Introduction

According Roller et al (2012) in Contemporary Issues and Theories of Motor Control, Motor Learning, and
Neuroplasticity, the production and control of human movement is a process that varies from a simple reflex loop to a
complex network of neural patterns that communicate throughout the Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral
Nervous System (PNS). [1]

Motor Control

Definition

"The process of initiating, directing, and grading purposeful voluntary movement". [2]

Theories of Motor Control 

The organization and production of movement is a complex problem, so the study of motor control has been
approached from a wide range of disciplines, including psychology, cognitive science, biomechanics and neuroscience.
The control of human movement has been described in many different ways with many different models of Motor
Control put forward throughout the 19th & 20th Centuries. Motor Control Theories include production of reflexive,
automatic, adaptive, and voluntary movements and the performance of efficient, coordinated, goal-directed movement
patterns which involve multiple body systems (input, output, and central processing) and multiple levels within the
nervous system. Within the field of Neurology many textbooks and researcher recommend adoption of a systems model
of Motor Control incorporating neurophysiology, biomechanics and motor learning principles which also considers
learning solutions based on the interaction between the patient, the task and the environment. As a therapist it is these
key areas that we need to be aware of when planning our interventions. As therapists we can change the environment,
or the task in such a way as to enable our patients to achieve their goals.  [3] [1] 
MOTOR CONTROL AUTHOR DAT PREMISE CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS
THEORIES E

Reflex Theory Sherrington 1906 Movement is controlled by  Use sensory input to control
stimulus-response.  motor output 
 Reflexes are basis for movement - Stimulate good reflexes 
Reflexes are combined into actions that  Inhibit undesirable (primitive)
create behavior. reflexes 
 Rely heavily on Feedback

Dynamical Systems Theory Bernstein  1967  Movement emerges to control  Movement is an emergent
degrees of freedom.  property from the interaction of multiple
Turvey  1977  Patterns of movements self- elements. 
organize within the characteristics of  Understand the physical &
environmental conditions and the dynamic properties of the body - i.e.
Kelso & 1984  existing body systems of the individual.  Velocity- important for dynamics of
Tuller   Functional synergies are movement. May be good to encourage
1987  developed naturally through practice and faster movement in patients to produce
Thelen  experience and help solve the problem of momentum and therefore help weak
coordinating multiple muscles and joint patients move with greater ease. 
movements at once. 
 De-emphasize commands from
CNS in controlling movement and
emphasize physical explanations for
 movement.

Hierarchical Theories Adams 1971 Cortical centers control  Identify & prevent primitive
movement in a top-down manner reflexes 
throughout the nervous system.   Reduce hyperactive stretch 
 Closed-loop Mode: Sensory  Normalize tone 
feedback is needed and used to control  Facilitate “normal” movement
the movement.  patterns 
 Voluntary movementts initiated  Developmental Sequence 
by “Will” (higher levels). Reflexive  Recapitulation 
movements dominate only after CNS
damage.

Motor Program Theory Schmidt 1976 Adaptive, exible motor programs Abnormal Movement - Not just
(MPs) and generalized motor programs reflexive, also including abnormalities in
(GMPs) exist to control actions that have central pattern generators or higher level
common characteristics.  motor programs. 
 Higher-level Motor Programs -  Help patients relearn the correct
Store rules for generating movements. rules for action 
 Retrain movements important to
functional task 
 Do not just reeducate muscles in
isolation

Ecological Theories Gibson & Pick 2000 The person, the task, and the  Help patient explore multiple
environment interact to in hence motor ways in achieving functional task →
behavior and learning. The interaction of Discovering best solution for patient,
the person with any given environment given the set of limitations
provides perceptual information used to
 control movement. 
 The motivation to solve problems
to accomplish a desired movement task
goal facilitates learning.

Systems Model Shumway-Cook 2007 Multiple body systems overlap to Identifiable, functional tasks 
activate synergies for the production of  Practice under a variety of
movements that are organized around conditions 
functional goals.   Modify environmental contexts
 Considers interaction of the
person with the environment. 
 Goal-directed Behavior - Task
Orientated

Motor Learning

Definition

1. " The process of acquiring a skill by which the learner, through practice and assimilation, refines and makes automatic the
desired movement".
2. "An internal neurologic process that results in the ability to produce a new motor task". [2]
Theories of Motor Learning 

Motor learning is a “set of internal processes associated with practice or experience leading to relatively permanent changes in the
capability for skilled behavior.” In other words, motor learning is when complex processes in the brain occur in response to practice
or experience of a certain skill resulting in changes in the central nervous system that allow for production of a new motor skill.  It
often involves improving the smoothness and accuracy of movements and is obviously necessary for developing c; but it is also
important for calibrating simple movements like reflexes, as parameters of the body and environment change over time. Motor
learning research often considers variables that contribute to motor program formation (i.e., underlying skilled motor behaviour),
sensitivity of error-detection processes, and strength of movement schemas. There are many different theories of Motor
Learning. [3] [1]

MOTOR LEARNING THEORY  AUTHOR DATE PREMISE CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

Adams Closed Loop Theory
Adams 1971 Closed Loop - Sensory feedback is used for Perform same exact movement repeatedly to
the ongoing production of skilled movement  one accurate end point 
Slow movements  Increase Practice → Increase Learning 
Relies on sensory feedback (Sherrington)  Errors produced during learning → Increase
Blocked Practice  strength of incorrect perceptual trace
Errors = Bad! Needs to be accurate! 
Memory Trace - Initiation of movement 
Perceptual Trace - Built up over a period of
practice & is the reference of correctness.  
Improvements = Increased capability of
performer to use the reference in closed loop

Schmidt's Schema Theory
Schmidt 1975 Open Loop  Optimal Learning → Task practiced under
Schema - Abstract memory representation many different conditions 
for events → RULE  Positive benefits for error production (learn
Generalized Motor Program - Rules that from own mistakes) 
allow for the generation of novel movements  Schema has rules for all stored elements, not
Rapid, ballistic movements = recall memory
 withmotor programs and parameters to carry out just correct elements
movement without peripheral feedback 
Variability of Practice → Improve Motor
Learning

Ecological Theory Newell 1991 Based on Systems & Ecological Motor Patient learns to distinguish relevant
Control Theories  perceptual cues important to action.
Motor Learnining = Increases coordination
between perception and action thru task &
environmental constraints. 
Perceptual-motor workspace - Identifies
mvmts and perceptual cues most relevant to
performance of task 
Optimal task-relevant mapping of perception
& action → NO Rules!

Stages of Motor Learning

Stages of Characteristics Attention Demands  Activities Description

Learning

Cognitive  Movements are  Attention to Practise sessions are: Early Cognitive;

slow, inconsistent and understand what must move
inefficient. to produce a specific result.  performance focused Essential Elements were
 Considerable  Large parts of the  less variable not observed or not
cognitive activity is movement are controlled  incorporate a clear mental present
 required. consciously image (technical & visual). Late Cognitive;

Essential elements are

starting to appear

Associative  Movements are  Some parts of the  Practise sessions link Early Associative;
more fluid, reliable and movements are controlled performance and results,
efficient consciously, some conditions can be varied. Essential elements
 Less cognitive automatically.  Clear Mental Image = appear, but not with
activity is required Accurate Performance consistency.

Late Associative;

Essential elements
appear regulalry at a
satisfactory level.

Autonomous  Movements are  Movement is largely  Practise sessions are Early Autonomous;
accurate, consistent and controlled automatically more results orientated
efficient.  Attention can be  Focus is on greater range Essential elements
 Little or no focused on tactical choices of movement, speed, appear frequently avove
cognitive activity is acceleration and use of skill in a required level.
required. novel situation.

Late Autonomous;
Essential elements
appear continuously at a
superior level.