2/8/2020

Business Research Method

Prof. Ravi Shekhar Kumar

XLRI- Xavier School of Management, Jamshedpur

ravishekhar@xlri.ac.in

Session-7

Cross-Tabulation

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Cross-Tabulation
• While a frequency distribution describes one variable at a time, a
cross-tabulation describes two or more variables simultaneously.

General rule is to
compute % in the
direction of the
independent variable,
across the dependent
variable.

First table is more

acceptable than
second
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Statistics Associated with Cross-Tabulation

• Chi-Square Test for independence: …is a statistical
procedure to determine whether frequencies observed at
the combination of levels of two categorical variables are
similar to frequencies expected
– To determine whether a systematic association exists, probability of
obtaining a value of chi-square as large or larger than one
calculated from cross-tabulation is estimated.
– Null hypothesis (H0) of NO association between two variables will
be rejected only when calculated value of test statistic is greater
than critical value of chi-square distribution with appropriate
degrees of freedom.
– An important characteristic of chi-square statistic is df associated
with it. df = (r - 1) x (c -1).

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Strength of Association in Cross-Tabulation

• phi coefficient is used as a measure of strength of
association in special case of a table with two rows & two
columns (a 2 x 2 table).

χ2
φ=
n

Strength of Association in Cross-Tabulation

• While phi coefficient is specific to a 2 x 2 table,
contingency coefficient (C) can be used to assess strength
of association in a table of any size. Can be applicable to
square table.
χ2
C=
χ2 + n

• Contingency coefficient varies between 0 & 1.

• Maximum value of contingency coefficient depends on size
of table (number of rows & number of columns). For this
reason, it should be used only to compare tables of same
size.
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Strength of Association in Cross-Tabulation

• Cramer's V is a modified version of phi correlation
coefficient & is used in tables larger than 2 x 2. Can be used
for rectangle table

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φ
V=
min (r-1), (c-1)

χ2/n
V=
min (r-1), (c-1)

Exercise

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Internet Usage Data

Respondent Sex Familiarity Internet Attitude Toward Usage of Internet
Number Usage Internet Technology Shopping Banking
1 1.00 7.00 14.00 7.00 6.00 1.00 1.00
2 2.00 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 2.00 2.00
3 2.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 3.00 1.00 2.00
4 2.00 3.00 3.00 7.00 5.00 1.00 2.00
5 1.00 7.00 13.00 7.00 7.00 1.00 1.00
6 2.00 4.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 1.00 2.00
7 2.00 2.00 2.00 4.00 5.00 2.00 2.00
8 2.00 3.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 2.00 2.00
9 2.00 3.00 6.00 6.00 4.00 1.00 2.00
10 1.00 15.00 7.00 6.00 1.00 2.00
11 2.00 4.00 3.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 2.00
12 2.00 5.00 4.00 6.00 4.00 2.00 2.00
13 1.00 6.00 9.00 6.00 5.00 2.00 1.00
14 1.00 6.00 8.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
15 1.00 6.00 5.00 5.00 4.00 1.00 2.00
16 2.00 4.00 3.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 2.00
17 1.00 6.00 9.00 5.00 3.00 1.00 1.00
18 1.00 4.00 4.00 5.00 4.00 1.00 2.00
19 1.00 7.00 14.00 6.00 6.00 1.00 1.00
20 2.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 4.00 2.00 2.00
21 1.00 6.00 9.00 4.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
22 1.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 4.00 2.00 1.00
23 2.00 3.00 2.00 4.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
24 1.00 7.00 15.00 6.00 6.00 1.00 1.00
25 2.00 6.00 6.00 5.00 3.00 1.00 2.00
26 1.00 6.00 13.00 6.00 6.00 1.00 1.00
27 2.00 5.00 4.00 5.00 5.00 1.00 1.00
28 2.00 4.00 2.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
29 1.00 4.00 4.00 5.00 3.00 1.00 2.00
30 1.00 3.00 3.00 7.00 5.00 1.00 2.00

Case Problem
• To find out frequency distribution of Familiarity with
Internet among sample.

• To find out
– Mean, Median & Mode;
– Standard deviation; &
– Skewness & Kurtosis of Familiarity rating with Internet
among sample.

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Case Problem: Cross Tabulation

• To make cross-table of gender and internet usage

• To find out
– Whether there is any association between theses
variables or not

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Parametric Test

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A Broad Classification of Hypothesis Tests

Hypothesis Tests

Tests of Tests of
Association Differences

Median/
Distributions Means Proportions Rankings

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Hypothesis Testing Related to Differences

• Parametric tests assume that variables of interest are
measured on at least on interval scale.
• Nonparametric tests assume that variables are measured on
a nominal or ordinal scale.

• Tests can be further classified based on whether one or two or more

samples are involved.
• Samples are independent if they are drawn randomly from different
populations.
• Samples are paired when the data for the two samples relate to the
same group of respondents.

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Snapshot of Hypothesis Testing for Difference

Hypothesis Tests

Parametric Tests Non-parametric Tests

(Metric Tests) (Nonmetric Tests)

One Sample Two or More One Sample Two or More

Samples Samples
* t test * Chi-Square
* Z test * K-S
* Runs
* Binomial

Independent Paired
Samples Independent Paired
Samples
Samples Samples
* Two-Group t * Paired
test t test * Chi-Square * Sign
* Z test * Mann-Whitney * Wilcoxon

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Parametric Test
• One Sample Test
• Two independent Sample test
• Paired Sample test

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One Sample Test

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Internet Usage Data

Respondent Sex Familiarity Internet Attitude Toward Usage of Internet
Number Usage Internet Technology Shopping Banking
1 1.00 7.00 14.00 7.00 6.00 1.00 1.00
2 2.00 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 2.00 2.00
3 2.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 3.00 1.00 2.00
4 2.00 3.00 3.00 7.00 5.00 1.00 2.00
5 1.00 7.00 13.00 7.00 7.00 1.00 1.00
6 2.00 4.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 1.00 2.00
7 2.00 2.00 2.00 4.00 5.00 2.00 2.00
8 2.00 3.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 2.00 2.00
9 2.00 3.00 6.00 6.00 4.00 1.00 2.00
10 1.00 15.00 7.00 6.00 1.00 2.00
11 2.00 4.00 3.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 2.00
12 2.00 5.00 4.00 6.00 4.00 2.00 2.00
13 1.00 6.00 9.00 6.00 5.00 2.00 1.00
14 1.00 6.00 8.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
15 1.00 6.00 5.00 5.00 4.00 1.00 2.00
16 2.00 4.00 3.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 2.00
17 1.00 6.00 9.00 5.00 3.00 1.00 1.00
18 1.00 4.00 4.00 5.00 4.00 1.00 2.00
19 1.00 7.00 14.00 6.00 6.00 1.00 1.00
20 2.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 4.00 2.00 2.00
21 1.00 6.00 9.00 4.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
22 1.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 4.00 2.00 1.00
23 2.00 3.00 2.00 4.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
24 1.00 7.00 15.00 6.00 6.00 1.00 1.00
25 2.00 6.00 6.00 5.00 3.00 1.00 2.00
26 1.00 6.00 13.00 6.00 6.00 1.00 1.00
27 2.00 5.00 4.00 5.00 5.00 1.00 1.00
28 2.00 4.00 2.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
29 1.00 4.00 4.00 5.00 3.00 1.00 2.00
30 1.00 3.00 3.00 7.00 5.00 1.00 2.00

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Problem: One Sample Test

• To test whether the familiarity with internet is high (>4) or
not.

• We can use one sample t-test or Z-test, depending on situation.

• Result will show whether the familiarity with internet is high

or not for the sample.

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Problem: One Sample Test

One-Sample Statistics
Std. Error
N Mean Std. Deviation Mean
Familiarity 29 4.72 1.579 .293

One-Sample Test

Test Value = 4

95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Mean
t Df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Lower Upper
Familiarity 2.470 28 .020 .724 .12 1.32

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Two Independent Sample Test

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Problem: Two Independent Sample Test

• To test Whether the mean of familiarity with internet for
male & female is different or same,

• We can use two independent sample t-test or Z-test,

depending on situation.

• Result will show whether familiarity with internet is same or

different for male & female.

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Two Independent Sample Test

• In the case of means for two independent samples, the
hypotheses take the following form.

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Two Independent Sample Test: Variance Test

• An F test of sample variance may be performed if it is not
known whether the two populations have equal variance. In
this case, hypotheses are:

H0: 2 = 2
1 2

H1: 2 2
1 2

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Two Independent Sample Test

Group Statistics

Std. Error
Sex N Mean Std. Deviation
Mean

Male 14 5.71 1.267 .339

Familiarity
Female 15 3.80 1.265 .327

Independent Samples Test

Levene's Test for
t-test for Equality of Means
Equality of Variances
95% Confidence
Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error Interval of the
F Sig. t df Difference
tailed) Difference Difference
Lower Upper
Equal
variances .015 .902 4.070 27 .000 1.914 .470 .949 2.879
assumed
Familiarity
Equal
variances 4.070 26.857 .000 1.914 .470 .949 2.880
not assumed

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