history of the Nataraja temple. All gopuras are built of precisely
cut large stone blocks all the way to the main cornice. Upon this is a stone, brick and plaster

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structure with layers of pavilions. Above these talas (storeys) is a Dravidian style barrel vaulted
roof, crowned with thirteen kalasa finials. All four are approximately similar in size and 14:10:3
ratio, about 42.7 metres (140 ft.) high, 30.5 metres (100 ft.) wide and 9.1 metres (30 ft.) deep.

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There are no representations of Nataraja on the temple towers, as this image is reserved for the
innermost shrine alone. The inside walls of passages through all the four gopurams are decorated
with the 108 Karanas, the dance movements of Shiva, from the Natya Shastra, the world's most
ancient treatise on dance, drama and theatre. Besides in Chidambaram these Karanas are
depicted in only four other temples, all in Tamil Nadu. The four gopurams, together with the
golden dome of the central shrine are the five towers which represent the five faces of Shiva,
with the Cit Sabha symbolizing the masterful face.

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Dvarapalas near the vertical center line and others. The artists and architects who built these
gopura may have had a rationale in the relative sequence and position of the artwork with respect
to each other and on various levels, but this is unclear and a subject of disagreement among
scholars.

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Each gopuram is colorful and unique in its own ways. They narrate stories from various Hindu
texts, showing religious and secular scenes from the various Hindu traditions. This art is
presented in each gopuram with anthropomorphic figure panels and about fifty niches with stone
sculptures in every gopuram. The scenes include multiple panels about the legend of Shiva-
Parvati wedding with Brahma, Vishnu, Saraswathi and Lakshmi attending, dancing Ganesha,
Shiva in his various aspects, Durga in the middle of her war with a demon, Skanda ready for war,
seated Nandi, musicians, dancers, farmers, merchants, sadhu in namaste posture, dancing
Western Gopuram:

The earliest and smallest of the four is West gopuram constructed around 1150 and there is no
reliable evidence on the construction. The earliest built western gopuram is the only one with
inscriptions below each artwork that identifies what it is. The artwork on it includes Durga
fighting the evil, shape shifting buffalo demon and Skanda sitting on peacock and dressed up for
war. Other artwork found on the eastern gopuram include Surya, Ganapati, Vishnu, Sridevi
(Lakshmi), Tripurasundari, Brahma, Saraswathi, Varuna, Durga, Agni, several rishis, Yamuna

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goddess, Kama and Rati, Budha, the Vedic sages such as Narada and Agastya, Patanjali,
Somaskanda legend, Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati), Harihara (half Vishnu, half
Shiva), several forms of dancing Shiva and others.

Southern Gopuram:

The South gopuram is called as Sokkaseeyan Thirunilai Ezhugopuram was constructed by

a Pandya king identified from the presence of the dynasty's fish emblem sculpted on the ceiling.
The Pandyas sculpted two fishes facing each other when they completed gopurams (and left it
with one fish, in case it was incomplete). Other artwork found on the southern gopuram include
Chandesha, Ganapati, Vishnu, Sridevi (Lakshmi), several Devis, Brahma, Saraswathi, Surya,
Chandra, Durga, Indra, Agni, several rishis, Ganga and Yamuna goddesses, Kama and Rati,
Budha, the Vedic sages such as Narada, Patanjali, Somaskanda legend, Ardhanarishvara (half
Shiva, half Parvati), Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva), several forms of dancing and standing
Shiva such as Pashupata, Kiratarjuna and Lingobhava, as well as others.

Eastern Gopuram:

The eastern gopuram features the 108 reliefs of Natya Shastra dance postures (22 cm each in a
separate niche) and faces the sanctum. The eastern gopuram is credited to king Kopperunjingan
II (1243-1279 A.D.). As per epigraphical records and was repaired by Subbammal, the mother-
in-law of the famous philanthropist Pachaiappa Mudaliar (1754-1794 A.D.). The idols of
Pachaiappa Mudaliar and his wife Iyalammal have been sculpted on the eastern gopuram. The
Pachaiappa Trust to date has been responsible for various functions in the temple and also
maintains the temple car. The eastern gopuram is renowned for its complete enumeration of 108
poses of Indian classical dance – Bharathanatyam, detailed in small rectangular panels along the
passage that leads to the gateway.

Northern Gopuram:

The North Gopuram was initiated around 1300 A.D. with the brick portion constructed by
the Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya (1509-1530 A.D.) in the 16th century. The eastern and
northern gopura also depicts the wide range of narratives as the southern and western gopuram.

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Meenakshi temple Madurai with biggest GOPURAMs in the world

Temple Structure

The temple occupies a huge area in the heart of Madurai as it spreads over 14 acres. The

temple is enclosed with huge walls, which were built in response to the invasions. The entire

structure, when viewed from above, represents a mandala. A mandala is a structure built

according to the laws of symmetry and loci. There are various shrines built within the temple

complex. Apart from the two main shrines, which are dedicated to Sundareswarar and

Meenakshi, the temple has shrines dedicated to various other deities like Ganesha and

Murugan. The temple also houses goddesses Lakshmi, Rukmini, and Saraswati.

The temple also has a consecrated pond named ‘Porthamarai Kulam.’ The term ‘Potramarai

Kulam’ is a literal translation of ‘pond with a golden lotus.’ The structure of a golden lotus

is placed at the center of the pond. It is said that Lord Shiva blessed this pond and declared

that no marine life would grow in it. In the Tamil folklore, the pond is believed to be an

evaluator for reviewing the worth of any new literature.

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 Image Credit:

The temple has four main towering gateways (gopurams) that look identical to each other.

Apart from the four ‘gopurams,’ the temple also houses many other ‘gopurams’ that serve as

gateways to a number of shrines. The temple has a total of 14 towering gateways. Each one

of them is a multi-storey structure and displays thousands of mythological stories and

several other sculptures. The major ‘gopurams’ of the temple are listed below:

 Kadaka Gopuram – This towering gateway leads to the main shrine that houses
Goddess Meenakshi. The gateway was rebuilt by Tumpichi Nayakkar during the
mid-16th century. The ‘gopuram’ has five storeys.

 Sundareswarar Shrine Gopuram – This is the oldest ‘gopuram’ of the temple and
was built by Kulasekara Pandya. The ‘gopuram’ serves as a gateway to the
Sundareswarar (Lord Shiva) shrine.

 Chitra Gopuram – Built by Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II, the gopuram depicts
the religious and secular essence of Hinduism.

 Nadukkattu Gopuram – Also called as the ‘Idaikattu Gopuram,’ this gateway leads
to the Ganesha shrine. The gateway is placed right in between the two main shrines.

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  Mottai Gopuram – This ‘gopuram’ has fewer stucco images when compared to the
other gateways. Interestingly, ‘Mottai gopuram’ had no roof for nearly three
centuries.

 Nayaka Gopuram – This ‘gopuram’ was built by Visvappa Nayakkar around 1530.
The ‘gopuram’ is astonishingly similar to another gateway called ‘Palahai
Gopuram.’

The temple also has numerous pillared halls called ‘Mandapams.’ These halls were built by

various kings and emperors and they serve as resting places for pilgrims and devotees. Some

of the most important ‘mandapams’ are given below:

 Ayirakkal Mandapam – It literally translates to ‘hall with thousand pillars.’ The

hall, which was built by Ariyanatha Mudaliar, is a true spectacle as it is supported by
985 pillars. Each and every pillar is sculpted magnificently and has images of Yali, a
mythological creature.

 Kilikoondu Mandapam – This ‘mandapam’ was originally built to house hundreds

of parrots. The parrots that were kept there in cages were trained to say ‘Meenakshi’.
The hall, which is next to the Meenakshi shrine, has sculptures of characters from
Mahabharata.

 Ashta Shakthi Mandapam – This hall houses the sculptures of eight goddesses.
Built by two queens, the hall is placed in between the main ‘gopuram’ and the
gateway that leads to the Meenakshi shrine.

 Nayaka Mandapam – ‘Nayaka Mandapam’ was built by Chinnappa Nayakkar. The

hall is supported by 100 pillars and houses a Nataraja statue.

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 CHAPTER 4

Temple Gopuram as Cosmos & spiritual light house

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In early days, Temples served as the major landmarks of the land. A place was recognized either
using the palaces or temples. As the palaces were prone for being ruined due to assault, temples
served as the chief landmark for the passengers travelling on foot orcarriages from afar. It was a
beacon- a light house to guide the visitors.

ELEMENTS OF HINDU TEMPLE TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

It was the later half of the 7th century that the Hindu temple structures of India began to acquire
a definite form with consolidation of design structures all over India.
Elements of Hindu temple:
1. Ardhamandapa’ meaning the front porch or the main entrance of the temple leading to the
mandapa. It unites the main sanctuaryand the pillared hall of the temple. ‘Antarala’
meaning the vestibule or the intermediate chamber.
2. ‘Garbhagriha’ meaning the womb chamber. The shape and the size of the tower vary from
region to region. It is the pyramidal or tapering portion of the temple which represents the
mythological ‘Meru’ or the highest mountain peak. 1. ‘Sikhara’ meaning the tower or the
spire. The devotees walk around the deity in clockwise direction as a worship ritual and
symbol of respect to the temple god or goddess. There is an enclosed corridor carried
around the outside of garbhagriha called the Pradakshina patha’ meaning the ambulatory
passageway for circumambulation
Garbhagriha (cella or inner chamber). the lower portion inside the Vimana is called
Shikhara and upper as the Vimana is called as the Sikhara . The visitors are not allowed
inside the The chamber is mostly square in plan and is entered by a doorway on its eastern
side. It is nucleus and the innermost chamber of the temple where the image or idol of the
deity is placed.
3. ‘Gopurams’ meaning the monumental and ornate tower at the entrance of the temple
complex, specially found in south India
4. ‘Mandapa’, is the pillared hall in front of the garbhagriha, for the assembly of the
devotees. In some of the earlier temples the mandapa was an isolated and separate
structure from the sanctuary known as ‘Natamandira’ meaning temple hall of dancing,

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 where in olden days ritual of music and dance was performed. It is used by the devotees to
sit, pray, chant, meditate and watch the priests performing the rituals.
5. The Amalaka the fluted disc like stone placed at the apex of the sikhara.
6. ‘Toranas’, the typical gateway of the temple mostly found in north Indian temple
7. ‘Pitha’ , the plinth or the platform of the temple

In order to make easy the roaming folk to recognize the locations easily, the Gopuram’s
of the temples had to be built elevated. That tiled way for the elevated Gopuram’s. By way
of seeing the Gopuram’s form expanse, passengers planned the approximate distance of
their target from their location. Gopuram’s were built extremely high to serve as
landmarks as well as for traveler distance’s.
Additionally, temples served as the main protection for travelers. When people travel between
places, they stay at the temple building to take rest. Before they commence the new part of their
journey, they would respect God and begin.

Representatively, the Temple Gopuram or the access to the temple represents the feet of the
divinity. A devotee bows at the feet of the Lord at the entry as he steps into the temple and
proceed towards the chamber, leaving behind the world of contradiction. A Gopura is usually
constructed with an enormous stone base and a superstructure of brick and support. It is
rectangular in sketch and topped by a barrel-vault roof crowned with a row of finials. When
viewed from apex, the Gopura too resembles a mandala; with sculptures and carvings of Yalis
and mythological animals to be found in the outer enclosed space. Humans and divine beings are
in the central enclosures. The crest of the Gopura, the Kalasha, is at the centre of the Mandala.T
hese sculptures follow a selection of themes resulting from the Hindu mythology, mainly those
associated with the presiding idol of the temple where the gopuram is positioned. Gopuras come
into view to have inclined revision in the temple plan and outline. The spaces just about the
shrine became hierarchical; the further the space was from the central shrine, the lesser was its
distinction. The farthest ring had buildings of a more practical or a secular nature – shops,
dormitories, sheds, workshops etc., thus transforming the temple from a merely place of worship
to the center of a vibrant alive city.

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A mandala (emphasis on first syllable; Sanskrit मण्डि, maṇḍala – literally "circle") is a
geometric configuration of symbols. In various spiritual traditions, mandalas may be employed
for focusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a spiritual guidance tool, for establishing
a sacred space and as an aid to meditation and trance induction. In the Eastern
religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Shintoism it is used as a map representing deities,
or specially in the case of Shintoism, paradises, kami or actual shrines.

In New Age, the mandala is a diagram, chart or geometric pattern that represents
the cosmos metaphysically or symbolically; a time-microcosm of the universe, but it originally
meant to represent wholeness and a model for the organizational structure of life itself, a cosmic

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diagram that shows the relation to the infinite and the world that extends beyond and within
minds and bodies.

MANDALA:

Religious meaning

In Hinduism, a basic mandala, also called a yantra, takes the form of a square with four gates
containing a circle with a center point. Each gate is in the general shape of a T. Mandalas often
have radial balance.

A yantra is similar to a mandala, usually smaller and using a more limited colour palette. It may
be a two- or three-dimensional geometric composition used in sadhanas, puja or meditative
rituals, and may incorporate a mantra into its design. It is considered to represent the abode of
the deity. Each yantra is unique and calls the deity into the presence of the practitioner through
the elaborate symbolic geometric designs. According to one scholar, "Yantras function as
revelatory symbols of cosmic truths and as instructional charts of the spiritual aspect of human
experience"

Many situate yantras as central focus points for Hindu tantric practice. Yantras are not
representations, but are lived, experiential, nondual realities. As Khanna describes:

Despite its cosmic meanings a yantra is a reality lived. Because of the relationship that exists in
the Tantras between the outer world (the macrocosm) and man's inner world (the microcosm),

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every symbol in a yantra is ambivalently resonant in inner–outer synthesis, and is associated
with the subtle body and aspects of human consciousness.[6]

The term 'mandala' appears in the Rigveda as the name of the sections of the work, and Vedic
rituals use mandalas such as the Navagraha mandala to this day.

The science behind these constructions is that, the temple architecture gives cosmic force to the
main idol in the Garbha Griha. Firstly, the Juathaskambam acts like an antenna and receives the

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cosmic force from the space and through a subversive channel it is linked to the main idol in the
Garbha-graha. The cosmic force continuously flows through the Jathuskambam to the statue and
energies it. Secondly, the celestial power fetched through the field gives the idol effulgence and
metaphysical powers. The cosmic-force is additionally maintained by noise waves (Vedic chants
– Read about the Significance of Chanting) and the pyramid like tomb. The pyramid like
construction helps to intensify and protect the cosmic force. These are the reasons for anybody
to feel a positive energy, goodness, serenity or divinity when we approach the interior sanctum.

The copper plate has the propensity to suck part the Ether when that penetrates from the copper
and the Herbal resulting in powerful atomic force that penetrates through the skin to heal the
human, and that’s why the copper plate is put on the temple tower.

he idol is washed with various materials (milk, sandal paste, oil) to preserve the idols. The idol is
adorned with flowers and ornaments for mental and visual boost. But the diverse postures of the
idol (sitting/standing, number of hands, weapons they hold) do have meaning in emitting the
cosmic force.

Thus the temples serve up as the scientific room to receive the shower of cosmic force or God’s
blessing.

From my understanding Temple Gopurams are an important part of any Hindu temples and there
are specific reasons for their existence. They are:

1) Temple Gopurams are built to receive the positive energy from the universe. Cosmic rays will
be received by the Gopuram and it will be passed to the statue in the temple.

2) Gopuram will also receive the energy from thunder/lightning and pass it to the ground. So it
acted as a layer of protection for the temple and the nearby areas.

3) Temple Gopuram were built largely to depict the culture and art of ancient people

4) It also used to act as a landmark in olden days to find out the cities, way to different places.

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5) In olden days , kings built temples in order to give job to the people of the country and along
with that future generations will come to know the architectural talents that ancient people had.

6) The small carvings and statues in temple gopuram depict the story of the god and also will
show life lessons.

MANDALA AND HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

Although there have been various arguments by authors of Indian temple architecture like Stella
Kramrisch and Michael W. Meister about the applicability of the Vastu Purusha Mandala as a
governing device for temple architecture, it is safe to say that for formulating the layout of the
temple, the Vastu Purusha Mandala has been an imperative tool. Though the 8 x 8 grid or the
Manduka Vastu Mandala has been used in various temples of Indian architecture, it is to be
noted that regional differences have played a major influence on the workability of the mandala
design throughout India. Customarily, mandalas were spaces for the symbolic consciousness of
universal theories which help in the awakening of the individual psyche. The mandalas can be
thought of as diagrams that function as a cue to reach a contemplational state which is the
primary aim of the tradition. The form of the temples that are based on the regulating lines of the
mandala were meant to create spaces that bring about a “physical and spatial” communion

between God and man. 1

The Vastu Purusha Mandala contains a minimum of nine sections signifying the directions north,
south, east, west, northeast, northwest, southeast, southwest and the centre represented as square
grids. In the Vastu Purusha Mandala, the Purusha’s head is located in the northeast direction and
this is considered utmost sacred. In the southwest are his feet and his knees and elbows in the
northwest and southeast. Kept open and clear in the centre part of the diagram are his main
organs and his torso. Starting from a single undivided square of 1 x 1 there are grid patterns
ranging up to 32 x 32 thus making it 1024 sections. Architecturally, the adaptation of the Vastu
Purusha Mandala has been seen in the design of houses, palaces, temples and even cities.
Integrating it into the design brings a certain amount of order in the design. Here, the squares are
assumed as cubes of architectural spaces.

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The five elements of earth, water, fire, air and space correspond with specific sections of the
Vastu Purusha Mandala. The south-west direction is associated with the element of
earth(Bhumi); south-east with the elements of fire (Agni); north-east with the element of water
(Jala); north-west with the element of air (Vayu) and the centre space with the element of space

(Akasha). 2

Indian temples are microcosm of Cosmos, acting as a connecting bridge between physical world
and divine world through their proportional arrangement. Mandapa, which were entrance
porches in the beginning became an integral part of the temple plan in providing additional
functions and in form providing an ex- pression of cosmos especially in elevation. Ashapuri
temples analyzed here, corresponds to Nagara temple proportions varying in proportionas they
belong to two different styles of nagara Architec- ture. From the study of Adam Hardy it is said
that they possessed temples of different styles in Nagara other than these two. The site of
Ashapuri seems to be a place for the development of the Ngara school of archigtecture.

ANGKOR WAT
Angkor Wat was built by the king of the Khmer Empire first as a Hindu, then a Buddhist temple
complex. It is known as one of the largest monuments ever built. Hence, this great Buddhist

120
temple provides clear, physical evidence that Hinduism and Buddhism were brought to the
region by the Indians, and adopted by early Southeast Asian empires like the Khmer Empire.

The pagodas of Angkor Wat are also a physical depiction of the Hindu concept of Mandala. In
addition, the gates of the temple also resemble the gates of the symbol of Mandala. This concept
is Hindu in nature and is believed to have been brought to pre-modern Southeast Asia from
India. It is probable that these ideas were then "borrowed" by the Khmer Empire, and depicted
through its great temple.

Angkor Wat also has a Gopura. A Gopura is a monumental tower often built at the entrance of
temples - a distinctive feature of South Indian architecture. The presence of this structure at
Angkor Wat indicates that there was Indian influence in the architecture of the Khmer Empire.

In addition, the temple has many bas-reliefs depicting stories from the Indian epics,
the Mahabharata and Ramayana. This shows that these stories were clearly influential in early
Southeast Asia as they repeatedly adorn the walls of Angkor Wat, which was seen as a sacred
and important place. This demonstrates just how strong Indian influence was in the Khmer

121
Empire.

Furthermore, even though hundreds of years have passed, Angkor Wat is still a national symbol
and major source of pride of Cambodia today. The fact that Indianisation of the Khmer Empire
from the 7th to 14th century has continued to shape the heritage and identity of modern
Cambodia indicates the lasting impact Indianisation had on the region.

Mandala in Meenakshi temple Madurai with biggest GOPURAMs in the world

Temple Structure

The entire structure, when viewed from above, represents a mandala. A mandala is a

structure built according to the laws of symmetry and loci. There are various shrines built

within the temple complex.

The temple occupies a huge area in the heart of Madurai as it spreads over 14 acres. The

temple is enclosed with huge walls, which were built in response to the invasions. Apart

from the two main shrines, which are dedicated to Sundareswarar and Meenakshi, the temple

has shrines dedicated to various other deities like Ganesha and Murugan. The temple also

houses goddesses Lakshmi, Rukmini, and Saraswati.

The temple also has a consecrated pond named ‘Porthamarai Kulam.’ The term ‘Potramarai

Kulam’ is a literal translation of ‘pond with a golden lotus.’ The structure of a golden lotus

is placed at the center of the pond. It is said that Lord Shiva blessed this pond and declared

that no marine life would grow in it. In the Tamil folklore, the pond is believed to be an

evaluator for reviewing the worth of any new literature.

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 Image Credit:

The temple has four main towering gateways (gopurams) that look identical to each other.

Apart from the four ‘gopurams,’ the temple also houses many other ‘gopurams’ that serve as

gateways to a number of shrines. The temple has a total of 14 towering gateways. Each one

of them is a multi-storey structure and displays thousands of mythological stories and

several other sculptures. The major ‘gopurams’ of the temple are listed below:

 Kadaka Gopuram – This towering gateway leads to the main shrine that houses
Goddess Meenakshi. The gateway was rebuilt by Tumpichi Nayakkar during the
mid-16th century. The ‘gopuram’ has five storeys.

 Sundareswarar Shrine Gopuram – This is the oldest ‘gopuram’ of the temple and was
built by Kulasekara Pandya. The ‘gopuram’ serves as a gateway to the
Sundareswarar (Lord Shiva) shrine.

 Chitra Gopuram – Built by Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II, the gopuram depicts
the religious and secular essence of Hinduism.

 Nadukkattu Gopuram – Also called as the ‘Idaikattu Gopuram,’ this gateway leads to
the Ganesha shrine. The gateway is placed right in between the two main shrines.

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  Mottai Gopuram – This ‘gopuram’ has fewer stucco images when compared to the
other gateways. Interestingly, ‘Mottai gopuram’ had no roof for nearly three
centuries.

 Nayaka Gopuram – This ‘gopuram’ was built by Visvappa Nayakkar around 1530.
The ‘gopuram’ is astonishingly similar to another gateway called ‘Palahai
Gopuram.’

The temple also has numerous pillared halls called ‘Mandapams.’ These halls were built by

various kings and emperors and they serve as resting places for pilgrims and devotees. Some

of the most important ‘mandapams’ are given below:

 Ayirakkal Mandapam – It literally translates to ‘hall with thousand pillars.’ The hall,
which was built by Ariyanatha Mudaliar, is a true spectacle as it is supported by 985
pillars. Each and every pillar is sculpted magnificently and has images of Yali, a
mythological creature.

 Kilikoondu Mandapam – This ‘mandapam’ was originally built to house hundreds of

parrots. The parrots that were kept there in cages were trained to say ‘Meenakshi’.
The hall, which is next to the Meenakshi shrine, has sculptures of characters from
Mahabharata.

 Ashta Shakthi Mandapam – This hall houses the sculptures of eight goddesses. Built
by two queens, the hall is placed in between the main ‘gopuram’ and the gateway
that leads to the Meenakshi shrine.

 Nayaka Mandapam – ‘Nayaka Mandapam’ was built by Chinnappa Nayakkar. The

hall is supported by 100 pillars and houses a Nataraja statue.

124
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126
ANGKOR WAT
Angkor Wat was built by the king of the Khmer Empire first as a Hindu, then a Buddhist temple
complex. It is known as one of the largest monuments ever built. Hence, this great Buddhist
temple provides clear, physical evidence that Hinduism and Buddhism were brought to the
region by the Indians, and adopted by early Southeast Asian empires like the Khmer Empire.

The pagodas of Angkor Wat are also a physical depiction of the Hindu concept of Mandala. In
addition, the gates of the temple also resemble the gates of the symbol of Mandala. This concept
is Hindu in nature and is believed to have been brought to pre-modern Southeast Asia from
India. It is probable that these ideas were then "borrowed" by the Khmer Empire, and depicted
through its great temple.

Angkor Wat also has a Gopura. A Gopura is a monumental tower often built at the entrance of
temples - a distinctive feature of South Indian architecture. The presence of this structure at
Angkor Wat indicates that there was Indian influence in the architecture of the Khmer Empire.

In addition, the temple has many bas-reliefs depicting stories from the Indian epics,
the Mahabharata and Ramayana. This shows that these stories were clearly influential in early

127
 Southeast Asia as they repeatedly adorn the walls of Angkor Wat, which was seen as a sacred
and important place. This demonstrates just how strong Indian influence was in the Khmer
Empire.

Furthermore, even though hundreds of years have passed, Angkor Wat is still a national symbol
and major source of pride of Cambodia today. The fact that Indianisation of the Khmer Empire
from the 7th to 14th century has continued to shape the heritage and identity of modern
Cambodia indicates the lasting impact Indianisation had on the region.

Note how the architectural layout of the temple greatly resembles the symbol of
Mandala.For example, you can spot the building's centre point, as well as
the four gates on the outermost wall.

Rough Layout of Angkor Wat

128
129
The Third Tier GOPURAM

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“The Vastu Purusha Mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which
the temple is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from
Him, and is a manifestation of Him. The Vastu Purusha Mandala is both the body of the
Cosmic Being and a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain
the best results in temple building.” – Stella Kramrisch ; The Hindu Temple, Vol. I

Vastu Purush Mandala has been in existence for thousands of years, will continue till
eternity. It is the fundamental principle which continues to create and run the whole universe
- both at the macro and the micro level If we can decode it's secret and follow its eternal
principles for construction, we can ensure a life full of health, wealth, peace and prosperity.

The Vastu Purush Mandala is a cosmic geometrical wonder used to design temples amongst
other structures. When we observe the energy fields that develop at different stages of a
building – starting from the stage of a vacant plot - to the digging of land - to the laying of
the foundation - to the completion of the building - and finally to the point when it is
inhabited by the people – we unravel the secrets of the Vastu Purusha Mandala.

Image of the Universe: The Vastu Mandala is the omnipresent, omnipotent soul of every
building. It is based on the principle that Man and Universe are analogous in their structure
and spirit. Vastu Purush Mandala is thus a Yantra or an image of the Universe .Hindus
believe that the body is the image of the entire Universe( See figure below). Vastu Purusha
Mandala is a combination of 45 Devtas and Asuras present in a geometrical figure. The
Devtas represent our consciousness and the Asuras our ignorance and fear. The war between
consciousness and ignorance goes on each moment within all of us. It is not just a Puranic
story, it’s the reality we live in each moment.

DECODING THE DEVTAS & ASURAS The 45 Energy Fields PADAVINAYASA

ModularGrid After Shilanyas and construction of foundation walls, this is the first energy
field to develop in the plot.

BRAHMA DEVTASvsASURAS THE ETERNAL WAR- Energy Fields Next to Brahma

ARYAMA The Power of Connections VIVASWAN The Power of Revolution or Change

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MITRA The Power of Inspiration & Action BHUDHAR The Power of Manifestation DEVA
VITHI

The 8 Energy Fields in the Diagonal Directions NORTH EAST Apaha Apahavatsa
SOUTH WEST Indra Indrajaya SOUTH EAST Savita Savitur NORTH WEST Rudra
Rajyakshma MANUSHYA VITHI

1. NORTH EAST APAHA Igenerates the energies responsible for healing APAHAVATSA
Carries the healing powers to the occupants ww.anantvastu.com

2. SOUTH EAST SAVITA Energies that help to initiate any process or action SAVITUR
Energies that give capibilities to continue those actions and overcome all challenges

3. . SOUTH WEST INDRA Energies that establish stability and enhance growth
INDRAJAYA The tools and the channels through which one can achieve growth

4. .NORTH WEST RUDRA Energies responsible for support and ensure flow of activities
and life RAJYAKSHMA Energies which uphold the support and stabilise the mind . The
32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery PAISHACHA VITHI . These are also the 32
Possible Entrance Locations . The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery ADITI Mother
of the Devtas, this energy field provides security and helps one connect with
himself/herself) DITI Mother of the Asuras, this energy field gives the powers of a wider
vision and to see the actual truth of life.SHIKHI Symbolic of a pointed flame, this field
gives the power of ideas and the ability to project one’s thoughts to the world
PARJANYA The giver of rains, this field has the powers to bless the occupants with
fertility and fulfilment of all their wishes NORTH EAST

5. SOUTH EAST BHRISHA The power of friction needed to initiate any action , thinking or
activity AAKASH The energy that provides the space for manifestation ANILA The
energy of air or vayu, it helps to uplift the fire or push further the actions initiated

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 PUSHAN The energy of nourishment, it blocks the path of enemies The 32 Energy Fields
of the Outer Periphery.

6. SOUTH WEST BHRINGRAJ The energy which extracts nutrients from the food and
removes the waste MRIGHA The energy that drives curiosity and imparts skills PITRA
The energy of the ancestors which provides all means of safety and happiness required for
existence DAUWARIK The safe keeper, represents lord Nandi-the trusted vehicle of lord
Shiva. The energy of being genius and highly knowledgeable The 32 Energy Fields of the
Outer Peripher

7. NORTH WEST SHOSHA The power of detoxification from negative emotions

PAPYAKSHMA The energy which gives addiction, diseases and the feeling of guilt
ROGA The energy which provides support in the hour of need NAGA The energy which
gives emotional enjoyments and cravings The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery

8. NORTH MUKHYA The chief architect or lord Vishwakarma, this energy field defines the
main purpose of the building & also helps in their manifestation BHALLAT The energy
field which grants colossal abundance, it magnifies the efforts and their results SOMA
The energy field of Kubera - the lord of all wealth and money. It ensures a smooth flow of
money and opportunities BHUJAG The the lord of hidden treasures, this energy field is
the preserver of medicines. It safeguards the health of the occupants The 32 Energy Fields
of the Outer Periphery

9. EAST JAYANT The energy which gives the sense of being victorious, it refreshes the
mind and body MAHENDRA The energy which grants the power of administration and
connectivity SURYA The core controller, this energy fields imparts health , fame and
farsightedness SATYA The energy which establishes goodwill, status, authenticity and
credibility The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery

10. SOUTH VITATHA The energy field of falsehood, pretension and the unreal
GRUHAKSHAT The power which binds the mind and defines its limits YAMA The

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 power of expansion, this energy field binds the world in laws GANDHARVA The energy
of preservation of health & vitality. This energy also governs all kinds of arts and music
The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery

11. WEST SUGREEV The power which grants the ability to receive all knowledge
PUSHPADANT The power which grants blessings and fulfills all desires VARUN The
lord of the seas, this energy field observes and runs the whole world. It is the granter of
immortality ASURA The the energy field that releases the mind from temptations and
gives depth in spirituality The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery.

REFERENCES

1. Bindu and Mandala: Manifestations of Sacred Architecture,Conference: ICABE-2016

Kuala Lumpur Malaysia. Paper presented by Jaffer Adam,Deepika Varadarajan.

2. THE MANDALA AS A COSMIC MODEL USED TO SYSTEMATICALLY

STRUCTURE THE TIBETAN BUDDHIST LANDSCAPE,Ping Xu,Journal of
Architectural and Planning Research,Vol. 27, No. 3 (Autumn, 2010), pp. 181-
203,Published by: Locke Science Publishing Co.

3. On the Idea of the Mandala as a Governing Device in Indian Architectural

Tradition,Sonit Bafna,Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians,Vol. 59, No. 1
(Mar., 2000), pp. 26-49,Published by: University of California Press on behalf of
the Society of Architectural Historians,https://www.jstor.org/stable/991561

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 CHAPTER 5

Mandapa of the Hindu temple and the VEDI - Part 4

Form, Arrangement and design: Through out the history of Temple Architecture of the Hindu
Temples, proportion dominated as a tool, which determined the monuments both spatial
arrangements as well as form. Proportion and measurements were the guiding tools for Indian
temple construction starting from the 5th century onwards and it continuous even now. The
ancient texts, therefore, insist on a high degree of precision in their measurements. The standard
text Mayamata mentions. Only if the temple is constructed correctly according to a mathematical
system can it be expected to function in harmony with the universe. Only if the measurement of
the temple is in every way perfect, there will be perfection in the universe as well.

Mandapa (also spelled mantapa or mandapam) in Indian architecture, especially Hindu temple
architecture, is a pillared hall or pavilion for public rituals. Mandapa, a Sanskrit term, means a
pillared outdoor hall or a pavilion for public rituals in Indian architecture. The architecture
of mandapa in Southeast Asia also shares similarities to that in India, for instance mandapas in
Cambodia and Vietnam. These had a rectangular floor plan, were the site of ritual ceremonies,
and were located to the front of an image shrine called garbha griha or garbha grha. However,

140
in Sukhothai a mandapa referred to a small building enshrining a Buddha image or sometimes
multiple images. Its role was parallel to an image shrine (garbha griha) of Hindu and Buddhist
architecture in India and Sri Lanka. A Sukhothai mandapa or mondop was often located to the
back of a vihara which corresponded to a mandapa in India where ceremonies were held. This
paper aims to understand the term mandapa and compares the architecture of mandapas in
India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Sukhothai, Thailand. Sukhothai mondops represented a
pavilion where the Buddha resided, and its function was equivalent to a gandakuti, a perfumed
chamber, or a karerikuti where the Buddha dwelled in Jetavana monastery, India. The vihara to
its front corresponded to a reception area. Mondop and its attached vihara of Sukhothai were
also like a dhammasala or dhammamandapa in Pagan, Myanmar. The comparison
of mandapas in India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Thailand will provide indigenous architectural
characteristics as well as links to the history, culture, and religion of the people.Mandapas are
described as "open" or "closed" depending on whether they have walls. In temples, one or more
mandapas very often lie between the sanctuary and the temple entrance, on the same axis. In a
large temple other mandapas may be placed to the sides, or detached within the temple
compound.1

The mandapis a design item of Indian and Hindu social and cultural context.. A fabric thrown
over 4 beams beomes a mandap. The temple design tgakes inspiration from this structrural
emphasis. Use of a mandap is an ancient custom and is described in texts
like Ramacharitamanas and various Sanskrit texts. A wedding Mandap is a mandap (covered
structure with pillars) temporarily erected for the purpose of a Hindu or Jain wedding. The main
wedding ceremonies take place under the mandap.

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Wedding mandapa

It is traditionally made of wood, although now modern materials are sometimes used. It often
comes as a set that includes pillars supporting a frame, royal chairs for the bride and the groom,
side chairs for parents and a pedestal for the sacred fire.

It is often rented from businesses that specialize in renting items for an Indian wedding. Its use is
common even among overseas Indians.

The bride is often escorted to the mandap by her maternal uncle. Traditionally, the wedding
mandap is decorated using kalashas (pots filed with water), garlands of mango leaves, coconuts,
banana leaves, etc. Modern Mandaps use fabrics, lights, crystals, flowers, Wrought Iron unique
shapes and other materials insuring all religious aspects of a mandap, which include the four
pillars and havan kund (fire box) is now completely modernized

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The Shastra behind Wedding Mandap design

The Hindu religion may hold a lot of rituals and traditions, but none of them come without any
meaning. The same goes for the elements of a Hindu wedding.

The mandap is the ‘sanctum sanctorum of hindu wedding rituals. It is the central element in
wedding decorations. A great mandap design is not just about pleasing aesthetics but also about
the meaning behind putting up a canopy with four pillars that marks the auspiciousness of a
fruitful married life. Only a select number of people are allowed in the mandap under its canopy,
namely, the bride, groom, families of the bride and groom, and the officiating priest who will be
summoning the rituals.

There is an interesting story behind the whole concept of a wedding in a mandap. Back in the
time, when the open ground were not hygienic for holy rituals, weddings happened within the
four walls of their homes with the attendance of close family members. This is how mandaps
came into being. With times, a lot has changed, but the underlying reasoning behind certain

143
rituals haven’t. While the scenario of a wedding may be different, the meaning behind it remains
the same. With the mandap having moved out of a traditional home to open grounds, wedding
halls, to even beach sides, Hindu weddings have taken grandeur to another level while keeping in
touch with the roots.

Now, after having some clarity on how the concept of getting married in a mandap came into
being, we are still to know the significance of a mandap in a marriage. It is closely related to the
vedas, and here is the significance of a mandap in a Hindu marriage.

What is a Mandap?

A four poster structure with a canopy in the shape of a dome that marks the sacred area of a
traditional Hindu marriage. While a lot of venues have mandaps already built, the traditional
ones are built with organic materials like wood, bamboo, sugarcane or banana stems with pots
stacked nearby and the color of the canopy being red and yellow, denoting the colours of haldi
and kumkum.

Meaning behind the Mandap design

All Hindu vedic traditions come with meaningful backings. The same applies to the weddings
decor and rituals.

1. A GRAND STEPPING INTO THE NEXT STAGE OF

LIFE

According to the Hindu vedas, there are four stages of life - Brahmacharya, Grihastha,
Vanaprastha and Sanyasa. The four posters or pillars of a mandap symbolize these four stages of
life. It is in a mandap where the groom enters are a Brahmacharya and exits as a Grihastha,
which means a householder.

2. PRAYERS OFFERED TO THE FIVE ELEMENTS

OF LIFE BEFORE BEGINNING A NEW PHASE

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There are five elements of the universe - Earth, Water, Fire, Air and Space. There are decorated
stacks of pots kept near the four pillars that symbolize the first four elements, while the fifth
element of the universe, ‘Space’, is symbolized by the canopy on top, traditionally called
‘Gopuram’.

It is believed that the mandap is the universe under which a new beginning starts, hence the
elements are represented by the architecture of a mandap, making it an ideal place to start one’s
marital life.

3. THANKING THE GIFTS OF NATURE

The colours of a traditional Hindu wedding are usually vermillion red and yellow gold. One can
see the colour combination in all aspects of a Hindu wedding from flower garlands, seating
decor, haldi, kumkum, traditional sarees, etc. Along with that, there are a lot of splashes of green
in the form of leaves used.

4. BALANCING THE MIND, BODY AND SOUL

A metal pot called Kalash is placed in front of the bride and groom which is said to represent the
human body. The kalash is filled with Holy water from the Ganges or any other Holy river. This
denotes the believe that the soul in the human body is pure.

Topped with a coconut that represents the head or mind of the human body, and decorated with
five mango leaves that represent the five senses of the human body, the Kalash is placed on a
plantain leaf covered with paddy or raw rice symbolizing prosperity, fertility and wealth.

This ritual of using a Kalash in a wedding sends across the message of a balance between the
mind, body and soul, that is very necessary in marriages.

5. THE HOLY FIRE - AGNI SAAKSHI

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According to the Hindu Vedas, agni or ‘Holy Fire’ stands for purity and spirituality. The ‘Agni’
is invoked and is a crucial part of any auspicious event in the Hindu religion. Respected and
revered since the ancient times, the sacred fire is considered ‘The Witness’ to a wedlock. All the
wedding rituals like the vows, saat pheras, etc., takes place in front of the Agni Kund, by burning
fragrant herbs, ghee, raw rice and millets.

6. FOR A NEW BEGINNING

The mandap overflows with fruits, flowers, pulses, silks and gold on the day of the wedding. The
bride and groom and all family members are laden with gold and all things opulence, while the
offerings made to the Almighty and the priests are also nothing less than a display of wealth.
This display of wealth coming in along with the blessings of the elders is a reassurance of a good
life to the newly weds. This marks the beginning of an abundant and prosperous life of the newly
married couple.

The revolution of modern mandap decor is a great way to keep the age old tradition alive even in
changing times, but it is imperative for every couple to know the importance of the mandap and
the significant meanings behind every ritual. And now that you know a lot more about your
wedding tradition, go ahead and read up on some of the most beautiful mandap designs that also
cater to all the above significance.

In the Hindu temple the mandapa is a porch-like structure through the (gopuram) (ornate
gateway) and leading to the temple. It is used for religious dancing and music and is part of the
basic temple compound. The prayer hall was generally built in front of the temple's sanctum
sanctorum (garbhagriha). A large temple would have many mandapa.

If a temple has more than one mandapa, each one is allocated for a different function and given a
name to reflect its use. For example, a mandapa dedicated to divine marriage is referred to as
a kalyana mandapa. Often the hall was pillared and the pillars adorned with

146
intricate carvings. In contemporary terms, it also represents a structure within which a Hindu

Wedding is performed. The bride and groom encircle a holy fire lit by the officiating priest in
the center of mandapa.

When a temple has more than one mandapa, they are given different names.

 Ardhamandapa (Artha Mandapam or Ardh Mandapam) – intermediary space between the

temple exterior and the garba griha (sanctum sanctorum) or the other mandapa of the temple
 Asthana Mandapam – assembly hall
 Kalyana Mandapam – dedicated to ritual marriage celebration of the Lord with Goddess
 Maha Mandapam – (Maha=big) When there are several mandapa in the temple, it is the
biggest and the tallest. It is used for conducting religious discourses. Sometimes, the maha
mandapa is also built along a transversal axis with a transept (bumped-out portions along
this transversal axis). At the exterior, the transept ends by a large window which brings light
and freshness into the temple.
 Nandi Mandapam (or Nandi mandir) – In the Shiva temples, pavilion with a statue of the
sacred bull Nandi, looking at the statue or the lingam of Shiva.
 Ranga Mandapa or rangamandapa - a larger mandapa, which can be used for dance or
drama, with music
 Meghanath Mandapa
 Namaskara Mandapa
 Open Mandapa

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PORCH: In the Hindu temple the mandapa is a porch-like structure through the (gopuram)
(ornate gateway) and leading to the temple. It is used for religious dancing and music and is part
of the basic temple compound The prayer hall was generally built in front of the temple's
sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha). A large temple would have many mandapas.

If a temple has more than one mandapa, each one is allocated for a different function and given a
name to reflect its use. For example, a mandapa dedicated to divine marriage is referred to as a
kalyana mandapa. Often the hall was pillared and the pillars adorned with intricate carvings. In
contemporary terms, it also represents a structure within which a Hindu wedding is performed.
The Bride & Groom encircle a holy fire lit by the officiating priest in the center of the
Mandapam.

Hindu Temple mandapa

148
A Thai Buddhist Mandapa or Mondop, Wat Phra Kaew, Bangkok

Javanese Pendopa- mandala

149
In Burmese, the term mandat , which has etymological origins in Pali maṇḍapa, is an open
platform or pavilion from which people spray water to passers-by during the Buddhist
festival Thingyan.

In Indonesian, the mandapa is known as a pendopo . Unusually, Indonesian pendopos are built
mostly for Muslim communities. Many mosques follow the pendopo design, with a layered roof
to resemble Mount Meru.

In Khmer, Mandapa is pronounced to be Mondup , means pavilion. Khmer people often refer it
as a small shrine with high crown-shaped like tower, decorated with exquisite ornaments in
various styles. In Khmer temples during Angkor era, A Mandapa is generally attached to the
central tower of a temple and lied longitudinally to one of each main direction.

In Tamil, this platform is the Aayiram Kaal Mandapam – a distinctly thousand pillared hall close
to the vimana of the Koil which forms a distinct part of the site plan of classical Dravidian
architecture.

In Thai, it is called a mondop . It features often in Thai temple art and architecture, either in the
form of a Hor Trai (a temple library) or as an altar shrine such as the one in Wat Chiang
Man in Chiang Mai.

Mandapa: 3. Mandapa: Its Proportion as a tool in Understanding Indian Temple Architecture

Ragima N Ramachandran Abstract-

Mandapas in Indian temples have been studied with respect to various parameters like its
expression, function, proportion, orientation, chronology etc. Proportions of Mandapas both
spatial and in form is studied and taken as a tool to understand how it influences various other
parameters of mandapa or how its been influenced by others. An analysis of its proportion in
Indian temple architecture has been made especially focusing on Nagara style as mentioned in
ancient texts.

Evolution: Mandapas were added proportionately from 8th Century onwards to temples as an
additional space for performance of various functions with the participation of devotees as well
as a way to communicateion between the temple administration and the folk.

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Vedi is the term for "sacrificial altar" in the Vedic religion. Such altars were an elevated
outdoor enclosure, generally strewed with Kusha grass, and having receptacles for the sacrificial
fire; it was of various shapes, but usually narrow in the middle. At Kalibangan (at
the Ghaggar river) the remains of what some writers claim to be fire altars have been unearthed..
S.R. Rao found similar "fire altars" in Lothal which he thinks could have served no other purpose
than a ritualistic one. However in Temples, there is a Vedi where a Yajna ( see further) is/can be
performed. Yedi is basically a space on the ground which is prepared to accept some fire creating
elements such as wood or coal.

They were used in various types of Yajna rituals, of which the lengthiest was the agnicayana,
lasting twelve days. In Vedic times, offerings, often including animals, were burnt in the fire, and
fully consumed by it. This contrasts with modern Hindu offerings to gods, which are all
vegetable, and are preserved to be consumed by the devotees (which was also the case in other
religions, such as ancient Greek religion).

Fire altars remain part of the rituals in some Hindu festivals and rites of passage; in particular
circling around a sacred fire (saptapadi) remains an essential part of Hindu weddings.

153
Although Agni, the Vedic god of fire, has an important place in the mandala setting out the plan
in Hindu temple architecture, in the south-east part of the temple, fire altars are not now a normal
part of regular Hindu temple rituals. Modern fire sacrifices are covered at Homa rituals.

As deduced from descriptions in ancient texts, the types of vedi were:

 mahavedi, the great or entire altar

 uttaravedi, the northern altar made for the sacred fire (agnyayatana)
 dhishnya, a sort of subordinate or side-altar, generally a heap of earth covered with sand on
which the fire is placed
 drona, an altar shaped like a trough (Shulbas. 3.216)
 adhvaradhishnya, a second altar at the Soma sacrifice

The uttaravedi was in the shape of a falcon (alajacita = "piled up in the shape of the bird Alaja"),
and was piled up with bricks in the Agnicayana ritual.

Vedic altars are described in the circum-Vedic texts dealing with Kalpa (the proper performance
of sacrifice), notably the Satapatha Brahmana, and the Sulbasutras say that
the Rigveda corresponds to an altar of mantras.

Fire altars are already mentioned in the Rigveda. According to Taittiriya Samhita 5.2.3., they are
made of twenty-one bricks.

In ŚBM 10.4.3.14-20, the altar is made of 396 (360 + 36) yajusmati (special) bricks, and of
10,800 lokamprna (ordinary) bricks. 10,701 lokamprna bricks belong to the ahavaniya altar, 78
to the dhisnya hearths and 21 to the garhapatya. Around the altar are 360 parisrita stones (261
around ahavaniya, 78 around dhisnya, 21 around garhapatya).

ŚBM 10.3.1. describes that the altar is symbolically built with gayatri (24 syllables), usnih
(breath, 28 syllables), pankti (mind, 40 syllables), tristubh (ear, 44 syllables), jagati (awakening)
(48 syllables) and generative breath. The gayatri altar's height is to the knees, the tristubh's to the
navel and the jagati's to a man's height.

Agnicayana

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 Number of
Layer yajusmati bricks
in SB

5 138

4 47

3 71

2 41

1 98

In the Agnicayana ritual, the mahavedi (great altar) has a length of 24 prakrama in the east, 30 in
the west and 36 in the north and south. Inside the mahavedi, an altar is placed. In the smaller
ritual space to the west of the mahavedi (pracinavamsa, pragvamsa), three altars are placed: the
garhapatya (earth, W), ahavaniya (sky, E) and daksinagni (or anvaharyapacana, SW). The round
garhapatya and the square ahavaniya have the same area The Squaring the circle problem was
also investigated because of such ritualistic considerations.The ahavaniya altar has five layers
(citi), representing earth, space and the sky.

155
Yajna or Yagya (Sanskrit: यज्ञ) (IAST: yajñá) literally means "sacrifice, devotion, worship,
offering", and refers in Hinduism to any ritual done in front of a sacred fire, often with mantras.
Yajna has been a Vedic tradition, described in a layer of Vedic literature called Brahmanas, as
well as Yajurveda. The tradition has evolved from offering oblations and libations into sacred
fire to symbolic offerings in the presence of sacred fire (Agni).

Yajna rituals-related texts have been called the Karma-kanda (ritual works) portion of the Vedic
literature, in contrast to Jnana-kanda (knowledge) portion contained in the Vedic Upanishads.
The proper completion of Yajna-like rituals was the focus of Mimansa school of Hindu
philosophy.[3] Yajna have continued to play a central role in a Hindu's rites of passage, such as
weddings. Modern major Hindu temple ceremonies, Hindu community celebrations, or monastic
initiations may also include Vedic Yajna rites, or alternatively be based on Agamic rituals.

yajna is rooted in the Sanskrit yaj meaning "to worship, adore, honor, revere" and appears in the
early Vedic literature, composed in 2nd millennium BCE. In Rigveda, Yajurveda (itself a
derivative of this root) and others, it means "worship, devotion to anything, prayer and praise, an
act of worship or devotion, a form of offering or oblation, and sacrifice". In post-Vedic literature,
the term meant any form of rite, ceremony or devotion with an actual or symbolic offering or
effort.

156
A yajna included major ceremonial devotions, with or without a sacred fire, sometimes with
feasts and community events. It has, states Nigal, a threefold meaning of worship of the deities
(devapujana), unity (sangatikarana) and charity (dána).

The Sanskrit word is related to the Avestan term yasna of Zoroastrianism. Unlike the
Vedic yajna, however, the Yasna is the name of a specific religious service, not a class of rituals,
and they have "to do with water rather than fire".The Sanskrit word is further related to Ancient
Greek ἅζομαι (házomai), "to revere", deriving from the Proto-Indo-European root *Hyeh₂ǵ- ("to
worship").

Yajna has been a part of an individual or social ritual since the Vedic times. When the ritual fire
– the divine Agni, the god of fire and the messenger of gods – was deployed in a
Yajna, mantras were chanted.[6] The hymns and songs sung and oblations offered into the fire
were a form of hospitality towards the Vedic gods. The offerings were believed to be carried
by Agni to the gods, the gods in return were expected to grant boons and benedictions, and thus
the ritual served as a means of spiritual exchange between gods and human beings.
The Vedangas, or auxiliary sciences attached to the Vedic literature, define Yajna as follows,

Definition of a Vedic sacrifice

Yajña, sacrifice, is an act by which we surrender something for the sake of the gods. Such an act
must rest on a sacred authority (āgama), and serve for man's salvation (śreyortha). The nature of
the gift is of less importance. It may be cake (puroḍāśa), pulse (karu), mixed milk (sāṃnāyya),
an animal (paśu), the juice of soma-plant (soma), etc; nay, the smallest offerings of butter, flour,
and milk may serve for the purpose of a sacrifice.

— Apastamba Yajna Paribhasa-sutras 1.1, Translator: M Dhavamony[11][12]

In the Upanishadic times, or after 500 BCE, states Sikora, the meaning of the term Yajna
evolved from "ritual sacrifice" performed around fires by priests, to any "personal attitude and
action or knowledge" that required devotion and dedication.[6] The oldest Vedic Upanishads,
such as the Chandogya Upanishad (~700 BCE) in Chapter 8, for example state,

157
अथ यद्यज्ञ इत्याचक्षते ब्रह्मचययमेव

तद्ब्रह्मचयेण ह्येव यो ज्ञाता तं

लवन्दतेऽथ यलिष्टलमत्याचक्षते ब्रह्मचययमेव

तद्ब्रह्मचयेण ह्येवेष्ट्वात्मानमनुलवन्दते ॥ १ ॥

What is commonly called Yajna is really the chaste life of the student of sacred knowledge,
for only through the chaste life of a student does he who is a knower find that,
What is commonly called Istam (sacrificial offering) is really the chaste life of the student of
sacred knowledge,
for only having searched with chaste life of a student does one find Atman (Soul, Self) || 1 ||

— Chandogya Upanishad 8.5.1

The later Vedic Upanishads expand the idea further by suggesting that Yoga is a form
of Yajna (devotion, sacrifice).[14] The Shvetashvatara Upanishad in verse 1.5.14, for example,
uses the analogy of Yajna materials to explain the means to see one's soul and God, with inner
rituals and without external rituals.[14][15] It states, "by making one's own body as the lower
friction sticks, the syllable Om as the upper friction sticks, then practicing the friction of
meditation, one may see the Deva who is hidden, as it were".[15]

Priests

Vedic (Shrauta) yajnas are typically performed by four priests of the Vedic priesthood: the hota,
the adhvaryu, the udgata and the Brahma. The functions associated with the priests were:[17]

 The Hota recites invocations and litanies drawn from the Rigveda. He use three Rig verses,
the introductory verse, the accompanying verse and benediction as the third.
 The Adhvaryu is the priest's assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like
measuring the ground, building the altar explained in the Yajurveda. The adhvaryu offers
oblations.
 The Udgata is the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music (sāman) drawn from
the Samaveda. The udgatar, like the hota, chants the introductory, accompanying and
benediction hymns.

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 The Brahma is the superintendent of the entire performance, and is responsible for correcting
mistakes by means of supplementary verses taken from the Atharva Veda

Offerings

There were usually one, or three, fires lit in the center of the offering ground. Oblations are
offered into the fire. Among the ingredients offered as oblations in the yajna are ghee, milk,
grains, cakes and soma. The duration of a yajna depends on its type, some last only a few
minutes whereas, others are performed over a period of hours, days or even months. Some yajnas
were performed privately, while others were community events. In other cases, yajnas were
symbolic, such as in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad hymn 3.1.6, where "the mind is the Brahmin
of sacrifice" and the goal of sacrifice was complete release and liberation (moksha).

The benedictions proffered ranged from long life, gaining friends, health and heaven, more
prosperity, to better crops. For example,

May my rice plants and my barley, and my beans and my sesame,

and my kidney-beans and my vetches, and my pearl millet and my proso millet,
and my sorghum and my wild rice, and my wheat and my lentils,
prosper by sacrifice (Yajna).

— White Yajurveda 18.12,

Yajnas, where milk products, fruits, flowers, cloth and money are offered, are
called homa or havanam. A typical Hindu marriage involves a Yajna, where Agni is taken to be
the witness of the marriage.

Methods

A Yajna Vedi (square altar) with Samagri (offerings) on left, and a Yajna in progress (right).

159
The Vedic yajna ritual is performed in modern era in a square altar called Vedi (Bedi in Nepal),
set in a mandapa or mandala or kundam, wherein wood is placed along with oily seeds and other
combustion aids. However, in ancient times, the square principle was incorporated into grids to
build large complex shapes for community events.[26] Thus a rectangle, trapezia, rhomboids or
"large falcon bird" altars would be built from joining squares. The geometric ratios of these Vedi
altar, with mathematical precision and geometric theorems, are described in Shulba Sutras, one
of the precursors to the development of mathematics in ancient India. The offerings are
called Samagri (or Yajāka, Istam). The proper methods for the rites are part of Yajurveda, but
also found in Riddle Hymns (hymns of questions, followed by answers) in
various Brahmanas. When multiple priests are involved, they take turns as in a dramatic play,
where not only are praises to gods recited or sung, but the dialogues are part of a dramatic
representation and discussion of spiritual themes.

Agni and yajna play a central role in Hindu weddings. Various mutual promises between the
bride and groom are made in front of the fire, and the marriage is completed by actual or
symbolic walk around the fire. The wedding ritual of Panigrahana, for example, is the 'holding
the hand' ritual as a symbol of their impending marital union, and the groom announcing his
acceptance of responsibility to four deities: Bhaga signifying wealth, Aryama signifying
heavens/milky way, Savita signifying radiance/new beginning, and Purandhi signifying wisdom.
The groom faces west, while the bride sits in front of him with her face to the east, he holds her
hand while the Rig vedic mantra is recited in the presence of fire.

The Saptapadi (Sanskrit for seven steps/feet), is the most important ritual in Hindu weddings,
and represents the legal part of Hindu marriage. The couple getting married walk around
the Holy Fire (Agni), and the yajna fire is considered a witness to the vows they make to each
other. In some regions, a piece of clothing or sashes worn by the bride and groom are tied
together for this ceremony. Each circuit around the fire is led by either the bride or the groom,
varying by community and region. Usually, the bride leads the groom in the first circuit. The first
six circuits are led by the bride, and the final one by the groom.[33] With each circuit, the couple
makes a specific vow to establish some aspect of a happy relationship and household for each
other. The fire altar or the Yajna Kunda is square.

Kalpa Sutras lists the following yajna types-

160
 The Pakayajnas — They are the aṣtaka, sthālipāka, parvana, srāvaṇi, āgrahayani, caitri and
āsvīyuji. These yajnas involve consecrating cooked items.
 Soma Yajnas — Agnistoma, atyagnistoma, uktya, shodasi, vājapeya, atirātra and aptoryama
are the Soma Yajnas.
 Havir Yajnas — They are the agniyādhāna, agni hotra, Darśa-Pūrṇamāsa, āgrayana,
cāturmāsya, niruudha paśu bandha,[35] sautrāmaṇi. These involve offering havis or oblations.
 The five panca mahā Yajñās, which are mentioned below.
 Vedavratas, which are four in number, done during Vedic education.
 The remaining sixteen Yajnas, which are one-time samskāras or "rituals with mantras",
are Sanskara (rite of passage): garbhādhānā, pumsavana, sīmanta, jātakarma, nāmakaraṇa,
annaprāśana, chudākarma/caula, niskramana, karnavedha, vidyaarambha, upanayana,
keshanta, snātaka and vivāha, nisheka, antyeshti. These are specified by the Gṛhya Sūtrās.

The nature of Vedic sacrifice and rituals evolved over time, with major changes during the 1st
millennium BCE, changes that influenced concepts later adopted by other traditions such as
Buddhism.[37] Early Vedic period sacrifices involved animal sacrifice, but the rituals were
progressively reinterpreted over time, substituting the offerings and making it non-violent or
symbolic, with the superiority of knowledge and celebration of sound of mantra replacing the
physical offerings. Ultimately, the external rituals were reformulated and replaced with "internal
oblations performed within the human body".[37] These ideas of substitution, evolution from
external actions (karma-kanda) to internal knowledge (jñana-kanda), were highlighted in many
rituals-related sutras, as well as specialized texts such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (~800
BCE), Chandogya Upanishad, Kaushitaki Upanishad and Pranagnihotra Upanishad.

The Vedic text Satapatha Brahmana defines a sacrifice as an act of abandonment of something
one holds of value, such as oblations offered to god and dakshina (fees, gifts) offered during the
yajna.[37] For gifts and fees, the text recommends giving cows, clothing, horses or gold.[37] The
oblations recommended are cow milk, ghee (clarified butter), seeds, grains, flowers, water and
food cakes (rice cake, for example). Similar recommendations are repeated in other texts, such as
in the Taittiriya Shakha 2.10 of the Krishna Yajurveda).

Tadeusz Skorupski states that these sacrifices were a part of ritual way of life, and considered to
have inherent efficacy, where doing these sacrifices yielded repayment and results without the

161
priests or gods getting involved. These Vedic ideas, adds Skorupski, influenced "the formulation
of Buddhist theory of generosity".Buddhist ideas went further, criticizing "the Brahmins for their
decadence and failure to live in conformity with the Brahmanic legacy of the ancient Brahmins",
who claimed the Vedic ancients "lived in self restraint, were ascetics, had no cattle, no gold, and
no wealth".[40] The Buddha sought return to more ancient values, states Tadeusz Skorupski,
where the Vedic sages "had study as their grain and wealth, guarded the holy life as their
treasure, praised morality, austerity and nonviolence; they performed sacrifices consisting of
rice, barley and oil, but they did not kill the cows".

The five great Vedic sacrifices (Mahasattra)

Name of sacrifice What is sacrificed? To whom? Frequency

Sacrifice to living beings

Bhuta-yajna Food cakes Daily
(animals, birds, etc.)

Alms and water

Manushya-yajna Sacrifice to fellow human beings Daily
(service, charity)

Pitr-yajna Libations and water Sacrifice to fathers Daily

Deva-yajna Firewood Sacrifice to gods Daily

Sacrifice to Brahman
Brahma-yajna Words, read the Vedas When possible
(ultimate reality)

REFERENCES

1. India-Thailand Cultural Interactions pp 53-85| Cited as

Mandapas of India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Thailand, Chotima Chaturawong, Springer
Link,2017

2. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research Volume 10, Issue 7, July-2019
2104 ISSN 2229-5518 IJSER © 2019 http://www.ijser.org Ragima N Ramachandran
https://www.ijser.org/researchpaper/Mandapa-Its-Proportion-as-a-tool-in-Understanding-Indian-
Temple-Architecture.pdf

162
163
 CHAPTER6

HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE of BHARAT-SOME MUSINGS

Abstract:
This paper addresses interconnections between temple topography and architecture, ritual
practice, and cosmic symbolism. There is a substantial body of literature devoted to this topic,
from archaeological, textual, and theoretical perspectives in various different ancient cultures,
which suggests an excellent opportunity for interdisciplinary and cross-cultural analysis. The
importance of this topic is paramount not only to scholars of the ancient world, but also to the
study of religion, particularly the understanding and interpretation of ritual and sacred
architecture
Recent work illustrates the significance of this subject just as it illuminates the value of historical
and comparative perspectives. The arena can bring together archaeologists, art historians, and
philologists working all across the ancient world (Mesoamerica, Greece, Egypt, the Levant,
Mesopotamia, Iran, South Asia, and China) to facilitate communication between scholars of
different fields in order to share questions and methods which might provide new avenues of
research or enable the use of comparative data
There has been a lot of research into Hindu temple architecture, still many aspects of this subject
are still unexplored. This study attempts to collate some of the existing research that has been
undertaken in this field, and potentially contribute to the existing body of knowledge through a
structural analysis of Hindu Temple architecture. Contents Referred under Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike license (CC-BY-SA)

A temple (from the Latin word templum) is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual rituals
and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. It is typically used for such buildings belonging to all
faiths where a more specific term such as church, mosque or synagogue is not generally used in
English. These include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism among religions with many modern
followers, as well as other ancient religions such as Ancient Egyptian religion. The temple, it is
needless to say, is not an Indian invention.1A

164
The form and function of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered by
believers to be in some sense the "house" of one or more deities. Typically offerings of some sort
are made to the deity, and other rituals enacted, and a special group of clergy maintain, and
operate the temple. The degree to which the whole population of believers can access the
building varies significantly; often parts or even the whole main building can only be accessed
by the clergy. Temples typically have a main building and a larger precinct, which may contain
many other buildings, or may be a dome shaped structure, much like an igloo.

The word comes from Ancient Rome, where a temple constituted a sacred precinct as defined by
a priest, or augur. It has the same root as the word "template" a plan in preparation of the
building that was marked out on the ground by the augur.Templa also became associated with
the dwelling places of a god or gods. Despite the specific set of meanings associated with the
word, it has now become widely used to describe a house of worship for any number of religions
and is even used for time periods prior to the Romans. Hindu temples, however, are known by
many different names, varying on region and language, including Aiayam, Mandir, Mandira,
Gudi, Kavu, Koli, Kovil Déul, Raul, Devasthana, Degul, Deva Mandiraya and Devalaya.

A Hindu temple is a symbolic house, the seat and dwelling of Hindu gods. It is a structure
designed to bring human beings and gods together according to Hindu faith. Inside
its Garbhagriha innermost sanctum, a Hindu temple contains a Murti or Hindu god's image.
Hindu temples are large and magnificent with a rich history. There is evidence of use of sacred
ground as far back as the Bronze Age and later during the Indus Valley Civilization. Outside of
the Indian subcontinent (India, Bangladesh and Nepal), Hindu temples have been built in various
countries around the world. Either following the historic diffusion of Hinduism across Asia (e.g.
ancient stone temples of Cambodia and Indonesia), or following the migration of the Indian
Hindus' Diaspora; to Western Europe (esp. Great Britain), North America (the United
States and Canada), as well as Australia, Malaysia and Singapore, Mauritius and South Africa.

Individual rather than communal

_____________________________________________________________________

165
 Hindu worship is primarily an individual act rather than a communal one, as it involves making
personal offerings to the deity. Worshippers repeat the names of their favorite gods and
goddesses, and repeat mantras. Water, fruit, flowers and incense are offered to god. Unlike other
organized religions, in Hinduism, it is not mandatory for a person to visit a temple. Since all
Hindu home usually has a small shrine or ‘puja room’ for daily prayers, Hindus generally go to
temples only on auspicious occasions or during religious festivals. Hindu temples also do not
play a crucial role in marriages and funerals, but it is often the meeting place for religious
discourses as well as ‘bhajans’ and ‘kirtans’ (devotional songs and chants).

Puja
Hindu worship, or puja, involves images (murtis), prayers (mantras) and diagrams of the
universe (yantras).Central to Hindu worship is the image, or icon, which can be worshipped
either at home or in the temple.

Worship at home
The majority of Hindu homes have a shrine where offerings are made and prayers are said. A
shrine can be anything: a room, a small altar or simply pictures or statues of the deity. Family
members often worship together. Rituals should strictly speaking be performed three times a day.
Some Hindus, but not all, worship wearing the sacred thread (over the left shoulder and hanging
to the right hip). This is cotton for the Brahmin (priest), hemp for the Kshatriya (ruler) and wool
for the vaishya (merchants).

Temple worship
At a Hindu temple, different parts of the building have a different spiritual or symbolic meaning.

 The central shrine is the heart of the worshipper

 The tower represents the flight of the spirit to heaven

 A priest may read, or more usually recite, the Vedas to the assembled worshippers, but any
"twice-born" Hindu can perform the reading of prayers and mantras

Religious rites
Hindu religious rites are classified into three categories:

 Nitya

 Nitya rituals are performed daily and consist in offerings made at the home shrine or
performing puja to the family deities.

 Naimittika

166
  Naimittika rituals are important but only occur at certain times during the year, such as
celebrations of the festivals, thanksgiving and so on.

 Kamya

 Kamya are rituals which are "optional" but highly desirable. Pilgrimage is one such.

Worship and pilgrimage

Pilgrimage is an important aspect of Hinduism. It's an undertaking to see and be seen by the
deity. Popular pilgrimage places are rivers, but temples, mountains, and other sacred sites in
India are also destinations for pilgrimages, as sites where the gods may have appeared or become
manifest in the world.

History of Temples

In the Vedic period, there were no temples. The main object of worship was the fire that stood
for God. This holy fire was lit on a platform in the open air under the sky, and oblations were
offered to the fire. It is not certain when exactly the Indo-Aryans first started building temples
for worship. The scheme of building temples was perhaps a concomitant of the idea of idol
worship.

Locations of Temples

As the race progressed, temples became important because they served as a sacred meeting place
for the community to congregate and revitalize their spiritual energies. Large temples were
usually built at picturesque places, especially on river banks, on top of hills, and on the seashore.
Smaller temples or open-air shrines can crop up just about anywhere - by the roadside or even
under the tree.

Holy places in India are famous for its temples. Indian towns — from Amaranth to Ayodhya,
Brindavan to Banaras, and Kanchipuram to Kanya Kumari— are all known for their wonderful
temples.

167
Temple Architecture
____________________________________________________________________
The architecture of Hindu temples evolved over a period of more than 2,000 years and
there is a great variety in this architecture. Hindu temples are of different shapes and sizes
— rectangular, octagonal, and semi-circular — with different types of domes and gates.
Temples in southern India have a different style than those in northern India. Although the
architecture of Hindu temples is varied, they mainly have many things in common. The
temples of ancient India have also received substantial treatment with regard to their
cosmic meaning, but the interpretation of sacred architecture in India has been influenced
by the significant body of ritual and architectural texts (sacute;ãstras), which provide
detailed rules and conventions for all aspects of planning and construction and ritual
practice. The use of these texts has not only supplemented understanding of the symbolism
of temple architecture, but encouraged research into the meaning of plans, proportions,
and architecture as science. The question of the interrelationship between cosmos and
architecture has also been investigated in ancient Greece, where the use of proportion and
geometry is considered vital to this topic. The question of whether similar constraints
existed in other cultures, such as the example of Mesopotamia, also arises, with the
possibility that they were perhaps articulated in the form of metrological texts.1

The 6 Parts of a Hindu Temple

______________________________________________________________________

1. The Dome and Steeple: The steeple of the dome is called ‘shikhara’ (summit) that represents
the mythological ‘Meru’ or the highest mountain peak. The shape of the dome varies from region
to region and the steeple is often in the form of the trident of Shiva.

2. The Inner Chamber: The inner chamber of the temple called ‘garbhagriha’ or ‘womb-
chamber’ is where the image or idol of the deity (‘murti’) is placed. In most temples, the visitors
cannot enter the garbhagriha, and only the temple priests are allowed inside.

3. The Temple Hall: Most large temples have a hall meant for the audience to sit. This is also
called the ‘nata-mandira’ (hall for temple-dancing) where, in days of yore, women dancers or
‘devadasis’ used to perform dance rituals. Devotees use the hall to sit, meditate, pray, chant or

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watch the priests perform the rituals. The hall is usually decorated with paintings of gods and
goddesses.

4. The Front Porch: This area of the temples usually has a big metallic bell that hangs from the
ceiling. Devotees entering and leaving the porch ring this bell to declare their arrival and
departure.

5. The Reservoir: If the temple is not in the vicinity of a natural water body, a reservoir of fresh
water is built on the temple premises. The water is used for rituals as well as to keep the temple
floor clean or even for a ritual bath before entering the holy abode.

6. The Walkway: Most temples have a walkway around the walls of the inner chamber for
circum-ambulation by devotees around the deity as a mark of respect to the temples god or
goddess.

Hindu temple is a symbolic house, seat and body of god. It is a structure designed to bring
human beings and gods together, using symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism.

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The symbolism and structure of a Hindu temple are rooted in Vedic traditions, deploying circles
and squares.[3] It also represents recursion and equivalence of the macrocosm and the microcosm
by astronomical numbers, and by "specific alignments related to the geography of the place and
the presumed linkages of the deity and the patron". A temple incorporates all elements of Hindu
cosmos—presenting the good, the evil and the human, as well as the elements of Hindu sense of
cyclic time and the essence of life—symbolically presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksa,
and karma.

The spiritual principles symbolically represented in Hindu temples are given in the ancient
Sanskrit texts of India (for example, Vedas and Upanishads), while their structural rules are
described in various ancient Sanskrit treatises on architecture (Brhat Samhita, Vastu Sastras).
The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric
symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism. A Hindu
temple is a spiritual destination for many Hindus, as well as landmarks around which ancient
arts, community celebrations and economy have flourished.

Hindu temples come in many styles, are situated in diverse locations, deploy different
construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs, yet almost all of
them share certain core ideas, symbolism and themes. They are found in South Asia
particularly India and Nepal, in southeast Asian countries such as Sri
Lanka, Cambodia, Vietnam, and islands of Indonesia and Malaysia, and countries such
as Canada, the Caribbean, Fiji, France, Guyana, Kenya, Mauritius, the Netherlands, South
Africa, Suriname, Tanzania, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, the United Kingdom, the United
States, and countries with a significant Hindu community. The current state and outer appearance
of Hindu temples reflect arts, materials and designs as they evolved over two millennia; they also
reflect the effect of conflicts between Hinduism and Islamsince the 12th century.
The Swaminarayanan Akshardham in Robbinsville, New Jersey, United States, between the New
York and Philadelphia metropolitan areas, was inaugurated in 2014 as one of the world's largest
Hindu temples.

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Significance and meaning of a Hindu temple

A Hindu temple reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma, beliefs, values, and the way of
life cherished under Hinduism. It is a link between man, deities, and the Universal Purusa in a
sacred space. It represents the triple-knowledge (trayi-vidya) of the Vedic vision by mapping the
relationships between the cosmos (brahmanda) and the cell (pinda) by a unique plan that is based
on astronomical numbers. Subhash Kak sees the temple form and its iconography to be a natural
expansion of Vedic ideology related to recursion, change and equivalence.

The 9x9 (81) grid ‘’Parama Sayika’’ layout plan (above) found in large ceremonial Hindu
Temples. It is one of many grids used to build Hindu temples. In this structure of symmetry, each
concentric layer has significance. The outermost layers, Paisachika padas, signify aspects of
Asuras and evil; while inner Devika padas signify aspects of Devas and good. In between the
good and evil is the concentric layer of Manusha padas signifying human life; All these layers
surround Brahma padas, which signifies creative energy and the site for temple’s primary idol
for darsana. Finally at the very center of Brahma padas is Grabhgriya (Purusa Space), signifying
Universal Principle present in everything and everyone.
In ancient Indian texts, a temple is a place for Tirtha – pilgrimage. It is a sacred site whose
ambience and design attempts to symbolically condense the ideal tenets of Hindu way of life. All
the cosmic elements that create and sustain life are present in a Hindu temple – from fire to

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water, from images of nature to deities, from the feminine to the masculine, from the fleeting
sounds and incense smells to the eternal nothingness yet universality at the core of the temple.

Susan Lewandowski states that the underlying principle in a Hindu temple is built around the
belief that all things are one, everything is connected. The pilgrim is welcomed through 64-grid
or 81-grid mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with carvings and statues
that display and celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life – the pursuit
of artha (prosperity, wealth), the pursuit of kama (pleasure, sex), the pursuit of dharma (virtues,
ethical life) and the pursuit of moksha (release, self-knowledge). At the center of the temple,
typically below and sometimes above or next to the deity, is mere hollow space with no
decoration, symbolically representing Purusa, the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one
without form, which is present everywhere, connects everything, and is the essence of everyone.
A Hindu temple is meant to encourage reflection, facilitate purification of one’s mind, and
trigger the process of inner realization within the devotee. The specific process is left to the
devotee’s school of belief. The primary deity of different Hindu temples varies to reflect this
spiritual spectrum.

In Hindu tradition, there is no dividing line between the secular and the sacred.[9] In the same
spirit, Hindu temples are not just sacred spaces, they are also secular spaces. Their meaning and
purpose have extended beyond spiritual life to social rituals and daily life, offering thus a social
meaning. Some temples have served as a venue to mark festivals, to celebrate arts through dance
and music, to get married or commemorate marriages, commemorate the birth of a child, other
significant life events, or mark the death of a loved one. In political and economic life, Hindu
temples have served as a venue for the succession within dynasties and landmarks around which
economic activity thrived.

Forms and designs of Hindu temples

Almost all Hindu temples take two forms: a house or a palace. A house-themed temple is a
simple shelter which serves as a deity’s home. The temple is a place where the devotee visits,
just like he or she would visit a friend or relative. The use of moveable and
immoveable images is mentioned by Pāṇini. In Bhakti school of Hinduism, temples are venues
for puja, which is a hospitality ritual, where the deity is honored, and where devotee calls upon,
attends to and connects with the deity. In other schools of Hinduism, the person may simply

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perform jap, or meditation, or yoga, or introspection in his or her temple. Palace-themed temples
often incorporate more elaborate and monumental architecture.

The major and distinct features between the north Indian temple and the south Indian temple are
their superstructures. In the north the beehive shaped tower is the most distinguished element
called as the sikhara. The gateways are in the north and they are plain, simple and small. The
plans of the north Indian temples are based on square but the walls are sometimes broken at so
many places that it gives an impression of temple being circular in plan. The tower is made up of
miniature sikhara creating an amazing visual effect resembling mountain.

In the south, the distinct features are the vimana and the gopurams. The vimana is a tall
pyramidal tower consisting of several progressively smaller storeys, the peak of the vimana is
called as sikhara in the south Indian temples. This stands on a square base. The temple complex
consisting of the main shrine and other smaller shrines are enclosed by the outer wall called as
the prakara. Along these outer walls are the intricate and marvelous gateways called as
gopurams. These gopurams became taller and taller overpowering the main shrine and its
superstructure and dominating the whole temple complex.
Site
____________________________________________________________________
The appropriate site for a temple, suggest ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water and gardens, where
lotus and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are heard, where animals rest
without fear of injury or harm. These harmonious places were recommended in these texts with
the explanation that such are the places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu
temples.

The gods always play where lakes are,

where the sun’s rays are warded off by umbrellas of lotus leaf clusters,
and where clear water paths are made by swans
whose breasts toss the white lotus hither and thither,
where swans, ducks, curleys and paddy birds are heard,
and animals rest nearby in the shade of Nicula trees on the river banks.

The gods always play where rivers have for their bracelets
the sound of curleys and the voice of swans for their speech,
water as their garment, carps for their zone,
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 the flowering trees on their banks as earrings,
the confluence of rivers as their hips,
raised sand banks as breasts and plumage of swans their mantle.

The gods always play where groves are near, rivers, mountains and springs, and in towns
with pleasure gardens.

— Brhat Samhita 1.60.4-8, 6th Century AD

While major Hindu temples are recommended at confluence of rivers ( or sangams), river banks,
lakes and seashore, Brhat Samhita and Puranas suggest temples may also be built where a
natural source of water is not present. Here too, they recommend that a pond be built preferably
in front or to the left of the temple with water gardens. If water is neither present naturally nor by
design, water is symbolically present at the consecration of temple or the deity. Temples may
also be built, suggests Visnudharmottara in Part III of Chapter 93, inside caves and carved
stones, on hill tops affording peaceful views, mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys,
inside forests and hermitages, next to gardens, or at the head of a town street.

Manuals

______________________________________________________________________

Ancient builders of Hindu temples created manuals of architecture, called Vastu-Sastra (literally
"science" of dwelling; vas-tu is a composite Sanskrit word; vas means "reside", tumeans "you");
these contain Vastu-Vidya (literally, knowledge of dwelling). There exist many Vastu-Sastras on
the art of building temples, such as one by Thakkura Pheru, describing where and how temples
should be built. By the 6th century AD, Sanskrit manuals for in India. Vastu-Sastra manuals
included chapters on home construction, town planning, and how efficient villages, towns and
kingdoms integrated temples, water bodies and gardens within them to achieve harmony with
nature.[34][35] While it is unclear, states Barnett, as to whether these temple and town planning
texts were theoretical studies and if or when they were properly implemented in practice, the
manuals suggest that town planning and Hindu temples were conceived as ideals of art and
integral part of Hindu social and spiritual life.

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Ancient India produced many Sanskrit manuals for Hindu temple design and construction,
covering arrangement of spaces (above) to every aspect of its completion. Yet, the Silpins were
given wide latitude to experiment and express their creativity. The Silpa Prakasa of Odisha,
authored by Ramacandra Bhattaraka Kaulacara in the ninth or tenth centuries AD, is another
Sanskrit treatise on Temple Architecture. Silpa Prakasa describes the geometric principles in
every aspect of the temple and symbolism such as 16 emotions of human beings carved as 16
types of female figures. These styles were perfected in Hindu temples prevalent in eastern states
of India. Other ancient texts found expand these architectural principles, suggesting that different
parts of India developed, invented and added their own interpretations. For example,
in Saurastra tradition of temple building found in western states of India, the feminine form,
expressions and emotions are depicted in 32 types of Nataka-stri compared to 16 types described
in Silpa Prakasa. Silpa Prakasa provides brief introduction to 12 types of Hindu temples. Other
texts, such as Pancaratra Prasada Prasadhana compiled by Daniel Smith and Silpa Ratnakara
compiled by Narmada Sankara[40] provide a more extensive list of Hindu temple types.
Ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple construction discovered in Rajasthan, in northwestern
region of India, include Sutradhara Mandana’s Prasadamandana (literally, manual for planning
and building a temple). Manasara, a text of South Indian origin, estimated to be in circulation by

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the 7th century AD, is a guidebook on South Indian temple design and
construction. Isanasivagurudeva paddhati is another Sanskrit text from the 9th century
describing the art of temple building in India in south and central India. In north India, Brihat-
samhita by Varāhamihira is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual from 6th century describing
the design and construction of Nagara style of Hindu temples.

The plan

Elements of a Hindu temple in Kalinga style. There are many Hindu temple styles, but they
almost universally share common geometric principles, symbolism of ideas, and expression of
core beliefs.

The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to vastupurusamandala. The 64
grid is the most sacred and common Hindu temple template. The bright saffron center, where
diagonals intersect above, represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy.
A Hindu temple design follows a geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala. The name is
a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the

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plan. Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition,
while Vastu means the dwelling structure. Vastupurushamandala is a yantra. The design lays out
a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths,
cardinality and mathematical principles.

The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a
perfect square in the space available. The circle of mandala circumscribes the square. The square
is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human
thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun,
horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other. The square is divided into perfect 64 (or
in some cases 81) sub-squares called padas. Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic
element, sometimes in the form of a deity. The central square(s) of the 64 or 81 grid is dedicated
to the Brahman (not to be confused with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas.

The 49 grid design is called Sthandila and of great importance in creative expressions of Hindu
temples in South India, particularly in ‘‘Prakaras’’. The symmetric Vastu-purusa-mandala grids
are sometimes combined to form a temple superstructure with two or more attached squares. The
temples face sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is typically this east side. The mandala
pada facing sunrise is dedicated to Surya deity (Sun). The Surya pada is flanked by the padas of
Satya (Truth) deity on one side and Indra (king of gods) deity on other. The east and north faces
of most temples feature a mix of gods and demi-gods; while west and south feature demons and
demi-gods related to the underworld. This vastu purusha mandala plan and symbolism is
systematically seen in ancient Hindu temples on Indian subcontinent as well as those in
Southeast Asia, with regional creativity and variations.

Beneath the Mandela’s central square(s) is the space for the formless shapeless all pervasive all
connecting Universal Spirit, the highest reality, the purusha. This space is sometimes referred to
as garbha-griya (literally womb house) – a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space
without ornamentation that represents universal essence. In or near this space is typically a murti
(idol). This is the main deity idol, and this varies with each temple. Often it is this idol that gives
the temple a local name, such
as Visnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Siva temple, Lakshmi temple,

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Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple, and others. It is this garbha-
griyawhich devotees seek for ‘‘darsana’’ (literally, a sight of knowledge, or vision

Above the vastu-purusha-mandala is a superstructure with a dome called Shikhara in north India,
and Vimana in south India, that stretches towards the sky. Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the
dome may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical
dimension's cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, conical or other mountain-like shape, once
again using principle of concentric circles and squares (see below). Scholars suggest that this
shape is inspired by cosmic mountain of Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of gods
according to Vedic mythology.

A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core
of the temple. These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have mathematical
precision and geometric symbolism. One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires
is circles and turning-squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right) that flows
from one to the other as it rises towards the sky.
In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to
walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa, the universal essence. Often this space is
visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images meant to inspire the devotee. In some
temples, these images may be stories from Hindu Epics, in others they may be Vedic tales about
right and wrong or virtues and vice, in some they may be idols of minor or regional deities. The
pillars, walls and ceilings typically also have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just
and necessary pursuits of life – kama, artha, dharma and moksa. This walk around is
called pradakshina.

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Large temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One on the east side, serves as the waiting
room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapa may be a separate structure in older temples, but
in newer temples this space is integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega temple sites have a
main temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still arranged by principles
of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. An important principle found in the layout of
Hindu temples is mirroring and repeating fractal-like design structure, each unique yet also
repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as "an
organism of repeating cells".

An illustration of Hindu temple Spires (Shikhara, Vimana) built using concentric circle and
rotating-squares principle. The left is from Vijayanagar in Karnataka, the right is from Pushkar
in Rajasthan.
The ancient texts on Hindu temple design, the Vastupurusamandala and Vastu Sastras, do not
limit themselves to the design of a Hindu temple. They describe the temple as a holistic part of
its community, and lay out various principles and a diversity of alternate designs for home,
village and city layout along with the temple, gardens, water bodies and nature.

Exceptions to the square grid principle

______________________________________________________________________
Predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect square grid principle. However, there
are some exceptions. For example, the Teli-ka-mandir in Gwalior, built in the 8th century AD is
not a square but is a rectangle in 2:3 proportion. Further, the temple explores a number of
structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting
the architect intended to use these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake,
nor an arbitrary approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at
Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and Nakti-Mata temple near Jaipur, Rajasthan. Michael
Meistersuggests that these exceptions mean the ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple building
were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in expression and aesthetic
independence.

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The symbolism

____________________________________________________________________

A Hindu temple is a symbolic reconstruction of the universe and universal principles that make
everything in it function. The temples reflect Hindu philosophy and its diverse views on cosmos
and Truths.

Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no centralized religious authorities, no

governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic,
pantheistic, monistic, or atheistic. Within this diffuse and open structure, spirituality in Hindu
philosophy is an individual experience, and referred to as kṣaitrajña (Sanskrit: क्षैत्रज्ञ). It defines
spiritual practice as one’s journey towards moksha, awareness of self, the discovery of higher
truths, true nature of reality, and a consciousness that is liberated and content. A Hindu temple
reflects these core beliefs. The central core of almost all Hindu temples is not a large communal
space; the temple is designed for the individual, a couple or a family – a small, private space
where he or she experiences darsana.

Darsana is itself a symbolic word. In ancient Hindu scripts, darsana is the name of six methods
or alternate viewpoints of understanding Truth. These are Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga,
Mimamsa and Vedanta – each of which flowered into their own schools of Hinduism, each of
which are considered valid, alternate paths to understanding Truth and realizing Self in the
Hindu way of life.

Kāma is celebrated in some Hindu temples, such as Khajuraho and the Konark Temple (above).
From names to forms, from images to stories carved into the walls of a temple, symbolism is
everywhere in a Hindu temple. Life principles such as the pursuit of joy, sex, connection and
emotional pleasure (kama) are fused into mystical, erotic and architectural forms in Hindu
temples. These motifs and principles of human life are part of the sacred texts of Hindu, such as
its Upanishads; the temples express these same principles in a different form, through art and
spaces. For example, Brihadaranyaka Upanisad at 4.3.21 recites:

In the embrace of his beloved a man forgets the whole world,

everything both within and without;

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 in the same way, he who embraces the Self
knows neither within nor without.

— Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 7th Century BC

The architecture of Hindu temples is also symbolic. The whole structure fuses the daily life and
it surroundings with the divine concepts, through a structure that is open yet raised on a terrace,
[70]
transitioning from the secular towards the sacred, inviting the visitor inwards towards the
Brahma pada and temple’s central core, as well as lifting him upwards into a symbolic space
marked by its spire (shikhara, vimana). The ancient temples had grand intricately carved
entrances but no doors, and lacked a boundary wall. In most cultures, boundary and gateway
separates the secular and the sacred, and this gateway door is grand. In Hindu tradition, this is
discarded in favor of an open and diffusive architecture, where the secular world was not
separated from the sacred, but transitioned and flowed into the sacred. The Hindu temple has
structural walls, which were patterned usually within the 64 grid, or other geometric layouts. Yet
the layout was open on all sides, except for the core space which had just one opening for
darsana. The temple space is laid out in a series of courts (mandappas). The outermost regions
may incorporate the negative and suffering side of life with symbolism of evil, asuras and
rakshashas (demons); but in small temples this layer is dispensed with. When present, this outer
region diffuse into the next inner layer that bridges as human space, followed by another inner
Devika padas space and symbolic arts incorporating the positive and joyful side of life about the
good and the gods. This divine space then concentrically diffuses inwards and lifts the guest to
the core of the temple, where resides the main idol as well as the space for the Purusa and ideas
held to be most sacred principles in Hindu tradition. The symbolism in the arts and temples of
Hinduism, suggests Edmund Leach, is similar to those in Christianity and other major religions
of the world.

Styles

Hindu temples are found in diverse locations each incorporating different methods of
construction and styles:

 Mountain temples such as Masrur

 Cave temples such as Chandrabhaga, Chalukya and Ellora

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 Step well temple compounds such as the Mata Bhavani, Ankol Mata and Huccimallugudi.
 Forest temples such as Kasaun and Kusama
 River bank and sea shore temples such as Somnath.
 Hindu deities, stepwell style.
Step well temples
_____________________________________________________________________
In arid western parts of India, such as Rajasthan and Gujarat, Hindu communities built large
walk in wells that served as the only source of water in dry months but also served as social
meeting places and carried religious significance. These monuments went down into earth
towards subterranean water, up to seven storey, and were part of a temple complex. These vav
(literally, stepwells) had intricate art reliefs on the walls, with numerous idols and images of
Hindu deities, water spirits and erotic symbolism. The step wells were named after Hindu deities;
for example, Mata Bhavani's Stepwell, Ankol Mata Vav, Sikotari Vav and others. The temple
ranged from being small single pada (cell) structure to large nearby complexes. These stepwells
and their temple compounds have been variously dated from late 1st millennium BC through
11th century AD. Of these, Rani ki vav, with hundreds of art reliefs including many
of Vishnu deity avatars, has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Cave Temples
___________________________________________________________________
The Indian rock-cut architecture evolved in Maharashtrian temple style in the 1st millennium
AD. The temples are carved from a single piece of rock as a complete temple or carved in a cave
to look like the interior of a temple. Ellora Temple is an example of the former, while
The Elephanta Caves are representative of the latter style. The Elephanta Caves consist of two
groups of caves—the first is a large group of five Hindu caves and the second is a smaller group
of two Buddhist caves. The Hindu caves contain rock-cut stone sculptures, representing the
Shaiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god Shiva.

The teams that built Hindu temples

______________________________________________________________________
The 6th-century Brihat samhita is a Sanskrit encyclopedia. Its chapters 57-60 discuss different
styles and design of Hindu temples. Above: the text and commentary in Nepalaksara, Devanagari
and Tamil Grantha scripts.

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Indian texts call the craftsmen and builders of temples as ‘‘Silpin’’ (Sanskrit: लिल्पिन्), derived
from ‘‘Silpa’’. One of earliest mentions of Sanskrit word Silpa is in Atharvaveda, from about
1000 BC, which scholars have translated as any work of art. Other scholars suggest that the word
Silpa has no direct one word translation in English, nor does the word ‘‘Silpin’’. Silpa, explains
Stella Kramrisch, is a multicolored word and incorporates art, skill, craft, ingenuity, imagination,
form, expression and inventiveness of any art or craft. Similarly a Shilpin, notes Kramrisch, is a
complex Sanskrit word, describing any person who embodies art, science, culture, skill, rhythm
and employs creative principles to produce any divine form of expression. Silpins who built
Hindu temples, as well as the art works and sculpture within them, were considered by the
ancient Sanskrit texts to deploy arts whose number are unlimited, Kala (techniques) that were 64
in number, and Vidya (science) that were of 32 types.

The Hindu manuals of temple construction describe the education, characteristics of good artists
and architects. The general education of a Hindu Shilpin in ancient India included Lekha or Lipi
(alphabet, reading and writing), Rupa (drawing and geometry), Ganana (arithmetic). These were
imparted from age 5 to 12. The advanced students would continue in higher stages of Shilpa
Sastra studies till the age of 25. Apart from specialist technical competence, the manuals suggest
that best Silpins for building a Hindu temple are those who know the essence of Vedas and
Agamas, consider themselves as students, keep well verse with principles of traditional sciences
and mathematics, painting and geography. Further they are kind, free from jealousy, righteous,
have their sense under control, of happy disposition, and ardent in everything they do.

According to Silparatna, a Hindu temple project would start with a Yajamana (patron), and
include a Sthapaka (guru, spiritual guide and architect-priest), a Sthapati (architect) who would
design the building, a Sutragrahin (surveyor), and many Vardhakins (workers, masons, painters,
plasterers, overseers) and Taksakas (sculptors). While the temple is under construction, all those
working on the temple were revered and considered sacerdotal by the patron as well as others
witnessing the construction. Further, it was a tradition that all tools and materials used in temple
building and all creative work had the sanction of a sacrament. For example, if a carpenter or
sculptor needed to fell a tree or cut a rock from a hill, he would propitiate the tree or rock with
prayers, seeking forgiveness for cutting it from its surroundings, and explaining his intent and
purpose. The axe used to cut the tree would be anointed with butter to minimize the hurt to the

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tree. Even in modern times, in some parts of India such as Odisha, Visvakarma Puja is a ritual
festival every year where the craftsmen and artists worship their arts, tools and materials.

Social functions of Hindu temples

Hindu temples served as nuclei of important social, economic, artistic and intellectual functions
in ancient and medieval India.Burton Stein states that South Indian temples managed regional
development function, such as irrigation projects, land reclamation, post-disaster relief and
recovery. These activities were paid for by the donations (melvarum) they collected from
devotees.According to James Heitzman, these donations came from a wide spectrum of the
Indian society, ranging from kings, queens, officials in the kingdom to merchants, priests and
shepherds Temples also managed lands endowed to it by its devotees upon their death. They
would provide employment to the poorest. Some temples had large treasury, with gold and silver
coins, and these temples served as banks.

Hindu temples over time became wealthy from grants and donations from royal patrons as well
as private individuals. Major temples became employers and patrons of economic activity. They
sponsored land reclamation and infrastructure improvements, states Michell, including building
facilities such as water tanks, irrigation canals and new roads. A very detailed early record from
1101 lists over 600 employees (excluding the priests) of the Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur,
still one of the largest temples in Tamil Nadu. Most worked part-time and received the use of
temple farmland as reward. For those thus employed by the temple, according to Michell, "some
gratuitous services were usually considered obligatory, such as dragging the temple chariots on
festival occasions and helping when a large building project was undertaken". Temples also
acted as refuge during times of political unrest and danger.

In contemporary times, the process of building a Hindu temple by emigrants and diasporas from
South Asia has also served as a process of building a community, a social venue to network,
reduce prejudice and seek civil rights together.

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Library of manuscript

______________________________________________________________________

Forest temple
Cave temple

Mountain temple
Seashore temple

John Guy and Jorrit Britschgi state Hindu temples served as centers where ancient manuscripts
were routinely used for learning and where the texts were copied when they wore out. In South
India, temples and associated mutts served custodial functions, and a large number of
manuscripts on Hindu philosophy, poetry, grammar and other subjects were written, multiplied
and preserved inside the temples. Archaeological and epigraphical evidence indicates existence
of libraries called Sarasvati-bhandara, dated possibly to early 12th-century and employing
librarians, attached to Hindu temples.

Palm-leaf manuscripts called lontar in dedicated stone libraries have been discovered by
archaeologists at Hindu temples in Bali Indonesia and in 10th century Cambodian temples such
as Angkor Wat and Banteay Srei.

Temple schools

_____________________________________________________________________

Inscriptions from the 4th century AD suggest the existence of schools around Hindu temples,
called Ghatikas or Mathas, where the Vedas were studied. In south India, 9th century Vedic
schools attached to Hindu temples were called Calai or Salai, and these provided free boarding
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and lodging to students and scholars. The temples linked to Bhakti movementin the early 2nd
millennium, were dominated by non-Brahmins. These assumed many educational functions,
including the exposition, recitation and public discourses of Sanskrit and Vedic texts. Some
temple schools offered wide range of studies, ranging from Hindu scriptures to Buddhist texts,
grammar, philosophy, martial arts, music and painting. By the 8th century, Hindu temples also
served as the social venue for tests, debates, team competition and Vedic recitals
called Anyonyam.

Hospitals, community kitchen, monasteries

______________________________________________________________________

According to Kenneth G. Zysk – a professor specializing in Indology and ancient medicine,

Hindu mathas and temples had by the 10th-century attached medical care along with their
religious and educational roles. This is evidenced by various inscriptions found in Bengal,
Andhra Pradesh and elsewhere. An inscription dated to about AD 930 states the provision of a
physician to two math to care for the sick and destitute. Another inscription dated to 1069 at a
Vishnu temple in Tamil Nadu describes a hospital attached to the temple, listing the nurses,
physicians, medicines and beds for patients. Similarly, a stone inscription in Andhra Pradesh
dated to about 1262 mentions the provision of a prasutishala (maternity
house), vaidya (physician), an arogyashala (health house) and a viprasattra (hospice, kitchen)
with the religious center where people from all social backgrounds could be fed and cared
for. According to Zysk, both Buddhist monasteries and Hindu religious centers provided
facilities to care for the sick and needy in the 1st millennium, but with the destruction of
Buddhist centers after the 12th century, the Hindu religious institutions assumed these social
responsibilities. According to George Michell, Hindu temples in South India were active charity
centers and they provided free meal for wayfarers, pilgrims and devotees, as well as boarding
facilities for students and hospitals for the sick.

The 15th and 16th century Hindu temples at Hampi featured storage spaces (temple
granary, kottara), water tanks and kitchens. Many major pilgrimage sites have
featured dharmashalas since early times. These were attached to Hindu temples, particularly in
South India, providing a bed and meal to pilgrims. They relied on any voluntary donation the
visitor may leave and to land grants from local rulers. Some temples have operated their kitchens

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on daily basis to serve the visitor and the needy, while others during major community
gatherings or festivals. Examples include the major kitchens run by Hindu temples
in Udupi (Karnataka), Puri (Odisha) and Tirupati (Andhra Pradesh). The tradition of sharing
food in smaller temple is typically called prasada.

Ancient Hindu temple has a profusion of arts – from paintings to sculpture, from symbolic icons
to engravings, from thoughtful layout of space to fusion of mathematical principles with Hindu
sense of time and cardinality.

Ancient Sanskrit texts classify idols and images in number of ways. For example, one method of
classification is the dimensionality of completion

 Chitra – images that are 3-dimensional and completely formed,

 Chitrardha – images that are engraved in half relief,
 Chitrabhasa – images that are 2-dimensional such as paintings on walls and cloths.

Images and idols inside Hindu temples vary widely in their expression. Raudra or ugra images
express destruction, fear and violence, such as Kali image on left. Shanta or saumya images
express joy, knowledge and harmony, such as Saraswati image on right. Saumya images are
most common in Hindu temples.
Another way of classification is by the expressive state of the image:

 Raudra or ugra – are images that were meant to terrify, induce fear. These typically have
wide, circular eyes, carry weapons, and have skulls and bones as adornment. These idols
were worshiped by soldiers before going to war, or by people in times of distress or terrors.
Raudra deity temples were not set up inside villages or towns, but invariably outside and in
remote areas of a kingdom.[110]
 Shanta and saumya – are images that were pacific, peaceful and expressive of love,
compassion, kindness and other virtues in Hindu pantheon. These images would carry
symbolic icons of peace, knowledge, music, wealth, flowers, sensuality among other things.
In ancient India, these temples were predominant inside villages and towns.

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A Hindu temple may or may not include an idol or images, but larger temples usually do.
Personal Hindu temples at home or a hermitage may have a pada for yoga or meditation, but be
devoid of anthropomorphic representations of god. Nature or others arts may surround him or
her. To a Hindu yogin, states Gopinath Rao, one who has realised self and the Universal
Principle within himself, there is no need for any temple or divine image for worship. However,
for those who have yet to reach this height of realization, various symbolic manifestations
through images, idols and icons as well as mental modes of worship are offered as one of the
spiritual paths in the Hindu way of life. This belief is repeated in ancient Hindu scriptures. For
example, the Jabaladarshana Upanishad states:

लिवमात्मलन पश्यल्पि प्रलतमासु न योलगनः |

अज्ञानं भावनाथाय य प्रलतमाः पररकल्पिताः || ५९ ||

- जाबाििियनोपलनषत्

A yogin perceives god (Siva) within himself,

images are for those who have not reached this knowledge. (Verse 59)

— Jabaladarsana Upanishad,

Historical development and destruction

How and when the first temple took its birth is to anybody’s guess. Temples did not seem to
exist during Vedic period. The main object of worship was fire that stood for God. This holy fire
was lit on a platform in the open air under the sky, and oblations were offered to the fire. It is not
certain when exactly the Indo Aryans first started building temples for worship. The scheme of
building temples was perhaps a concomitant idea of idol worship. God can be malevolent as well
as benevolent in nature. It is important that the temple sight symbolize is one that will exhilarate
him. The Puranas state the “The God always play near the rivers and mountains and springs”.
Sacred sites in India therefore, are usually associated with water. Shades of trees and lakes of
India are often considered to be sacred and they have heeling and purifying powers.2

Evolution of Temples In the early ages temples were not constructed but only huts were
provided which later on got evolution till it become a solid structure. During the inclination
towards Brahmanism, the Hindu Gods needed a place for exhibition. They thus provided simple
solid structure to shelter the sacred place for worship. During Gupta time the solid stone blocks
were used to construct the temple. After this stage the rituals became more complex. Hence it
required more deities and sculptures because of which the temple became larger in size with
more elements. Evolution of Temples in Tamil Nadu The primitive Tamil was a believer in
totems. Ancestral worship and totemic worship were insepararable and worship of the dead hero

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was the phase of ancestor-worship. But these belong to a period very much anterior to the
Sangam period. Later the ideas of Godhead and modes of worship had reached a mature stage
with most of the Tamils. The aborigines believed in Gods who were supposed to reside in the
hollow of trees. The snake which resided in such hollows was a special object of worship. The
Kantu, a piece of planted log of wood was an object of worship. It served as God and it was
preferably stationed in the shade of the Banyan tree. The trees themselves, being totems
developed into religious institutions and particular trees came to be associated with particular
gods and their temples, became local trees later.

The Sangam cult centers like Kottam, Koyil and Nagar had no institutional character and even
in the transitional phase they are described as centers which people are advised to visit for the
worship of a particular deity. The references in the late and post Sangam works to Brahmanical
forms, in which bloody sacrifices of animals and birds were made and belong to the transitional
stage. The universalization of the Tinai (Land Division) deities and the institutionalization of the
cult centre as a temple with Brahmanical forms of worship as the chief focus achieved its fruition
in the early medieval period that is, in a totally transformed socio-political context.

Bhakti was a crucial element in the evolution and spread of Puranic religion, which emerged by
the Sixth Century A.D., as a universal and formal system in the Indian subcontinent as a whole.
Bhakti Movement in the Tamil region the expansion of Vedic religion was intrinsically linked
with local and popular traditions and their interaction with Brahmanical religion is a two way
process. It was a synchronic and at times, diachronic evolution. It would be too simplistic or
facile to explain it as an interaction between the ‘Great’ and ‘Little’ traditions. The major impact
of Bhatia ideology was more significant and it led to the expansion of the role of the temple in
restructuring society and economy. The temple based Bhatia was capable of developing into a
transcendental norm. 3

The societal change visible from the Sixth Century A.D., was the establishment of the varna
hierarchy, in which the Kshatriya status was assigned to the new ruling families and the
traditional ruling families, by the fabrication of impressive genealogies in the prasastis which
were composed by the Brahmanas in return for royal patronage and land grants, with the
kshatriya and the Brahman at the apex of the power structure. The rest of society was places at
the lower levels of the stratified order, with a ritual ranking around the temple. The temple was
not only the major institutional base for mobilizing and redistributing economic resources, but
also an integrative force and orbit for social organization and the ranking of all the other
occupational groups’ tribal and ethnic groups of forests and hills. The land distribution and
control through such institutions represented by brahmadeyas and temple-nucleated settlements,
to oust the so called heterodox faiths. Brahmanical religions achieved this change through a
process of acculturation by incorporating popular and folk elements in worship and ritual, and by
assimilating tribal and ethnic groups into the social order through the temple.

The practices and traditions of temples exist not only in history but also in present time which
greatly influence the socio-cultural life of its people and gives continuity to traditional Indian
values. The evolution of Indian temple architecture is marked by a strict adherence to the original

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ancient models that were derived from religious consideration- and that continued over many
centuries.4Temples built today also adhere to ancient principles.The fact is it will continue on
this course for times to come.

REFERENCES

1. A. Temple Architecture, a Brief Overview and Its Symbolism, Purushottama Bilimoria,

http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:http://www.indian-
heritage.org/temple/symbolism_Purushottama.pdf

1. Heaven on Earth: Temples, Ritual, & Cosmic Symbolism in the Ancient World,
Conference- Organizer, Deena Ragavan, the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, 1155
East 58th Street, Chicago, IL 60637, March 2-3, 2012

2. Concept of Temple 2 1. Saradhamani, M., Historical Sites and Monuments along the River
Noyyal (South India) Megalithic Period to Medieval Age- A Study, Ph.D. Thesis, Bharathiar
University, Coimbatore, 2013,p.86 See also2. Kanakasabhai, V., The Tamils Eighteen
Hundred Years Ago, Reprint, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, 1979, p 232. 32

3. Burton Stein, South Indian Temples An analytical Reconsideration, New Delhi, 1978,
pp.11-46.

4. Building Science of Indian Temple Architecture, Master’s Thesis- Structural Analysis of

Monuments and Historical Constructions, University of Minho, Portugal, July 2008

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 CHAPTER 7
Secrets of a Hindu Temple

SEA TEMPLE
AT BALI, INDONESIA

Agama Shastra And Temple Worship -Every facet of a traditional Agamic temple is rich in
mystical significanc The Hindu temples are complex institutions. They represent the culmination
of social and religious aspirations of a society. Temple is the focal point in the life of a
community and often represents its pride, identity and unity. It is also the index of the
community’s well-being. It draws into its fold people from its various segments and
denominations; and binds them together. In smaller communities the temple apart from being a
source of spiritual or religious comfort, also serves as centre for education and recreation.

Introduction of Saiva Agamas

Found in South India,the Saiva Agamas are some of the earliest books in te Sanskrit language on
Saiva religion and philosophy, written over a period of several centuries before the Christian era.
The Vedas have always been a source of fascinating study for orientalists of the West.

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Innumerable are the translations and critical studies; papers and books written on the Vedas,
Upanishads and the Advaita philosophy of Sankara. ( It is now recognised that the Vedas as they
are available today are only the compilation of Vyasa of a later day and that their original forms
are not available. Vyasa is known as Veda Vyasa; Vyasa-‘compiler’)
Agamas, though they constitute an equally large body of ancient Sanskrit source material for a
different concept of the same advaita philosophy of Vedanta, have not been studied by any
orientalist; indeed they have not been studied at all or in depth even by any Indian scholar except
perhaps Dr.Surendranata Das Gupta ( Oct 1885- Dec 1952) of Calcutta,even under te great
grantha script.
Rules were laid down for the building of the temples and for the installation of images therein.
Temples had been growing in importance since the days of the Saiva Samayacharyas. It is well
known that most temples follow the Kamika or the Karana agama for practices of day to day
worship, while the Nataraja temple in Chidambaram follows Makutagama; the Thiruvengadu
temple follows three agamas, Kamika, Makuta and Karana agamas, Thirueengoimalai follows
Vatulagama; Thirunallam temple follows Karana agama and Sukshuma agama; Thirunallar
temple follows Makudagama.
The Makutagama seem to occupy a unique place among the agamas. It is quoted as the authority
in temples where Lord Nadaraja is said to perform one of His Cosmic dances, In such shrines His
Ardha Darisanam ( Thiruvathirai ) festival is considered to be of special significance. They have
special dance halls called Pancha sabha which is Kanakasabha ( Gold-Chidambaram ); Rajata
sabha ( Silver – Madurai ); Tambira sabha ( Copper- Thirunelveli); Ratna sabha ( Ruby-
Thiruvalangadu) and Chitra sabha The Agamas had existed mostly in South India, in the Tamil
Nadu in palm leaf manuscript book form in the homes of Sivacharyas who had been entrusted
with the duty of organizing and performing pooja in Siva temples for over two and a half
millennium.

All the agama manuscript are available only in the granta script, one which had been invented by
the Tamil people for writing their Sanskrit scriptures, more than 1500 years ago.
These Agamas are not available in the North. Dr Das Gupta has stated “...no agama manuscript
of any importance is found even in Varanasi, the greatest centre of Hindu religion, Sanskrit

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studies and culture.”

Agamas had the greatest revival in the days of the Chola Emperors of Tamil Nadu from 9th
Century. This was the period immediately after Sankara. The Smarthas who adopted the
philosophy of Sankara somehow deemed the agams to be ‘alien’ to themselves just because
Sankara did not deal with them.

The Agamas very strictly laid down that only the Sivacharya class, the Siva Brahmins, were
competent to enter the main sanctum or garbha graham and perform the worship in the Siva
temples and that the Brahmins as such ( i.e the smartha Brahmin) shall not enter the sanctum,
touch the Sivalinga or perform the worship. A parallel in the domination of the Sanskrit
influence of Sanskrit may be noticed in Vashnavism in the work of Ramanuja; a great acharya
who gave his whole life to the establishment of Vaishnavism as a separate and independent cult
in Tamil Nadu. He called his philosophy, Vasisthadvaitha.

But it is only the Saiva religion that held up the torch of Tamil culture by producing its own
original basic scriptures in Tamil, without recourse to Sanskrit through Meykandar in the 12th
century. A distinctive Saiva Advaita philosophy began to take shape from the days of
Thirumoolar and Karaikal Ammaiyar. This was given a fresh life and a new direction in the
Tamil language by the Saiva Nayamars such as Saint Sambanthar, Appar, Sundarar and
Manikkavasagar

In the period of these saints, the essence of agamas flourished into temple building and temple
worship from 9th to 13th century. Although the agama study and practice in Sanskrit was now
revived, the whole Saiva cult of this period was Tamil based. The philosophy of Sankara was
Sanskrit based and couldn’t combine itself into the new revival in Tamil Nadu in the Tamil
language. The greatest exponent of this revival, Saint Thirugnanasambanthar, was though the
Saiva himself a Brahmin.

Occasionally in the modern day the smarta Brahmin comes forward to cook ‘food offering’ for
the Sivalinga enshrined in Siva temples ( a service which according to agamas has to be done by

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the pachaka section of Sivacharyas); in such case he is given the first diksha – samaya diksha
which makes him a Saiva and then allowed to cook the food. Thus keeping the Agamas as their
own privileged preserve; the Sivacharyas have kept the wider studies of the Saivagamas within
them. The agamas in consequence came to perish. Howerver there are a few Sivacharyas who
know the agams thoroughly and who have the agama texts at their finger tips.
The Vedas were the preserve of the elite Aryans and never came down to the level of common
man, nor did their thoughts and rites reached the common man. But on the other hand, Agamas
concerned themselves with all society, with common man and his needs both social and spiritual.
General assumption that agamas only deal with temple and temple worship rituals is wrong. The
agamas deals with four parts, Sariyai, Kriyai, Yoga and Njanam. Here Kriya deals with temple
construction and rituals and Njana deals with the highest philosophy that is none other than Saiva
Siddhantham.
The emphasis on the kriya part in the newly rising cult of Saivism in the era of Chola Emperors
and because of the separate evolution of the Njana part independently in Tamil language, the
agamas had come to be called a mere ritualistic code ( which is wrong) by the pro Tamil culture.
The publication of Raurava Agama, Ajitha agama, Kalottara 1(sloka from Sata Ratna Sangraha)
and Mrgendra agama in recent years by French Institute of Indology, Pondicherry under Dr
Filliozat and Professor N.R Bhat had brought the agamas again in focus.

As far Saivism is concerned, it is considered as originated from the South and not from the
North. The Saivism of the Tamilians, was the growth of an unbroken tradition probably from the
prehistoric past and this had three elements fused into it.
These are an external worship of images as the manifest abode of God, both in shrines,
throughout the land and in devotees own home; symbolism and the inward meditation and
realization.

These 3 elements are;

1. worship of images in the temples was “parartha pooja” for all mankind, for the welfare
of the entire society and worship in homes was for individual and his family. Temple
worship is done by a dedicated group of Sivachariyars for the welfare of community and

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 worship at home is done by a person who had an initiation under a competent guru such
as Vishesha Diksha for Sivapooja.
2. Second element is symbolism; the idol worshipped is not God; it is just a symbol
intented to remind people of God and to direct their minds and hearts through the seen
symbol to the Unseen One Beyond or Supreme.
3. The third element is meditation. What cannot be perceived by the senses externally,
may be realized in the heart, with of course His own grace. Without constant
concentration and meditation, external worship alone will not result in realization.
It is only this internal worship or atma pooja that lends meaning to external worship.
These three are not separate compartments but basically one harmonious integrated
whole in the ritual of worship.

A temple that we see today is also a treasure house of art and architecture, designed
according to the principle of Vaastu Shastra, characterized by their majesty, serenity and beauty
of intricate sculpture and designs. Built according to the rules prescribed in the Agamas-
culmination of Hindu textual rules and advice.A temple evokes in the visitor a sense of beauty in
art and in life as well. It lifts up his spirit, elevates him to a higher plane dissolving his little ego.
At the same time, it awakens him to his insignificance in the grand design of the Creator.

Collective Character: The most significant aspect of the temple worship is its collective
character. Peoples’ participation is both the purpose and the means of a temple. The community
is either actually or symbolically involved in temple worship. The rituals that dominate temple
worship are therefore socio- religious in character. Temple worship marks a clear shift from the
Vedic way of submitting prayers to the gods.

The Yagas and Yajnas of the Vedic age were performed at various convenient sites or at the
premises of their sponsor (Yajamana). They were not tied to a particular place or to a site. No
idols were involved in such Vedic rituals. The oblations were submitted to various gods through
the median of the formless Agni, the fire.

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A temple, in contrast, is a permanent structure established on a site that was well chosen and
considered most proper after examining and verifying its suitability from various aspects.
The life and the principal focus of a temple is the idol of the deity in the Garbhagriha, presiding
over the entire temple complex. The worship practices also differ from the Vedic rituals. Here , a
series of services (Upacharas) are submitted to the deity; flowers, water, incense and other
adornments are submitted with great devotion to the image (Prathima), revered as the living
representation of the deity ; and, mantras, hymns and prayer verses are recited throughout the
duration of the worship.

Unlike in an Yajna, where it is performed for the benefit of a particular sponsor, the worship of
the temple is conducted on behalf of the village-community as a whole ; and particularly for all
those who attend and pray at the temple; it is both congregational and individual, at once.
The worship in a temple has to satisfy the needs of individuals as also of the community. The
worships that take place in the sanctum and within the temple premises are important; so are the
festivals and occasional processions that involve direct participation of the entire community.
They complement each other. While the worship of the deity in the sanctum might be an
individual’s spiritual or religious need ; the festival s are the expression of a community’s joy ,
exuberance , devotion , pride and are also an idiom of a community’s cohesiveness .
The appointed priests carry out the worship in the temple on behalf of other devotees. It is
hence parartha, a service conducted for the sake of others. Priests, generally, trained in ritual
procedures, pursue the service at the temple as a profession. As someone remarked, “other
people may view their work as worship, but for the priests worship is work.” They are trained in
the branch of the Agama of a particular persuasion. The texts employed in this regard describe
the procedural details of temple worship, elaborately and precisely.

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Agamas

Introduction:

The are a collection of scriptures of several Hindu devotional schools. The term literally means
tradition or “that which has come down”, and the Agama texts describe cosmology,
epistemology, philosophical doctrines, precepts on meditation and practices, four kinds of yoga,
mantras, temple construction, deity worship and ways to attain sixfold desires. These canonical
texts are in Sanskrit .

The three main branches of Agama texts are those of Shaivism (Shiva), Vaishnavism (Vishnu),
Shaktism (Devi). The Agamic traditions are sometimes called Tantra, although the term “Tantra”
is usually used specifically to refer to Shakta Agamas and sometimes Shaiva Agamas (Bhairava
tradition). The Agama literature is voluminous, and includes 28 Saiva Agamas, 77 Shakta
Agamas (also called Tantras), and 108 Vaishnava Agamas (also called Pancharatra Samhitas),
and numerous Upa-Agamas.

The origin and chronology of Agamas is unclear. Some are Vedic and others non-Vedic. Agama
traditions include Yoga and Self Realization concepts, some include Kundalini Yoga, asceticism,
and philosophies ranging from Dvaita (dualism) to Advaita(monism). Some suggest that these
are post-Vedic texts, others as pre-Vedic compositions.

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Smartas recognize the Agamas, but don’t necessarily adhere to them, relying mainly on the
smriti texts.

Scholars note that some passages in the Hindu Agama texts appear to repudiate the authority of
the Vedas, while other passages assert that their precepts reveal the true spirit of the Vedas. The
Agamas literary genre may also be found in Śramaṇic traditions (i.e.Buddhist, Jaina etc.). Bali
Hindu tradition is officially called Agama Hindu Dharma in Indonesia.

Etymology:

Agama is derived from the verb root (gam) meaning “to go” and the preposition (aa)
meaning “toward” and refers to scriptures “that which has come down”.

Agama literally means “tradition”, and refers to precepts and doctrines that have come down as
tradition. Agama, states Dhavamony, is also a “generic name of religious texts which are at the
basis of Hinduism and which are divided into Vaishnava Agamas (also called Pancaratra
Samhitas), Saiva Agamas, and Sakta Agamas (more often called Tantras).

Significance:

The means of worship in the Agamic religions differ from the Vedic form. While the Vedic form
of yajna require no deity and shrines, the Agamic texts are based on deity worship. Symbols,
icons and temples are a necessary part of the Agamic practice, while non-theistic paths are
alternative means of Vedic practice.

Each Agama consists of four parts:

1. Jnana pada, also called Vidya pada – consists of doctrine, the philosophical and spiritual
knowledge, knowledge of reality and liberation.

2. Yoga pada – precepts on yoga, the physical and mental discipline.

3. Kriya pada – consists of rules for rituals, construction of temples (Mandir); design
principles for sculpting, carving, and consecration of idols of deities for worship in

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 temples; for different forms of initiations or diksha. This code is analogous to those in
Puranas and in the Buddhist text of Sadhanamala.

4. Charya pada – lays down rules of conduct, of worship (puja), observances of religious
rites, rituals, festivals and prayaschittas.

The Agamas state three requirements for a place of pilgrimage – Sthala, Tirtha and Murti. Sthala
refers to the place of the temple, Tīrtha is the temple tank, and Murti refers to the deity.

Elaborate rules are laid out in the Agamas for Silpa (the art of sculpture) describing the quality
requirements of the places where temples are to be built, the kind of images to be installed, the
materials from which they are to be made, their dimensions, proportions, air circulation, lighting
in the temple complex etc. The Manasara and Silpasara are some of the works dealing with these
rules. The rituals followed in worship services each day at the temple also follow rules laid out in
the Agamas.

Philosophy:

The Agama texts present a diverse range of philosophies, ranging from theistic dualism to
absolute monism for different people of different qualifications and samskaras based on their
mode(Goodness , Passion , Ignorance).

In Shaivism alone, there are ten dualistic (dvaita) Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-
dualism (bhedabheda) Agama texts and sixty four monism (advaita) Agama texts. The Bhairava
Shastras are monistic, while Shiva Shastras are dualistic.

Sakta agamas worship Devi as the Moola Prakriti and is ultimately Impersonal

Vaishnava Agamas are purely Non Advaita and talks about Personal God as the Supreme
Brahman situated in his abode along with his eternal associates.

The Agama texts of Shaiva and Vaishnava schools are premised on existence of Atman (soul,
self) and the existence of an Ultimate Reality .. The texts differ in the relation between the two.
Some assert the dualistic philosophy of the individual soul and Ultimate Reality being different,
while others state a Oneness between the two. Kashmir Shaiva Agamas states absolute oneness,

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that is God (Shiva) is within man, God is within every being, God is present everywhere in the
world including all non-living being, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter,
man and God. In Bhairava sadhana one becomes Bhairav and his partner becomes Bhairavi.
Ultimately Both Saiva and Sakta agamas / tantras are impersonal in its epitome except some
agamas which are dualistic (dvaita). Only Vaishnava agamas are purely Non Advaita.

So in a nutshell two types of liberation is talked about in the agamas. Personal

Liberation(Vaishnava) and Impersonal Liberation (Others)

The Vaishnava Agamas clarifies both the similarity and difference between the Atma and
Parmatma and His detailed description.

Agama scriptures:
Saiva Agamas

The Shaiva Agama traces its origins from Shiva as,

“Shivena devya datham, Devya dathamthu Nandhine, Nandhina Brahmana Datham, Brahmana
Rishi Dhathakam, Rishinaam Maanusha Datham, Athyethe agamodhbavam”

From Shiva to Devi, From Devi to Nandhi, From Nandhi to Brahma, From Brahma to Rishi,
From Rishi to human beings.

— Shaiva Agama,

The Saiva Agamas are found in four main schools – Kapala, Kalamukha, Pashupata and
Shaiva—and number 28 in total as follows:

Kamikam
Yogajam
Chintyam
Karanam
Ajitham
Deeptham
Sukskmam

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Sahasram
Ashuman
Suprabedham
Vijayam
Nishwasam
Swayambhuvam
Analam
Veeram
Rouravam
Makutam
Vimalam
Chandragnanam
Bimbam
Prodgeetham
Lalitham
Sidham
Santhanam
Sarvoktham
Parameshwaram
Kiranam
Vathulam

Shakta Agamas:

The Shakta Agamas deploy Shiva and Shakti, and a unified view as the foundation for spiritual
knowledge.

The Shakta Agamas are commonly known as Tantras, and they are imbued with reverence for
the feminine, representing goddess as the focus and treating the female as equal and essential
part of the cosmic existence.The feminine Shakti (literally, energy and power) concept is found
in the Vedic literature, but it flowers into extensive textual details only in the Shakta Agamas.
These texts emphasize the feminine as the creative aspect of a male divinity, cosmogonic power

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and all pervasive divine essence. The theosophy presents the masculine and feminine principle in
a “state of primordial, transcendent, blissful unity”. The feminine is the will, the knowing and the
activity, she is not only the matrix of creation, she is creation. Unified with the male principle, in
these Hindu sect’s Tantra texts, the female is the Absolute.

The Shakta Agamas are related to the Shaiva Agamas, with their respective focus on Shakti with
Shiva in Shakta Tantra and on Shiva in Shaiva texts.The Shakta Agamas or Shakta tantras are 64
in number. Some of the older Tantra texts in this genre are called Yamalas, which literally
denotes, states Teun Goudriaan, the “primeval blissful state of non-duality of Shiva and Shakti,
the ultimate goal for the Tantric Sadhaka”.

Vaishnava Agamas :

The Vaishnava Agamas are found into two main schools — Pancharatra and Vaikhanasas. While
Vaikhanasa Agamas were transmitted from Vikhanasa Rishi to his disciples Brighu, Marichi,
Atri and Kashyapa, the Pancharatra Agamas are classified into three: Divya (from
Vishnu), Munibhaashita (from Muni, sages), and Aaptamanujaprokta (from writings of
trustworthy men).

Vaikhanasa Agama:

Maharishi Vikhanasa is considered to have guided in the compilation of a set of Agamas named
Vaikhānasa Agama. Sage Vikhanasa is conceptualized as a mind-born creation, i.e., Maanaseeka
Utbhavar of Lord Narayana. Originally Vikhanasa passed on the knowledge to nine disciples in
the first manvantara — Atri, Bhrigu, Marichi, Kashyapa,Vasishta, Pulaha, Pulasthya, Krathu and
Angiras.

Pancharatra Agama

Like the Vaikhanasa Agama, the Pancharatra Agama is centered around the worship of Lord
Vishnu. While the Vaikhansa deals primarily with Vaidhi Bhakti, the Pancaratra Agama teaches
both vaidhi and Raganuga bhakti.

Details about Pancharatra Agamas https://raganugaprembhakti.wordpress.com/pancharatra/

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Other Agamas:

The Soura or Saura Agamas comprise one of the six popular agama-based religions of Shaiva,
Vaishnava, Shakta, Ganapatya, Kaumara and Soura. The Saura Tantras are dedicated to the sun
(Surya) and Soura Agamas are in use in temples of Sun worship. One of the earliest agamic texts
of Jains, the Jaina Souraseni, is said to have derived from the Soura tantric element.

The Paramanada Tantra mentions the number of tantras as 6000 for Vaishnava, 10000 for
Shaiva, 100000 for Shakta, 1000 for Ganapatya, 2000 for Saura, 7000 for Bhairava, and 2000 for
Yaksha-bhutadi-sadhana.

Secracy and Mysticism: It is not widely known that a traditional Hindu temple is a secret
mystical marvel. Its ornate architecture, dimensions, stones, the carved images and motifs,
surrounding halls, even the gardens and the lay of the land are all full of metaphysical meaning
and purpose, so much so that the temple itself is revered as a form of God. Dr. V. Ganapati
Sthapati, the traditional architect who designed Iraivan Temple, in Honolulu,Hawaii which is a
modern day temple noted, "The parts of the temple are so integrated that they become a living
organism worthy of worship." The Upanishads say, "Look upon the temple building as embodied
energy and worship Him with Vedic mantras."
The Agamas and the Vastu Shastras, Hinduism's scriptural authorities on temple architecture,
give precise details and formulas prescribing how to design, carve and assemble a temple. The
resulting structure and its relationship with its surroundings create a subtle, sublime atmosphere
in which ceremonies performed by priests easily lift the veil between this world and the world of
the Gods and devas so their blessings can pour forth to gathered devotees.
Every step has been taken to ensure that Iraivan Temple in Hawaii is built according to exacting
scriptural standards, which is not common in modern times when finances and fast-track
schedules govern the outcome of most activities.
One thing that makes Iraivan Temple so special is that it was inspired by a God-Realized
satguru's personal vision of God. Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami, affectionately known as
Gurudeva, also added insights from his own mystical experiences to the many shastric rules and
reasons behind the temple design and construction methods. One example is the fact that there

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are no depictions of other Deities in the temple, only Siva, a return to an ancient temple tradition
not seen today.
Another example is that Gurudeva ordered that Iraivan Temple be completely free of electricity.
Why no watts? Through his well-developed clairvoyant and clairaudient abilities, Gurudeva
sometimes saw and communicated with inner-world beings. In one exchange, the devas
conveyed that the presence of electrical energy fields makes it more difficult for the Gods and
devas to see into and send blessings to those in the physical world, much like static on a
telephone line makes it difficult to converse with the person on the other end. The Deity's power
and blessings projected through the veil between this world and that world are stronger, clearer
and more sublime if not affected by electromagnetic fields.
Another of Gurudeva's accomplishments was finding such an idyllic, mystically serene location
for the Temple. Visitors are awed by the view of the temple on the banks of the sacred Wailua
River near the foot of Mount Waialeale in one of the most lush areas of this tropical island of
Kauai.
From the proportions of the inner sanctum to the motifs carved into the pillars, the traditional
temple takes its first form on the master sthapati's drawing board. The architect initially
determines the fundamental unit of measurement using a formula called ayadhi. This formula,
which comes from jyotisha, or Vedic astrology, uses the nakshatra (birth star) of the founder, the
nakshatra of the village in which the temple is being erected matching the first syllable of the
name of the village with the seed sounds mystically associated with each nakshatra and the
nakshatra of the main Deity of the temple. In the case of Iraivan Temple, the unit is 11' 7". This
measurement, called danda, is the dimension of the inside of the sanctum and the distance
between the pillars. The whole space of the temple is defined in multiples and fractions of this
basic unit.
Ganapati Sthapati : Western science has brought many good things to the world, but traditional
temple architects like Ganapati Sthapati assert that there is much to be learned from the sciences
of the East, which have been around far longer. Sthapati had to judge whether or not such
modern methods as using dynamite to break granite out of the earth and using pneumatic tools to
quickly sculpt stone are in tune with vastu principles. According to vastu, there are good reasons
why stone is quarried and sculpted by hand.

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Gurudeva and Ganapati Sthapati felt that building in the most traditional way would result in a
temple that has the same potency as India's most renowned edifices built in ancient times. The
silpi who quarries the stone must be sensitive to the nature of the stone and get a feeling for how
it will break in order to determine how to place his chisels. Likewise, the sculptors must strive to
understand the stone's nature and blend their mind with it to bring out the best image, be it a wall
embellishment or a Deity icon. The involvement of machines gets brutally in the way of this
sensitive attunement. The quality of the carvings is representative of the silpi and his state of
mind. This is why the workers at the Iraivan Temple stone carving site in Bangalore and the
monastery where the temple is being built are required to live a pure and disciplined life.

Metal_GOLD: The Shastras are strict about the use of metals in the temple structure. You won't
find any iron rebar in Iraivan Temple's 4-foot-thick foundation, or anywhere else in the temple
compound, not only because it would rust away in a few decades (Subramuniyaswami ordained
that Iraivan Temple would last a thousand years), but because iron is mystically the crudest, most
impure of metals. The presence of iron, the sthapatis explain, could attract lower, impure forces.
Only gold the purest metal of all, and of the highest vibration silver and copper are used in the
structure, so that only the most sublime forces are invoked during the pujas. At especially
significant stages in the temple construction (such as ground-breaking and placement of the
sanctum door frame), pieces of gold, silver and copper, as well as precious gems, are
ceremoniously embedded in small interstices between the stones, adding to the temple's inner-
world magnetism. These elements are said to glow in the inner worlds and, like holy ash, are
prominently visible to the Gods and devas.

For millennia, Hindu temples built according to the instructions in the Agamas have channeled
the darshan of the Deities in a powerful way and captured the hearts of devotees who have come
to worship in them. Such temples are truly the embodiment of religion, and there is much more
to tell of the myriad mystical and metaphysical qualities that make them so special.

Vastu Creates Harmonious Spaces to Unify Man and God: It is said that an Agamic temple
like Iraivan is God Siva. He would sometimes say you hardly have to do pujas to invoke Him
because "He's already there."

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The Vastu Shastras describe the inner sanctum and main tower as a human form, structurally
conceived in human proportions based on the mystical number eight. Dr. V. Ganapati Sthapati
explains: "The vibration of the space-consciousness which is called time is the creative element,
since it is this vibratory force that causes the energetic space to turn into spatial forms. Therefore,
time is said to be the primordial element for the creation of the entire universe and all its material
forms. When these vibrations occur rhythmically, the resultant product will be an orderly spatial
form. This rhythm of the time unit is traditionally called talam or layam.
"Since every unit of time vibration produces a corresponding unit of space measure, vastu
science derives that time is equal to space. This rhythm of time and space vibrations is quantified
as eight and multiples of eight, the fundamental and universal unit of measure in the vastu silpa
tradition." This theory carries over to the fundamental adi talam (eight beats) of classical Indian
music and dance. Sthapati continues, "Applying this in the creation of a human form, it is found
that a human form is also composed of rhythmic spatial units. According to the Vastu Shastras,
at the subtle level the human form is a structure of eight spatial units devoid of the minor parts
like the hair, neck, kneecap and feet, each of which measures one-quarter of the basic measure of
the body and, when added on to the body's eight units, increases the height of the total form to
nine units. Traditionally these nine units are applied in making sculptures of Gods.
"Since the subtle space within our body is part of universal space, it is logical to say that the
talam of our inner space should be the same as that of the universe. But in reality, it is very rare
to find this consonance between an individual's and the universal rhythm. When this consonance
occurs, the person is in harmony with the Universal Being and enjoys spiritual strength, peace
and bliss. Therefore, when designing a building according to vastu, the architect aims at creating
a space that will elevate the vibration of the individual to resonate with the vibration of the built
space, which in turn is in tune with universal space. Vastu architecture transmutes the individual
rhythm of the indweller to the rhythm of the Universal Being."

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Introduction:
The Agamas (Sanskrit: आगम) are a collection of scriptures of several Hindu devotional
schools. The term literally means tradition or “that which has come down”, and the Agama texts
describe cosmology, epistemology, philosophical doctrines, precepts on meditation and
practices, four kinds of yoga, mantras, temple construction, deity worship and ways to attain
sixfold desires. These canonical texts are in Sanskrit .

Pilgrimage: The Agamas state three requirements for a place of pilgrimage – Sthala, Tirtha and
Murti. Sthala refers to the place of the temple, Tīrtha is the temple tank, and Murti refers to the
deity.
Sculpture: Elaborate rules are laid out in the Agamas for Silpa (the art of sculpture) describing
the quality requirements of the places where temples are to be built, the kind of images to be
installed, the materials from which they are to be made, their dimensions, proportions, air
circulation, lighting in the temple complex etc. The Manasara and Silpasara are some of the
works dealing with these rules. The rituals followed in worship services each day at the temple
also follow rules laid out in the Agamas.
Philosophy:

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The Agama texts present a diverse range of philosophies, ranging from theistic dualism to
absolute monism for different people of different qualifications and samskaras based on their
mode(Goodness , Passion , Ignorance).

The ancients interweaved every aspect of life with science, logic, and a deep reverence for life.
Some aspects could be interpreted differently, but what is the truth?

Bharath Gyan, a passionate research initiative, is painstakingly dotting the pieces together,
foraging amongst lost remnants to keep the glorious past alive and known.

Here are a few nuggets about India’s incredible temple tradition, the science of namaste, and the
concept of karma and dharma:

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 Idol worship and temples

Have you ever wondered why does the Indian civilization have so many Gods, so many kinds of
idols, so many temples? As per the Indian philosophy, the Supreme one has manifested into
different forms to represent various forces, principles and functions of the cosmos classified into:

The Indian temples that were built as a sanctorum to worship these forces were also designed
to act as a community activity center.

 The tall temples which had a deep foundation, could survive natural calamities.

 With copper on top and earthing of the sanctum sanctorum with a copper wire, the temple could
also withstand lightning bolts from the skies.

 The alcoves of the tall temple towers were used for the safekeeping of seeds, grains and other life
essentials for survival of the people during mass disaster.

 The underground vaults were used for securing gold and other precious artifacts for revival of
the village in case of any major calamity.

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 Every temple had one or more natural spring-based water tanks attached to it called pushkarni
for harnessing water. Pushkaram means to make fertile. Other than helping people cleanse
themselves before congregating, these tanks were harbingers of fertility to the land as they
helped increase the water table in the village.

 The temples also served as a community kitchen and dining where food offered to the deity was
shared as prasad - a community meal.

Thus, the village community grew around the temple and the temple tank.

The temple pattern, design and architecture from India was also replicated all over South East
Asia due to the spread of Indian influence to these areas. Some of the renowned ones being -
Prambanan in Java, Indonesia; Angkor Wat in Cambodia; The Candis in South East Asia; the
temples of Bali. There is a similarity between Indian temples and tradition of Egypt, ancient
Turkey, Azerbaijan, Central Asia as well as with that of Central and South America.

Eugene Emmanuel Viollet De Luc, the celebrated French architect and art historian of the 1800s,
said: “The Mayans who travelled from ancient India to ancient central America were great
builders by profession. When they travelled over the seas, they took their skills of building large
monuments along with the basic measurement systems because the base measure and the square
grid methodology of vastu, is common between the structures of India and that of the Mayan
Civilization of Central America.”

True meaning of karma

In a recent research by Pew Research Center, they came to the startling find that about 60 percent
of Americans today believe in karma. Karma originates from the Sanskrit root kr, kar meaning
“to do”, “to act” which is why hands are called karam.
Krishna says to Arjuna in The Bhagavad Gita,
Karmanyevadhikarasthe ma phaleshu kadachana
Ma karmaphalaheturbhurma te sangostvakarmani

i.e

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 You only have the right to do your duty, you are not entitled to the fruits of your action. You are
not the cause for the results of your actions. But do not shy away from action in doing your duty.
Most Amazing Mysteries of Hindu Temples in India
India is an ancient country with its rich history of Vedic civilization. Following the history, there
are many temples can be found at every step of the way. Hence, there are a certain number of
temples in India that have astonishing mysteries connected to it. Such, that some are amazing to
just read about and some, that not even science could solve them. Each, having their own
amazing tales , here are 10 most amazing mysteries of hindu temples in India that are lesser
known.
On this Article
 1. A Musical Staircase
 2. Sa-re-ga-ma Musical Pillars
 3. A Hanging Pillar
 4. The Temple of Granite
 5. Temple with 22 Billion Dollar vault
 6. Flag that waves opposite to the direction of wind
 7. 1000 Years Old Mummified body
 8. Idol Ejecting Water with an unknown source
 9. Temple that predicts Rain
 10. Temples of Shiva aligned in the same line

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1. A Musical Staircase

The musical steps in Airavatesvara temple, Dharasuram is one of the great mysteries of all time.
This Lord Shiva temple is said to be built by Rajaraja Chola II in the 12th century CE. This
temple is located near Kumbakonam, in the southern state of Tamil Nadu, India and recognized
as UNESCO World Heritage monument. The entrance of the temple has steps made of stones,
which produces seven different sounds on tapping. One can hear all the seven swaras at different
points.

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2. Sa-re-ga-ma Musical Pillars

Sri Vijaya Vittala temple is located in the historical town of Hampi, Karnataka, and is dedicated
to Lord Vitthala. Situated at the end of the ruined Vittala Bazaar, tourists can reach this beautiful
temple from all parts of Hampi. This temple is historical in a sense that the construction dates
back to 15th century. The temple is also famous for Ranga Mantapa which has 56 musical
pillars, known as Sa-re-ga-ma pillars. As one taps the pillars, musical notes are emitted by them
in the form of western do re mi sa….

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3. A Hanging Pillar

The Veerabhadra temple, also known as Lepakshi temple, is located in the Lipakshi district of
Andra Pradesh. The temple is known for its architectural beauty, however, what catches hold of
most of the visitors is the hanging pillar of the temple. Although, there are 70 pillars in the
temple, one pillar which lies hanging in the premises of temple is the real piece of wonder. Thus,
many people who visits the temple passes a piece of cloth through the bottom of the pillar, to test
its reality. The mystery behind how this pillar stays intact without any support remains a
unknown till date.

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4. The Temple of Granite

The Brihadeeswarar Temple is located in Thanjavur, TamilNadu, which is hailed for its
architectural beauty. Most of the temple is carved out of pure granite which is astonishing in
itself as there were no granite sources found anywhere within 60Kms of the temple. The temple’s
apex, called the ‘Gopuram’ is found to be made out of a single stone now weighing 80 tons.
Considering the granite reserves were so far away, how they managed to mount it in place has no
practical explanations so far.

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5. Temple with 22 Billion Dollar vault

Anantha Padmanabha Swamy Temple is a Hindu temple located in Thiruvananthapuram, India.

The temple has what seem to be seven secret vaults. On the supreme court’s request, the
committee overseeing the temple has opened 6 of those vaults unveiling ornaments of gold
estimated to be worth over 22 billion dollars. Now, the 7th vault has steel doors with no latches
or bolts. It has carvings depicting 2 cobras. It is believed that the door is opened only by a secret
chant and any other means would bring catastrophes. It is considered both a mystery and highly
dangerous.

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6. Flag that waves opposite to the direction of wind

Famous Jagannath temple of Puri is a very important place for Hindu devotees. It is one of the
Char Dham pilgrimages in India. It is quite amazing that the flag on top of the Sikhara of the
temple always floats in opposite direction of the wind. Everyday a priest climbs the dome of the
temple which is as tall as a 45 story building and changes the flag. This ritual has been
continuing since 1800 years. The ritual says if it is not changed any day, the temple must be shut
for the next 18 years.

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7. 1000 Years Old Mummified body

Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple is shrine dedicated to Sri Ramanujacharya who is also known as
Ramanuja. It is one of the most illustrious Vaishnava temples in South India rich in legend and
history. What follows is amazing, there is a 1000 Years old mummified body of Sri
Ramanujacharya preserved in Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple. His original body is kept in normal
sitting position and open to all for viewing. The body being solidified just at it is, even the
eyes are clearly visible and on a closer look, also the nails can be noted.

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8. Idol Ejecting Water with an unknown source

The Kadu Malleshwara Temple is a 17th-century A.D. Hindu temple dedicated to the Shiva
located in the Malleshwaram locality of Bengaluru. In the year 1997, during some construction
process near the temple the workers found another temple of ‘Nandi ‘ (a statue of bull which is
called the vehicle of Lord Shiva) buried. As they further dug out the temple, a small pool of
water was found inside the temple and even the Nandi was ejecting clean water from its
mouth which flows to the Shiva Linga. However the source of water for both of them is yet
unknown.

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9. Temple that predicts Rain

This Jagannath Temple from Kanpur, is also known as ‘Rain Temple’ or ‘Monsoon Temple’ and
is more than hundreds of years old. Here, it is believed that the water droplets accumulated on
the ceiling of Lord Jagannath temple predits, whether upcoming monsoon season would be good
or bad. If the size of water droplets is big, it is believed that there will be good rainfall and if it is
small, then drought may occur. It is believed that the prediction is not just a day or two in
advance, in fact, it predicts the onset of monsoon a good fortnight in advance. The roof of the
temple starts dripping 15 days before the start of the rainy season and it is the trickle that reveals
the type of showers that should be expected. A thin volume of the trickle indicates scanty
rainfall, while a good volume indicates heavy showers. Thus, on the basis of the predictions,
the farmers nearby put an estimate to their harvest accordingly.

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10. Temples of Shiva aligned in the same line

The collection of five temples known as Pancha Bhoota Stalam lies in South India which is held
in reverence for centuries. These temples are considered to be Shiva Lingam representing various
elements such as Air, Earth, Water, Fire and Space. It is a striking fact that all these temples
are geographically placed in almost a straight line. Among the five temples, three temples, which
are Chidambaram Nataraja Temple, Ekambareswarar Temple, Srikalahasti Temples lie exactly
aligned at 79 degrees, 41 minutes, East in longitude. Furthermore, the other two temples,
Thiruvanaikkaval is located at around 3 degrees to the south and 1 degree to the west of the
northern tip exactly of this divine axis, while Thiruvannamalai is around midway at 1.5 degrees
to the south and 0.5 degrees to the west.
In the era where there were no scientific tools, three temples were built in the exact same
longitudes. The fact that it was built thousands of years ago where there were no scientific tools
to measure the point on Earth leaves many people in dismay.

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 PART II
JAIN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

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 CHAPTER
Temple Mountains of Cambodia and the Jain Hill temples of India

n many ancient religions, mountain tops—from the Greeks’ Mt. Olympus to the highest
Himalayas of Hindu mythologywere believed to be the privileged home of the gods. Southeast
Asia, largely dependent on India for its principal religions of Hinduism and Buddhism, is no
exception. On the island of Java in Indonesia, for example, the ancient holy site of Dieng was
established in the crater of an extinct volcano. Its name in old Javanese, Di Hyang (in Sanskrit,
Devalaya), means, in effect, “home of the Gods.”

In Cambodia, in the classic Khmer architecture of the Angkorean period, we find a temple type
in which the sanctuary is built atop a stepped pyramid. Nineteenth century archaeologists called
these “temple- mountains.” Each important sovereign was apparently obliged to build one in
order to establish his power .

In the Indian religious context, a sanctuary functions primarily as the terrestrial dwelling place of
the gods, the place from which they will be able to provide aid and prosperity to humankind.
Many countries of Southeast Asia were under Indian influence; each resolved in its own way the
problem of creating a divine residence in the world of human beings. Generally, architects and
builders based the construction of their sanctuaries on strict religious texts (unfortunately, we
have none from ancient Cambodia). To the rules prescribed by these texts were added numerous
others relating to astronomy, geomancy, or numerology, the meanings of which are often lost
today. Our lack of knowledge of almost everything that guided the creation of the sanctuaries
makes it difficult to understand them and to explain their symbolism.

In Cambodia, however, the study of local ancient epigraphy has furnished a variety of insights
into the symbolism of religious architecture. In the light of some of these inscriptions, we can
make a connection between Mount Meru, the center and axis of the universe in Indian
cosmography, and certain temple-mountains of Angkor, the ancient Khmer capital. These
structures provide an image, a kind of representation of Mount Meru on a human scale. The best
known example is the sanctuary built around A.D. 906 on the top of Phnom Bakheng, the precise
center of Yasodharapura, Angkor’s first capital . In addition to being constructed on one of the

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rare hills (phnom in Khmer) of the region, the monument was conceived as a square pyramid
with five levels. Locating the pyramid on a natural hill at the geometric center of the royal city
underlines the symbolic identification of the monument, center and axis of the city, with Mount
Meru, center and axis of the universe.

In fact, the temple of Phnom Bakheng restates, with much greater complexity, the symbolic
principles expressed earlier at the temple of the Bakong, founded in A.D. 881. At the Bakong,
the summit of the five-level pyramid is occupied by a single sanctuary tower, whereas 5 towers
arranged in a quincunx (a square of 4 towers with a fifth in the center) occupy the summit of
Phnom Eakheng. Again, 12 temple annexes occupy the fourth level of the Eakong, but at Phnom
Bakheng these 12 annexes appear on each of the five levels. Finally, only 8 large brick sanctuary
towers are distributed at the foot of the Eakong, whereas 44 comparable towers ring the base of
the Phnom Bakheng pyramid.

The temple-mountains of the Eakong and the Eakheng seem to suggest similar symbolic
considerations in their main features, although those of the latter are more lavish. But the
interpretation of the other temple-mountains at the Angkor site is different, at least in part. No
temple-mountain of Angkor is truly comparable to another. Contrast the simplicity of the early
temple of Eaksei Chamkrong with the immense complexity of the Bayon (Fig. 4). Eaksei
Chamkrong was founded under the reign of Harsavarman I as the representation of Mount Kai
lasa, private domain of the god Siva; the Eayon was the state temple of Jayavarman VII in which
secular symbolic Hindu principles and new Mahayana conceptions from the reign of the
founding king were unified.

If there was any continuity in the function of the temple-mountain, it was above all as the seat of
the protective divinity of the realm. In addition to personal prestige and the exaltation of his
chosen divinity (usually the god Siva), each builder had in mind special concerns such as his
ancestral cult or that of the royal person. His successors did not necessarily care about these
concerns, at least not in the same way.

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What we know about temple-mountains at the present time, therefore, seems to confound any
attempt at analysis based on firm, well-established principles of continuity. It is better to regard
each of these creations of Khmer architectural genius as the specific expression of changing
religious principles at a particular period, in response to rules that were probably evolving from
one reign to another. Angkor Wat as Temple Mountain

Angkor Wat. Siem Reap, Cambodia, 1116-1150 (photo: Peter Garnhum, CC BY-NC 2.0)

An aerial view of Angkor Wat demonstrates that the temple is made up of an expansive
enclosure wall, which separates the sacred temple grounds from the protective moat that
surrounds the entire complex (the moat is visible in the photograph at the top of the page). The
temple proper is comprised of three galleries (a passageway running along the length of the
temple) with a central sanctuary, marked by five stone towers.

The five stone towers are intended to mimic the five mountain ranges of Mt. Meru—the mythical
home of the gods, for both Hindus and Buddhists. The temple mountain as an architectural
design was invented in Southeast Asia. Southeast Asian architects quite literally envisioned

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temples dedicated to Hindu gods on earth as a representation of Mt. Meru. The galleries and the
empty spaces that they created between one another and the moat are envisioned as the mountain
ranges and oceans that surround Mt. Meru. Mt. Meru is not only home to the gods, it is also
considered an axis-mundi. An axis-mundi is a cosmic or world axis that connects heaven and
earth. In designing Angkor Wat in this way, King Suryavarman II and his architects intended for
the temple to serve as the supreme abode for Vishnu. Similarly, the symbolism of Angkor Wat
serving as an axis mundi was intended to demonstrate the Angkor Kingdom’s and the king’s
central place in the universe. In addition to envisioning Angkor Wat as Mt. Meru on earth, the
temple’s architects, of whom we know nothing, also ingeniously designed the temple so that
embedded in the temple’s construction is a map of the cosmos (mandala) as well as a historical
record of the temple’s patron. Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple
architecture: the temple-mountain and the later galleried temple. It is designed to
represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology: within a moat more than 5
kilometres (3 mi) long and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres (2.2 mi) long are three rectangular
galleries, each raised above the next. At the centre of the temple stands a quincunx of towers.
Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west; scholars are divided as to
the significance of this. The temple is admired for the grandeur and harmony of the architecture,
its extensive bas-reliefs, and for the numerous devatas adorning its walls.
Angkor Wat as a Mandala
According to ancient Sanskrit and Khmer texts, religious monuments and specifically temples
must be organized in such a way that they are in harmony with the universe, meaning that the
temple should be planned according to the rising sun and moon, in addition to symbolizing the
recurrent time sequences of the days, months and years. The central axis of these temples should
also be aligned with the planets, thus connecting the structure to the cosmos so that temples
become spiritual, political, cosmological, astronomical and geo-physical centers. They are, in
other words, intended to represent microcosms of the universe and are organized as mandalas—
diagrams of the universe.

Hill temples in Jainism can be roughly ascribed to two types.

1. Those that were built on Hills in olden times
2. Those are so huge that they have become like Hills.

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1 St Category of ancient hill temples: A classic example of this is Palitana Hill temples or
cluster temples.This has to be one of the most sacred places of worship for the Jain communities
across the globe. Located on the Shatrunjaya Hills the Palitana cluster of temple comprises of a
collection of 863 temples dedicated to the Jain gods. All these places of worship are immaculate
and very opulent no matter what the size and the top can be reached after walking up around
3,000 steps from the foothills. The main temple on the top is dedicated to the St Tirthankara and
the construction date of these sacred portals of religion can be dated back to 10th and is believed
to have been completed over a time period of around 900 years. The currently standing structures
have been renovated several times but the authenticity and spirituality here remain untouched.
Temple Architecture

The temples of Palitana display exquisite architecture and are heavily and very richly
ornamented and adorned. The brilliance of the temple architecture lies in the fact that it has been
constructed in such a unique way that the sunlight transforms the marble structures into some
sort of an ivory shield. Out of the 863 temples the holiest one is the temple of Adishwar. This
Tirth Sthal for Jains is primarily made out of marbles with tall and heavy pillars with a number
of openings, kind of like a typical Hindu temple. The interiors are very intricately and finely
carved complete with geometric lace designs, elaborately carved ceilings and clustered forms of
canopies.

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History
The hill holds a very special and pious place in the hearts of devout Jains. The sanctity of the
Palitana temples lies in the fact that as per Shatrunjaya Mahatmya – the holy Jain texts – the 1st
Tirthankara called Rishabh had delivered his very first sermon here and had successfully
sanctified the hills. Later on his grandson, Pundarika is said to have attained his nirvana here in
the Shatrunjaya hills (the first and initial name of the current Shatrunjaya hills were named
Pundarikgiri. The hills are also said to have been visited several times by Bharata Chakravartin –
the father of Pundarik and half-brother of Baahubali. A temple built by him dedicated to honour
the life of his father Rishabh. If legends and mythological aspects are to be believed then a
number of other tirthankaras are also said to have paid a holy visit to these hills making it even
more pious and sacred.

Shikharji Temple is one of the two holiest of all pilgrimage places by the Jain community,
located on Parasnath range in Giridih district of Jharkhand. The mountain summit of Parasnath
range is the most sacred to Jains. An ancient Jain temple on the Hill, Shikharji means the "venerable
peak". The site is also called Sammed Śikhar or Sammet Shikhar "peak of concentration."
because it is a place where twenty of twenty-four Tirthankaras attained Moksha through
meditation. The word "Parasnath" is derived from Parshvanatha, the twenty-third Jain
tirthankara, who was one of those who is believed to have attained Moksha at the site. Shikharji
rises to 4,480 feet (1,370 m) making it the highest mountain in Jharkhand state. The earliest
reference to Shikharji as a tirth (place of pilgrimage) is found in the Jñātṛdhārmakātha, one of
the twelve core texts of Jainism. Shikharji is also mentioned in the Pārśvanāthacarita, a twelfth
century biography of Pārśva.

The popularity of Shikharji as a site of pilgrimage followed that of Vulture Peak, Bihar, where it
is believed the Buddhist Sariputta attained enlightenment.

Jharkhand acquired Shikharji under the Bihar Land Reforms Act, leaving the rights of Jains in
doubt. Use of Shikharji as a tourist destination also impacts on the religious beliefs of the Jain.

The temple at Shikharji is a new construction with some parts dating to the eighteenth century.
However, the idol itself is very old. Sanskrit inscriptions at the foot of the image date to 1678. At
the base of Shikharji is a temple to Bhomiyaji (Taleti). On the walls of the Jain temple at the

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village of Madhuban, there is a mural painting depicting all the temples on Parasnath Hill.
Temples along the track include:

 Ganadhara  Vasupujya
 Kunthunatha  Abhinandananatha
 Rishabhanatha  Ganadhara
 Chandraprabha  Jal Mandir
 Naminatha  Dharmanatha
 Aranatha  Vardhaman
 Māllīnātha  Varishen
 Shreyanasanatha  Sumatinatha
 Pushpadanta  Shantinatha
 Padmaprabha  Mahavira
 Suvichran  Suparshvanatha
 Chandraprabha  Vimalanatha
 Adinath  Ajitanatha
 Anantanatha  Neminatha
 Shitalanatha  Parshvanatha

Sambhavanatha

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Jain Hill caves at Keezh Kuyil Kudi and others carved out of hills.

An entrance to the cave. Photo: S. James

In ancient times Jain Monks made Caves their homes for a variety of reasons the foremost being
that thay provided a natural, frugal living space with roof and four walls. The oldest major Tamil
epics—Shilapadikaram, Manimeghalai and Civaka Chintamani—composed over 1,500 years ago
are also Jain and speak of the city of Madurai and its rich merchants whose wealth made local
kings nervous.

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Unlike Buddhism, whose followers were expected to become monks, Jainism allowed its
lay followers, the shravakas, to earn merit by taking care of monks. The Jain bas reliefs
found in the caves at Keezh Kuyil Kudi tell a fascinating story.. Keezh Kuyil Kudi, about
15 km from Madurai, is today called the Samanar or Jain hill. The setting could not have
been be lovelier… a large pond choked with lotus flowers, a huge old banyan tree and a
temple for the village god, Karuppanasami.

A short walk around the massive stone hill leads to a flight of stairs that reaches a small
cave. The steps are shaded by trees and it is a short, pleasant climb. The cave is ideal for
playing hide-and-seek, because of little crevices and tunnels, and it’s easy to miss the big
attraction. There’s a stunning bas relief of Mahavira with two attendants on one side and
further inside, several others and a Yakshi, a spirit nymph in Jain mythology. Today,
Yesakki and Petchi are common names in southern Tamil Nadu and both are modifications
of this Sanskrit word – they have become Hindu names now but bear an ancient link to the
country’s Jain past.

The inscriptions here are from the 9th-10th centuries and mention the names and details of
the donors for the bas reliefs. We learn from these of a great Jain school – Palli – that
existed in nearby Kurandi. Gunasena Devar was an important teacher in that school and his
students were instrumental in commissioning these bas reliefs. The longer climb of over
100 steps would have led us to a small spring with more bas reliefs and a stunning view of
the city but would have been strenuous for a young child. Further up from the spring,
recently a Brahmi inscription was discovered from the crevice in the rock, by a young
student.

Beside the spring are several holes on the floor and a vertical rock face, indicative of
pandals that were created with wooden poles and thatched roofs. These would have been
places for the school that existed in the village. Inscriptions list more names of students
who commissioned the bas reliefs. Close by, was once a stone temple of which only the
foundation remains. It received a gift in ACE 889 during the reign of Veeranarayana
Pandya from his queen Vanavan Mahadevi. One wonders who owns the land in the
Konkarpuliaykunram village that the queen gave to this temple today! The oldest

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inscription on the hill records the creation of a stone bed by a native of nearby Thenur in
2nd century BCE, which however, requires a climb not for the faint hearted!

At the foothills is an Ayyanar temple. It has been heavily modernised, but if you look
closely at two deities, fancifully called after mythical Pandya kings, you will find the heads
of early pre-9th century Pandya sculptures of attendants, who would have formed part of
the Jain temple that once stood on the hill. They have not been vandalised, but giving
stucco or concrete bodies and incorporated into the pantheon of deities inside the living
temple, a good lesson for us on how to look after antiquities!

The presence of large boulders and rocky outcrops in the Pandya country must have no
doubt attracted several Jain monks to the area and led to the widespread popularity of their
religion. Public support for the monks from all sections of society – farmers, traders and
the kings -- was powerful since they offered food, medicine, education and sanctuary as
their outreach to society. Perhaps the geography of the Chola country – devoid of such
rocky outcrops suitable for caves, saw a greater acceptance of Buddhism rather than
Jainism, which thanks to the seafaring nature of the Cholas was helped by taking the
religion to the shores of South East Asian countries.

Despite just vestiges, Samanar Malai continues to have a distinct charm – its natural setting
and a little bit of imagination on seeing several young 9th century Jain monks running
around and over the rocky hill can make one smile, though their lives must have been
spartan and serious.

Keezh Kuyil Kudi is 15 km from Madurai on the Nagamalai-Pudukottai Road.

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The hermits of Samanar Hills

Jain carvings in the Samanar Hills. Photo: Wikipedia Commons

Samanar means Jain in Tamil. It is derived from the Sanskrit shramana, which refers to all
hermits, not just Jains, or more specifically those who prefer meditation and austerities to Vedic
rituals in all matters spiritual. Malai is Tamil for hill. The Samanar stands in the village of Keezh
Kuyil Kudi, just 15km outside Madurai, and my friend’s suggestion seemed like a perfect detour.
So, after a quick lunch, we drove out of the city. Little did I know that going up and down this
hill of hermits would be a journey through 2,500 years of Jain history.
The word Dravidian refers to a linguistic group distinct from the Indo-European (Aryan) group
of languages. Europeans turned this linguistic group into a racial group, a theory that was very
popular across the world until race became a bad word, following the rise of Nazism. Tamil,
Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada are the four southern languages with Dravidian root—Tamil
being the mother language. The Brahui spoken in Balochistan, Pakistan, is a Dravidian language,
suggesting the Dravidian language was widely spoken in the subcontinent a long time ago,

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leading to speculation that it was pushed south by the arrival of proto-Sanskrit-speaking people
(often identified as Aryans, but such a nomenclature is controversial and debatable) into the
subcontinent from Eurasia over several centuries from around 2000 BC. This idea is violently
opposed by Hindu supremacists, in India and the US, who insist that an advanced homogenous
Vedic civilization thrived in South Asia thousands of years ago before being polluted by invaders
like the Greeks, the Huns and, especially, the Muslims. We will never really be sure, as long as
politics controls scholarship.

The carving of Jain ‘tirthankar’ Mahavir in the Samanar Hills. Photo: Wikipedia Commons

Tamil culture before the arrival of Vedic culture in the south? We get a glimpse of it at the
base of the Samanar Hills itself, where an Amman temple stands in gaudy grandeur next to a
lotus pond. We see it surrounded by traditional votive images of guardian gods riding horses. It
is a relatively recent construction, and the bright colour and robust style of the imagery is very
different from that found in the orderly, refined Brahminical temple complexes of Tamil Nadu

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Had it not been for the efforts of the now almost overlooked field researcher U.V. Swaminatha
Iyer, who in the 19th century scoured the countryside for palm-leaf manuscripts, we would not
have known much of this earliest layer of Tamil culture: the Sangam period, when the south was
ruled by the Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras, at a time when the Mauryas held sway in the north.
Sangam literature reveals a culture in which kings respected poets, and poets wrote about war
and love. War was associated with cities and love with the countryside, with different landscapes
embodying different emotions. This division draws attention to the grama (settlement) and
aranya (wilderness) divide found in the Sama Veda. This, and familiarity with the yagna,
indicates that by the Sangam period, Vedic ideas had started percolating to the southern half of
the subcontinent, from their heartland, the Gangetic plains, where the Vedas were organized and
the Upanishads were composed, 2,800 years ago.

Sangam literature has memory of a king who sent food for the “five and hundred", an obvious
reference to the Mahabharat’s Pandavas and Kauravas, of goddesses like Kotravai, who delights
in battle, the handsome Seyon, or Murugan, who is represented as a spear atop a mountain, and
the cowherd god Mayon, who wrestles bulls and dances with milkmaids. Were these the
forerunners of the classical Puranic deities Kali, Kartikeya and Krishna, or of deities we now
address as Amman, Meenakshi and Karuppa-Sami
Many images there, some enshrined, that looked very old, probably ancient Pandyan images,
maybe once part of a Jain temple, now turned into deities by the locals. These yellow-brown
stone hill stands out against the otherwise flat rice-field plain. It has been observed that Jain
shrines were more popular in the southern half of Tamil Nadu, ruled by Pandyas, the Pandya
Nadu, while Buddhism was more popular in the northern part, ruled by Cholas, the Chola Nadu.
This may have something to do with the presence of stone mountains in the south, the preferred
residence of Jain monks. These stone mountains with Jain caves, carvings and epigraphy are
today at great risk from illegal stone quarrying.

According to Jain lore, Jainism came to the south in Mauryan times. Chandragupta Maurya,
inspired by Alexander the Great, and helped by his Brahmin mentor, Chanakya, had established
the Mauryan empire, but then became disillusioned towards the latter part of his reign, following

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a prolonged drought. He became a Jain monk and accompanied his teacher, Bhadrabahu, to the
south, to Shravanabelagola in Karnataka. Bhadrabahu’s followers spread the Jain way of
thinking and living to Tamil Nadu. At the Samanar Hills, archaeologists have found a 2,200-
year-old Tamil-Brahmi script—a variant of Brahmi, which is India’s oldest script— referring to
the contribution of locals to the welfare of Jain monks. The oldest major Tamil epics—
Shilapadikaram, Manimeghalai and Civaka Chintamani—composed over 1,500 years ago are
also Jain and speak of the city of Madurai and its rich merchants whose wealth made local kings
nervous. They also speak of the tension between lovers and renunciation as a viable option for
both men and women who are disillusioned by the sensory charms of the worldly life.
Unlike Buddhism, whose followers were expected to become monks, Jainism allowed its lay
followers, the shravakas, to earn merit by taking care of monks. And so archaeologists have
identified 26 caves, 200 stone beds, 60 inscriptions and over 100 sculptures of Jain heritage in
and around Madurai, such as the one on Samanar Hills, where I stood.
There are two major caves on Samanar Hills, one more easily accessible, known as Settipodavu,
and the other with a rather steep climb, known as Pechipallam.

A fresco of dancers from the Chola period.

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At the easily accessible cave, my friend pointed out the rain drip line, an artificial tear above the
entrance of the cave, created to ensure that rainwater does not go into the cave but trickles away
from it by the side. Then you see the fabulous carvings on the walls—stark lines with minimal
ornamentation. The grand image of Mahavir with the image of a lion below him and beside him
his guardians yaksha and yakshi, their feet pointing away from him, and a grand umbrella above
him. His full lips, the slight bulge of what we now call “love-handles" and the straight lines of
his arms, his crossed legs and broad shoulders filled me with awe. The underlying sensuality,
often missing in modern Jain carvings, was unmistakable. The artisans were following the
principles of shilpa-shastra, or the treatise of image-making, that seeks to fill the stone images
with prana or life, a feeling that it is enlivened by breath, and softness. The broad shoulders and
narrow waist attest to the fact that Mahavir came from a royal family. The slight plumpness is
critical to indicate that the fasting is balanced by enlightenment. Fasting strips the body of life
and energy and beauty while enlightenment reverses the process.

There are higher, more inaccessible cave with a steep, hour-long climb. It has a perennial pool
of water, a reason why the monks probably favoured this hill. It also has a large sculpture with
the images of many tirthankars, including Mahavir (identified with his symbol, the lion) and
Parsva (identified by the hooded serpent over his head). There is also an image of Bahubali, who
is not a tirthankar. He is of lesser rank, though he lived much before Mahavir, being the second
son of the first tirthankar, Rishabha. The story goes that Bahubali was far more accomplished
than his brothers, but his competitive spirit and his refusal to bow to those senior to him, in status
or age, fettered him to the ground, a thought symbolically represented by plant vines coiling
around his feet, tying him down.

Both caves of Samanar have many inscriptions, in the Kannada and Tamil languages, using
scripts such as the old south Indian Vatteluttu script. They indicate a connection between the
Jains of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, and a history of a thousand years, for the last ones have been
dated to the ninth century. Then the Jain culture started to wane, though unlike Buddhism, it was
not completely wiped out. It survived because of the great goodwill created by Jain hospitals and
educational services and the refuge offered to political fugitives. Today, there is still a
community of nearly 100,000 Tamil Jains in and around Madurai.

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.
It all started 1,300 years ago, when a new way of thinking emerged in Tamil Nadu: passionate
devotion to an all-powerful god. The Nayanars called him Shiva, and the Alvars called him
Vishnu. These were the forerunners of the bhakti movement that would eventually spread to
north India. This new form of Hinduism was very different from the old Vedic form. It gave
much more value to tangible stone icons than to intangible chants and hymns. It valorized the
householder (yajamana) over the hermit and the ritualist. Over time, it inspired the grand
Shaivite and Vaishnavite temple complexes of the south, such as the Meenakshi-Amman temple
complex, which eventually overshadowed the Jain caves and the Jain way of life in Madurai.

Tensions between the monastic orders and temple traditions were inevitable. The earliest such
clash may have been the infamous Madurai massacre of the seventh century, when Jains were
impaled by the Shaivites. This incident is reported only 500 years later, in manuscripts dating to
the 12th century, and is increasingly being seen as political propaganda. The story goes that the
poet-sage Sambandhar converted the local Pandyan king from Jainism to Shaivism after
defeating the local Jains in debate, and also by curing the king of ailments. Following this, the
king had the Jains killed, or the Jains probably followed the rather controversial Jain practice of
sallekhana, systematically starving oneself to death, probably in caves and stone beds in places
such as Samanar Malai.

The group temples of Jainism are situated on the Mount Girnar situated near Junagadh in
Junagadh district, Gujarat, India. There temples are sacred to the Digambara and the Svetambara
branches of Jainism.

Hill Temples In Jainism

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Girnar Hills looking back down towards Junagadh city. Neminath temple

Hill temples in Jainism can be roughly ascribed to two types.

2. Those that were built on Hills in olden times

3. 2. Those are so huge that they have become hills

According to Jain religious beliefs, Neminath, the 22nd Tirthankara Neminath became an
ascetic after he saw the slaughter of animals for a feast on his wedding. He renounced all
worldly pleasures and came to Mount Girnar to attain salvation. He attained omniscience and
Moksha (died) on the Mount Girnar. His bride-to-be Rajulmati also renounced and became a
nun.

Jain Temples

This temple is situated on the hill of Girnar. Here jain tirthankar /lord naminath temple is
situated. Required good amount of physical strength to reach here. Also doli/palkhi facilities are
available to reach this place. Girnar was anciently called Raivata or Ujjayanta, sacred amongst
the Jains to Neminath, the 22nd Tirthankar, and a place of pilgrimage before 250 BCE. Situated
on the first plateau of Mount Girnar at the height of about 3800 steps, at an altitude of 2370 ft
above Junagadh, still some 600 ft below the first summit of Girnar, there are Jain temples with
marvelous carvings in marble. Some 16 Jain temples here form a sort of fort on the ledge at the
top of the great cliff. These temples are along the west face of the hill, and are all enclosed.

Neminath Temple

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Plan of Neminath Jain Temple….. Plan of Vastupala-vihara( on right)

The Neminath temple is the largest temple of the group standing in a quadrangular court 195 x
130 feet. The temple was rebuilt completely by Sajjana, the governor of Saurashtra appointed by
Jayasimha Siddharaja, in 1129 CE. There is an inscription on one of the pillars of the mandapa
stating that it was repaired in 1278 CE.

It consists of two rangamandapa halls with two porches and a central shrine (Gudhamandapa),
which contains a large black image of Neminath sitting in the lotus position holding a conch in
his palm.

The principal hall in front of the central shrine measures across from door to door inside 41' 7" x
44' 7" from the shrine door to that leading out at the west end. The roof is supported by 22 square
columns of granite coated with white lime while the floor is of tessellated marble.

Round the central shrine is a circumambulatory passage (pradakshina) with many images in
white marble including that of a Ganesha and a Chovishi or slab of the twenty four Tirthankara.
Between the outer and inner halls are two shrines.

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The outer hall measures 38' x 21' 3". The outer hall has two small raised platforms paved with
slabs of yellow stone, covered with representations of feet in pairs called padukas, which
represent the 2452 feet of the Gandharas, first disciples of Tirthankaras.

On the west of this is a closed entrance with a porch overhanging the perpendicular scarp of the
hill. On two of the pillars of the mandapa are inscriptions dated 1275, 1281, and 1278 — dates of
restoration.

The enclosure in which these rangamandapas and the central shrine are situated, is nearly
surrounded inside by 70 little cells, each enshrining a marble image on a bench, with a covered
passage running round in front of them lighted by a perforated stone screen.

The principal entrance was originally on the east side of the court; but it is now closed, and the
entrance from the south side of court in Khengar's Palace is that now used.

On south side, there is a passage leading into a low dark temple, with granite pillars in lines.
Opposite the entrance is a recess containing two large black images; in the back of the recess is a
lion rampant, and over it a crocodile in bas-relief. Behind these figures is a room from which is a
descent into a cave, with a large white marble image which is mostly concealed. It has a slight
hollow in the shoulder, said to be caused by water dropping from the ear, whence it was called
Amijhara, "nectar drop". There are few shrines in the court dedicated to Jain monks. In the North
porch are inscriptions which state that in Samwat 1215 certain Thakurs completed the shrine, and
built the Temple of Ambika.

There is a small temple of Adinath behind the Neminath temple facing west which was built by
Jagmal Gordhan of Porwad family in VS 1848 under guidance of Jinendra Suri.

Adabadji Adinatha temple

There are three temples to the left of the passage from the north porch of the Neminath temple.
Of them, the temple on the south contains a colossal image of Adinatha, the first Tirthankar,
exactly like that at Palitana temples. The image is in standing meditating (kausaggiya) position

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On the throne of this image is a slab of yellow stone carved in 1442, with figures of the 24
Tirthankars.

Panchmeru temple

On the north, opposite the Adabadji temple, there is Panchabai's or Panchmeru temple which was
built in VS 1859. It contains five sikhars or spires each enshrining quadruple images.

Meraka-vasahi

West of Panchmeru temple, there is a large temple. The temples is called Malekavasahi,
Merakavasahi or Merakavashi due to false identification. Madhusudan Dhaky noted that the
Merakavasahi was a small shrine somewhere near east gate of Neminatha temple while the
current temple is large one and outside the north gate of the Neminatha temple. Based on its
architecture, Dhaky dates the temple to 15th century and notes that it is mentioned as
Kharataravasahi built or restored by Bhansali Narpal Sanghavi in the old itineraries of Jain
monks. The temple is depicted in the Shatrunjaya-Giranar Patta dated 1451 CE (VS 1507) in
Ranakpur temple so it must have built before it. The temple may have been built as early as 1438
CE. Dhaky believes that the temple may have been built on the site of the Satyapuravatara
Mahavira's temple built by Vastupala.

According to an anecdote said by modern Jain writers, Sajjana, the minister of Chaulukya king
Siddharaja Jayasimha, built the Neminatha temple using the state treasury. When he collected the
funds to return as a compensation, the king declined to accept it so the funds were used to built
the temple. Dhaky concludes that the anecdote is not mentioned in any early work and is false.

Sahastraphana (thousand hooded) Parshwanatha, the image which was consecrated in 1803 CE
(VS 1459) by Vijayajinendra Suri, is currently the central deity in the temple. The temple
originally housed the golden image of Mahavira and brass images of Shantinatha and
Parshwanatha on its sides.

The east facing temple has 52 small shrines surrounding the central temple. It has an open
portico with ceilings with fine carvings. In the bhamti or cloisters surrounding the court, there

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are also some remarkable designs in carved ceilings. The roof of the rangamandapa has fine
carvings. The shrine proper must have been removed and replaced with new one at the end of the
sixteenth century or the start of the seventeenth century. It is known that Karmachandra
Bachchhavat, minister of the king of Bikaner, had sent a funds to renovate temple in Shatrunjaya
and Girnar under Jinachandrasuri IV of Kharatara Gaccha during the reign of Akbar. There is a
shrine housing replica of Ashtapada hill in the south, shrine with Shatrunjayavatar in west,
behind the main temple, and Samet Shikhar (or Nandishwar Dwipa) in north.

Sangram Soni's Temple

North of the Melakavasahi, there is a temple of Parshwanath in the enclosure. The original
temple on the site was Kalyanatraya temple dedicated to Neminatha built by Tejapala, brother of
Vastupala. This Kalyanatraya contained quadruple images in three tires as the central deity. The
new temple on the site was built in 1438 CE (VS 1494) by Oswal Soni Samarasimha and
Vyavahari Maladev. The spire of this 15th century temple is replaced by new spire built c. 1803
CE. The temple is now mistakenly known as Sangram Soni's temple. It was repaired by
Premabhai Hemabhai about 1843. It contains a large white marble figure of Parswanatha bearing
the date 1803 CE with the polycephalous cobra over him whence he is styled Seshphani. This
temple is peculiar in having a sort of gallery and like the previous one of the central deity faces
the east whilst the others mostly face the west.

Kumarapala's Temple

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Kumarapala temple

The last temple to the north is known as the Kumarapala's temple which is falsely attributed to
12th century Chaulukya king Kumarapala. Based on the literary, epigraphic and architectural
evidence, Madhusudan Dhaky concluded that the temple belongs to 15th century and was built
by Purnasinha Koshthagarika (Punsi Kothari). The central deity was Shantinatha and was
consecrated by Jinakirti Suri probably in 1438 CE. The part of the original temple was destroyed
by the 18th century and appears to have been restored in 1824 CE by Hansraja Jetha which is
known from the inscription.

The temple is west facing. The original temple had 72 shrines surrounding the central temple
which no longer exist. The central temple has a modern long open portico supported by twenty
four columns. The temple proper or mandapa and shrine are small and the ceilings and
architraves are restored. The mandapa with its beautiful pendentive and the pillars and lintels of
the portico. The shrine contains three images; in the middle Abhinandana Swami dedicated in
1838 and on either side Adinatha and Sambhavanatha dated 1791.

Mansingha Bhojaraja temple

To the east of the Devakota, there are several temples: the principal being the temple of
Mansingha Bhojaraja of Kachchh, an old granite temple near the entrance gate which is now
dedicated to Sambhavanatha.

Vastupala Vihara

Vastupala-vihara is a triple temple, the central fane measuring 53 feet by 291⁄2 has two domes
and finely carved but much mutilated and the shrine which is 13 feet square with a large niche or
gokhla on the left side contains an image of Mallinatha. Beneath the image is the inscription
mentioning Vastupala and his family members.

On either side this central temple, there is a large hall about 38 feet 6 inches from door to door
containing a remarkable solid pile of masonry called a samovasarana that on the north side

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named Sumeru having a square base and the other Sameta Sikhara with a nearly circular one.
Each rises in four tiers of diminishing width almost to the roof and is surmounted by a small
square canopy over images. The upper tiers are reached by steps arranged for the purpose. On the
outside of the shrine tower are three small niches in which images have been placed and there are
stone ladders up to the niches to enable the pujaris to reach them. The temple was completed in
1232 CE. There are six large inscriptions of Vastupala in the temple dated VS 1288. Originally
Shatrunjayavatara Adinatha was the central deity of the temple. The roofs of temple were rebuilt
in the 15th century.

There is another temple on the cliff behind the Vastupala-vihara which is now known as
Gumasta temple. The temple was built by Vastupala and was dedicated to Marudevi. Another
shrine behind Vastupala-vihara is dedicated to Kapardi Yaksha.

Samprati Raja temple

Samprati Raja temple… Dharamchand Hemchand temple

Farther north of the Vastupala-vihara, the Samprati Raja temple is situated. The temple was built
in 1453 (VS 1509) CE by Shanraj and Bhumbhav from Khambhat. It was originally dedicated to
Vimalanatha. According to Dhaky, the temple was built on the site of Stambhanatirthavatara
Parshwanatha temple built by Vastupala. The temple is mistakenly attributed to Maurya ruler
Samprati.

It is built against the side of a cliff and is ascended to by a stair. Inside the entrance there is
another very steep flight of steps in the porch leading up to a large mandapa to the east of which

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is added a second mandapa and a gambhara or shrine containing a black image of Neminatha
dedicated by Karnarama Jayaraja in 1461.

Other temples

To the east of Vastupala vihara and Samprati Raja temples, and on the face of the hill above,
there are other temples among them an old one going by the name of Dharmasa of Mangrol or
Dharamchand Hemchand built of grey granite the image being also of granite. Near it is another
ruined shrine in which delicate granite columns rise from the corners of the sinhasana or throne
carved with many squatting figures. Near this is the only shrine on this mount to Mahavira.[17]

South of this, and 200 feet above the Jain temples on way to the first summit, is the Gaumukhi
Shrine, near a plentiful spring of water.

Away on the north, climbing down the steps, there are two shrines dedicated to Neminatha in
Sahsavan where he said to have taken renunciation and attained omniscience. Neminatha is said
to have attained Nirvana or died on the highest peak of the Girnar. There is a modern
Samovasarana temple.

Tanks

Outside to the north of the Kumarapala's temple, there is the Bhima Kunda, a tank measuring 70
feet by 50 feet. Below it and on the verge of the cliff is a smaller tank of water and near it a small
canopy supported by three roughly hewn pillars and a piece of rock containing a short octagonal
stone called Hathi pagla or Gajapada, the elephant foot, a stratum on the top of which is of light
granite and the rest of dark the lower part is immersed in water most of the year.

Five Peaks

There are 5 tonks on the Girnar hill.

First Peak: After a climb of about 2 miles, there is a Digambar Jain temple and a cave called
Rajulmati cave, it is stated that Rajulmati has done penance at this place. There is also a small
temple where idol of Bahubali (120 cm) in standing posture is installed. Besides there are

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footprints of Kundkund. In the temple, the idol of Neminath (Vikram Samvat 1924) is on the
main altar. The idols of Parshwanath and Neminath are also there. There is stream called
gomukhi ganga and nearby the footprints of 24 tirthanakaras are available.

Second Peak: After 900 steps there are the footprints of Muni Anirudhhkumar and temple of
Devi Ambika.

Third Peak: here the footprints of Muni Sambukkumar are installed. Muni has attained nirvana
from this place.

Fourth tonk (Peak); Here the footprints of Pradhyman kumar, son of lord krishna are installed
here. He attained nirvana from this place.

Fifth tonk; The Fifth tonk is of Lord Neminath's footprints. Lord Neminath, the 22nd tirthankar
attained nirvana/moksha from this site.

The vegetarian Ciyy of Pālītāṇā is a town in Bhavnagar district, Gujarat, India. It is located
50 km southwest of Bhavnagar city and is a major pilgrimage centre for Jains. It is first of the
two vegetarian cities in the world. It is also a:

JAIN TEMPLE TOWNs

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Palitana was founded in 1194. The town is located in Bhavnagar district of Gujarat, India. It is
located 50 km southwest of Bhavnagar city. It is a major pilgrimage center for Janis. The
Palitana temples of Jainism are located on Shatrunjaya hill. There are a total of 863 Jain temples
in Palitana on Shatrunjiya. The path was climbed through 3950 steps spanning 3.5 km up the
Shatrunjaya Hills. The construction of temples of Palitana spanned over a period of 900 years.
And it was structured in two phases.

Jain Temples in Palitana are mentioned below:-

 Kumar pal temple
 Sampriti Raj temple
 Shri Adwishi temple
 Vimal Shah temple
 Shatrunjay hill temple
 Hastgiri Jain tirth
 Shri Kal Bhairav Dev Mandir
 Kaal Bhairav Mandir
 Radha Krishna Mandir
 Tartiya Hanumanji Temple
 Murlidhar Haveli
 Nagnath temple
Shatrunjaya Hill

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 Tirth

The Shatrunjaya hill is 3 km away from Palitana. Shatrunjaya – Mount Śatruñjaya – is one of the
paramount holy places for Jain, especially the Śvetāmbara Mūrti-pūjakas. This site on
Shatrunjaya hill is consider as the sacred place for Svetambara Jain. There are 23 to 24 Jain
Tirthankaras. There are approximately 863 marble-carved temples. On the hills spread mostly in
nine clusters. Some being vast temple complexes, while most small in size.

Hastgiri Jain Tirth

Hastgiri is the beauty of Jain tirth. This place is very calm and beautiful having its natural
beauty. Hastgiri is located in hilly region on the Shatrunjay dam. This place is dedicated to
Bhagwan Shri Adishvar – full of white color murti. It is on the top of the hill of the mountain.
There are Dharamshala’s and bhojanalas for the pilgrims in the vicinity of the temple.

Palitana is associated with Jain legends and history. Ādinātha, the first of the Jain tirthankaras, is
said to have meditated on the Shatrunjaya hill, where the Palitana temples were later constructed.

The Palitana State was a princely state, founded in 1194. It was one of the major states in
Saurashtra, covering 777 km². In 1921 it had 58,000 inhabitants in 91 villages, generating a
744,416 Rs revenue.

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In 1656, Shah Jahan's son Murad Baksh (the then Governor of Gujarat) granted the village of
Palitana to the prominent Jain merchant Shantidas Jhaveri. The management of the temples was
assigned to the Anandji Kalyanji Trust in 1730.[3]

During the British Raj, Palitana was a princely state in the Kathiawar Agency of the Bombay
presidency. Gross revenue, £42,000; tribute jointly to the Gaekwar of Baroda and the Nawab of
Junagadh, £700. The capital of the state was the Palitana town (population 12,800). It was ruled
by a Gohil Rajput, with the title of Thakore sahib (also spelled Thakor Saheb or Thakur Sahib),
enjoying a 9-guns salute, of the Hindu Gohel dynasty, which received a privy purse of 180,000
rupees at the state's accession to independent India on 15 February 1948. The last Thakore Sahib
of Palitana was Shri Shivendrasinhji Bahadursinhji Gohel the 27th Thakore Sahib of Palitana,
who got the title of His Highness after his father HH Thakore Sahib Shri Sir Bahadursinhji
Mansinhji Gohel of Palitana died on 18 July 1964. HH Thakore Sahib Shri Shivendrasinhji
Bahadursinhji Gohel of Palitana died on 29 June 1990, leaving behind his wife Rajmata Sonia
Devi & his son Maharaj Kumar Ketan Shivendrasinhji Gohel of Palitana who reside in Mumbai.
MK Ketansinhji is a restaurateur & is the Co-founder & Owner of Brewbot Eatery & Pub
Brewery located in Andheri (W), Mumbai.

Geography

Palitana is located at 21°31′N71°50′E21.52°N 71.83°E.[4] It has an average elevation of

67 metres (219 feet). The Palitana dam, an irrigation resource, is on the Shetrunji River.

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Palitana temples

Palitana is the world's only mountain that has more than 900 temples. The Palitana temples
and whole mountain are considered the most sacred pilgrimage place (tirtha) by the Jain
community, and is the world's largest Temple Complex. There are more than 3000 temples
located on the Shatrunjaya hills, exquisitely carved in marble. The main temple on top of the hill,
is dedicated to the first Tirthankara Rishabhanatha (Rishabhadeva). The temples were built by
generations of Jains over a period of 900 years, from the 11th century onwards. The temples are
managed by the Anandji Kalyanji Trust associated with the Kasturbhai Lalbhai group. From the
foot of the hill to the top there are about 3,800 stone steps to facilitate climbing.

The temples are exquisitely carved in marble, veritable prayers in stone. To an observer, these
appear to be ivory miniatures when seen from a distance. Created by master craftsmen, the most
important temple is that of the first teerthankara, Shri Adishwar. It has ornate architectural

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motifs, though in its overall plan it is simpler than the Choumukh. Other notable temples are
those of Kumarpal, Vimalshah and Sampriti Raja. Kumarpal Solanki, a great Jain patron,
probably built the earliest temple. The temple has a fabulous collection of jewels, and these can
be seen with special permission. The temples date from 11th to the 20th century. From 1865 to
1910 it was ruled by King Dhanpat.

Belief

Every devout Jain aspires to climb to the top of the mountain at least once in his lifetime,
because of its sanctity. Not just the temples on the Hill are sacred, but as per Jain Scriptures
entire Hill is sacred right from top to bottom. The journey is arduous. The walk up the stone
stairway hewn into the mountain face takes about an hour and a half. For those unable or
unaccustomed to the strain, sling-chairs are available at a bargain. The code for the climbers is
stringent, in keeping with the rigours of the Jain faith. Food must neither be eaten nor carried on
the way. The descent must begin before it is evening, for no soul can remain atop the sacred
mountain during the night.

Vegetarianism

In 2014, Palitana became the first city in the world to be legally vegetarian. It has outlawed, or
made illegal, the buying and selling of meat, fish and eggs, and also related jobs or work, such as
fishing and penning 'food animals'.

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 CHAPTER
Quintessential Architectural Characteristics of the Chaitralayas- Jain
“Temples”

"Cite lepyadicayanasya bhavah karma va

Caityam; tacca sajnasadhvatva devatii
bimbe prasiddham tavahe tadasrayabhutam ya
devatizya/J. grham tadapyupacaracCaityamucyate."

Image of a deity, is an abode of the image

Commentary of ~Santicandra on JambudvTpaprajnapti sutra I, p.9.

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The Jain community is one of the most ancient communities of Indian civilization going back 5000 years.
They can be traced not only to the Vedic period but also to Indus valley civilizations; where there is
mention of the worship of the first Tirthankar- Rishabhdeva. 1
Moreover, unlike other minority communities of India, they are Indian in every sense of the term- their
mythology,history,languages, temples are all located herein. Mahavir, being a contemporary of Gautama
Buddha has found mention in both Hindu and buddhist socio-cultural context. Hence both Buddhist and
Hindu influences colour the temple architecture of the Jain edifices.

Murtipujaka or 'image-worshipping,' is found in both Shvetambaras and Digambaras, so we have

Shvetambara Murtipujakas and Digambara Murtipujakas. Murtipujakas are also known as Deravasis.
They are centred on temples with puja, worship, of Jina-images, other deities, yakshas and yakshis, and
other celestial figures in the Jain pantheon. There are large numbers of Jain temples throughout India and
more recently overseas. The holy mountain of Satrunjaya Bhavnagar district, Gujarat, India has nearly
one thousand temples and shrines. Some Jain temples are extraordinarily elaborate and beautiful and
through their symbolism express the doctrines of Jainism.2

The external and visible elements of religious buildings signify the faith of the particular community,
where people have congregated for worship and exhibited their reverence and generate contact towards
the divine. A tour of famous Jain temples in India would reveal the visual philosophy in architecture of
temples and idols of Jain sects. In Jain doctrine prabhavana is an important social tendency to do good to
others by building temples, setting up Jina-images, going on pilgrimages, and making donations to
hospitals and animal sanctuaries. This way one can 'illuminate' the Jain religion to the world.

Although Jain temples frequently share the architectural and artistic elements found in temples of other
3
religions, they are distinctively Jain. Their religious buildings are specifically adapted to Jain spiritual
ideas and ritual practices. There are three striking features of Jain religious buildings:
1) There is usually more than one shrine in a temple.
2) Most are surrounded by additional buildings that form part of the religious building.
3) Lastly, temples are frequently clustered together to produce temple complexes or ‘temple-cities’.

A Jain temple may be referred to by many different names. Terms for ‘temple’ used in early Jainism were
sometimes unclear because activities such as teaching, worshipping and residing did not have special
areas and often happened in the same place. As buildings and rooms in Jain temples became dedicated to

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certain purposes over time, so the terminology became more precise. The term used in the present day
varies according to the region of India and the local language.

There are several distinct architectural types of Jain temple in India. These range from cave
temples, stupas, pavilions built to shelter holy footprints and statues through maṇḍapa-line temples,
‘four-faced’ temples – caturmukha temples – and havelī temples to hall temples, domestic house
temples and small shrines found inside private homes. The most common type is that of the maṇḍapa-line
temple, which has one or more shrines and halls. Also typical of a Jain religious context are mythological
and cosmological temples, which reflect unique cosmological traditions. More rarely found temples are
the towering kīrtti-stambha mandirs.
.
Proximity of Jain Temple Architecture to Hindu temples: Jain temple architecture is generally close
to Hindu temple architecture, and in ancient times Buddhist architecture. Normally the same builders
and carvers worked for all religions, and regional and period styles are generally similar. For over 1,000
years the basic layout of a Hindu or most Jain temples has consisted of a small garbhagriha or sanctuary
for the main murti or cult images, over which the high superstructure rises, then one or more
larger mandapa halls. Form and Function in Jain Architecture.

Four sided form: Jain temple architecture developed the four sided form, as opposed to Hindu
temples, which tend to be linear in direction because of the metaphysical doctrines of Jainism. The
concept of relativity in particular, or in other words, that there is no ‘one truth’. This means that for a
temple, an architectural promenade that showed only one face of the tirthankara was against the
concept of Jainism, this means that a number of overlapping ‘ways’ to reach the image were developed.
This multiplicity of viewpoints, this duplicity of temple forms and facades was well reflected in later
examples as well, as at the Hatheesingh temple at Ahmedabad, and the Shitalanatha temple at Calcutta.

Mathematics and architecture share the search for order and beauty and the former plays a key role in
achievements of the latter.This is so with all complex temple projects regardless of the religion-Hinduism
or Jainism. The application of geometry is the principle guiding both grandeur and structural stability as
seen in the Pyramids of Egypt, The Parthenon, The Colosseum and the TajMahal.4

TEMPLES OF JAIN RELIGION: The Jains called their temples"Caitya", or Chaityalaya from a
root cita or ci meaning "heaped-up", is a Sanskrit term for a mound or pedestal or "funeral pile". The
oldest temple has to be Ashtapada at or near Mount Kailash, but since it is inaccessible to humans,
alternate is either the Palitana Tirth situated on the Shatrunjay Hill or the Sammed Shikharji on the

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Parasnath Hill.Among other pilgrim sites are Sankeshwar, Nakoda, Ranakpur and Girnar Hill.Most Jain
pilgrim sites are located in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
The Chaitya is a sacred construction of some sort, and has acquired different more specific meanings in
different regions, including "caityavṛkṣa" for a sacred tree. There is a difference between the Buddhist
and Jain connotation. In Buddhism Chaityas appear at the same sites like the vihara, a strongly contrasting
type of building with a low-ceilinged rectangular central hall, with small cells opening, off it, often on all
sides. These often have a shrine set back at the centre of the back wall, containing a stupa in early
examples, or a Buddha statue later. The vihara was the key building in Buddhist monastic complexes,
used to live, study and pray in. Typical large sites contain several viharas for every chaitya

According to K.L. Chanchreek,5 in early Jain literature, caitya meant ayatanas or temples where monks

stayed. It also meant where the Jain idol was placed in a temple, but broadly it was a symbolism for any
temple. In some texts, these are referred to as arhat-caitya or jina-caitya, meaning shrines for an Arhat or
Jina. Major ancient Jaina archaeological sites such as the Kankali Tila near Mathura show Caitya-tree,
Caitya-stupa, Caitya arches with Mahendra-dvajas and meditating Tirthankaras. 2The word caitya appears
in the Vedic literature of Hinduism. In early Buddhist and Hindu literature, a caitya is any 'piled up
monument' or 'sacred tree' under which to meet or meditate.

Different Caityas are referred to, in the Jaina sutras. They reveal that at different places in the outskirts of
a village, town or a city there were Caityas. It was believed that there is a God in a Caitya and that he has
to be worshipped with proper offerings. It is said that Mahavlra would. not stay in the Yajniya Cityas,
Yajna-Shalas. He stayed in Caityas, which were certainly non-vedic in character and were visited by a
large number of people.6

SYNTHETIC CHARACTER OF JAIN ARCHITECTURE

The temples of Digambara and Śvetāmbara group of Jainas have similar styles of temples commonly and
probably the Māru-Gurjara style of northwestern India .Though no one single type can be called upon-
this one was popular.Many of the Jaina temples in northern and eastern India, as well as in central and
southern India, house sculptural representations that are closely connected with certain clearly identified
sites in the northwest of the country. Which means that there was some duplication (copy) in design. The
other reason would be that most of its architectural elements including "shikhara" have been developed in
Hindu architecture, and this temple in itself does not come up with anything unique.However, in the Jaina
architecture, sculpture is not supposed to insist on its value in itself. Instead, all the engravings serve for
the entire architectural spaces, without going beyond the frames of architectural elements. The unique
value attained by this Jaina temple resides in its "integration" and can be classified into these three kinds
of architecture .

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1."Sculptural Architecture." The essence of Indian architecture like medieval Hindu temples lies in
sculpture revealing the whole building itself as a piece of sculptural with abundance of carvings in detail.
It could also be called a "Massive Architecture."
2."Membranous Architecture," in opposition to the previous type emphasizes covering or enclosure of
interior space rather than external sculpture like features. The examples could be buildings that do not
have conspicuous facades, but once entering inside, there appear wonderful interior spaces.
3."Framework Architecture." Lacking both sculpturesque appearance and modernistic space concept, the
attractiveness of this type of architecture exists in the undetermined space and a framework composition
above. Their interior space and exterior space are continuous without clear distinction.

Many Jain temples such as the Adinath integrate these 3 into 1 temple space. Thus they have both
exquisite exteriors and interiors. As opposed to this, the Delwara temples at Mt. Abu do not have as
attractive external appearance as their interior space, this temple also has the sculptural beauty at its
exterior with the shikaras above the shrines.
Moreover, even though the entire structure of Adinatha temple is made of stone, it is mainly a traberated
construction where strong horizontal elements or lintels are held up by strong vertical elements or
columns with large spaces between them. This is usually used to hold up a roof, creating a largely open
space beneath, for whatever use the building is designed. The use of wider elements at the top of the post,
called capitals, to help spread the load, is common to Jaina temple traditions. The structure is based on
the framework of posts and beams, not on walls and arches. Consequently, the synthesis of these three
kinds of architecture sublimated this temple to the level that no other Hindu buildings had achieved.7

THE MEANING OF JAIN TEMPLES: What enabled Jaina architecture to attain such integration? It
was nothing else but the "Chaturmukha" (four faced) shrine form, which we have so far observed many
times. If we compare in plan the central part of Adhinatha temple at Ranakpur to that of the Kharatara
temple at Mt. Abu, which is the only temple that has a different form in the Delwara temples there, we
will come to know that these two temple plans are quite similar. The central shrines of these temples are
opened to four directions, and in front of each side, there is a "mandapa" (hall) covered by a domical
ceiling.

Incidentally, the basic form of a Hindu temple is [garbhagriha + mandapa]. Since the garbhagriha
(sanctum) always has only one portal at its front side, it is quite unlikely that it has four mandapas at its
four sides. The garbhagriha at Hindu temples means the "house of God" and accordingly it should be
locked securely as a human residence. Meals and oil lamps are served to a statue of God during daytime
and the door is closed at night in order for God to sleep.

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 ___

Mahavira in the center of Samavasarana( from "Kalpa-Sutra" c. 1475-1500, Detroit Institute of Art ) at
Left and Sadri,Pali,Rajasthan at right. When a Jina obtains perfect knowledg, the gods prepare his
Samavasarana, which is open to the four directions and takes either round plan or square plan.Below 2
pics

On the other hand, a Jaina temple is not a house of God, but a place where a Tirthankara" (Jina) gives
teachings. It is called "Samavasarana," and the doctrine of Jina should be preached in all directions. In
Jainism, Samavasarana or Samosharana "Refuge to All" is a term for the divine preaching hall of the
Tirthankara. The word samavasarana is derived from two words, sama meaning general and avasara
meaning opportunity. A place where all have a common opportunity of acquiring the wisdom. The divine

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pavilion is built by heavenly beings (devas) after the tirthankara attain omniscience (Kevala Jnana). The
theme of Samavasaranas has been popular in Jain art.

What is characteristic about the form of Jaina images is that four statues of Tirthankaras are often
combined back to back with each other, in either standing or sitting posture. It is called "Chaumukh" or
" Chaturmukha" (four faced) image. If a temple is dedicated to this chaturmukha image, its garbhagriha is
also opened to all four directions, thus provides mandapa, which represent a place of both worship and
teaching, in front of each side.

“Vastu-shastra” has been written in many places from ancient times. In western India, a treatise called
“Vriksharnava Shastra ” describes the Chaturmukh, which is uniqe only to Jain architecture.This basic
“Four faced open form’ in which the central shrines are opened to four directions, and in front of each
side, there is a “mandapa” (hall which represent a place of both worship and teaching). “Chaumukh” or ”
Chaturmukha” (four faced) image – four statues of Tirthankaras are often combined back to back with
each other, in either standing or sitting posture.

Although many Jaina temples followed the mainstream style of Hindu temples initially with 1 main deity
in the inner sanctum garbhagriha + mandapa, from the medieval period onwards, the Jains gradually
developed their original “Four faced open form” in the temple design. This is the original style of Jain
temple construction found in a majority of temples with the following building elements:

 image-chamber – garbha-gṛha

 hall – maṇḍapa

 porch.
These elements vary in number and relative proportions in various temples,but all Jain temples are built
on a platform.

The Plinth: Referred to as jagatī or vedī ,it physically raises the temple above the surrounding land and
creates a distinct sacred area. And raises the temples above the ground to create a higher, sacred area that
is qualitatively different from the lower profane area surrounding it.
Worshippers take off their shoes before climbing up to the sacred temple area. This ascent, however short,
is symbolically related to the idea of the difficulties – durlābha – in reaching sacred places. By extension
it also suggests the long journey to the remote goal of enlightenment. On this pronounced plinth, the
temple is protected and appears larger and more monumental. The platforms are often much wider than
the actual temple structures and thus provide space for the ritual ambulation – pradakṣiṇā – of the

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building to take place on the sacred level. This spaciousness also allows further shrines, surrounding the
temple building, to be at the same level.

This feature became particularly evolved in the Jain temple architecture of north-western India during the
medieval age. The reason could have been to help distribute the weight of the structure above such as the
columns which in turn support the roof- all of it pressing down in the plinth; which then is the most
important part and this was realized by the later Jain architects who moved from simple to structural
complexity.8

Lines of subsidiary shrines were interconnected to create protective walls surrounding the outer edge of
the terraces. This helped to physically protect the temple structures and shield them from outside view.
Even rock-cut cave temples have platforms, at least at the front entrance.
The terraces are frequently very high, up to three or four metres tall. In many cases the platforms are tall
enough to allow separate apartments or lower image-chambers to be created inside.

The column-beam-corbel method of construction was the main structural principle governing the
construction of every Hindu temples. The principles of equilibrium of forces in action by means of
arch, vaults and other forms of functional engineering rules never really played a part in the
evolution of Hindu temple. Its doesn’t mean that architects of Hindu temples were ignorant about
these techniques, rather it is their conformance to tradition and strict adherence to precedents,
reflecting a certain firmness in their cultural attitude (Brown, 1942). There was no instance of use
of vaults or domes in the Hindu temple architecture, but arched niches were created on the surface
of the walls and they rarely carry loads from above. The Hindu architects remained attached to his
own traditional techniques and accomplished his task of construction by carefully study of the laws
of gravity, obtaining the strength by the mass supporting mass and stability by the solid resistance
of the weights acting vertically, all pressure being tranismitted directly downwards. As a result the
use of mortar was pointless because there being almost no inclined pressure to distribute between
the courses of masonary. Therefore, the Hindu temple architecture masonary developed as dry

masonary system (Brown, 1942).9

Syādvāda, in Jaina metaphysics, holds that all judgments are conditional, holding good only in certain
conditions, circumstances, or senses, expressed by the word syāt (Sanskrit: “may be”). The ways of
looking at a thing (called naya) are infinite in number. This Syadvada or relativism of Jaina logic was
also perhaps a driving force to develop chaturmukha-type of Jaina temples.. Never assuming one absolute

261
‘God’, the attitude of regarding even the twenty-four saviors of Tirthankaras (Jinas) as existence that can
be seen from multilateral viewpoints made it possible to create chaturmukha images in which 4 statues are
placed back to back with each other, and to develop an architectural style of chaturmukha shrine.Some
famous examples of this type of architecture are –Chaturmukha Basadi of Karkala, Ranakpur temple, Mt
Abu Jain temple etc. This is contrary to many other religions and Jain Dharm avoids dogmatism and
eliminates self-righteous statements like “This is the very truth” because as per Syadavada- everything
has many aspects, and each religion, doctrine, and statement has a certain sense of truth

From its early origins to the tenth century, the Hindu temple embodied a progressive elaboration of a
simple formal schema based on a cuboidal sanctum and a solid form of distinctive curvature. The
architectural form of the Jain temples also copied or based on the Hindu plan of the temple was the
subject of wide experimentation, based on canonical sacred texts, within the regional schools of temple
building in the Indian subcontinent. Practice of this knowledge in the constructive geometry of temple
superstructures, with attention focused on the canonical rules for deriving the planar profile of a temple
using a mandala (proportional grid) and the curvature of the sikhara (superstructure) using a rekha sutra
(curve measure) was present in absence of modern surveying tools helped in erecting these huge
edifices.10

The creation of temple-cities in the form outlined here is unique to the Jain faith.Jain temple-cities are
groupings of temple compounds, which contain large numbers of individual and interconnected temples
and smaller shrines. They are walled and entered through gateways. Temple-cities are not cities in the
conventional sense. They do not contain streets, houses or shops. They are dedicated to the veneration of
Jain values and the glory of the enlightened Jinas. Most temple-cities are located on hills and have
developed out of clusters of temples and walled compounds, which have been expanded over time.
Donors give money to help build shrines and temples, which eventually form sizeable groups of temple
compounds. There are numerous examples of temple-cities throughout India. The best known include:
Mount Girnār Mount Śatruñjaya Mount Sameṭa Śikhara Mount Sonā-giri Shravana Belgola Mudabidri.
Imitations of well-known templecities have also been built at smaller sites. Representations of temple-
cities in Jain art and at other important Jain sites throughout India, and abroad, indicate the great
importance of these holy sites for the Jain community.

By definition A temple-city is a term for a large number of temples built very closely together. Jain
temple compounds tend to contain a multitude of major temple buildings and minor shrine structures.

There is a clear tendency in Jain temple architecture towards creating numerous shrines. This leads to the
construction of temple buildings with many shrines and storeys, which are often surrounded by further
free-standing and interconnected shrines. These collections of religious buildings frequently combine
temples of different forms. The religious buildings are regularly grouped into compounds and surrounded
by high protective walls – prākāras. The enclosing walls can consist of uninterrupted lines of small
shrines – deva-kulikās – which form a solid wall on the outside. The walled complexes – tunks – are

262
strongly fortified. They have massive gateway structures and can be securely locked. Location By
building several such walled compounds in one place.11

Different scholars have concluded that, Jain Architecture grew parallel with contemporary
Architecture style of India. All the religion and culture have its distinctfeature and style. Therefore, there
is unique style of Architecture with the Jain Architecture also. 12

Polygons: Let us take the example of the visual complexity in the temple forms of Pallava Architecture
where polygons are used and such complexity is mainly created by repetition of architectural elements in
the Vimana. In the south indian temple architecture (Dravidian Style) the super structure of the vimana or
its several storeys are set with small temple shapes, Similar to the original shape. The smaller shapes are
aligned in a definite pattern at each horizontal level, the repetition of these shapes at each band forming a
kind of garland at each level. The repetition of identical shapes either in the vertical or in the horizontal or
vertically as well as horizontally, is another frequently used procedure to add visual complexity to the
temple form. The article mainly focuses on self similar iteration, repetition, fractalization and how it is
applied to various examples starting from monolithic shrines. Shore temple at Mamallapuram to
Kailashanathar and Vaikunda Permual temple in Kanchipuram. The use of recursive procedures involving
self similar iteration and fractalization in the construction of vimana of pallava temple architecture give
rise to a very distinct architectural style.13 The visual complexity and beauty of the vimana lies behind the
proportions of the arrangement of replicas of sala and kuta. The repetition in the vimana are not
arbitrarily,but follow some rules and proportions. The repetition of sala and kuta in different rules of
iteration create different fractal figures there by create visual complexity in the vimanas of pallava temple
architecture.14 The architecture of Hindu temples is distinguished by certain formal features,A jaggedness
of all surface and edges. Due to splitting of forms into subforms. The exteriors have forms of
deities(Statutes-3D carved figures)humans,animals,mythicals,foliage decorative elements of all kind
densely packed on the outside to create a distinctive visual texture on the temple surface.

When arranged in horizontal layers- one after and under the other- in elevation they form a distinctive
element. Finally repetitive motifs in different scales in the temple forms- repeated in decreasing sizes
within an overall 3D motif. Fractals and forms in self similarity. To achieve greater visual complexity in
order to express the idea of multiplying and growth,many different techniques of fractalization are
foumd.particularly in columns.A square section can be split into8-16-32 sided polygons in successive
sections along the column length with a production rule of P(n)-->P(2n) P is a regular polygon of n
number of sides amongst other fractalisations too numerous to mention but easily visible to our eyes as
we glance upon these accient structures that highlight a discovery of fractal Algebra and geometry that
took place 1000sof years later to their creation.15

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Mathematical ideas have formed new semiotic spaces, where those without a mathematical background
can only "feel" the effects and many of their consequences in real life space. The truth of a theorem,
equations, and many mathematical relations are basically correct, depending on what is meant by
theorems, equations, and conceptual relations of mathematics itself. Mathematics that we know today tells
the long road of human thought from ancient simple concepts and abstractions, which have relations and
connectedness with each other with concepts.

This then leads us to the intriguing question when looking at the splendor of the diverse ethnographies in
the cultural landscape of the archipelago. The splendor of Borobudur Temple which is known as one of
the largest and most complex Buddhist sites on our planet, has extraordinary architecture, from its
construction structure, to the ornamentation and decoration carved there. And we are also increasingly
intrigued, when we also understand that at the time of the great temple was built, we do not use
mathematical thinking as architects or civil engineering engineers today build a mega-structure similar to
Borobudur.

Similar mathematical ratios used elsewhere in ancient times: 16

4:6:9 Ratio: A survey conducted in 1977 in the Buddhist temple at Borobudur,Java revealed frequent
findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the
precise dimensions of the fractal and self-similar geometry in Borobudur's design. This ratio is also found
in the designs of Pawon and Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples.There is an interesting geometric fact
shown in Borobudur, These are as related to the mythology, about the parts of the temple, including the
legs, body, and head of a human being representing the celestial body of the Buddha..

264
Fig.taken from the book of Shri Trivedi showing the repeatativeness and consequent formation of fractals

Algorithmic process: When the shapes and patterns used to create art, starts to acquire meaning
contextually, it transcends into 'symbolism', art, is seen to have symbolic meanings and a positive
contributing to art thus contributing to the overall understanding of the structure and ambience.

These shapes evolving into patterns is an algorithmic process where the patterns fractal in nature. Thus
making a logical connection between patterns and their meanings, that is, fractals and symbolism. In this
type of religious architecture, the shapes have a set of meanings, their combinations have certain
meanings, and the patterns evolved from them have, either a higher metaphorical meaning or a totally
new interpretation. Thus 'symbolism' and 'fractals' are linked.17

265
In his PhD thesis on Critical Analysis of Jain Architecture in Bihar Region and its Influence on Regional
Architecture, Ravish Kumar describes in considerable details in over 300 pages the detailed planning of
temple construction but referring to Hindu temple construction techniques.18

Geometry:The Indian temple architecture inoculates high level of geometric Proportions. Different types
of proportions can be analyzed from the plan and the elevation of the temple complex in 1505 AD, the
main shrine was built and the prakara around it such that the center of the Garbha Griha (Sanctum
Sanctorum) falls at the center of a square
The Shrine dedicated to garuda (stone chariot) is at the center of a rectangular portion adjacent to the
square mandala. The garuda fall at the central axis of the garbha griha, the northern gopuram also along

266
the central axis of the garbha griha to the other side and the southern gopuram is along the axis of the
center of the rectangular enclosure. With garbha griha as the center, the 9 square mandala inscribed as
shown in Figure 8, the Amman shrine and the mantapa (100 pillared hall) fall outside the mandala. The
2.4mx2.4m grid is taken from inside the temple complex, when it is extended outside the temple complex,
we see that the other mantapas and structures fall with same grid. 19

Urushringas are subsidiary tower springing from the sides of the main shikhara tower and is smaller and
narrower than the shikhara, and "engaged" or connected to it where they meet, except right at the top. It
strengthens the feeling of height given by the temple, and may give some structural support by acting like
a buttress, as well as adding to the visual symbolism of the temple as a sacred mountain.They often reflect
the complex shape of the sanctuary structure at ground level, following the ratha projections up into the
shikhara. The style of shikhara with urushringas is known as sekhari. Many of the temples in the famous
Khajuraho Group of Monuments have sekhari towers, though others do not. On the Kandariya Mahadeva
Temple there are 84 urushringas around the shikhara. The urushringa echoes the form of the main
Sikhara, and often has its own amalaka and kalasha at the top, as in the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.

The Khajuraho group of temples belong to Vaishnavism school of Hinduism, Saivism school of Hinduism
and Jainism - nearly a third each. Archaeological studies suggest all three types of temples were under
construction at about the same time in the late 10th century, and in use simultaneously. Will Durant states
that this aspect of Khajuraho temples illustrates the tolerance and respect for different religious
viewpoints in the Hindu and Jain traditions. 20

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Chaturmukha : The mainstream of the style of Jaina temples was [garbhagriha + mandapa], which
Jainas had modeled after Hindu temples. From the medieval period, they gradually developed their
original "Four faced open form" in the temple design.. Hindu temples, on the other hand, could not extend
their composition in four directions. And this they compensated by increasing the number of shrines when
they wanted to enlarge its scale. Bhubaneshwar and the Jagannatha temple in Puri they have added two
large mandapas in front of the basic edifice of [garbhagriha + mandapa], and placed them in a line.An
example is the Jain temple Chaturmukh Basadi where Chaturmukha stands for four faces. As we were
nearing, the basadi was visible from a distance and the view was magnificent as on left side there is
basadi and on right side one could notice the statute of Bahubali on the top of the hill. King Immadi
Bhairava (Bhairava II) constructed the Basadi on top of a small rocky hill in 1586 AD. The Basadi has
four identical entrances from the four quarters leading to the Garbagriha or sanctorium and hence is
popularly known as Chaturmukha Basadi. It is also referred to as Tribhuvana Tilaka Jina Chaityalaya and
Ratnaraya Dhama in some inscriptions. The Basadi is built in the form of a square mandapa with a
doorway and pillared portico on each of its four sides and a pillared verandah. It has life size statues of
three Tirthankaras on each side and small images of 24 Tirthankara. It took 30 years to construct this
temple. In all, there are 108 pillars in the temple complex. Each pillar is an exhibition of the architectural
skills of the masons of that time and carries a piece of history in itself. One needs to spend time to connect
the dots from pillar to pillar.

268
 _____________
Left : The Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneshwar
Right : The Pancha-Yatana-type Temple at Sinnar

Quincunx or Panch Yatana: In architecture, a quincuncial plan, also defined as a "cross-in-square", is

the plan of an edifice composed of nine bays. The central and the four angular ones are covered
with domes or groin vaults so that the pattern of these domes forms a quincunx; the other four bays are
surmounted by barrel vaults. In Khmer architecture, the towers of a temple, such as Angkor Wat, are
sometimes arranged in a quincunx to represent the five peaks of Mount Meru. The Jaina architects
devised this system to build four small shrines at four opposite angles of vimana (main shrine). This
complex is called "Pancha-yatana" or Five-shrined-type.

The Adhinatha temple at Ranakpur is also a kind of Pancha-yatana-type. In this case, the shrines at four
opposite angles take a form of "two-faced-shrine". Furthermore, on both the north and south ends, there
are four "side shrines," and eighty-six small shrines surround its periphery, and thus completing the entire
temple. quincunx in mathematics is a geometric pattern consisting of five points arranged in a cross,
with four of them forming a square or rectangle and a fifth at its center. It forms the arrangement of five
units in the pattern corresponding to the five-spot on six-sided dice.

269
Adinath(Left) Floor Plan and the Ranakpur Jain Temple aerial view in Sadri Rajasthan showing the
quincunx.

The difference in the Jain and Hindu temples is that in Hindu temples, Pancha-yatana is quite similar to
the one we see in the Mt. Abu Jain Temples where the "Ranga mandapa" (open-type hall) is in in front of
"Mulaprasada" (central shrine) and connects it with surrounding cloisters giving the temple a continuous
interior space. Similarly in t Ranakpur, each mandapa, which is covered by a domical ceiling, ties every
part of the temple together into a continuous interior space with circularity, including several courtyards.
This temple, so to speak, is a great integrity of all the elements of traditional Indian architecture, and
brought it to an extremely high level completion. This composition was applied not only to Jain temples
but also Buddhist and Hindu ones.21Different scholars have concluded that, Jain Architecture grew
parallel with contemporary Architecture style of India. All the religion and culture have its distinctfeature
and style. Therefore, there is unique style of Architecture with the Jain Architecture also. 22

Space is a term used to describe dimensional aspects existing between other, significant phenomena.The
semiotics of space is a descriptive process enquiring into the relevant significance of the relationships
between objects and their spatial contexts. Since semiotics is the disciplined study of the life of signs that
‘stand for or represent’ something, space is generally overlooked as the background to other objects of
attention. Mathematical ideas on the other hand have formed new semiotic spaces, where those without a
mathematical background can only "feel" the effects and many of their consequences in real life
space. The truth of a theorem, equations, and many mathematical relations are basically correct,
depending on what is meant by theorems, equations, and conceptual relations of mathematics
itself. Mathematics that we know today tells the long road of human thought from ancient simple
concepts and abstractions, which have relations and connectedness with each other with concepts. This
then leads us to the intriguing question when looking at the splendor of the diverse Jaina ethnographies in

270
the cultural landscape of the archipelago.23 An example is the Māru-Gurjara architecture is still popular
with Jain architects in temples and jain patronage and is a style of north Indian temple architecture that
originated in Gujarat and Rajasthan from the 11th to 13th centuries, under the Chaulukya dynasty (or
Solaṅkī dynasty). It originates as a regional style in Hindu temple architecture. The dominant feature is
the mathematical urushringa and subsidiary spirelets on it, and two smaller side-entrances with porches
are common in larger temples, Lavishly decorated interiors,small low domes carved on the inside with a
highly intricate rosette design. Another distinctive feature is "flying" arch-like elements between pillars,
touching the horizontal beam above in the centre, and elaborately carved. These have no structural
function, and are purely decorative. The style developed large pillared halls, many open at the sides, with
Jain temples often having one closed and two pillared halls in sequence on the main axis leading to the
shrine.24

Temple with fractal designs

The visual complexity in the temple forms of Pallava Architecture is mainly created by repetition of
architectural elements in the Vimana. In the south indian temple architecture (Dravidian Style) the super
structure of the vimana or its several storeys are set with small temple shapes, Similar to the original
shape. The smaller shapes are aligned in a definite pattern at each horizontal level, the repetition of these
shapes at each band forming a kind of garland at each level. The repetition of identical shapes either in the
vertical or in the horizontal or vertically as well as horizontally, is another frequently used procedure to
add visual complexity to the temple form.The article mainly focuses on self similar iteration, repetition,
fractalization and how it is applied to various examples starting from monolithic shrines , Shore temple at
Mamallapuram to Kailashanathar and Vaikunda Permual temple in Kanchipuram. The use of recursive
procedures involving self similar iteration and fractalization in the construction of vimana of pallava
temple architecture give rise to a very distinct architectural style. The visual complexity and beauty of the
vimana lies behind the proportions of the arrangement of replicas of sala and kuta. The repetition in the
vimana are not arbitrarily,but follow some rules and proportions. The repetition of sala and kuta in

271
different rules of iteration create different fractal figures there by create visual complexity in the vimanas
of pallava temple architecture.25

Adinath Temple

Dilwara Jain Temple

272
 Due to the change in social, economic and political conditions, the Jain architecture developed with new
concept and new features. 26 Jain temple ritual is elaborate and full of symbolism. Temples and images are
eternal in the Jain tradition, being involved in Jain cosmography. Due to the widespread and widely
accepted and ever growing doctrine of Jainism and its eternal image-cult 27 new temples will adorn the
lands and scientific nuances will illuminate their construction and existence and impact other designs of
modernity.

273
Performance has long been recognized to be a meaningful component in the worship of the Jina.
The more splendid and aesthetically pleasing one’s expression of devotion, the more efficacious it is

believed to be. 28

Photo By Geoffrey Samuel. Jain Hill Temples

274
 Hyper fractisation discussed above and the other are the Hill temple cities also discussed above

REFERENCES

1 Jainas a significant Religious Minority, Chapter 10 from Facets of Jainology-Research Papers on

JainSociety,Religion and Culture, Vilas Sangave,Popular Prakashan,New Delhi,2001 page 81

2 Sthānakavāsī is a sect of Śvētāmbara Jainism founded by a merchant named Lavaji in 1653 AD.
It believes that idol worship is not essential in the path of soul purification and attainment of
Nirvana/Moksha.

3 Jaina-Tempelarchitektur in Indien: "Habilitation (postdoctoral qualification) in the Department of

Architectural History and Monument Preservation, Faculty of Architecture, RWTH Aachen University(
Translated:Jaina Temple Architecture in India: The Development of a Distinct Language in Space and
Ritual") Thesis 2008. Monographien zur indischen Archäologie, Kunst und Philologie 19, Published by
Stiftung Ernst Waldschmidt, G+H-Verlag, Berlin 2009.

4. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology, Architecture Style Developing through
Application of Mathematics: Concepts of Geometry &Proportion in Architecture Ar.Muzaffar Ali et al,
Vol. 2 Issue 9, September – 2013

5. Jaina Religion, History and Tradition Hardcover, K.L. Chanchreek (Editor), Mahesh K. Jain (Editor),
Shree Publishers & Distributors 2004

6."THE CONCEPT OF JINA CAITYA IN JAINISM",M. Nirmala ,Doctoral Thesis Department of

Jainology, Univeristy of Madras,2005

7. TAKEO KAMIYA,Blog, http://www.kamit.jp/03_jaina/6_ranakpur/ran_eng.htm

8. For a detailed analysis of the structural characteristics of Jain Temples see the comprehensive
treatment in -The Jagatī or Vedī (Plinth) in Jain Temple Architecture, Srishti Dokras, academia.edu

9.Building Science of Indian Temple Architecture,Shweta Vardia, Master’s Thesis, Erasmus Mundus
Programme, ADVANCED MASTERS IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF MONUMENTS AND HISTORICAL
CONSTRUCTIONS Researchgate July 2008
See Indian Architecture,Buddhist and hindu Period,Percy Brown,1942( not available) but quoted in
the above thesis as well as, Chhotelal Jain’s Jaina Bibliography, Volume 1,Vir Sewa Mandir,1982

275
10. Infinite Sequences in the Constructive Geometry Of Tenth-Century Hindu Temple
SuperstructuresSambit Datta,School of Architecture and Building, Deakin University,AUSTRALIA

11. Māru-Gurjara Temples Under the Solaṅkīs, throughout India and in the Diaspora- the international
jaina style? Julia A. B. Hegewald, ars orientalis 45.

12. Thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy- National Institute of Technology,Patne,Department of
Architecture ,2018
file:///C:/Users/blah/Downloads/Critical_Analysis_of_Jain_Architecture_i.pdf

13. The Visual Complexity in the Temple forms of Pallava Architecture

Jaikumar Ranganathan,Dr.G.Subbaiyan, researchgate,February 2018,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323199666_The_Visual_Complexity_in_the_Temple_forms_of
_Pallava_Architecture

14. See Fn 10- Infinite Sequences in the Constructive Geometry Of Tenth-Century Hindu Temple
SuperstructuresSambit Datta,School of Architecture and Building, Deakin University,AUSTRALIA

15 Hindu Temple-Models of a fractal Universe,Kirti Trivedi, International Seminar on Mayonic Science

and Technology, 243-258.1993, Also published in the Visual Computer 1989

16. See my Book Celestial Mysteries of the Borobodur,Chapter 8, page 192 academia.edu

17. Shapes, Patterns and Meanings in Indian Temple ArchitectureTanisha Dutta,V. S.

Adane,Researchgate,2018.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328960511_Shapes_Patterns_and_Meanings_in_Indian_Templ
e_Architecture

18 DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA PATNA

800 005, BIHAR August 2018

19.Visual reconstruction of Hampi Temple - Construed Graphically, Pictorially and Digitally

Reconstrucción visual (gráfica, ilustrada y digital) del Templo Hampi Ar. Meera Natampally ,National
Institute of Advanced Studies. India, Virtual archeology review.

20 Will Durant, Our Oriental Heritage - The Story of Civilization, Simon & Schuster, (1976),Vol. I Our
Oriental Heritage

276
21. See my book Dr Uday Dokras-Hindu Temples of Bharat, Cambodia and Indonesia Essays page 313-
314, academia.edu

22 Thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy- National Institute of Technology,Patne,Department of

Architecture ,2018
file:///C:/Users/blah/Downloads/Critical_Analysis_of_Jain_Architecture_i.pdf

23. Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho
Iasef Md Rian, Jin-Ho Park, Hyung Uk Ahn Department of Architecture, Inha University, South Korea
2006

24. Such as Keshava Temple of Somnathpur, or the Yellamma Temple in Karnataka.

25 The Visual Complexity in the Temple forms of Pallava Architecture,Jaikumar

Ranganathan,Dr.G.Subbaiyan, researchgate,February 2018,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323199666_The_Visual_Complexity_in_the_Temple_forms_of
_Pallava_Architecture

26. Development of Jain Architecture from Caves to Temple Architecture in Maharashtra,Ar. Pranoti
Kiran Meghal, International Journal of Engineering Research Volume No.7, Issue Special 2, pp : 188-
194

27 The Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century,Dundas,1992
See also Il Sentiero Jaina della Nonviolenza e della Liberazione, di Simone Gall - 08/10/2017

28.Aesthetic Pleasure in the Worship of the Jina: Understanding Performance in Jain Devotional
Culture’ Aleksandra Restifo, https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/10/4/251

277
 CHAPTER
The Jagatī or Vedī (Plinth) in Jain Temple Architecture

ABSTRACT
This is a short paper on the importance of the plinth in Jain temples where the infrastructure supports the
weight of many( sometimes 1000) pillars and the corresponding domes adorning them to prove that the
plinth is the most important part though not visible or visually encompassing as the lofty Jain
architectural structures it supports

I bow to the Arihants, Siddhas, Acharyas, Upadhyayas,

and I bow to all the Sages of the world.
This five-fold salutation completely destroys all the sins.
And, of all auspicious mantras, (it) is indeed the foremost auspicious one.
Ṇamōkāra Mantra

Introduction: In Architecture, the concept of a plinth is pretty basic: To create a base or platform, then
put whatever one builds on top of it. You may not think there are too many ways to mess with that basic
formula, and to a degree you're right. Still, when we talk about plinths, there are three main uses. To
understand the Plinth we need to familiarize with the other concepts of Grid:

The grid is a useful device for expressing design rules about the placement of elements in a layout. By
expressing position rules for elements in relation to a grid, a designer can organize decisions in a layout
design problem systematically. Grids and placement rules offer a discipline that can help a designer work
effectively to lay out complex designs, and it can also facilitate group design work. The grid, one of the
oldest architectural design tools, is a useful device for controlling the position of building elements. Grids
have been and continue to be used in all manner of layout tasks from urban design to building
construction. A grid can help a designer control the positions of built and space elements, making the
layout task more systematic. By determining positions of different building elements in relation to a grid
or to a set of grids, the designer can specify design rules that describe a typology of physical forms.1

278
 Predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect square grid principle. However, there are some
exceptions. For example, the Teli ka Mandir in Gwalior, built in the 8th century CE is not a square but is
a rectangle consisting of stacked squares. Further, the temple explores a number of structures and shrines
in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting the architect intended to use
these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other
examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and Nakti-
Mata temple near Jaipur, Rajasthan. Michael Meister states that these exceptions mean the ancient
Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in
expression and aesthetic independence.T he Teli temple reflects in its proportions a careful expansion of
the grid system known from square temples in Central India in the eighth century.” y. In fig. 4 I give a
ground plan for the Teli temple. Several plain bhitta platforms support the base moldings (vedibandha) of
the temple walls (figs. 6, zo). These consist of khura, kumbha, a broad antarapatta-setback (decorated
with a vedika pattern of small pillarets with a broad cross-beam of foliage), and a kapotapalihood. The
frieze of the wall (janghd) has doors on the central bhadra projections which lead to broad recesses which
now lack their images. On the corners, smaller niches in the form of shrine models with entry doorways
(fig. 20) also lack images. Percy Brown records the inner dimensions of the sanctum of this temple as 1 5
x 30 ft. (a ratio of i: 2).16 This is not correct. The sanctum measures ca. 6 x 9 meters, the ratio being 2: 3.
In fig. 5, I give a diagram of one quarter of the temple's ground plan showing the grid from which the
architect has generated his plan. The sanctum is defined by 4 x 6 squares; the walls are two squares thick,
measured from the corners. (Each square of this grid is ca. I .5 meters on a side.) Corner buttresses
measure 2 x 2 squares at the khura-hoof of the wall's moldings (fig. 6). The central bhadra projection on
each side projects a full square. The opening into the bhadra shrine is ca. two squares wide. 2

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 The Grid of the Jain Temple at Dilwara, Mount Abu

1. The base for a pedestal. This type of plinth is not so much a matter of architecture as it is a matter of
art (or at least the display of art). Most pedestals have a wide base that supports them and whatever
they're holding; that's the plinth.Incidentally, the bottom part of a piece of furniture that actually touches
the floor is sometimes called a plinth as well. That would make your chair a glorified pedestal, and you
sitting in it a work of art. There's your ego boost for the day.
2. The base for a column. All three Classical orders of columns (including Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian)
are traditionally placed on top of plinths. However, there use is not limited to Classical or even Western
architecture. Columns and similar support structures in Asia, Africa, and the Americas often contained a
plinth or plinth-like base.

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3. The bases for much larger structures. In fact, many houses and other buildings are built on very
large plinths that serve as the bottom-most structure supporting that edifice. Look around your city or
neighborhood: there's a good chance that some structures are resting on massive bases of stone, concrete,
or other strong materials.
Definition: When something's important, we tend to raise it off the ground. This is universal in human
cultures; we try to visually separate the things we make from the earth itself. The Plinth allows us to do
this.

A plinth is a base or platform that's used to support something else above the ground. The plinth is one of
the most underappreciated, and yet most important, elements of architecture found around the world and
used throughout history. Ironically, the one thing we can't actually put on a pedestal (because it is one) is
the thing that may most deserve it.

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Taranga Jain Temple,Kheralu,Gujrath showing Plinth and super structure

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Although many Jaina temples followed the mainstream style of Hindu temples initially with 1 main deity
in the inner sanctum garbhagriha + mandapa, from the medieval period onwards, the Jains gradually
developed their original “Four faced open form” in the temple design. This is the original style of Jain
temple construction and majority of Jain temples in India consists of these core building elements:

PARTS OF A JAIN TEMPLE

The majority of Jain temples in India consist of a few core building elements. Lets understand their
function and symbolism. Starting from the outer to the inner –
1. ASPRĀKĀRA – HIGH BOUNDARY WALL
Almost without exception, Jain temples are enclosed by free-standing detached compound walls,
encircling the entire sacred temple area.
The symbolism is for the devotee entering to be leave his ordinary concerns of the householder life before
entering the holy ground.
2. JAGATĪ OR VEDĪ – PLATFORM
Although may be varied in relative proportions and forms, all Jain temples are built on a platform or
terrace that physically raises the temple above the surrounding land and creates a distinct sacred area.On
this pronounced plinth, the temple is protected and appears larger and more monumental. The platforms
are often much wider than the actual temple structures and thus provide space for the ritual ambulation –
pradakṣiṇā – of the building to take place on the sacred level. This spaciousness also allows further
shrines, surrounding the temple building, to be at the same level.
The symbolism is related to the idea of the difficulties –durlābha – in reaching sacred places. By
extension it also suggests the long journey to the remote goal of enlightenment.
3. ARDHAMANDAPA – FRONT PORCH
This is the front porch or the main entrance of the temple leading to shrines and maṇḍapas. At the main
gateway, a worshiper bends down and touches the threshold before crossing it. The gateway greets the
worshiper with a host of sculpted secular figures on the outer walls; representing the worldly concerns of
man. Usually the gateway to a temple will be a massive and magnificent construction. When we stand in
front our feeling of insignificance helps to break our ego.
The Symbolism is that this marks another transition from the outer world to the inner world of the temple.
Porches are very small, simple halls that provide access to.
4. MANDAPA – HALL
This is the hall or halls in front of the garbhagriha, for the assembly of the devotees. The halls can have
side walls and be closed or may simply have pillars, which leave the sides open. Temple halls create an

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approach to the shrine and house more religious statues and ritual equipment. Halls are used for rituals,
the recitation of sacred texts, meditation and for larger gatherings that involve singing hymns etc. Here,
often the worshiper will come across mythological themes, carved on the inner walls, to attune his attitude
towards higher ideals.
The symbolism here is that the devotee must prepare to leave even his concerns for the temple and fellow
devottees and prepare to enter the inner sanctum.
5. ANTARĀLA – INTERMEDIATE CHAMBER
Some temples have this additional element. This small vestibule is a space between the main sanctuary
and its hall, in which worshippers can stand and gaze at the idol or follow rituals conducted within the
shrine. As the worshiper progresses towards the inner sanctum, the sculptural details and decorations
become simpler.
The symbolism is again to help the worshiper to put aside distractions and try focusing their attention on
the sanctum.
6. PRADAKSHINA PATHA – CIRCUMAMBULATION PASSAGEWAY
It consists of enclosed corridor carried around the outside of garbhagriha. The devotees walk around the
deity in clockwise direction as a worship ritual and symbol of respect to the temple god or goddess.
The symbolism here is that this represents an encircling of the universe itself.
7. SHIKHARA – TOWER or SPIRE
The upper part of the Garbh griha is called as the Sikhara; the pyramidal or tapering portion of the temple,
Vastu Shastra says that the design of the Shikhara over the Garbhagrahamm attracts energies from the
cosmos from the cosmos, much like an aerial or even like our nose attracts pranavayu (oxygen) from air.
The symbolism here that it represents the axis of the world through Mount Meru.
8. GAMBHARA – INNER SANCTUM
The main part of Jain temple is called “Gambhara” (Garbha Graha) which is the nucleus and the
innermost chamber of the temple where the image or idol of the main deity (mulnayak) is placed.
This is the focal point of the building and beside a statue of a sacred figure it may house abstract religious
element, such as the eight auspicious symbols, the siddhacakra, the cosmic person, yantras and sacred
syllables or mantras. The shrine or garbha-griha (womb space) is usually devoid of any ornamentation to
avoid distraction and lead the worshiper further to tranquility.
The Symbolism here is in the name – garbha = womb, graha = home; representing the final journey of the
soul to its real self.

Ideology of Design: According to the Jaina ethics, a man’s life is asummation of countless individual
lifespans bound up in the cycle of rebirth. One can from achieve enlightenment thorough pure deeds,

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thoughts and dedication. Thus, in this world the temple is the symbol of enlightenment: it is the place
where we can be closer to our soul and through rituals and ceremonies men can discover the divine
knowledge.
The walk to the inner sanctum by the devotee indicates that he has to leave the grand external world
outside and direct our minds inward, light up the lamp of knowledge there and by seeing the Jina we are
to behold our Atma within the sanctum sanctorum of our hearts.Thus the ideology behind the designing of
Jain temples is to link man with himself. It is a depiction of the macrocosm (the universe) as well as the
microcosm (the inner space) and has developed over thousands of years; the elements may vary in
number and relative proportions in various temples,but all Jain temples are built on a platform.

The Plinth: Referred to as jagatī or vedī ,it physically raises the temple above the surrounding land and
creates a distinct sacred area. And raises the temples above the ground to create a higher, sacred area that
is qualitatively different from the lower profane area surrounding it.

The column-beam-corbel method of construction was the main structural principle governing the
construction of every Hindu and later Jain temples. The principles of equilibrium of forces in action by
means of arch, vaults and other forms of functional engineering rules never really played a part in the
evolution of Hindu temple. Its doesn’t mean that architects of Hindu temples were ignorant about these
techniques, rather it is their conformance to tradition and strict adherence to precedents, reflecting a
certain firmness.

Worshippers take off their shoes before climbing up to the sacred temple area. This ascent, however short,
is symbolically related to the idea of the difficulties – durlābha – in reaching sacred places. By extension
it also suggests the long journey to the remote goal of enlightenment. On this pronounced plinth, the
temple is protected and appears larger and more monumental. The platforms are often much wider than
the actual temple structures and thus provide space for the ritual ambulation – pradakṣiṇā – of the
building to take place on the sacred level. This spaciousness also allows further shrines, surrounding the
temple building, to be at the same level.

This feature became particularly evolved in the Jain temple architecture of north-western India during the
medieval age. The reason could have been to help distribute the weight of the structure above such as the
columns which in turn support the roof- all of it pressing down in the plinth; which then is the most
important part and this was realized by the later Jain architects who moved from simple to structural
complexity.4

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Lines of subsidiary shrines were interconnected to create protective walls surrounding the outer edge of
the terraces. This helped to physically protect the temple structures and shield them from outside view.
Even rock-cut cave temples have platforms, at least at the front entrance.
The terraces are frequently very high, up to three or four metres tall. In many cases the platforms are tall
enough to allow separate apartments or lower image-chambers to be created inside.

Uses of Vedi

The concept of a plinth is pretty basic: create a base or platform, then put whatever you're building on top
of it. When we talk about plinths in Jain temples, there are three main uses.

1. The base for a pedestal. This type of plinth is not so much a matter of architecture as it is a matter of art
(or at least the display of art). Most pedestals have a wide base that supports them and whatever they're
holding; that's the plinth.

Incidentally, the bottom part of a piece of furniture that actually touches the floor is sometimes called a
plinth as well. That would make the chair a glorified pedestal, and the one sitting in it a work of art.

2. The base for a column. All three Classical orders of columns (including Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian)
are traditionally placed on top of plinths. However, there use is not limited to Classical or even Western
architecture. Columns and similar support structures in Asia, Africa, and the Americas often contained a
plinth or plinth-like base.

3. The bases for much larger structures. In fact, many houses and other buildings are built on very large
plinths that serve as the bottom-most structure supporting that edifice.

Diagrammatic example of the Plinth showing the Osiyan Temple of Rajasthan(Below pictures)

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Osiyan Jain Temple,Jodhpur, Rajasthan.CEPT University,Temple-Overall Plans, Plan At Plinth Level,
Plan Above Parapet, Harihara Temple – 3

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Part of the plinth seen in this pic of the Osiyan temple. Above and Below

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Temple structure showing the plinth positioning (Encyclopedia Britannica)

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The Chaturmukha Jain Temple of Ranakpur as an example No 2:
The plinth of this temple supports 1444 marble pillars, twenty-nine halls, 80 domes and 426 columns The
most outstanding feature of this temple is its infinite number of pillars. This temple can be called a
treasure house of pillars or a city of pillars. In whichever direction one might turn one's eyes meet pillars
and pillars big, small, broad, narrow, ornate or plain. But the ingenious designer has arranged them in
such a manner that none of them obstructs the view of the pilgrim wishing to have a Darshana' (glimpse)
of God. From any corner of the temple one can easily view the Lord's image. These innumerable pillars
have given rise to the popular belief that there are about 1444 pillars in the temple.In the North of this
temple, there is a Rayan tree (Mimusos laxandra) and the foot prints of Bhagavan Rishabhadev on a slab
of marble. They remind us of the life and preaching of Bhagavan Risabhadev and of Shatrunjaya, the
foremost among the places of Jain pilgrimage. The architecture and stone carvings of the temple are based
on the Ancient Mirpur Jain Temple at Mirpur in Rajasthan. The temple is a grand white marble structure
spread over 48,000 square feet (4,500 m2)

On one hand the temple has been made artistic with it's two upper storeys, on the other the designer has
shown foresight in constructing some nine cellars in which the sacred images could be safely preserved in
the event or a crisis. It is believed that there are many Jain images in these cellars. These cellars must be
an additional streng and support to the entire structure and must have sustained it against the onslaught of
time and the elements The Jain temples of Mount Abu are famous for the carvings, but the Ranakpur
temple also is second to none in its delicate carvings. What attracts one most is its complexity and vast
expanse of its structure. There is a popular saying among the people: The canings of Abu and the
architecture of Ranakpur are unique". The eroding sweep of time and nature and wanton and mindless
destruction by foreign invaders did much damage to this holy shrine. For a long time it wore a deserted
look as pilgrims didn't find it safe to go to this secluded place infested with wild animals and dacoits.

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 Plinth of various temples a) Straight b) Conical c) Cascading

REFERENCES

1.Grids in Design and CAD Mark D. Gross University of Colorado at Boulder

https://depts.washington.edu/dmgftp/publications/pdfs/acadia_91_mdg.pdf

2. Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples Author(s): Michael W. Meister
Source: Artibus Asiae, Vol. 44, No. 4, (1983), pp. 266-296

3. Indian Architecture, Brown, Percy: Bombay, 2nd Edn.

4. Chakravarti , Glassenapp, H.V. : Doctrine of Karman in Jaina Philosophy, Bombay, 1942 .

As mentioned in Building Science of Indian Temple Architecture, Shweta Vardia, Master’s Thesis,
Erasmus Mundus Programme, ADVANCED MASTERS IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF MONUMENTS
AND HISTORICAL CONSTRUCTIONS Researchgate July 2008

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 CHAPTER
20 Most Famous Jain Temples in India

India is truly a hub of diversity that boasts a rich heritage and spirituality. Jainism is one of the
oldest religions that have found its roots in this diverse land. As a result, many Jain temples are
built in different parts of the country. However, these temples are much more than just places of
worship. They boast an architecture that is simply unparalleled. The remarkable pillars, intricate
designs and the carved ceilings exude irresistible charm and reflect the grandeur of the ancient
period.

1. Ranakpur Jain Temple, Ranakpur (Rajasthan)

The 15th century Ranakpur Temple is a major pilgrimage site for the Jain community and is often
regarded as an architectural icon worldwide. It is set in the Ranakpur village, 95 kilometres north
of Udaipur. The temple is built by a reputed businessman of that time, Dharna Shah with the help
of the Mewar ruler. The complex comprises of a number of temples namely the Chatutmukha
Temple, Parsavanth Temple, Surya Temple and the Amba Temple. The most significant amongst
all of them is the four-faced Chaturmukha Temple dedicated to Adinath, the first Jain
Tirthankara.

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Ranakpur Jain Temple never fails to dazzle visitors with its grandeur. The entire structure is
constructed with light coloured marble with turrets and cupolas majestically rising out of the
jagged hilly terrain. Thousands of beautifully carved pillars support this heritage landmark and
each one of them is designed uniquely. In every nook and cranny, finely engraved Jain scriptures
can be found. The historic Ranakpur Temple was among the best 77 wonders while deciding the
‘7 Wonders of the World‘. Indeed, the temple is truly a jewel that lights up the royal state of
Rajasthan.

2. Gomateshwara Temple, Vindhyagiri Hill (Karnataka)

Gomateshwara Temple commonly known as the Bahubali Temple is set in the small town of
Shravanabelagola in Karnataka. Apart from being a religious landmark, it is also a renowned
heritage site. The 57 feet mammoth statue of Bahubali stands erected on Vindhyagiri Hill. This
historic Jain figure is regarded as one of the largest monolithic statues worldwide. Right at the
bottom of the Bahubali statue, there are inscriptions in Prakrit that praises the King who funded
for this site.

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On both the sides of the statue, there are two standing figures of Yaksha and Yakshi (Chauri
bearers). The Bahubali figure is enclosed by a massive pillared structure with 43 carved images
of the Tirthankaras, who preaches the teachings of God and considered sacred by the followers
of Jainism. The large temple is bordered by a wall that is adorned with carved figures of animals
and females. The auspicious occasion of Mahamastakabhisheka draws pilgrims from around the
world. This festival takes place once in 12 years when the Bahubali sculpture is bathed with
milk, sugarcane juice, saffron and ghee. In the year 2007, the statue was also ranked as one of
India’s Seven Wonders.

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3. Dilwara Temple, Mount Abu (Rajasthan)

Located at a distance of 2.5 kilometres from Mount Abu, Dilwara Temple is one of the exquisite
Jain religious structures known for its impeccable architecture. The temple was built between 11th
and 13th century by Vimal Shah and was beautifully designed by the Dhokla Jain Ministers.
Although there are a number of Jain temples all over Rajasthan, culture hounds consider Dilwara
Temple as one of the finest examples of architectural splendour.

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The beautiful temple majestically rises out of the pancake-flat land and sparkles in the sunlight.
Devotees coming here do not only experience a strong connection with divinity but also enjoys
the tranquillity of the surrounding. The large complex is divided into five different sections
dedicated to the Tirthankaras. The temple of Lord Adinath is the oldest amongst all. The
entire complex showcases fine workmanship and intricate designs. The splendid carvings of
lotus buds, flowers and petals adorned on the marble pillars and ceiling looks distinctive and
adds to the beauty. Dilwara Temple also provides bathing facilities to the pilgrims which are
mandatory before the puja.

4. Sri Digambar Jain Lal Mandir, Chandni Chowk (Delhi)

Sri Digambar Jain Lal Temple is the oldest Jain religious structure located in Chandni Chowk
near Red Fort. This temple is best known for a veterinary hospital, commonly known as the Jain
Birds Hospital situated behind the main temple complex. It is believed that the temple was
constructed during the Mughal era when a Jain officer worshipped a Tirthankara statue in his
tent. This attracted other Jain army officials and finally, a temple was built at the site in 1656.

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In the later years, the temple underwent several modifications and now it is commonly known as
the Lal Mandir. The temple is dedicated to Parshvanatha, the 23rd Jain Tirthankara and houses a
gigantic statue. There are figures of several other deities who are considered sacred by the
followers of Jainism. The main devotional area is located on the first floor where devotees are
often seen praying or spending moments of calmness. The mesmerizing architecture,
extraordinary carving as well as the colourful frescoes make Sri Digambar Temple one of the
legendary heritage sites in Delhi. No wonder, you will be hard-pressed to find such remarkable
places anywhere in the country.

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5. Palitana Temples, Bhavnagar District (Gujarat)

Perched on the Shatrunjaya Hill in the city of Palitana, these Jain temples are considered holiest
along with Shikharji in Jharkhand. Originally the construction of the Palitana temples started in
the 11th century during the reign of King Kumarapala and it took 900 years to complete. It was
destroyed by the Muslim invaders between the 14th and 15th century. As Jain pilgrimage is mostly
taken on foot, the temple was constructed in clusters to minimize the distance to a bare
minimum.

The complex is vast and comprises of 863 Palitana Jain Temples entirely made up of marbles.
The main temple is set at an elevation and can be reached after climbing 3500 stairs. It is
dedicated to Adinath, the first Tirthankara of Jainism. The main shrine is made from marbles and
adorned in gold and precious stones. The sculptural splendour makes it one of the most exquisite
in the country. Other noteworthy religious landmarks include the Vimal Shah, Kesharji and the
Samavasaran Temple. The followers of Jainism visiting the Palitana Temple believe that it offers
a lifetime opportunity to achieve nirvana. During the monsoon months, the temple remains
closed.

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6. Sonagiri Temples, Datia (Madhya Pradesh)

Sonagiri is a major pilgrimage site for the Digambar Jain community. This region holds a lot of
religious significance because it is where Nanganag Kumar attained salvation along with 15
million devotees. Sprawling over 132 acres, this sacred place is known as the Laghu Sammed
Shikhar. This region is dotted with several ancient Jain temples dating back to the 9th century. 77
of the total temples are perched on the hill and the rest is set in the village.

The 57th Jain temple located on the hill is the main temple of Sonagiri. It is frequented by ascetic
saints and devotees who practice self-discipline to achieve liberation from the cycle of life and
death. This place of worship is an epitome of architectural glory. The artistic spires and the
intricate carvings add to the striking grandeur. This temple contains the 11 feet tall deity of the 8th
Tirthankara, Chandraprabha doing meditation. Two other idols of Lord Parshvanatha and Lord
Sheetalnath are also installed.

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7. Kulpakji Temple, Kolanupaka (Telangana)

Nestled in the Kolanupaka village of Telangana, Kulpakji Temple is one of the renowned Jain
pilgrimage sites dating back to the 10th century. This region was a popular Jain centre under the
patronage of the Kakatiya Dynasty. This monument has a lot of significance, particularly to the
Shwetambar community. Kulpakji Temple has undergone a major renovation and the work is
done by 150 artisans belonging to the states of Gujarat and Rajasthan. The ancient garbhagrah is
still the same but a complete new temple is designed that encloses the tower.

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This temple is dedicated to Lord Adinath, the first Tirthankara of Jainism. Devotees believe that
the Lord has chosen this region to be his humble abode. On both the sides of the temples, there
are eight idols of the other Tirthankaras. The main sculpture of Lord Mahaveer is huge and is
entirely made of jade, a precious stone. There are old inscriptions found in the temple which is
around 2000 years old. Kulpakji Temple indeed represents the glory and grandeur of the bygone
era.

8. Dharmanath Temple, Kochi (Kerala)

Located in the town of Mattancherry, Kerala, Dharmanath Temple is known for its religious
significance across the globe. Built in the year 1904, this religious heritage is more than 100
years old and has been named after the 15th Tirthankara, Dharmanath. This sacred landmark is
particularly important for the Jain community who migrated to this region from Gujarat and
Rajasthan.

The temple has a close resemblance to the Dilwara Temples in Mount Abu. The century-old
structure with timeless architecture never fails to lure visitors. Snuggled amid the thick coconut
groves and verdant hues, Dharmanath Temple offers the perfect setting to attain inner peace or
salvation. The elegant interiors adorned with intricate designs and sculptures are a feast to the

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sore eyes. Other Jain religious sites are artistically etched in the walls and pillars of this temple.
Apart from the main shrine of Lord Dharmanath, idols of different gods and Tirthankaras can
also be seen here.

9. Shikharji Temple, Parasnath Hill (Jharkhand)

Regarded as the holiest of all the Jain religious sites, Shikharji Temple is the place where 20
Tirthankaras attained salvation. It is set atop Parasnath Hills in Jharkhand. The hills are named
after Parshvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara who attained nirvana at this sacred site. The temple is
flocked by pilgrims from different parts of the globe. Shikarji Temple is commonly known as the
‘zenith of concentration’. This region is not only a major pilgrimage destination, but tourists also
visit the hills and engage in different adventure activities.

In order to reach Shikarji Temple, the visitors have to start from the small town of Madhuvan.
The journey is uphill and takes around 3 hours to reach the top. On the way, there are a number
of beautiful Jain temples that overloads the senses. Shikarji Temple was built in the 18th century
and is known for historical as well as architectural significance. Impressive murals adorn the
temple walls and right at the bottom of the main idol, ancient Sanskrit inscriptions dating back to
1678 can also be seen. Everything here deserves applause from the visitors.

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10. Hanumantal Bada Jain Mandir , Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh)

The historic Hanumantal Jain Temple is located on Hanuman Taal, one of the main centres of
Jabalpur in the ancient past. Originally built in the year 1686, the temple underwent renovations
in the 19th century. This religious structure gained widespread importance after Acharya
Shantisagar (first Digambar) visited the temple in the year 1928.

Hanumantal Temple houses a remarkable idol of Lord Adinath and several other sculptures
belonging to the Kalachuri period. There are also images belonging to the Mughal, Maratha and
the British era. With 22 shrines of various deities, it is reputed as the largest Jain temple in the
country. The grand structure looks more like a fortress that has survived the test of time. The
picturesque sight of Hanumantal Temple standing tall against the water body enthrals visitors
with its charm. The main room is decorated with glasswork and contain the idol of Padmavati,
the much revered Jain Goddess. No doubt, this temple holds a special place in the hearts of
Jabalpurians.

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11. Parshvanatha Temple, Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh)

The 10th-century Parshvanatha Temple is located at Khajuraho in the Indian state of Madhya
Pradesh. During the Chandela period, the main shrine here was Lord Adinath, but today it is
dedicated to Lord Parshvanatha. This temple was built by a renowned Jain family around 970 CE
during the patronage of King Dhanga. This temple is declared as a UNESCO World Heritage
Site along with several other Khajuraho monuments.

The Parshvanatha Temple is regarded as the largest among all other Jain monuments at
Khajuraho. The outer wall is engraved with breathtaking sculptures featuring apsaras, celestial
beings, musicians as well as different Hindu deities. The beauty of this temple is unmatched and
there are no erotic statues engraved here. The idol of Parshvanatha is enshrined in the inner
sanctum and at the back; the statue of Adinath is installed. The ceiling is also beautifully
decorated with unique patterns and flying vidyadharas (supernatural beings blessed with magical
powers). The Archaeological Survey of India has listed the temple as a ‘Monument of National
Importance’.

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12. Saavira Kambada Basadi, Moodabidri (Karnataka)

Saavira Kambada Temple, also called the ‘Chandranatha Temple’ is built in honour of the 8th
Tirthankara named Chandraprabha. This temple is situated in the town of Moodabidri and known
for its 1000 pillars. Moodabidri boasts a total of 18 Jain temples but Saavira Kambada is the
finest amongst them all. It was constructed in the year 1430 by Devaraya Wodeyar (local
chieftain) and features a monolithic pillar with 50 feet height. It took over 30 years, to complete
the construction and new additions were made in 1962.

The grand Kambada Temple flaunts 7 pavilions that are entirely supported by exquisite granite
pillars designed in the Vijayanagara style. Each of the pillars is unique and no two pillars look
the same. These pillars will give you a glimpse of a fascinating past that is lost in time. There are
stone made chandeliers that form a part of this architectural marvel and never fails to blow the
common man’s mind. There is divine connectivity that can be felt here that lets visitors drift in
oblivion.

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13. Badami Cave Temples, Badami (Karnataka)

Set in the town of the same name, the cave temples of Badami are the epitome of traditional
Indian rock-cut structures dating back to the 6th century. The complex comprises of four cave
temples which were built during the rule of Pulakesin I but most of the expansion took place
during the Chalukya period. Originally Badami Temple was called Vataapi Badami, the capital
of the Chalukyas and was considered the centrepiece of temple architecture.

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These temples depict the Chalukya style of architecture, an eclectic mix of North and South
Indian styles. There are a total of 4 cave temples that are carved out of sandstone on this hilly
terrain. The first cave is dedicated to Hindu divinity and features Lord Shiva in the form of
Nataraja.

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Badami Cave Temple 1

The second cave honours Lord Vishnu in his fifth avatar of Vamana.

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Badami Cave Temple 2

The third cave is 100 feet deep and considered the largest amongst all the four. This cave is
covered with remarkable paintings and enchanting adornments. It is also dedicated to Lord
Vishnu.

Badami Cave Temple 3

The newest addition is the fourth cave that was built during the later parts of the 6h century. It
contains the sculpture of Parshavanatha, the fifth Tirthankara. A sculpture of Lord Mahaveera
can also be found here. A few other caves were discovered in the year 2015 that contains 27
Hindu figures. The Badami Cave Temples is also a part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site.

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Badami Cave Temple 4

14. Ellora Jain Caves, Ellora (Maharashtra)

Away from the tourist bustle, lie the remarkable Jain caves of Ellora adorned with detailed
carvings and paintings. The caves are carefully crafted to perfection around 9th century celebrates
the last phase of religious and spiritual activities taking place at Ellora. The cluster of five caves
is numbered between 30 and 34 and is set at a distance of 1 kilometre from Cave 29, the last
Hindu temple.

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Cave 30, often referred to as Chota Kailasa is an imitation of the iconic Kailasa Temple. This
cave is located at a few yards away from the other Jain caves.

Ellora Cave 30

Cave 31 is a four-pillared structure where an idol of Mahavira is enshrined. The carvings of

Parshvanatha guarded by yaksha and the figure of Bahubali can be seen on both sides of the
walls.

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Ellora Caves 31

Cave 32 and 33 are two-storeyed caves, resembling the Indra Sabha and the Jagannatha Sabha.
Both of these structures are carved with well-preserved idols dating back to the 9th century.

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Ellora Caves 32

Cave 34 contains a large carving of Parshvanatha accompanied by Gommateshvara. All these

caves form a part of the UNESCO listed World Heritage Site.

15. Parshvanatha Jain Temple, Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh)

The Jain temple of Parshvanatha is tucked in the town of Bhelpur in Uttar Pradesh. The gorgeous
temple is dedicated to the 23rd Tirthankara of the same name. It is believed that Parshvanatha was
born here around 800 BC. Parshvanatha Temple is one of the greatest pilgrimage centres of
Jainism and is based on the ideologies of both Digambara and Shwetambara sects.

The temple has a very peaceful environment and invites people from all walks of life. It is filled
with stunning sculptures including the main idol of Parshvanatha. The black coloured deity with

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a height of 2.5 feet stands erected in the majestic temple. With the co-existence of two sects, this
sacred landmark is one of the finest examples of religious harmony that evokes euphoria.
Besides the splendid architecture, visitors can witness the Jain rituals or take non-violence
lessons from spiritual teachers at the temple.

16. Navagraha Jain Temple, Varur (Karnataka)

Located in Varur near Hubli, Navagraha Jain Temple is one of the holiest pilgrimage spots for
the followers of Jainism in India. The construction of this religious site began in the year 2005
under the supervision of Sri Gunadhar Maharaj.

A 61 feet tall monolithic statue of Parshvanatha is enshrined in the temple and is regarded as the
second tallest statue of the Jain community after Bawangaja. It weighs 185 tons and stands on a
48 feet high platform. Besides the large statue of Parshvanatha, the temple also houses smaller
statues of 8 other Tirthankaras. Navagraha Mandir draws hordes of tourists and pilgrims
throughout the year.

17. Bawangaja, (Barwani District) Madhya Pradesh

Bawangaja is considered a sacred destination for the Jain community in India. It is a huge
complex and comprises of 8 impressive Jain temples built around 12th-century. The site houses
an 84 feet megalithic statue of the first Tirthankara, Adinath that emerges out of the jagged
terrain at the base of the Satpura Range. It is also reputed as the tallest Jain statue in India.

The huge statue is carved out of brownstone standing in a yogic posture. The structural style of
this sculpture is truly unmatched and resembles the idol of Lord Bahubali in Shravanbelagola.
The statue of Adinath reflects all kinds of emotions on its face. This statue is an exemplary
masterpiece and showcases the fine artistry of the ancient past. The statues of Yaksha Gomukha
and Yakshi Chakreshwary can be seen on both the sides of the main idol. Devotees come here to
pay homage to the lord and seek his blessings.

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 Adinath
Statue at Bawangaja

18. Girnar Jain Temples, Junagadh (Gujarat)

A cluster of Jain temples is perched on Mount Girnar in the state of Gujarat. These temples are
considered holy by the Digambara and Shwetambara Jain communities. Mount Girnar is known
for its spiritual significance. The 22nd Tirthankara, Lord Neminath attained Moksha and died at
this holy spot. The shrine of Neminath was built around 1129 by the Governor of Saurashtra but
the region was considered sacred even before 250 BC.

Around 16 temples are scattered at the site and the Neminath Temple is the most important
amongst all. The grand complex is carved out of marble and houses several statues of Jain
Tirthankaras. In order to reach the top of the temple complex, one has to climb around 10,000
steps. From the foot of the mountain, ‘palkhis’ are also available and devotees can opt for one if
they find it difficult to climb. Meditating amid this heavenly environment brings peace of mind
and soul.

19. Sri Humcha Temple, Shimoga (Karnataka)

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Humcha Temple is regarded as the resting abode of Devi Padmavati with a history dating back to
the 7th century. It is one of the most popular Jain heritage centres and houses the holiest shrine of
the goddess in the world. The temple was built by Shri Jindatt, the founder of the Santhara
Dynasty.

The temple is built in the Chalukyan architectural style and boasts an open Mukhamantapa. It is
believed when a devotee seeks blessing, flowers drop from the right side of the idol. The huge
complex houses other important temples namely Shri Marthanda Basadi, Shri Bogara Basadi and
the Parshvanatha Temple. This region is also known for a lake that never dries up and the
evergreen Lakki Tree that is over 1300 years old.

20. Chaturmukha Basadi, Karkala (Karnataka)

Chaturmukha is one of the most popular Jain monuments in Karkala constructed under the
patronage of Immadi Vodeya of the Santara Dynasty. It was built in the late 16th-century and

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contains images of Aranath, Mallinath and Munisuvratnath (Jain Tirthankaras). Today, the
Chaturmukhi Basadi is preserved under the ‘Archaeological Survey of India’.

The Basadi is entirely made from granite cuts and features over 100 pillars that support the
ceiling. It is elegantly crafted with four symmetrical faces, hence the name ‘Chaturmukha’. The
temple is open on all sides that add to the uniqueness of the structure. Chaturmukha Basadi faces
the great Bahubali statue of Karkala. Besides devotees, tourists from all over the country visit
Karkala to get a glimpse of this sacred landmark.

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About the Author-Dr Uday Dokras
The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in India and abroad. He
was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human
Relations in Go Air and Hotel Holiday Inn;was General Manager-Health Human
Resources at the Lata Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently Consultant
to Gorewada International Zoo,Nagpur and visiting Faculty at the Central Institute of
Business Management and Research, Nagpur.

In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor to a multi

millionaire. He has studied in Nagpur, India where he obtained degrees of Bachelor of
Science, Bachelor of Arts(Managerial Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done
his Graduate Studies in labour laws from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston; a
MBA from USA, and Doctorate from Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he
has done a Management Training Program in Singapore.

A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth
Fund Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute for 5 years.
In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the University of
California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was
invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labour laws of
Seychelles.

Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life sketch is part of the
English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English.
SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.”

BOOKS written by Dr Uday

1. Act on Co-determination at work-an efficacy study - 1990

Doctoral thesis published by Almqvist & Wiksell International, Stockholm,Sweden
This is a first of a kind empirical study of both employees and business owners reactions
of how efficiently a labour law was functioning in a country(Sweden).Adorns Stanford
and Harvard University Libraries and granted Copyright by the Library of Congress,USA
in 1990.
2. Health Human Resource Management- 2006
A to Z of the Management of health workers starting from recruitment to training,
development and enhancing their efficacy. Good book for all health care institutions as
well as medical and nursing staff and students.
3. Theme Park Human Resource Engineering- 2007
How the workers in theme parks deal with a complex environment and need to be
managed in order to being out superior delivery of customer focused services helping in
more footfalls at the same time not compromising on safety.
4. Project Human Resource Management- 2008
Projects are cumbersome and their success rests not on the material but on the men who
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move it. Book deals with management ideas to spur project workers and staff to greater
delivery parameters.
5. Creativity and Architecture -2009
Co-authored with Srishti Dokras, examines the parameters of creativity and how it will
raise design quotients.
6. Diffusion – Management and Design- 2009
Co-authored with Karan Dokras deals with a new and little known subject of Diffusion
or how predator ideas enhance own value in a market where dominant players call the
shots.
7. Hindu Temples of Bharat,Cambodia and Bali- 2020
Enigmatic designs, huge structures, massive projects all done before the invention of
cranes or bulldozers- the how and why of temples in Bharat,Nagpur,and the Far East.
Biggest and most comprehensive book on the subject -452 pages.
8. Win Diet 2020
Diets and fads come and go but not this one-A diet and exercise plan that will help you to
win over obesity,unhealthy lifestyles and make a dynamic YOU .Written by a 68 year old
who has been diagnosed with a 26 year old’s heart.
9. Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur Temple of Java- 2020
This amazing biggest in the world Buddhist temple was built with technology and ideas
from India 1500 years ago using fractal geometry, Algorithms, Hindu temple technology
and archeoastronomy. Read HOW it was done.
10. LOTUS the Celestial Flower
11.Light house at Alexandria
12. Lighthouses in words and Pictures
13.Vayu- Man’s taming of the Winds
14. My Best Foot Forward- story of the Footware Industry in India
15.16,17… DEVARAJA- TRILOGY. The Celestial King and the
Mysteries of South Asian Hindu Temples -3 Volumes 1200 pages
18. VARDHAMAN- Jainism- for not the layman
19. ATIVIR- The saga of Vardhaman the Prince and Mahavir the Saint.

RESEARCH PAPERS- 180+ in Researchgate and academia.edu

Followers(readers) 30,000 consolidated as on 28 th July,2020.

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 Authors-DR Uday DOKRAS

Dr. Uday Dokras

B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India
Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada,
MBA, CALSTATE,Los-Angeles, USA,
Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden,
Management and Efficacy Consultant, India

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 Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human resources and offer success and
failure factors guideline for a variety of potential practitioners and students in global project
marketplace.
Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm SWEDEN

From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018

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Iceland Sweden both countries use the English Text SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in
which is about Dr Uday Dokras

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Prof. S.Deshpande,President of the Indian Instituye of Architects, New Delhi INDIA
releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA
gimes( May 2010)

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 Hindu Temple Panorama-Celestial
Mysteries
Dr Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Eco.), LL.B., Nagpur University, India
Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada,
MBA, CALSTATE,Los-Angeles, USA,
Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden,
Management and Efficacy Consultant, India

Indo Swedish Author’s Collective

STOCKHOLM

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Indo Swedish Author’s Collective
STOCKHOLM

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 Hindu Temple Panorama-Celestial Mysteries
Dr Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Eco.), LL.B., Nagpur University, India
Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada,
MBA, CALSTATE,Los-Angeles, USA,
Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden,
Management and Efficacy Consultant, India
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