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Quality Bio Notes
Quality Bio Notes
Quality Bio Notes
CELL STRUCTURE
Cells are:
o The basic structural and functional units of life that make up all organisms
o The product of pre-existing cells dividing
o Separated from their environment by a cellular membrane
o Diverse, despite having some common structures
Cells vary in size, shape, composition, function and mobility. Unicellular organisms carry out all the
processes needed to support life. Cells that are part of a multicellular (many-celled, complex)
organism may carry out specialised role and rely on other cells working together to provide some of
their needs and remove their wants.
Cells are classified as either prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are smaller, simpler and
considered primitive.
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
Prokaryotic organisms include a range of types of bacteria, some which live in extreme environments such
as highly salty, hot, acidic, alkaline or without oxygen and may be called ‘extremophiles’. They are mainly
unicellular.
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Eukaryotic organisms include all plants, animals, fungi (multicellular organisms) as well as protists
(unicellular or colonial organisms). They develop specialised structures and functions to enable
coordinated activities needed in a colonial or multicellular organism. Eukaryotic cells reproduce by
mitosis.
A RANGE OF TECHNOLGIES USED TO DETERMINE A CELLS STRUCTURE & FUNCTION
Cytology, microbiology and biochemistry are the branches of biology that have contributed to the
understanding of cell structure and function. They are dependent on the development of technologies.
Some cellular structures and organelles require electronic microscopes referred to as ultrastructures.
MODELLING THE STRUCTURE & FUNCTION OF THE FLUID MOSAIC MODEL OF THE TYPES OF
CELL MEMBRANE
The cell membrane is only 7-10 nm in width. This is too small for even electronic microscopes to give an
accurate picture of this dynamic structure. The fluid mosaic model explains the characteristics as
o It is selectively permeable barrier rather than a closed wall or open gate.
o It is made up of double phospholipid layer. The water loving phosphate heads face outwards
and inwards as they are attracted to the watery fluids inside and outside cells.
o A combination of water loving cells and water repelling molecules results in a structure that
naturally forms spherical droplets in a watery medium. Lipids are the water-insoluble water
repelling tails in the middle of the bilayer.
o Protein molecules are embedded in the double phospholipid layer. The proteins are varied and
some may even combine with carbohydrates. When viewed from outside, they form a mosaic-
like pattern dotted around the phospholipid layers and under certain circumstances, they can
move around the layers.
CELL FUNCTION
INQUIRY QUESTION –
How do cells coordinate activities within their internal environment and its external
environment?
Just like the city wall around medieval town, the cell membrane controls imports and exports;
the entry of requirements and removal of wastes. this membrane maintains the integrity of the
internal environment so that the cell can perform is functions and respond to changes in its
external environment.
CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
- A concentration gradient a transition between high levels of concentration particles to low
concentration particles.
- Diffusion provide an example of a substance moving from a place where it was highly
concentrated to a place with a lower concentration.
- Osmosis provide an example of a solvent moving from a highly concentrated area to a place
where it was less concentrated. The movement of the solvent resulted in a lowering of the
solvent concentration at the destination of the solvent.
- Is there is great disparity in the concentration across the cell membrane, the movement of
materials through osmosis and diffusion will be faster if the gradient is only slight.
ORGANISATION OF CELLS
INQUIRY QUESTION -
How are cells arranged in a multicellular organism?
Comparing a unicellular organism with a multicellular organism is like comparing a self-sufficient farm
with a nation. The increase in complexity means a need for specialisation and cooperation is vital.
THE HIERARCHY
- The hierarchy has a chain of responsibility and interdependence. This interdependence is
designed to meet the requirements of a cell regardless of how simple or complex the organism
is. This requirement justifies the hierarchy organisation.
- The hierarchical relationship
between organisms and
their components can be
demonstrated by the impact
of certain diseases.
ORGANISATION OF CELLS
INQUIRY QUESTION -
What is the difference in nutrient and gas requirements between autotrophs and heterotrophs?
Some cells need light energy while others need chemical energy, autotrophs carry out photosynthesis
whereas a heterotrophs cannot make their own food and must obtain nutrients from other organic
substances.
AUTOTROPHS
- Autotrophs are organisms that can make organic materials from water and carbon dioxide and
small quantities of materials such as nitrates, sulfates and phosphates.
- Plants and algae are the dominate autotrophs on earth.
PHOTOTROPISM
- Phototropism occurs when the side of the plant just back from the tip and on the reverse side
to the light sources grows at a faster rate. The stem then grows in a curved path towards the
light.
- Darwin concluded that some influence was transmitted from the tip to further down the shoot,
causing its growth to bend.
INQUIRY QUESTION -
How does the composition of the transport medium change as it moves around an organism?
Once requirements have entered the organism they need to reach cells. This problem has been
solved in a variety of ways, but a common feature is a watery transport medium through the
organism.
PLANTS ANIMALS
o Vascular system: vascular tissue in o Circulatory system made of heart and
bundles blood vessels
o Two separate tissues: xylem and phloem o Transport media: blood or haemolymph
o Transport media: sap and transportation o Heart pumps transport media around the
stream body
o Materials carried in solution o Special pigments may be uses that
improve the transport of gases
MODULE 3 – BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
INQUIRY QUESTION-
How do environmental pressures promote a change in species diversity and abundance?
Species diversity is important to balance ecosystems on earth. This diversity can be affected slowly
or quickly over time by natural selection pressures such as climate, spaces to live, diseases and
competition for food. Human impacts and the pressures of human activity, such as pollution and land
clearing, affects species diversity over a shorter period of time. Understanding how environmental
pressures promote a change in species diversity and abundance helps ecologist to design strategies
to reduce the effects of adverse change.
Biotic Factors
- Biotic factors are the living parts of the ecosystem. They include members of the same species as
well as members of other species. This includes any diseases that may impact on the organisms
ability to survive.
- Biotic relationships are often liked to how organisms obtain their energy and include predator-
prey relationships.
Abiotic Factors
- Abiotic factors are the non-living features of an environment which affect the survival of a species
of an environment which affect the survival of a species or population.
- Abiotic factors include physical features such as temperature, rainfall, water, humidity, sunlight,
and soil. Chemical features include salinity, minerals, pH levels and oxygen ability.
Aquatic Environments
Abiotic factors in aquatic environments is outlined below
- Rate of water flow
- Salinity levels in water
- Oxygen ability
- Availability of light
- Temperature ranges
- Pressure
Terrestrial Environments
Abiotic factors in terrestrial environments are outlined in the points below
- Aspects of topography
- Exposure to wind
- Soil type
- Temperature
- Availability of water
ADAPTATIONS
INQUIRY QUESTION-
How do adaptations increase the organisms ability to survive?
As a result of biological diversity some organisms in a population have characteristics more suited to
the environment than others of the same species. These characteristics increase the organisms’
ability to survive and reproduce in particular habitats. These characteristics are called adaptations.
Changes in the environment select characteristics that enable these organisms to survive. Note that
some organisms do not survive in their environment and become endangered and eventually extinct.
Structural Adaptations
- Structural adaptations refer to the shape or size of the body or details of physical features or
structures, such as the shape of a birds bill or spiky stems on a plant.
- Hot dry habitats are the most extensive habitats in Australia. Many of Australian plants have
structural adaptations that minimise water loss and at the same time allow for gas exchange.
Physical Adaptations
- Physical adaptations refer to the function of the structural features. Saltbush grown in hot dry
environments. The salt glands reflect the heat, resulting in less heat absorption.
Behavioural Adaptations
- Behavioural Adaptations refer to the behaviour of the organism, this is an action done by the
organism. Examples include burrowing behaviours or courtship behaviours to attract a mate.
- Some plants can orientate their leaves to follow the sun across the sky and therefore obtain
maximum sunlight for photosynthesis. Some plants also drop their leaves if the temperature
becomes to cool.
Remember that Structural, Physical and Behavioural features are interrelated and often complex.
DIVERGENT EVOLUTION
- Divergent evolution means evolving to be different; that is, evolution from an ancestor into
several different forms adapted to distinct ways of life. For example, marsupials and monotremes
evolved from primitive mammals. When Australia became an isolated continent, marsupials
spread widely, reducing competition for resources by occupying different niches and developing
specialised diets. Adaptive radiation is an alternative term for divergent evolution.
- Variations among Galapagos species of mocking birds and finches are a classic examples of
divergent evolution, with each species evolving from a common ancestor to exploit a specific type
of food.
CONVERGENT EVOLUTION
- Convergent evolution means evolving to be similar, it is the result of the independent evolution
of similar structures in different groups.
- If unrelated organisms use the same resources, occupy similar niches in different habitat’s or are
subject to similar selection pressures over time they may end up with similar structures,
physiology or behavioural through natural selection.
o In the 1970’s the theory of punctuated o Early in the 1900’s scientist refined
equilibrium was proposed. The theory Darwin’s theory to include the
does not discount Darwin’s theory, possibility of sudden evolutionary
but it does propose that evolutionary change as well as she slow gradual
change may be rapid as opposed to process suggested by Darwin.
only gradual. o Evidence for gradualism includes fossil
o The punctuated or rapid change forms. Transitional fossils have been
periods are presumably the result of features that make them an
major environmental changes and intermediate form between major
selection pressures. groups of organisms.
o The idea of punctuated equilibrium o It was generally believed that changes
helps to explain why the fossil record from generation to generation
is incomplete. If evolutionary change indicated that past species gradually
happens in a short amount of time evolved into other species over
span then the intermediate forms millions of years, this is referred to as
would not be around long enough to gradualism.
be apparent in the fossil record.
INQUIRY QUESTION-
What is the evidence that supports they theory of evolution by natural selection?
A great deal of evidence exists to support the theory that present-day life forms have evolved over
time through a process of natural selection and that all species share a common ancestor. The
multiple lines of evidence come from studies of fossils, geology, living organisms, biochemistry,
comparative anatomy, comparative embryology, biogeography.
BIOCHEMICAL EVIDENCE
- Biochemistry involves the study of the structure and function of the many chemicals that are
found in living organisms, such as proteins and
nucleic acids.
- Example - Certain proteins are required to
transport oxygen in organisms.
Haemoglobin/myoglobin, haemocyanin and
haemerythrin/myohaemrythrin are proteins that
carry oxygen in different animals. The similarity
of their biochemistry is evidence of the
evolutionary relationships of these animals
- Biochemical differences – biochemical
techniques are also used to compare proteins
and nucleic acids in many microorganisms that
may resemble some of the very early forms of
life on earth. Common ancestry can be seen in
the complex metabolic molecules that many
different organisms share. Amino acids are a
simple organic compound and a large proportion of our cells, muscles and tissues are made up
of them. This means they carry out many important bodily functions such as giving cells their
structure. Therefore they are the building of protein
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
- Comparative anatomy is the similar anatomy
across different species providing evidence of a
common origin. This study of similarities provides
evidence of a common ancestor which supports
the theory of evolution by natural selection. For
example, observations of the forelimbs of frogs,
whales, lions, humans and bats show that they
have a similar structure. They all have a humerus,
radius and ulna bones with the length of these
bones varying depending on the adaptations
needed to survive in their different environments.
- Similar anatomy across different species is
referred to as homologous structures. Vestigial
organs (structures that have lost most or all of
their ancestral function) also provide evidence of
a common ancestor, therefore supporting the theory of evolution by natural selection.
COMPARATIVE EMBRYOLOGY
- A branch of embryology that compares and
contrasts embryos of different species it is used to
show how all animals are related.
- Comparative embryology provides evidence for
evolution because the embryotic forms of divergent
species are similar.
- Comparative embryology is the study of similarities
in embryological development it provides evidence
of a common ancestor between different species
- An example is both fish and human embryos have
gill slits. In fish they develop into gills whereas in
humans they disappear before birth.
BIOGEOGRAPHY
- Biogeography is the study of the
distribution of living things over the earth.
Biogeographical distribution patterns
provide evidence that species have
originated from common ancestors and
when isolated, they evolve into new species
by natural selection. An example of this, is
the break-up of the supercontinent
pangaea, that contained species that have
now been distributed worldwide.
Therefore, the concept of biogeography
supports the theory of evolution through
natural selection as it explains how
speciation has occurred over time.
RELETIVE DATING
- Relative dating is when the age of the rock or
fossil is compared to another rock or fossil
For example, rock A is younger than rock B.
- This can provide evidence of the sequence of
geological events but not the exact dates of
an event.
- Techniques that determine the relative order
of past events and the age of one rock layer
relative to other rock layers
ABSOLUTE DATING TECHNIQUES
- Absolute dating techniques provide evidence of the actual dates of geological events and the age
of fossils. They use radioactive isotopes
which are radioactive elements that decay at
a defined rate and the rate of decay is used
to date the formation of igneous rocks, also
called radioisotopes. For example, zircons
are used to date items by comparing parent
and daughter atoms.
- To determine the absolute age of a item, you
can compare the parent isotopes to the
daughter isotopes. For example, when half of
the parent isotopes have decay and turned
into daughter isotopes, that is called a half-
life which means the item is approximately
2.2 billion years old.
MODULE 4 – ECOSYSTEM DYNAMICS
POPULATION DYNAMICS
INQUIRY QUESTION -
What effects can one species have on the other species in a community?
All species interact with others in ecosystems, often in complex ways. Relationships between
organisms, such as competition, commensalism, predation, symbiosis and disease, affect the
abundance and distribution of species. Human activity in ecosystems also affects other species.
Humans can change ecosystems enormously and quickly. Understanding the effects that one species
can have on other species helps ecologist design strategies to reduce the effects of adverse changes.
PAST ECOSYSTEMS
INQUIRY QUESTION -
How do selection pressures within an ecosystem influence evolutionary change?
Ecosystems are limited in the total number or organisms that they can support. Ecosystems can
change dramatically over time and can be impacted by selection pressures; that is abiotic and biotic
factors including climatic events. When the environment changes, these selection pressures give a
particular adaptive advantage to certain characteristics and therefore influences by evolutionary
change.
PALEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
- The study of fossils is called palaeontology and paleontological evidence is based on fossil
evidence.
- Fossils are the remains or traces of living things that have been trapped in sediments, coal, tar,
amber or frozen in ice. The fossil record tells the story of past changes and the evolution of species
over millions of years.
- The fossil record is incomplete. For fossils to form, the organism must die and be rapidly
trapped in a substrate (e.g. sediment) so that decomposition or destruction does not occur.
- Transitional fossils have features that make them an intermediate form between major groups
of organisms. They provide further evidence for evolutionary change.
- Examples of transitional fossil forms include seed ferns and the archaeopteryx. The
archaeopteryx was a bird-like reptile with wings, reptilian teeth and a long-jointed tail.
- Palaeontologists calculate the age of a range of different fossils to determine when the
organisms lived relative to each other. They also identify and classify fossils to create pictures of
past ecosystem.
- Different plants and animals have different habitat needs so their fossils provide clues to the
environment of past ecosystems, For example:
o Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed of fragments of marine organisms (e.g. molluscs
and corals), which live in warm, shallow seas. The presence of limestone is evidence that
the area was once covered by warm, shallow bodies of water.
GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
- Geological evidence for past changes in ecosystems can be found in rock structure and
formation (e.g. sediments).
- The characteristics of sediments depend on the environment in which they formed. For
example, some sands and gravels are dropped by glaciers and become glacial deposits,
indicating that the climate must have been cold.
- Mountains in Tasmania and NSW have glacial deposits and features of glacial erosion even
though no glaciers exist there today.
GAS ANALYSIS
- Gas analysis is used to interpret past climates by analysing gases trapped in ice cores.
- Gas analysis is the study of gases trapped in ice core bubbles, ocean sediments, corals and the
shells of marine plants and animals.
- Gases in ice cores provide a highly reliable record of the Earth's atmospheric composition at the
time the ice was formed.
- Because most gases reside in the atmosphere long enough to be well mixed globally, ice cores
around the world record the same atmospheric composition in bubbles trapped at the same
time.
- The exact oxygen ratios can tell scientists how much ice covered the Earth. Through analysis of
gases in ice cores scientists can also learn how changing levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide
(CO2), methane and other greenhouses gases occur over time
INQUIRY QUESTION -
How can human activity impact on an ecosystem?
Human activities, such as over-exploitation, habitat destruction, monocultures and pollution can
reduce biodiversity and impact on the magnitude, duration and speed of ecosystem change.
Increasing evidence shows that human-introduced changes have already triggered changes in the
diversity, abundance and distribution of many species and played a key role in the recent extinction
of others. Human activities, such as conservation management, monitoring of biodiversity and
restoration practices can have positive impacts on an ecosystem.