| Mathematics Major [9]

LET 2013
Counting Techniques
Experiment: any activity that can be done repeatedly (e.g. tossing a coin, rolling a die).

Sample space: the set of all possible outcomes in an experiment.

Example: In rolling a die, the sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

Sample point: an element of the sample space.

Example: In rolling a die, there are 6 sample points.

Counting Sample Points

1. Fundamental Principle of Counting (FPC)

If a choice consists of k steps, of which the first can be performed in n1 ways, for each of these the second can be
performed in n2 ways, for each of these the third can be performed in n3 ways…, and for each of these the kth
can be made in nk ways, then the whole choice can be made in n1n2n3…nk ways.
Example: In how many ways can two dice fall? Ans. : 6 · 6 = 36 ways
2. Permutation
Permutation is an arrangement of objects wherein the order is important.

a. Linear Permutation
If n objects are to be arranged r objects at a time, then the number of distinct arrangements is given by
nPr = .
Example: In how many ways can the first, second and third winners may be chosen with 10 contestants?
10P3 =

b. Circular Permutation
If n objects are to be arranged in a circular manner, then the number of distinct arrangements is (n - 1)!

Example: In how many ways can 6 people be arranged around a circular table? Answer: (6 - 1)!
= 5!

c. Permutation with Repetitions

The number of permutations of n things of which n1 are one of a kind, n2 second of a kind, …, nk of a kth kind is
n!
n1!n2!...nk !
Example: How many different permutations are there in the word WAGAYWAY if all letters are to be taken?
8!
Answer:
2 !3 !2 !
3. Combination

Combination is the arrangement of objects regardless of order. In other words, the order of arranging the objects is not
important. If n objects are to be arranged r at a time, the number of distinct combinations is given by:
nCr = .
Example: In how many ways can a committee of 3 be chosen from 7 persons?
7!
Answer:
3! 4 !
Probability
Probability: the likelihood of occurrence of an event.
If E is any event, then the probability of an event denoted by P(E) has a value between 0 and 1, inclusive. In
symbols,
0 ≤ P (E) ≤ 1
If P(E) = 1, then E is sure to happen.
If P(E) = 0, then E is impossible to happen.
Moreover, if the probability that E will not happen is P(E’), then P (E) + P (E’) = 1.

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Theoretical Probability
Theoretically, the probability of an event E, denoted by P(E), is defined as
n( E )
P(E) =
n( S )
where n(E) = number of favorable outcomes
n(S) = number of possible outcomes

Exercises
1. In a political science survey, voters are classified into six income categories and five education categories. In how
many different ways can a voter be classified?
A. 11 B. 25 C. 30 D. 45

2. The number of permutations of the word “probabilities” is

A. 13 B. 2!3! C. 13! D. 13!/(2!3!)

3. The number of ways seven visitors can be seated on a round table is

A. 6! B. 7! C. 6!7! D. 6!/2

4. In a certain town, 40% of the people have brown hair, 25% have brown eyes, and 15% have both brown hair and
brown eyes. A person is selected at random from the town. If he has brown eyes, what is the probability that he does
not have brown hair?
A. 3/8 B. 2/5 C. ½ D. none of these

5. A die is tossed. If the number is odd, what is the probability that it is prime?
2 3 2 1
A. B. C. D.
3 4 5 3

6. An accounting professor can assign grades of A, B, C, D, or F to student’s examinations. In how many ways can the
professor assign grades to three different student examinations?
A. 120 ways B.125 ways C. 25 ways D. 50 ways

7. A bag contains 15 red beads, 30 white beads, 20 blue beads, and 7 black beads. If one of the beads as drawn at
random, what is the probability that it will be white or blue?
25 15 13 17
A. B. C. D.
36 42 40 52

8. A whole number is chosen at random from the whole numbers from 1 to 50. What is the probability that it is an even
square?
A. 0.07 B. 0.06 C. 0.02 D. 0.09

9. A pair of dice is tossed. If the numbers appearing are different, find the probability that the sum is even.

1 2 2
A. B. C. D. none of these
2 3 5
10. If repetitions are not permitted, how many 3 digits number less than 400 can be formed from the digits 2, 3, 5, 6, 7
and 9?
A.30 B.126 C.40 D. 162

11. In how many different ways can a true-false test be answered if there are five items, assuming that the student give
an answer for each item.
5
A.5! B.2! C. 52 D. 2

12. There are five musical numbers in a program. The number of ways these numbers can be presented is
D. 5!/ 3!2!
5
A. 5 B.5! C. 2

13. The numbers of permutations of the word “probabilities” is

A.13 B. 13! C.2! 3! D. 13!/ 2!3!

14. The number of ways seven students can be seated on a round table is
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A. 6! B.6! 7! C.7! D. 6! /2

15. How many different signals, each consisting of 6 flags hung in a vertical line, can be formed from 4 identical red flags
and 2 identical blue flags?
A. 6! B. 6  4! C.4! 2! D. 6! 4!2!

16. The probability of getting a black heart is

A.0 B. 1 4 C.1 D. 1 52

17. In a certain town, 40% of the people have brown hair, 25% have brown eyes, and 15% have both brown hair and
brown eyes. A person is selected at random from the town. I he has brown eyes, what is the probability that he does not
have brown hair?
A. 3 8 B. 1 2 C. 2 5 D. None of these

STATISTICS
Statistics is the branch of mathematics used to summarize quantities of data and help investigators draw sound
conclusions. Its two main branches are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

A sample is a specified set of measurements or data, which is drawn from a much larger body of measurements
or data called the population.

Kinds of Sampling

1. Random sampling techniques are used to ensure that every member of the population has an equal chance of being
included in the sample. A random sample is said to be representative of the entire population. The two methods of
random sampling are lottery method and the use of the table of random numbers.

2. Systematic sampling is a technique which selects every nth element of the population for the sample, with the
starting point determined at random from the first n elements.

3. Stratified random sampling is a technique of selecting simple random samples from mutually exclusive groupings or
strata of the population.
Graphical Representations of Data

Graphs are used in mathematics to show relationships between sets of numbers. Graphs are useful in
the field of statistics because they can show the relationships in a set of data.

1. Histogram - a graphical picture of a frequency distribution consisting of a series of vertical columns or rectangles,
each drawn with a base equal to the class interval and a height corresponding to the class frequency. The bars of a
histogram are joined together, that is, there are no spaces between bars.

2. Bar Chart- uses rectangles or bars to represent discrete classes of data. The length of each bar corresponds to the
frequency or percentage of the given class or category. The categories are in turn placed in either horizontal

3. Frequency Polygon- a special type of line graph, where each class frequency is plotted directly above the midpoint or
class mark of its class interval and lines are then drawn to connect the points.

4. Pie Chart- an effective way of presenting categorized (qualitative) distributions, where a circle is divided into sectors -
pie-shaped pieces - which are proportional in size to the corresponding frequencies or percentages.

5. Pictogram- known as picture graph where picture symbols are used to represent values.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

A measure of central tendency is a single, central value that summarizes a set of numerical data. It describes a set of
data by locating the middle region of the set.

Measures Definition How to find Advantages Disadvantages

of Central
Tendency
Mean The sum of the data Ungrouped data: A single, unique Not appropriate
divided by the number value that is for skewed
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of data = representative of distribution as it is
all the scores affected by
extreme scores or
Grouped Data:
Stable from group outliers
to group
=
May be used in
further
computations
Median The middle number of Ungrouped data: More stable from Not necessarily
the set when the data group to group representative of
are arranged in The middle for the than the mode all scores
numerical order
Appropriate for Unstable from
skewed group to group
Grouped Data: distribution
Cannot be used in
Mdn = L + further analyses

Mode The number that Ungrouped data: Easy to obtain Not necessarily
occurs most frequently The most frequent representative of
in the data score all scores

Grouped Data: Cannot be used in

The class mark of the further analyses
class interval with the
highest frequency

Example: The scores for five students on a quiz are 40, 20, 30, 25, and 15. To find the mean score for this group of
students, we first find the sum of the scores:

40+20+30+25+15=130
We then divide the sum by 5, the number of scores:
130
 26 .
5

Example: Determine the median for the set of scores

82, 81, 80, 87, 20

Solution: We arrange the scores in Example 1 in order fro lowest to highest:

20, 80, 81, 82, 87

The middle number in this arrangement is 81 and it is the median.

Exercises
1. The mean score on a set of 10 scores is 71. What is the sum of the 10 test scores?
2. The mean score on a set of 13 score is 77. What is the sum of the 13 test scores?
3. The mean score on four of a set of five scores is 75. The fifth score is 90. What is the sum of the five scores?
What is the mean of the five scores?
4. Two sets of data are given. The first set of data has 10 scores with a mean of 70, and the second set of data has
20 scores with a mean of 80. what is the mean for both sets of data combined?

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY
A measure of variation or variability describes how large the differences between the individual scores. The common
measures of variability are range and standard deviation.

Measures Definition How to find Advantages Disadvantages

of
Variation

Range The difference between Ungrouped data: Easy to compute Unstable

the highest score and the R = HS - LS
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lowest score Gives a unique Not representative
Grouped Data: value of the set of data

R = Upper Limit of Easy to

the Highest Class understand Not used in
Interval - Lower further
Limit of the computations
Lowest Class
Interval
Standard The square root of the Ungrouped data: Most stable Affected by
deviation variance of the set of data extreme scores
Gives a unique
S= value More difficult to
Grouped Data: compute and
Most understand
representative
S=
Used in further
computations

For items 1-3: The scores of 10 students in a Math quiz are as follows:

Student A B C D E F G H I J
Score 18 32 10 15 27 18 23 28 29 30

1. What is the median score?

A. 18 B. 20 C. 23 D. 25

2. What is the mode of the scores?

A. 18 B. 20 C. 23 D. 25
3. What is the range of scores?
A. 18 B. 22 C. 23 D. 25
4. Jojo aims to get an average of 90 in 5 unit tests. The results of the first four unit tests are as follows: 89, 92, 86, and
91. What should his grade in the fifth unit be for his average to be at least 90?
A. 91 B. 92 C. 93 D. 94

5. On a quiz, the following scores were made in a class of 10 students: 72, 83, 86, 97, 90, 70, 65, 71, 80, 86. For this set of
scores, give the
a. mean b. median
c. mode d. range
e. midrange f. standard deviation

6. Jao, Dhei, Nelfe, Dada and Ched are all in the same statistics class. Their scores for the first two exams in the class are
listed in the accompanying table. The first exam had a mean of 84 and a standard deviation of 6, whereas the second
exam had a mean of 78 and a standard deviation of 4.
__________________________________
Exam 1 Exam 2
__________________________________
Jao 84 78
Dhei 90 74
Nelfe 66 78
Dada 78 70
Ched 84 78
__________________________________
a. Who improved on the second exam?
b. Who improved the most on the second exam?
c. Who did not improve on the second exam?
d. Considering both exams, who did the poorest?
e. Who performed the same on both exams?
f. Considering both exams, which student has the bets grade so far?

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PART II
Directions: Choose the letter that corresponds to the correct answer.
1. When does one accept the null hypothesis?
a. when the computed value is less than the critical value
b. when the computed value is greater than the critical value
c. when the computed value is significant
d. when the computed value is less then the level of significance
2. What is the probability of committing Type I error?
a. probability value d. degrees of freedom
b.  error
c. level of significance
3. When does Type I error occur?
a. when one accepts a true null hypothesis
b. when one rejects a false null hypothesis
c. when one accepts a false null hypothesis
d. when one rejects a true null hypothesis
4. How many degrees of freedom are associated in a contingency table with 3 rows and 4 columns?
a. 12 c. 8
b. 6 d. 9
5. If a researcher rejects a false null hypothesis, what type of error was committed?
a. Type I c.  error
b. Type II d. no error
6. If the points on a scatter diagram closely follow a straight line slanting up to the right, what kind of correlation is
shown?
a. positive c. no correlation
b. negative d. zero correlation
7. If the coefficient of correlation between two variables is -0.80, which of the following statements is not true?
a. There is a high correlation between the two variables.
b. 64% of the variation in one variable can be explained by the other variable
c. If one variable increases the other variable will decrease.
d. The relationship between the two variables is negative.
8. Which of the following is a null hypothesis?
a. There is a relationship between IQ and EQ.
b. Traditional method of teaching is equally effective as computer assisted instruction.
c. The experimental group performed significantly higher than the control group.
d. Training program will improve effectiveness of teachers.
9. Which of the following is a nominal data?
a. nationality c. IQ
b. age d. weight
10. If data are nominal, what measure of average is the most appropriate?
a. mean c. median
b. mode d. quartile
11. A random sample of students majoring in English, all of whom had taken a class from each of 4 professors, was
asked which of the professors was their favorite. Are these professors equally popular?
a. Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test c. One-Way ANOVA
b. Chi-Square Test of Independence d. Two-Way ANOVA
12. A random sample of high school students was asked whether they attended to go to college and whether their
parents had attended college. Do these data indicate that there is a relationship between the child’s intention
and the parents’ background?
a. Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test c. One-Way ANOVA
b. Chi-Square Test of Independence d. Two-Way ANOVA
13. A psychologist wishes to examine a sample of subjects’ susceptibility to hypnotism. The same group is tested on
two separate days to see if there is general agreement in the test scores.
a. Pearson r c. Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test
b. Spearman rho d. Chi-Square Test of Independence
14. To determine whether men have nightmares as often as women, 28 out of 88 randomly chosen men and 30 out
of 100 randomly chosen women reported having nightmares at least once a month. Do these figures indicate a
significant difference in the frequency of nightmares between the two sexes?
a. z-test of one-sample mean c. z-test of independent proportions
b. z-test of two-sample means d. z-test of dependent proportions

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15. A random sample of 80 married men from one country reported a mean age of 24 when they first married with
a standard deviation of 3.2, while a random sample of 100 married men from a second country revealed the
mean and standard deviation to be 26 and 2.8, respectively. Do these results indicate a difference in the
populations of married men in the two countries?
a. z-test of one-sample mean c. z-test of independent proportions
b. z-test of two-sample means d. z-test of dependent proportions
16. It believed that Catholics have larger families than Protestants. To test this, a sociologist investigates samples of
13 Catholic and 11 Protestant families and their family size.
a. z-test of one-sample mean c. t-test of two dependent samples
b. z-test of two-sample means d. t-test of two independent samples
17. a college instructor experiments with two different methods of teaching, by trying them on two randomly
selected groups of students each with 16 students. Is there a significant difference between the two methods of
teaching?
a. z-test of one-sample mean c. t-test of two dependent samples
b. z-test of two-sample means d. t-test of two independent samples
18. What demographic profiles influence achievement in mathematics?
a. Pearson r c. Multiple Regression Analysis
b. Spearman rho d. Multiple Correlation
19. A researcher performs an experiment with four methods of teaching using four randomly selected groups. Does
method of teaching interact with gender?
a. Pearson r c. Multiple Regression Analysis
b. Two-Way ANOVA d. Multiple Correlation
20. A researcher would like to establish the reliability of a test by using test-retest method.
a. Pearson r c. Multiple Regression Analysis
b. Spearman rho d. Multiple Correlation
21. A researcher wishes to test the hypothesis that the average IQ of grade five students is 90. She randomly selects
25 grade 5 students and obtains their IQ.
a. t-test of one-sample mean c. t-test of two dependent samples
b. z-test of two-sample means d. t-test of two independent samples
22. Do college graduates subscribe to more magazines than noncollege graduates?
a. t-test of two dependent samples c. z-test of independent proportions
b. t-test of two independent samples d. z-test of dependent proportions
23. To determine if a training program for elementary teachers improve their teaching skills.
a. t-test of two dependent samples c. z-test of independent proportions
b. t-test of two independent samples d. z-test of dependent proportions
24. To find out if the effect of methods of assessment on critical thinking moderated by the level of mathematical
ability.
a. Pearson r c. One-Way ANOVA
b. Two-Way ANOVA d. Multiple Correlation
25. To establish the validity of a test.
a. Pearson r c. Multiple Regression Analysis
b. Two-Way ANOVA d. Multiple Correlation
26. You wish to investigate the difference between mean scores in algebra for philosophy majors and psychology
majors on your campus. You only have time to find and interview at most 20 students in each major.
a. t-test of two dependent samples c. z-test of independent proportions
b. t-test of two independent samples d. z-test of dependent proportions
27. Is the fact that a student is a day or night student related to achievement in school?
a. Pearson r c. Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test
b. Spearman rho d. Chi-Square Test of Independence
28. A psychology teacher wishes to examine differences in stress levels among students. Random samples of full-
time students who have no job, who have a part-time job, and who have a full-time job are tested for stress. Is
there a significant difference in the level of stress among the three groups?
a. Pearson r c. One-Way ANOVA
b. Two-Way ANOVA d. Multiple Correlation
29. A physical education instructor claims that male PE majors have a mean waist measurement of 33 inches. If you
can examine a random sample of 40 pE majors, how would you test this claim?
a. z-test of one-sample mean
b. z-test of two-sample means
c. t-test of two dependent samples
d. t-test of two independent samples

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