1/28/2020

Try these!!!
Write the negations of the following statements.
1. Studying is necessary and I am a hard worker.
2. It is not easy or I am lazy.
3. She is angry or she’s my friend, and she is cool.

1. Studying is not necessary or I am not a hard worker.

De Morgan’s Law: ~ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 = ~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞
Mathematical ~ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 = ~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞
Logic 2. It is easy and I am not lazy.
3. She is not angry and she is not my friend, or she is not
cool.

1 2

Propositional Function
A propositional function or predicate is a complete
declarative sentence P(x) that makes a statement about
the variable x. The variable x is called the argument of P(x).
If x is assigned a particular value, then P(x) becomes a
proposition with a definite truth value.

Propositional Function
and Quantification

3 4

Example Universal Quantification

Let P(x) denote the statement “x > 3”. What are the truth
values of P(4) and P(2)?
Solution:
P(4) : “4 > 3.” This proposition has the truth value T.
P(2): “2 > 3.” This has truth value of F.
When all variables in a propositional function are
assigned values, the resulting statement has a truth value. There
is another method to change propositional functions into
propositions called quantification which may be universal or
existential.
The universal quantification of P(x) is the proposition
“P(x) is true for ALL values of x in the domain of discourse.”
The notation ∀ 𝑥𝑃(𝑥), read as “For all x, P(x)” or “For
every x, P(x),” denotes the universal quantification of P(x). The
domain of discourse specifies the possible values of the variable
x.

5 6

1

Examples
Express the statement “Every student in this class has
studied calculus” as a universal quantification.
Solution:
Let P(x) denote the statement “x has studied
calculus.”
The given statement can now be expressed as
∀ 𝑥𝑃(𝑥), where the domain of discourse consists of the
students in class.
7 8
Examples
Let Q(x) be “x < 2.” What is the truth value of ∀ 𝑥𝑄 𝑥 ,
where the domain of discourse is the set ℚ?
Solution:
∀ 𝑥𝑄 𝑥 : “For all x, x < 2.” Since x < 2 is not true
when x = 3, ∀ 𝑥𝑄 𝑥 has the truth value of F.
9 10
Examples
Let P(x) be “x + 1 > x.” What is the truth value of ∃ 𝑥𝑃(𝑥),
where the domain of discourse is the set ℝ?
Solution:
∃ 𝑥𝑃 𝑥 : “There is an x such that x + 1 > x.” Since x
+ 1 > x when x = 1, ∃ 𝑥𝑃 𝑥 has the truth value of T.
11
1/28/2020
Examples
Let P(x) be “x + 1 > x.” What is the truth value of ∀ 𝑥𝑃(𝑥),
where the domain of discourse is the set ℝ?
Solution:
∀ 𝑥𝑃 𝑥 : “For all x, x + 1 > x.” Since a real number x
will always be smaller than x + 1, ∀ 𝑥𝑃 𝑥 has the truth
value of T.
Existential Quantification
The existential quantification of P(x) is the
proposition “There exist an element x in the domain of
discourse such that P(x) is true.” The notion ∃ 𝑥𝑃(𝑥) is read
as “There is an x such that P(x)” or “For some x, P(x).”
These denote the existential quantification of P(x).
Examples
Let Q(x) be “x < 2.” What is the truth value of ∃ 𝑥𝑄 𝑥 ,
where the domain of discourse is the set ℚ?
Solution:
∃ 𝑥𝑄 𝑥 : “There is an x such that x < 2.” Since x < 2
when x = 0, ∃ 𝑥𝑄 𝑥 has the truth value of T.
12
2
 1/28/2020

Quantified Statements and Their

Seatwork
Negations
I. Use quantifiers to express the following statements.
Statement Negation 1. Every student needs a course in mathematics.
All X are Y. Some X are not Y. 2. There is a student in this class who owns a dual SIM
smartphone.
No X are Y. Some X are Y.
3. Every student in this class has been in every building on
Some X are not Y. All X are Y. campus.
Some X are Y. No X are Y. 4. There is a student in this class who has been in every
floor of at least one building on campus.
1. ∀ 𝑥𝑃 𝑥
2. ∃ 𝑥𝑄 𝑥
3. ∀ 𝑥𝑅 𝑥
4. ∃ 𝑥𝑆 𝑥

13 14

Seatwork Seatwork
II. Let Q(x, y) denote the statement “x is the capital III. Write the negation of each of the following statements.
of y.” What are the truth values of Q(Paris, France), 1. Some airports are open.
Q(Sydney, Australia), and Q(Japan, Tokyo)? 2. All movies are worth the price of admission.
III. Let P(x, y) denote “x + y = 0.” What are the truth 3. No odd numbers are divisible by 2.
values of ∃𝑦 ∀𝑥𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦 and ∀𝑥 ∃𝑦 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦 ?
1. No airports are open.
2. Some movies are not worth the price of admission.
3. Some odd numbers are divisible by 2.
II. T, F, F
III. F, T

15 16

An Argument and a Valid Argument

An argument consists of a set of statements called
premises and another statement called the conclusion. An
argument is valid if the conclusion is true whenever all the
premises are assumed to be true. An argument is invalid if
it is not a valid argument.

Symbolic Arguments

17 18

3
 1/28/2020

Determining Validity of an Argument

(Truth Table Method) Examples
1. Write the arguments in symbolic form. If Aristotle was human, then Aristotle was mortal.
2. Construct a truth table Aristotle was human
3. Evaluate. If the conclusion is true in EVERY row of the Therefore, Aristotle was mortal.
truth table in which all the premises are true, the
argument is valid. If the conclusion is false in ANY row Symbolic form:
in which all of the premises are true, the argument is 𝑝 →𝑞 premise premise conclusion
invalid. 𝑝
𝒑 𝒒
𝒑→𝒒 𝒑 q

∴𝑞 T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T F F

Valid

19 20

Examples (Alternative) Examples

If Aristotle was human, then Aristotle was mortal. 𝑝 →𝑞 Valid If it rains, then the game will not be played. It is not raining.
Aristotle was human 𝑝
Therefore, the game will be played.
Therefore, Aristotle was mortal. ∴𝑞
Symbolic form:
[ 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝] → q
𝑝 → ~𝑞
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 𝑝 →𝑞 ∧𝑝 [ 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝] → q ~𝑝
T T T T T ∴𝑞
T F F F T premise premise conclusion
𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒒
F T T F T 𝑝 → ~𝑞 ~𝒑 q
F F T F T T T F F F T
T F T T F F
F T F T T T
F F T T T F

Invalid

21 22

Examples (Alternative) Try these at home!

If it rains, then the game will not be played. It is 𝑝 → ~𝑞 Invalid
not raining. Therefore, the game will be played. ~𝑝 Determine if the following arguments are valid.
∴𝑞
[ 𝑝 → ~𝑞 ∧ ~𝑝] → q 1. The fish is fresh or I will not order it. The fish is fresh.
Therefore I will order it.
2. If I am going to run the marathon, then I will buy new
𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 𝑝 → ~𝑞 𝑝 → ~𝑞 ∧ ~𝑝 [ 𝑝 → ~𝑞 ∧ ~𝑝] → q shoes. If I buy new shoes, then I will not buy a
T T F F F F T television. Therefore if I buy a television, I will not run
T F F T T F T the marathon.
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T F

23 24