LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020 1

LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020 2

 LIVESTOCK LINE
VOL.14 ISSUE 3 JULY 2020

˝…’yékÕºø˘ ˝…’Hé
Editor : B. SHIV SHANKAR
Associate Editor : B. KALYAN KUMAR

TECHNICAL EDITORIAL BOARD

Dr. P.K. Shukla, Jt.Commissioner Poultry, G.O.I., New Delhi.
Dr. V. RAMA SUBBA REDDY, Retd. Professor, Agrl. Uni. Hyd.
Dr. D. NAGALAKSHMI, Asst. Professor, S.V.V.U. Hyderabad.
Dr. S.T. VIROJI RAO, Sr. Scientist, AGB, S.V.V.U. Hyderabad.
Dr. M. KISHAN KUMAR, Sr. Scientist, S.V.V.U. Hyderabad.
Dr. M. KOTESWARA RAO, Vet. Asst. Surgeon, RAHTC, KMNR.
Dr. P.K. SINGH, Asst. Prof. (A.N.), Bihar Vet. College Patna.
Dr. S. NANDI, Sr. Scientist, CADRAD, IVRI, Izatnagar, U.P.
Dr. INDRANIL SAMANTA, Lecturer (Micro), WBUAFS, Kolkata.
Dr. M. KAWATRA, Sr. Manager-Bayer Animal Health, Thane (W), Mumbai.
Dr. DEVENDRA S VERMA, Tech. Mgr, Biomin Singapore B'lore.
Dr. R.K.S. BAIS, Sr. Scientist, CARI, Izatnagar, Bareilly.
Dr. VIJAY KUMAR M, Asst. Prof., Vet. College Bidar.
Dr. MD MOIN ANSARI, Asst. Prof., SKUAST, Srinagar, J&K.
Dr. AZMAT ALAM KHAN, Asst. Prof., SKUAST, Srinagar, J&K.
Dr. S K MUKHOPADHAYAY, Asst. Prof., (Vety Pathology) WBUAFS, Kolkata.
Dr. SUBHA GANGULY, Scientist, AICRP-PHT, Kolkata Centre.
Dr. AIJAZ AHMED DAR, Ph.D. Scholar, IVRI, Izatnagar, Bareilly.
Dr. SARADA PRASANNA SAHOO, Ph.D. Scholar, IVRI, Izatnagar.
Dr. SHRIKANT KATOLE MVSc, Ph.D.(A.N.) Asst. Prof., Anand Agri. University
Dr. RAKESH ROY, Ph.D, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya,Kalimpong,W.B.
Dr. PRASANNA PAL, PhD Scholar, Animal Physiology, ICAR- NDRI, Karnal.
INDEX OF ADVERTISEMENTS
1. Alembic Pharmaceuticals Ltd.
2. India Poultry Expo Title Cover II
CONTENTS
1. Approaches to Veterolegal ..... in field condition
- K.P. Prabhakaran .................................................. 4-5
2. Mycoplasma .....reproductive health of cattle
- Sabarinath T ....................................................... 6-11
3. Clinical uses of hormones ..... in Bovines
- M.Palanisamy .................................................... 12-17
4. Livestock animal diseases .... Investigations
- R.Sridevi ........................................................... 18-21
5. Problems and Remedy ..... and Management
- Suraj Amrutkar .................................................. 22-26
6. Bovine Neosporosis: an update
- Prafullata Bashetti ............................................ 27-29
7. Zoonotic diseases of cattle and its management
- Dr.G.Senthil Kumar ............................................ 30-32
8. Management of lactating buffalo .....modifications
- Dr.A.K.Wankar .................................................. 33-35
9. Taeniasis / Cysticercosis ...... health importance
III
- Angappan Madesh ........................................... 36-38

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 Approaches to Veterolegal post mortem cases
in field condition
K.P. Prabhakaran* and J.Keerthana
Cattle Breeding and Fodder Development, Tamil Nadu Animal Husbandry Department,
Thanjavur – 613 403, Tamil Nadu. *Email id – dr.prabhakaran2010@gmail.com
U
Introduction laboratory analyst to confirm the type of poison
in forensic laboratory
Post mortem examination usually plays an
important role in identifying the cause of death and 7. Always suspect for poisoning if death/illness
time since death which involves visualizing the involves many number of animals or multiple
macroscopic and microscopic lesions. A necropsy species or death in good nutritional condition.
report prepared for veterolegal cases is different It is important to find out whether the poisoning
from that of routine necropsy report but should is accidental or malicious
follow the general principles of necropsy .
8. Necropsy of wild animal should be conducted
Rules for Veterolegal Post Mortem Examination as a special case with written request from
District Forest Officer or Higher officer. It should
1. For veterolegal cases, post mortem request
be noted on the report that all the viscera
should be signed by a police officer not below
including skin, bones, teeth etc., are returned
the rank of Inspector or by Magistrate
to the person requested for the necropsy and
2. The examination should done only in day time no item should be left behind
because natural sunlight is very essential while
9. Photo documentation should be carried out
doing post mortem. Thorough and complete
during necropsy. All the lesions should be
examination of all systems in the body is
photographed and keep it for record purpose
necessary
10. If needed, experts from various disciplines can
3. History, species, breed, sex, age, nutritional
be used to perform necessary analysis. For
status, concurrent disease or injury, treatment
example, a veterinarian would not want to make
given, date and time of death and arrival of
conclusions about ballistics or projectile
carcass should be noted
character that would be better assessed by a
4. All the lesion on the external surface of the body forensic firearm specialist
should be should be carefully analysed and
11. Forensic entomology should always be
correlated with mode of death. Also note the
considered in case of veterolegal cases to find
side on which animal is lying down
out the time of death. Maggots can aid in
5. All the organs should be thoroughly examined determining location of death and provide DNA
and lesions observed should be carefully noted and toxicology evidences
on the spot. Use self knowledge and
12. After completion of post mortem examination
experience to determine the time of death such
based on correlation of all the observation
as rigor mortis, autolysis, putrefaction,
including history and different lesions try to find
pseudomelanosis etc.,
out the cause of death and compile the report
6. In case of toxicity/poisoning, try to find out and and forward it to the investigating officer as
report the type of poison in your report. This soon as possible
will help the investigating police officer/

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 13. Write the post mortem report in neat hand
writing, use non-technical terminology, try to
avoid general sentence, be specific to your
findings and your conclusions. Sign the report
with date and must keep a copy of that with
you for record and future evidences in the court
of law
14. No unauthorised person should be allowed to
be present at the time of post mortem
examination. The investigating Police Officer
may however be present. It should be
conducted as far as possible in closed
premises only
Collection, Preservation and Dispatch of
Material to Forensic laboratory
1. All the materials should be collected in leak
proof glass or plastic bottles
2. In the suspected cases of poisoning, the
stomach and intestinal contents should be sent
after proper ligation at both the ends and sent
it in ice to avoid putrefaction. Besides, sample
of blood, liver, spleen and kidneys should be
sent in separate containers
3. Tissue for histopathology should be cut in size
of 0.5 to 1 cm, placed in 10% formalin (10 times
the volume of the tissue) and sent to the
laboratory under normal temperature
4. Materials suspected for poisoning should be
sent in ice or saturated salt solution
5. The bottles or containers should be sealed and
labelled properly indicating the name of the
owner, identification of animal, type of tissue
collected and preservative used. The
examination requested and disease or
poisoning suspected should also be written.
A copy with details of post mortem report and
containing above information should be sent
separately under separate cover
6. The address of the forensic laboratory should
be clearly written
U
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7. All the containers should be packed with cloth
and sealed with sealing wax and should
preferably be sent through person in order to
avoid any breakage in transit
8. One copy of the forwarding letter should be
kept in file for future reference and one copy
should be sent by post. The forwarding letter
bearing number and date should have the
information about materials sent, type of
preservative used, type of examination
requested and identification of animals including
details of owner
Agencies through which veterinarian can be
asked to get involved in legal proceedings
1. Medico-legal: Here the veterinarians is
requested by police authorities for assisting
them in legal proceedings such as accidents,
bestiality, frauds in animals to alter their identity,
theft, adulteration in animal products, illegal
cow slaughter etc.,
2. Import and export of animal and animal by-
products: Veterinarians are employed by
private and government agencies for
maintaining the quality control in respect of
import and export of livestock and livestock
products
References
Chauhan, R.S and Prajapathi, K.S. (2007). Training
module on post-mortem examination and
veterolegal cases. Continuing Veterinary education
programmes, Veterinary Council of India.
Rajesh Singh. (2019). Rational approaches to
veterolegal cases in field. Pashudhan Praharee.
Sharma, S.N. (2010). Veterinary Jurisprudence. 6th
Edn. NBS Publisher and Distributor, India. pp.8-22.
Vijayakaran, K., Pothiappan, P and Sarathchandra,
G. (2017). Forensic Veterinary Sciences – His
master’s voice for animals. Tanuvas Technical
Reporter, 2: 1-4.
5
 Mycoplasma bovigenitalium: An emerging threat to
reproductive health of cattle
Sabarinath T1, Rajneesh Rana2, Arun T.R.2, Rekha V,2 Amol Gurav3 and Sujith Behera4
1
Clinical Bacteriological Laboratory, Division of Virology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteshwar- Uttarakhand
2
Mycoloplasma Laboratory, Division of Bacteriology & Mycology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, UP.
3
Temperate Animal Husbandry Division, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteshwar- Uttarakhand
4
Department of Epidemiology & Public Health, Central University of Tamil Nadu.
E mail: drsabari143ivri@gmail.com, rajneeshrana01@yahoo.com
U
Introduction: 862,247 bp and a G+C (%) of 28.96% contains
677 coding sequence, 24 pseudogenes, 36
M. bovigenitalium is mainly found in the
structural RNA genes and a gene density (%) of
reproductive tract of dairy cattle and buffaloes but
88.5 %. Sequences related to integrative
has also been isolated from pneumonic, arthritic
conjugative elements were found in
and mastitic cattle as well as aborted fetuses. M.
M. bovigenitalium, and a prophage, similar to that
bovigenitalium has also been associated with
described in the small ruminant pathogen M.
sporadic cases of epidydimitis, orchitis, urethritis
agalactiae, was identified in M. bovigenitalium.
and seminal vesiculitis, leading to pain on
These mobile genetic elements constitute an
ejaculation. M. bovigenitalium may impair the
important driving force of genome plasticity and may
motility of spermatozoa. M. bovigenitalium has
be associated with horizontal gene transfer among
been found worldwide, being reported from
Mycoplasma species sharing the same habitat.
countries such as UK, USA, Egypt, India, Germany,
Austria, Croatia, Brazil, Denmark, Nigeria, Italy Growth Characteristics:
Japan, Turkey, The Netherlands, Switzerland, South
Three Indian buffalo isolates of M. bovigenitalium
Africa, France, Canada and Morocco. In U.S.A., M.
isolated from various reproductive disorders of
bovigenitalium along with the M. bovis and M.
buffaloes were tested for their pathogenicity in
californicum are the three most common
buffalo oviduct organ culture. The organisms grew
Mycoplasma mastitis causative agents. In U.K., M.
well and multiplied in the organ culture and caused
bovigenitalium has been isolated from cattle with
histopathological lesions including degenerative
reduced fertility, endometritis (‘whites’) and granular
and necrotic changes in the glandular epithelium
vulvitis, from semen samples and from the
leading to complete desquamation of mucosal
respiratory tract. Mycoplasma serogroup 11 strains
epithelium. Thus, buffalo oviduct organ culture
are very similar to M. bovigenitalium and causes
proved to be a useful economic model for
reproductive problems in sheep and goats.
assessing the pathogenicity of M. bovigenitalium.
Proposals have been made to amalgamate these
two mycoplasmas into a single species called M. Surface Proteome:
bovigenitalium. SDS-PAGE protein profiles were essentially
Genomic Characteristics: identical for ten of M. bovigenitalium strains and
seven Mycoplasma serogroup 11 strains. The
The type strain is M. bovigenitalium ATCC 19852.
principal protein bands in all cases were of Mwt 30,
M. bovigenitalium shares an antigen with M
40, 45, 50, 75, 86 and 94 kDa. The anomalous M.
columbinasale which has been demonstrated by
bovigenitalium strain was 102B00, which showed
Double ImmunoDiffusion. The genome of M.
a different profile with few of its bands common to
bovigenitalium 51080 which has a genome size of
the other strains. Comparative protein profiles with

LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020 6

 five other Mycoplasma species showed that the M. is commonly isolated from mastitic milk and udder
bovigenitalium type strain and the Mycoplasma secretions. M. bovigenitalium has been isolated
serogroup 11 reference strain were very similar to from the respiratory tract of pneumonic calves but
each other, but differed from other five Mycoplasma not from healthy calves. M. bovigenitalium was
species viz M. agalactiae NCTC 10123; M. arginini isolated from the joints of arthritic cattle but was
NCTC 10129; 4, M. ovipneumoniae NCTC 10151; thought not to be a primary cause. M.
5, M. alkalescens NCTC 10135; 6, and M. bovis bovigenitalium has also been isloated from ewes
NCTC 10131.Hence, a proposal to classify M. with vaginal discharge and swollen vulvas. M.
bovigenitalium and ovine/caprine serogroup 11 as bovigenitalium and M. canis were isolated from
a single species since the strains of M. dogs with and without reproductive disorders,
bovigenitalium and the Mycoplasma serogroup 11 suggesting they played little role in disease.
strains were indistinguishable in their SDS–PAGE
Clinical Conditions associated with M.
whole-cell protein profiles.
bovigenitalium:
Indian Scenario:
There are several clinical manifestations of
In Haryana, 135 cows (85 with reproductive infections associated with M. bovigenitalium
disorders (15 abortion/stillbirth, 17 metritis, 6 infection. The commonly encountered reproductive
cervicitis, 25 repeat breed, 22 anoestrus) and 50 failure in dairy cows includes abortions,
apparently healthy) were tested for M. endometritis and granular vulvovaginitis/Nodular
bovigenitalium infection by indirect-ELISA. M. Venereal disease. In breeding bulls, balanoposthitis,
bovigenitalium specific ELISA-titre (e”1:160) was seminal vesiculitis, orchitis and epididymitis were
detected in 30 out of 85 (35.3%) diseased and 11
out of 50 (22%) apparently healthy cows. A higher
percentage of cows with anoestrus (45.55%) and
abortion/stillbirth (80%) were positive for M.
bovigenitalium ELISA-Ab when compared with
repeat breeders, cervicitis and metritis cases (16
to 17.64%).
Epidemiology:
M. bovigenitalium is commonly found in semen
samples or sheath washings from cattle, often
along with A. laidlawii, Ureaplasma species and M.
bovis. Experimental infections with artificially
contaminated semen have shown that it can be
isolated easily from washed embryos, where it
forms a close association with the surface of the
zona pellucida, intact embryos and sperm cells.
M. bovigenitalium was isolated from dairy herds
with vulvovaginitis and infertility. In an outbreak of
granulomatous vulvitis in feedlot heifers, M.
bovigenitalium was isolated along with bovine
herpesvirus type 1, Moraxella bovis and M. bovis, Figure 1: PCR amplification of P33 gene of
suggesting a multifactorial aetiology. M. Mycoplasma bovigenitalium. Lane 1: 879-bp PCR
bovigenitalium, like M. bovis and M. californicum, amplicon, Lane M: 100-bp DNA ladder (Fermentas)

LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020 7

 reported due to M. bovigenitalium. M bovigenitalium
has also been implicated in septic arthritis in calves,
outbreaks of keratoconjunctivitis and
bronchopneumonia in calves.
Abortion:
In South Africa, the isolation of 917 Mycoplasma
isolates from 4,092 specimens originating from
2,874 cattle in private herds and at AI stations
revealed that M. bovigenitalium was the most
common isolate which was recovered from 47%
of females, 25% of aborted foetuses and 11% of
placentas.
Endometritis:
In Japan, the uterus of 209 postpartum Holstein
dairy cows from three dairy farms was examined
at Weeks 5 and 7 postpartum. M. bovigenitalium
was detected in twenty-four cows (eight cows at
Week 5, nine cows at Week 7, and seven cows at
both Weeks 5 and 7). The incidence of cytologic
endometritis was higher (P < 0.05) in M.
bovigenitalium positive (8/16; 50%) than in
mycoplasma negative (47/193; 24.4%) cows at
Week 7. Thus, M. bovigenitalium infection in the
Figure 2: Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis of purified p33 protein.
Lane M: pre-stained protein marker, Lanes 1–6: purified recombinant protein p33, elutes E1 to E6
LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
uterus might be associated with cytologic
endometritis in postpartum dairy cows.
Vulvovaginitis:
In Israel, a syndrome was reported in which white
foci and granulopustular lesions were present on
the vaginal mucous membranes of Holstein cows
in several dairy herds. During clinical and diagnostic
investigations, M. bovigenitalium was isolated from
11 of 20 clinical cases. In Iran, M. bovigenitalium
has been associated with granular vulvovaginitis
(Nodular Venereal disease) in cattle. In Italy, an
infertility syndrome was described in a dairy cattle
herd where cattle presenting vulvovaginitis required
at least four attempts of artificial insemination (AI)
to become pregnant. Diagnostic tests carried out
for infectious agents that could affect the
reproductive system were negative except for M.
bovigenitalium which was isolated from vaginal
swabs.
Balanoposthitis:
In Poland, M. bovigenitalium plays a role in the
pathogenesis of balanoposthitis in free living
European bison (Bison bonasus) in the Bialowieza
8
 Primeval Forest. The evidence for the primary
involvement of M. bovigenitalium in the chronic
necrotizing inflammation process of the penis and
prepuce is supported by conventional culture and
molecular detection by PCR. Prevalence of
antibodies against M. bovigenitalium detected by
Western blot analysis was significantly higher in
bison with balanoposthitis than in unaffected male
bison.
Seminal Vesiculitis:
The first isolation of M. bovigenitalium was reported
from a yearling bull with chronic seminal vesiculitis.
It has been repeatedly shown that this organism is
capable of producing seminal vesiculitis when
inoculated into seminal vesicules. Mycoplasmal
seminal vesiculitis is characterized by a moderate
to marked enlargement of the glands and presence
of pus in semen. The cut surface of the gland is
dry and brownish in colour with sparse secretion
presenting itself as honey like drops. Histologically,
the gland sections show areas of fibrosis, epithelial
atrophy adjacent to parts with oedema and
extensive accumulation of eosinophils or
histiocytes and plasma cells.
Orchitis and Epididymitis:
Experimental orchitis and epididymitis following
inoculation of M. bovigenitalium into testis have
been reported. Histologically, in the sections of the
head of the epididymis, lymphocystic foci of varying
size and necrotizing vasculitis in the sections of
the coiled portions of the vas deferens sections
were found. Severe lymphoid hyperplasia in the rete
testis is also observed. In sections of the testis
and epididymis, eosinophilic cells are often seen.
Mycoplasma is usually shed in the semen and thus
the possibility of its transmission and effect on
bovine fertility has been considered.
Mastitis:
In Great Britain, M. bovigenitalium was isolated
from milk samples from 16 of 99 cows on one farm
in which 1 cow was severely affected, 4 cows had
relatively mild signs of mastitis, and 3 had only
LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
altered dry-cow udder secretions. The udder
infections with mycoplasmas apparently resolved
without resorting to the segregation and culling of
infected animals. In Egypt, M. bovigenitalium
isolation was done from 59 out of 107 cows suffering
from clinical mastitis in a herd of 470 highly milking
cows. A comparison between M. bovigenitalium
isolation and demonstration of specific antibodies
in blood serum and milk whey of clinical mastitis
animals was carried out using different
serodiagnostic tests. In general, surface film-
inhibition phenomena was higher demonstrable in
milk whey (75.70) than in the serum (36.44%) of
the same animals. Moreover growth-precipitation
antibodies were shown to be somewhat higher in
milk whey (56.07%) than in the serum (52.33%).
The intramammary infection caused by
Mycoplasma bovigenitalium was also reported in
a 7-week old Holstein calf affecting the right rear
mammary gland. This case report demonstrates
that mycoplasma mastitis can occur in pre-weaned
calves, which could play a role in the epidemiology
of mycoplasma mastitis in dairy herds.
Arthritis: Septic arthritis of the left tarsus was
reported in a 7-week old Holstein calf whose left
tarsus was distended, hot and painful, and had a
reduced range of motion. Marked muscle atrophy
was observed on the affected limb.
Keratoconjunctivitis:
In Croatia, a sudden-onset outbreak of ocular
disease with profuse lacrimation was reported in
two separate herds of fattening calves. The disease
resembled the early stage of infectious bovine
keratoconjunctivitis but after a few days the clinical
signs of bronchopneumonia appeared. From
conjunctival swabs, M. bovigenitalium, M.
bovirhinis and infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR)
virus were isolated. Moraxella bovis infection was
not established.
Pneumonia:
In Australia, M bovigenitalium was first isolated from
the lung of a calf with bronchopneumonia. In Italy,
M bovigenitalium was isolated from 7.5% of calves
9
 with pneumonia on 42 farms between 1975 and
1977. Because of the proven pathogenicity of M.
bovigenitalium for cattle, the possibility that it may
occasionally be involved in pneumonia should be
considered. The pathogenicity of M. bovigenitalium
(strain M991/70) was tested by inoculating cultures
intratracheally into gnotobiotic calves. M.
bovigenitalium (strain M991/70) induced pneumonic
lesions estimated to involve up to 8 percent of the
lung. Histologically M. bovigenitalium produced a
cuffing pneumonia.
Diagnosis:
Serological tests: Several disease investigators
used serology as a means of elucidating the
possible etiological significance of the presence of
M. bovigenitalium in genital tract diseases of dairy
cattle and breeding bulls.
Immunofluorescence:
Fluorescent antibody technique was used to identify
4 M. bovigenitalium isolates from the genital tracts
of 96 culled dairy cows. All isolations were made
from vaginal swabs, except in one case of pyometra
where M. bovigenitalium was isolated concurrently
from the uterus and vagina, along with Pasteurella
hemolyticum. These results suggest that M.
bovigenitalium may be found in the cervico-vaginal
flora of cattle but are rarely isolated from the uterine
environment.
Indirect Hemagglutination Test:
Bulls experimentally infected with M. bovigenitalium
showed a significant serological response with
maximum titers of antibody as early as 12 days
after inoculation as measured by indirect
hemagglutination test. The indirect
hemagglutination test revealed high titers of
antibody in serum of most bulls from bull stations
in Denmark and Luxembourg. Thus, it was
concluded that indirect hemagglutination was useful
in estimating the incidence of infection with
mycoplasmas in bulls from artificial breeding
stations. For diagnostic purposes, use of the indirect
hemagglutination test is largely restricted to young
LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
bulls and on condition that the first blood sample is
drawn very early in the course of the disease.
Growth inhibition test:
Growth-inhibition antibody activity against M.
bovigenitalium was relatively higher in serum
(77.57%) than whey (70.09%).
Agar gel precipitation test and Disc growth
inhibition test:
In India, serological characterization of M.
bovigenitalium and A. laidlawii using agar gel
precipitation test and disc growth inhibition test was
performed. On disc growth inhibition test, inhibition
of the growth of M. bovigenitalium and A. laidlawii
was observed with homologous antisera but not
with heterologous antisera. Similarly, on AGPT
precipitin lines were revealed with FT and WC
antigens with homologous antisera but not with
heterologous antisera.
Dot-ELISA:
In Egypt, Dot ELISA was used to estimate the
incidence of M. bovigenitalium in cows and
buffaloes and the seroprevalence was reported to
be 13.3% and 10% respectively in 555 cows and
140 buffalo samples screened from different
Egyptian governorates. The Dot-ELISA was
supported by results obtained from Immuno
blotting, growth inhibition test as well as by PCR.
Western blotting: In Poland, the prevalence of
antibodies detected against M. bovigenitalium by
Western blot analysis was significantly higher in
bison with balanoposthitis than in unaffected male
bison in the Bialowieza Primeval Forest.
Recombinant Protein based serodiagnostics:
Expression of P33 antigen of M. bovigenitalium was
attempted in Escherichia cloni 10G cells as a Small
Ubiquitin-like Modifier (SUMO) tagged recombinant
protein and its immunogenicity was assessed by
both dot blot and western blot analyses. The
expressed recombinant protein was found to be
immunogenic against hyperimmune sera raised
against whole-cell sonicated antigen of M.
10

Figure 3: Western blot analysis of the purified p33
protein against hyperimmune sera. Lane M: pre-
stained protein marker, Lane 1: western blot of
recombinant p33 protein
bovigenitalium indicating the potential use of this
recombinant antigen in immunodiagnostics such
as ELISA for serodiagnosis of M. bovigenitalium
infection.
Molecular tests:
Polymerase Chain Reaction:
PCR and Conventional culture were used as
evidence to support the primary involvement of
M. bovigenitalium in the chronic necrotizing
inflammation process of the penis and prepuce of
male bison in the Bialowieza Primeval Forest,
Poland. In Japan, M. bovigenitalium was detected
in 31 of the 418 uterine swabs (7.4%) using a novel
and rapid polymerase chain reaction while
investigating the incidence of Mycoplasma infection
in the uterus of postpartum Holstein dairy cows and
its relationship to the occurrence of endometritis.
Nested PCR:
In California, U.S.A., a nested polymerase chain
reaction was developed for the detection of various
Mycoplasmas from bovine mastitis infections.
Species uniquely distinguished by either flank or
nested product size were M. bovigenitalium, M.
bovis, M. canadense, M. californicum and M.
alkalescens species that are commonly
encountered in mastitic milk.
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LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
Real-time PCR:
In U.S.A., a real-time PCR assay was developed
with improved sensitivity and the capacity to
simultaneously speciate the 3 most common
Mycoplasma mastitis agents: M. bovigenitalium, M.
bovis and M. californicum. Using a cycle threshold
of 37, the detection limits for real-time PCR were
10 copies of DNA template for both M.
bovigenitalium and M. bovis and 1 copy for M.
californicum.
Treatment:
For reproductive disorders, only two antibiotics,
nourseothricin and lincospectin were effective in
eliminating M. bovigenitalium without adversely
affecting the semen. In a study conducted in U.K.
herds, 11 M. bovigenitalium isolates were tested
in vitro to assess their sensitivity to 20 different
antimicrobials using a broth dilution method. The
results showed that tilmicosin, clindamycin,
oxytetracyclines and fluoroquinalones were
effective in vitro but all strains were resistant or
developing resistance to spectinomycin,
chloramphenicol and lincomycin. In Italy, 10 M.
bovigenitalium infected heifers which were treated
daily with tylosin following the manufacturer’s
dosing regimen became pregnant within a
maximum of two AI procedures.
Prevention and Control:
The only feasible and practical means of control
should be directed towards ensuring that
mycoplasma-free semen is used for artificial
insemination. Batches of frozen sperm should be
tested for contamination by mycoplasmas using
cultural techniques and PCR. Testing the preputial
washings of individual bulls may also be effective.
To prevent the introduction of disease, purchase of
cows should be restricted to herds free of mastitis.
Testing of bulk milk tanks should also be undertaken
from all herds of origin prior to purchase. Once
infection is detected in a herd, infected cows should
be segregated from non-infected animals and
culling is done as antibiotic treatment is rarely
effective for M. bovigenitalium infections.
11
 Clinical uses of hormones to augment fertility in Bovines
M.Palanisamy1, S.Raja*2, S.Manokaran2, V.Prabaharan2 and R.Rajkumar2
1
Professor and Head, 2 Assistant Professor, Department of Veterinary Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Veterinary
College and Research Institute, Orathanadu - 614 625
Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University
*argoraja@gmail.com
U
Hormones are chemical substances secreted by I. Based on their chemical structure
the endocrine glands directly into the bloodstream. hormones are classified into
Through the blood, these hormones will reach their
a) Proteins b) Steroids c) Fatty acids
target organs to stimulate or inhibit specific
physiological functions. The site of productionof the a. Proteins
hormones is different and the site of action is It is a Small molecule of few amino acids
different. Even though there are different hormones joined by peptide bonds. Proteins or
in the bloodstream, they will act only on the specific polypeptide hormones have molecular
target organ. Reproductive hormones are secreted weight of 300 to 70,000 Daltons and are
by various organs in the body like hypothalamus, easily broken down by enzymes. these
pituitary, ovary, uterus etc. and are commercially hormones must be administered by
available in the market. Several companies are injections only.
producing hormones for clinical uses in animals.
b. Steroids
The reproductive hormones are of practically
important ones in enhancing fertility in female Steroids have a molecular weight of 300 to
animals thereby increasing the economy of the 400 Daltons. Natural steroids are not
farmer. India ranks first in milk production in the effective by oral administration. Synthetic
world with high animal population. At the same time, and plant steroids can be administered
infertility problems like repeat breeder, anestrous, orally and by injection
cystic ovary etc also higher among the animals in c. Fatty acids
our country. They can be better and effectively
Fatty acids have a molecular weight of
treated with hormonal therapy. The reproductive
approximately 400 Daltons and can be
hormones can also be used in modern dairy farms
administered by injection.
for synchronization of estrus and ovulation.
Hormones are not only useful in gynaeco-clinical II. Glandular origin
cases; they are equally useful in handling obstetrical
Reproductive hormones originate from the
cases. The present paper briefs about the overview
hypothalamus, pituitary, gonads, uterus and
of reproductive hormones in handling various types
placenta
of gynecological and obstetrical cases with their
practical use. a. Hypothalamic hormones
1. GnRH
Classification of hormones
2. Oxytocin
The reproductive hormones are classified into three
types based on b. Pituitary reproductive hormones
1. Chemical structure 1. FSH
2. Glandular origin 2. LH
3. Mode of action 3. Prolactin

LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020 12

 • Gonadotrophins: Hormones released by the
gonadotroph cells of the anterior pituitary and
stimulate gonads. eg. FSH and LH
• Sexual promoters (Steroids): Produced by the
gonads of both male and female to stimulate
the reproductive tract, to regulate function of
hypothalamus and anterior pituitary and to
regulate reproductive behaviour. eg.
Progesterone, Estrogen and Testosterone
• Pregnancy maintenance hormones: are
responsible for maintenance of pregnancy. eg.
Progesterone
• General metabolic hormones: promote
metabolic wellbeing. eg. Thyroxin, adrenal
corticoids and somatotrophin.
c. Gonadal Hormones
• Luteolytic hormones: cause destruction of the
Ovarian Hormones
corpus luteum.eg. PGF2á
1. Estrogen
2. Progesterone 1. Hypothalamic Hormones
3. Relaxin
4. Inhibin
5. Oxytocin
Testicular hormones
1. Testosterone and Other Androgens
2. Inhibin
3. Estrogens
d. Uterine Hormone
1. Prostaglandins
e. Placental Hormone
1. PMSG
2. hCG
3. Placental Lactogen
4. Estrogen
5. Progesterone
III. Based on Mode of Action a. GnRH
• Neurohormones : Synthesized by neurons and Also referred to as LHRH, Decapeptide Contains
released directly into the blood and cause 10 amino acids, Release of GnRH is controlled by
response in a target tissue. eg. Oxytocin. negative and positive feedback mechanism from
• Releasing hormones: Synthesized by neurons gonads and pituitary.
in hypothalamus and cause release of Physiological Functions: It act on the anterior
hormones from pituitary. eg. GnRH. pituitary gland causes the release of FSH and LH

LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020 13

 Clinical Uses: Intramuscular administration of • Post-partumhemorrhage
synthetic analogue of GnRH Buserelin acetate @10 • Uterine inertia
µg as a total for the following conditions • Retained fetal membrane
• Inducing the milk letdown
• Ovulatory Defects such as delayed ovulation
• Induction of foaling in Mare
and anovulation.
• Induction of whelping
• In improving conception rate in repeat breeders
Dose: Slow intravenous administration of 50-60 I.U
• Synchronization of ovulation/follicular wave for cow, 60-100 I.U for Mare and 15-20 I.U for small
Intramuscular administration of synthetic analogue animals
of GnRH Buserelin acetate @20 µg as a total dose II. Pituitary Hormones
for the following conditions
• Induction of estrus in anoestrus animals
• Cystic ovarian Degeneration
2.Oxytocin
Greek word - means ‘rapid birth ‘
It is a nano peptidehormone. Synthesized at
supraoptic and paraventricular nucleus of the
hypothalamus & released into the blood from the
posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. It is also
secreted from the large luteal cells of Corpus
luteum.Half-life of typically about three minutes
Functions
• Causes contraction of oviduct and thus involved a. FSH
in transport of male and female gametes to the
It is a glycoprotein and a half-life of FSH is 2-2.5
site of fertilization in oviduct
hours
• Estrogen enhances responsiveness of smooth
Physiological Functions
muscle to oxytocin
• Stimulates growth and maturation of the
• Contraction of myometrium to facilitate the
graafian follicle in the ovary
parturition process. At the end of the first stage
of parturition fetal extremities to touches the • Responsible for spermatogenesis up to
cervix leads to continuous release of oxytocin secondary spermatocytes
leads to myometrial contraction i.e. called • Interacts with receptors on the Sertoli cells to
Fergusion’s reflex cause the production of Androgen Binding
• Contraction of Myoepithelial cells leads to milk Protein (ABP)
let down • Secretion of inhibin from granulose cells of
• Ovarian oxytocin is involved in luteal function ovary and Sertoli cells in testes
by acting on the endometrium of the uterus to • Pituitary output of FSH in woman increases
induce PGF‚ ásynthesis and PGF‚ á reaches tremendously due to the lack of steroid output.
the ovary by vascular counter current mechan- Increased FSH output passes through the
ism which causes lysis of corpus luteum. kidney and goes directly to the urine and is
Clinical applications
LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020 14
 called Human menopausal gonadotrophin
(HMG)
Clinical uses
• Anestrus
• Superovulation in embryo transfer programme,
Dose: 28-40mgi/m
• Estrus synchronization in goats
b. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Also called Luteotrophin or Interstitial Cell
Stimulating Hormone (ICSH). Glycoprotein
composed of alpha and beta subunit with a
molecular weight of 30,000 Daltons. Half-life of LH
is 30 minutes, shorter than that of FSH (2-2.5
hours) or hCG (24 hours)
Functions
• Tonic or basal levels of LH act in conjunction
with FSH to induce estrogen secretion from the
large graafian follicle.
• Preovulatory LH surge causes rupture of follicle
and ovulation.
• LH is the major luteotrophic substance
(maintains activity of corpus luteum).
• Stimulates interstitial cells (Leydig cells) in male
to produce androgens
• Following ovulation, luteal cells secrete
progesterone in response to LH
• Stimulates thecal cellsto produce precursors
to estrogen
Clinical uses
Ovulatory defects
• Cystic ovary –Intra muscular injection of hCG
@ 3000 IU
Intra muscular injection of hCG @ 1500 IU
• Delayed ovulation
• Anovulation
• To improve the libido in bulls
For maintenance of corpus luteum in
• Early embryonic mortality
LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
c. Prolactin
• Polypeptide hormone containing 198 aa and a
molecular weight of 24, 000 Daltons.
• Prolactin molecules are similar in structure to
growth hormone and in some sp. have similar
biologic properties.
Functions
• Prolactin initiates and maintains lactation.
• It is considered as a gonadotropic hormone
because of its leutrotropic properties in bitches
and rodents. However in domestic animals, LH
is the major luteotropic hormone.
• Prolactin may mediate the seasonal and
lactational effects on reproduction in farm
animals.
III. Gonadal hormones
a. Estrogen
• Estradiol 17â is primary estrogen
• Produced by granulosa cells of the ovarian
follicle
• Synthesized from cholesterol
• Estradiol cypionate (ECP) - esterified estrogen,
more potent, has longer half-life
Physiological functions
• Along with progesterone it act on the central
nervous system responsible for the Sexual
receptivity and behavioral signs of estrus in the
female (estrus)
• Responsible for the secondary sexual
characteristics.
• Induce ductal development in the mammary
gland.
• Necessary for normal development and
function of the female reproductive tract
• It stimulates the uterine defense mechanism
by increases the leucocytic migration from the
circulatory system into uterus
• It controls the levels of gonadotrophic
hormones release by negative and positive
feedback mechanism.
15
 Clinical uses
• Used in Synchronization Protocols
• Misalliance in bitches
• Fetal mummification
• Postpartum metritis and retained fetal
membranes
• Used as growth promoters in beef cattle
• In treating male dogs with prostatic hyperplasia
Dose: Bovine: Intra muscular administration of 2mg
of estradial benzoate
Bitches:
• Estrodialprogynon depot @ 0.1 to 1mg i/m
Estradiol cypionate: 0.5-1 mg once within 3
days of mismating
E. benzoate: 0.5-3.0 mg every other day for 3
days from 4-10 days of mismating
E. valerate: 3-7 mg once 4-10 days after
mismating
Side effects
• Prolonged use or large doses can produce
cystic ovaries or ovarian atrophy
• Estrogens predispose to prolapse of the vagina
and rectum and dislocations and fractures of
the pelvic bones
• In the dog excessive amounts or prolonged
administration of estrogens can produce a fatal
anemia - leukopenia and thrombocytopenia
• In some species the estrogens may increase
the incidence of cystic endometrial hyperplasia
- pyometra complex
CIDR and TRIU B protocols
LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
b. Progesterone
• Source: Small and large luteal cells of CL and
Placenta
Physiological functions
• It stimulates the hypertrophy and secretion of
the endometrial glands to nourish the early
developing embryos. The glandular secretion
is known as uterine milk
• Responsible for maintenance of pregnancy
• Progesterone causes growth of the lobular
system of the mammary gland
• It controls the myometrial contractions-
myometrial block
• By negative feedback it acts on the
hypothalamus inhibits the secretion of GnRH
Clinical uses
• To improve conception in repeaters
• Cystic ovarian Degeneration
• Induction of estrus in anestrus condition
• Synchronization of estrus
• Threatened abortions and habitual abortions
Clinical uses:
• To improve conception in repeaters
• Cystic ovarian Degeneration
• Induction of estrus in anestrus condition
• Synchronization of estrus
• Threatened abortions and habitual abortions
Dose: Intramuscular injection of 500mg of hydroxy
progesterone
16

Progesterone impregnated intravaginal insert
@1.38g Easy bred Zoetis
III. Fatty acids -Prostaglandins
• Prostaglandins - first discovered and isolated
from the prostatic fluid of human semen in the
1930s
• Prostaglandins unlike hormones - work right
within the cells where they are synthesized
• Precursor- fatty acid, arachidonic acid
Physiological functions
• It regulates the oestrous cycle length by
luteolytic action
• Stimulates contraction of the uterus to facilitate
the gamete transport in the event of fertilization
and myometrial contraction during the
parturition events.
Clinical uses
• Luteal cyst
• Synchronization of estrus and TAI
• Mummified fetus
• Uterine Infections:Endometritis, Pyometra,
Hydrometra & Mucometra
• Silent estrus or sub estrus
• Medical Termination of Pregnancy
• Induction of parturition
• Pregnancy diagnosis
• Dose: Natural PG- 25mgi/m, Synthetic PG- 500
µg i/m
• IVSM -Intra vulval sub mucosal route : Natural
PGF2a – 12.5 mg, Synthetic: 250 µg
U
LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
PG induced milk flow test
Placental Hormones
a. Pregnant Mare Serum Gonadotropin
(PMSG)
• Glycoprotein
• Both FSH and LH like activity
• FSH activity is more predominant
• PMSG has longer half-life (7 days) because
high in carbohydrate content especially the
sialic acid
• Secreted by the endometrial cups of the
pregnant mare
• Stimulates development of ovarian follicles in
mare - Some follicles may ovulate but most of
them undergo lutenisation
PMSG – Predominantly FSH like in action, used
instead of FSH for superovulation but it leaves
a greater number of anovulatory because of its
longerhalf-life.
Clinical use:
It can be used for
• superovulation programme
• Synchronization of estrus in sheep and goats
b. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)
Conclusion: The hormones are double edged
weapons. Specific hormones should be used for
specific conditions after proper diagnosis. This will
help for judicious use of hormones. In
gynaecological cases, understand the clinical
condition and select the optimum hormone to
enhance the fertility. In obstetrical cases use the
hormones after understanding the physiology of the
organ and pathology of the current situation.
17
 Livestock animal diseases and Outbreak Investigations
R.Sridevi*, Ramya Madanmohan1, SS Jacob and M. Nagalingam
ICAR-National Institute of Veterinary Epidemiology and Disease Informatics, Bengaluru.
U
Health or deviation from health is part of any human
or animal life.Occurrence of a disease in greater
than expected numbers at a particular time and
place is called as Outbreak. Disease outbreaks
occur anywhere, everywhere without any restriction
of land borders or waters borders or arial /
submarine limitations. Disease outbreaks are not
restricted to densely populated or sparsely
populated areas of animal or human population. The
magnitudes of outbreaks are called by various
names in epidemiology.
If it is a single case (sporadic )
If it is affecting a region, country, sector, etc.
(epidemic)
If it is a kind of global disease outbreak
(Pandemic)
If it is a locally occurring in regular intervals or
with seasons (endemic)
But whatever the magnitude, an outbreak is always
an alarming situation. So, next
Why do we do outbreak investigation?
To find out exact source of the disease
To understand risk factors for occurrence and
spread of disease
To learn about the disease etiology and
transmission to prevent future outbreaks.
To recommend effective early control
measures to prevent socio-economic losses
To take appropriate Control and Preventive
measures, to train the new recruits of field
veterinary officers for skill development. When
causative agent is known and mode of transmission
is also known, control will be of high priority. When
causative agent is unknown and transmission mode
is unknown, investigation will be of high priority.
In case of many endemic diseases, outbreak
investigation is overlooked. But it is not so. Although
for endemic diseases effective control measures
LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
are in place, investigation has to be carried out, to
evaluate the programs in which we look for
populations which are not taken care or left
overlooked, mainly failures in intervention strategies,
Or there is any change in causative agent or the
events.
So when start doing disease investigations, there
are steps to be followed to conclude about the
disease event. Generally, there are ten steps in
disease investigation for Human diseases or
animals diseases. There may be little variations in
following few steps.
10 Steps approach in disease Investigations
1. Prepare to investigate /identify investigation
team and resources
2. Establish existence of an outbreak
3. Verify the diagnosis
4. Define a case
5. Find cases systematically and record
information
6. Perform descriptive epidemiology
7. Develop hypotheses
8. Evaluate hypotheses/perform additional
studies as necessary
9. Implement control and preventive measures
10. Report the findings and
11. Maintain the surveillance
1. Prepare to investigate –This is the first step
to be initiated whenever there is suspicion of
outbreaks occurring in animals. involves Identifying
outbreak investigation team which comprises
(Epidemiologist, Local Veterinarian/ Medicos,
Subject Matter Specialist, Virologist, Bacteriologist,
Parasitologist, Toxicologist, Pathologist, Wildlife
Specialist, helper, attender, etc.),Review of
scientific literature, notifying appropriate state
government authorities, arranging all necessary
equipments, materials, safety measures for
investigation. Generally, In field conditions the
18
 farmer or the veterinarian might be the first person
to see the events.
2. Establish or Confirm outbreak – Generally the
disease is confirmed by clinical signs but not
authentic unless finally confirmed by laboratory
diagnosis for diseases. Many diseases have
overlapping signs/similar clinical signs.
3. Verify the diagnosis - this is the first step, it is
important to verify the diagnosis on each case
especially if clinical signs are similar to other
disease syndromes. A quick verification will help
confirm the diagnosis, and thus prevent
misinterpretation of signs & symptoms by the lay
public or a wrong diagnosis by a veterinarian.
Laboratory investigations should be used to confirm
the diagnosis wherever possible.
Tentative diagnosis based on clinical signs, Lab
diagnosis- Review Field situation with lab diagnosis,
Consider differential diagnosis, Samples sent to a
Reference Laboratory for confirmation. List signs
and symptoms and review lab diagnosis!
4 & 5. Case finding and Data Collection -
In this, first step is to construct a Working Case
Definition. It should be Simple, based on objective
criteria. Develop a case definition using these
criteria:
1. Symptoms or laboratory results
2. Time frame
3. Affected population (person)
4. Location (place)
5. Loose (sensitive) versus tight (specific) case
definition
6. Categories of certainty, e.g., confirmed,
probable, possible
If the case definition is sensitive, most cases
detected, but may be false positives.
For eg: fever –very sensitive, it will include all cases
of fever nonspecific,
When we go for specific case definition, chances
of few false positives with missed cases.
LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
Example: Case definition that requires confirmation
with PCR will be very specific – we will be confident
that those who meet that case definition actually
have the infection – but we will miss many mild
cases that are never tested, but still may be able to
spread disease.
The cases are generally classified as Suspected
case, Probable case and Confirmed case.
A possible case is usually a case with the clinical
criteria as described in the case definition without
epidemiological or laboratory evidence of the
disease in question. The definition of a possible
case has high sensitivity and low specificity. It allows
for detection of most cases but some false positives
cases will be included into this category.
A probable case is usually a case with clinical criteria
and an epidemiological link as described in the case
definition. Laboratory tests for probable cases are
specified only for some diseases.
A confirmed case should be laboratory confirmed
and may fulfill the clinical criteria or not as described
in the case definition. The definition of a confirmed
case is highly specific and less sensitive; therefore
most of the collected cases will be true cases
although some will be missed.
6. Perform descriptive epidemiology
Descriptive epidemiology used to measure the
burden of disease within a population. The 5W’s of
descriptive epidemiology include, What = health
issue of concern, Who = animals, Where = place,
When = time and Why/how = causes, risk factors,
modes of transmission.
Relate the outbreak to time, place and person.
Characterize the outbreak according to person or
animal, place or time by interviewing known or
selected cases to determine common
experiences, such as when they became ill (time),
where they became infected (place) and who they
are (person/animal).
Time – temporal patterns of disease useful to
identify the spread pattern, magnitude assessment,
time trends etc.
19
 The disease occurrence changes over time, some
changes occur regularly while others become
unpredictable. Those diseases which occur in
specified seasons can be controlled by
implementing control and preventive measures.
The diseases which are of sporadic nature, studies
can be conducted to identify the causes and modes
of spread and can develop appropriate control
measures to prevent further spread.
Epidemiologists use epidemic curve to depict the
time course of a disease outbreak or epidemic.
Histograms or line graphs are used to represent
disease occurrence over time in graphical forms.
Disease occurrence graphed by week or month
over a year or more to show its seasonal pattern.
Epidemic curve’s y-axis shows the number of
cases, while x-axis shows time as either date of
onset of symptom or date of diagnosis. Depending
on the incubation period and routes of transmission,
the scale on the x-axis can be as weeks or as
minutes. The shape and other features of an
epidemic curve can suggest hypotheses about the
time and source of exposure, mode of transmission
and causative agent.
Place –spatial patterns of disease useful to trace
the primary source of place etc,
Animal-Incidence by age, breed, location,
production system etc.
Survey Questionnaires are used to find out what is
common to all cases.
Systemic Data collection: Types of variables:
demographic, clinical, risk factors,
The basic descriptive measures in epidemiology
are incidence(which quantifies the occurrence of
new diseases among animals at risk), the mortality
(the occurrence of deaths), and the prevalence (the
proportion of animal with a certain disease at a given
point or at some point during a given period of
time).Risk describes the probability that a person
or animal will develop a disease or die within a given
time frame, and is usually derived from the
proportion of those who develop the disease among
a large group of population. To overcome the
LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
problem of competing risks, a different measure of
disease occurrence—the incidence (or
mortality) rate—has been introduced and is widely
used in epidemiology. A rate is calculated as the
number of cases that occur in a study population,
over the person time experienced by the population
followed. Unlike risk, the rate measures not the
proportion of the population that is affected, but
rather the ratio of the number of cases to the time
at risk for disease.
7. Develop hypothesis based on all the
information collected in the investigation, one or
more hypotheses is formulated to identify the
source of infection for the outbreak or outbreaks (
either by tracing back, tracing forward) and risk
factors for the outbreak. Factors identified
8. Evaluate Hypothesis - Hypothesis is evaluated
by study designs of epidemiology- such as case-
control, cohort.. , comparing the risk factors
between cases and controls.
9. Implement control and prevention measures
to prevent further spread of the disease
a. Define infected and in- contact premises
b. Implement movement control.
c. Need to reduce risk through preventive action
d. Ring Vaccination and surveillance
e. Enhanced Surveillance
f. Humane Culling
g. Disposal
10. Reporting findings – Prepare a detailed
written report describing the history of the outbreak
and the steps taken to investigate. Investigator
should state clearly and logically how evidences
were collected, examined, reasoned to come to
conclusions The report should include the results
of laboratory findings, data analysis, and any tools
like maps,charts or tables used ,detailed treatment
recommendations for the forecoming new cases
if any and also curbing measures for future
outbreaks. Communicate to state /national
authorities; educate local community for general
awareness. Documents, reports are prepared to
20
 Typical Epi Curves for Different Types of Spread
Adapted from: European Programme for Intervention Epidemiology Training [Internet]. Solna, Sweden:
Smittskyddsinstitutet [updated 2004 Sep 27; cited 2006 Sep 22]. Courtesy: CDC
develop strategies to prevent further or future
illness.
11. Maintain Surveillance - Continue surveillance
further for any escape pathogens in the reported
areas and neighbouring surrounding areas.
Factors to be considered while investigation :
There are other factors always to be remembered
while investigating like vectors, carriers, reservoirs,
any trade related issues, special ecological niches,
zoonotic potential of disease ,biosecurity measures
and biosafety practices to avoid loopholes.
Conclusion: Dealing with outbreaks and solving
them sometimes becomes a very difficult challenge
especially in cases of widespread disease. Most
of the times, the steps outlined here followed
sometimes the analytical step may become difficult
task to perform. The investigators should keep in
mind the agony experienced by the animal owners
/farmers due to the personal and financial
commitments during the disease outbreak. So to
U
LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
bring out the best out of the worst condition,
systematic approach should be followed. The
investigator should keep in mind and follow the
biosafety and biosecurity measures for the
appropriate diseases so that he should not become
a carrier for the spread of disease. Further
outbreaks of potential zoonotic nature should also
be reported to the health departments. When the
steps are followed properly, the investigation
becomes a orderly and successful one to bring out
the useful informations, facts, risk factors related
to disease to guide the stakeholders in future to
deal with the crisis conditions.
References:
1. CDC –Outbreak investigation.(website cdc.gov.)
2. OIE –Guidelines for animal disease control-May
2014
*Corresponding Author
1- Author- address: Asst.Professor, VUTRC, Dindugal,
TANUVAS.
21
 Problems and Remedy of Sheep Production and Management
Suraj Amrutkar1, Suhas Amrutkar2, Bharti Deshmukh3, Vinod Gupta4 and S. K. Gupta5
1. Scientist, Poultry Science, SKUAST-J, Jammu.
2. SMS, Animal Nutrition, Parbhani Veterinary College, Parbhani, MAFSU, Maharashtra
3. Assistant Professor, GADVASU, Punjab
4. Senior Scientist & Head, KVK Samba, SKUAST-J, Jammu
5. Professor & Librarian, Medicine Division, SKUAST-J, Jammu
U
Introduction: of their lips helps them to clean grains lost at harvest
time and thus convert waste feed into profitable
Sheeps were first
products.
domesticated by human
being, many thousands of Sheep:
years ago for their wool, Total sheep population in the country is 74.26 million
meat and skins. It provides during 2019. Total sheep has increased by 14.13
Suraj Amrutkar a source of income to the % over previous livestock census (2012). About
shepherds through sale of 13.8% of the total livestock is contributed by sheep.
wool and animal. Sheep do not need expensive Unique characteristics of sheep:
building to house them and require less labour than
• Excellent ability to survive over a prolonged
other kinds of livestock. The foundation stock is
period of drought and semi starvation.
relatively cheap and the flock can be multiplied
• Sheep have the ability to produce prime
rapidly. Sheep are economical convertor of grass
carcasses on roughage alone, thus they are
into meat and wool. Sheep will eat varied kinds of
well adapted to many areas unable to produce
plants compared to other kind of livestock. This
grain profitability.
makes them excellent weed destroyer. Unlike goats
sheep hardly damage any tree. The production of • Strong herd instinct of sheep make them
wool, meat and manure provides three different excellent ranch animals as they keep together
source of income to the shepherd. The structure in tight and easily managed flocks and do not

Table 1: Distribution of Livestock population in India:

LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020 22

 Table 2: Sheep population: Exotic/cross bred and indigenous / non-descript

Table 3: Sheep population 2012 & 2019 in Major states

disperse widely all over the available land.
Which would make it difficult to protect them
from predator and difficult to round up.
• Less prone to extreme weather conditions,
ecto-parasites as well as other diseases.
• Unique ever growing fibre of wool which allows
ventilation and also protects the skin from the
hot sun, rain and abrasion.
• Sheep can also constrict or relax blood vessels
in the face, legs and ear for control of heat loss.
• Their visual sense is exceedingly well
developed. They can discern movement for
better than humans but can not distinguish
shapes as well as man.
• Sheep do not need expensive building to house
them.
• Sheep require less labour than other kind of
livestock.
• Because of their hardiness and adaptability to
dry conditions, the north-western and

LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020 23

 peninsular regions of the country have a large
concentrate of sheep. In the tropics, they are
non seasonal breeders and can be made to
lamb throughout the year.
• Because of their close grazing nature and
ability to utilize very low set vegetation which
no other animal can utilize and their capacity
to cover long distances in search of forage and
water, they have often been generally
associated with desertification.
Advantage of sheep rearing:
• Well adopted to environment and poor
management practices.
• The meat rate of sheep is increasing day by
day.
• Average of 1-2 kids per sheep per delivery.
• Average meat recovery of 22-30 kg/goat.
• Good manual value to land.
• Multi-faceted utility: Meat, wool, skin, manure
and to some extent milk helps to play an
important role in the Indian economy.
• The production of wool, meat and manure
provides three different sources of income per
year.
• Since two major products of sheep (wool and
mutton) are entirely different in their production
and utilization, the price of one may not
necessarily have a bearing on other.
• Wool may be stored and held for higher prices
or sold at shearing time. A lambs may be
marketed from 5-6 months onward (preferably
before one year) bringing rather a quick return.
• Mutton is one kind of meat towards which there
is no prejudice by any community in India.
Every religion persons can eat it.
• In addition to wool, mutton and to some extent
milk, sheep provide employment to about 3
LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
million peoples in the form of self employment
as hired labour for tending flock during
migration and persons engaged in wool
shearing and in wool and skin processing.
• Most suitable of the small ruminants to utilize
the sparse vegetation in dry land areas through
range land management and developed
pasture.
• Unlike goats, sheep hardly damage any tree.
• Better adapted to arid and semi arid tropics
with marginal and sub-marginal lands,
otherwise unfit for crops, due to their superior
water and feed economy.
• Since, sheep eat more different types of plants
than any other kind of livestock, they can turn
waste into profit and at the same time improve
the appearance of many farms (i.e. excellent
weed destroyer).
• Sheep dung is a valuable fertilizer, and since
they are grazed on sub marginal lands, their
droppings are the only means of improving the
growth of plants in such areas.
Problems in sheep farming:
• Problems related to grazing land:
Shrinkage of grazing land was a main problem
in front of sheep farming. They felt that they
were deprived of their traditional right to graze
in forest area which was getting more
restricted by the forest department.
• Shrinking of Grazing land:
Grazing land is gradually shrinking in India due
to illegal encroachment of common land by the
private parties.
• Problems in marketing of sheep:
As the rearer are illiterates and ignorant of
prices prevailing, they were exploited by the
middlemen. Since the buyers were few and
24
 there was no competition amongst them,
oligopoly market situation existed. The buyer
has a dominant way in the price fixation as a
result of which the sheep could not obtain better
return. Improper weighing was another
problem faced by almost all the rearers, as the
animals were sold through approximate weight
and visual observations. Accurate body weight
was not considered in the sale of live sheep.
• Problems related to adaption of
management practices:
The practices of recommended management
practices in any enterprise will help in
increasing the present income levels. It wills
of interest to know the extent of adoption of the
recommended practices by the selected the
rearers. Due to lack of consciousness of
supplying better feed, the practice of feeding
of concentrates was negligible. The need of
timely vaccination was not realized by the
sheep rearers. Provision of care for the
pregnant ewe was also low in all the rearers.
The awareness of the rearers in culling of old
rams and ewes was low in sheep rearers.
Adaption of the practices of de-worming and
was very low.
• Thieves menaces:
Since, the flocks have been rested in the open
places, thieves find it is easy to steal them away
in the nights.
• Various rates of interest charged by money
lenders:
In the shepherds house-holds sheep is
considered the property that was handed over
from generation to generation. The flocks so
maintained by the house holds were based on
the financial assistance extended by relatives
or friends. And in some cases, shepherds
barrowed funds from the money lenders at high
LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
rate of interest. This often worked out to be not
economical for the shepherds. At times, on
demand the money lenders, the borrowed
shepherds had to sell away their flocks at low
rates to clear off their dead.
• Reluctant on the part of the bankers in
meeting the financial need of the sheep
rearers:
Since, shepherd are illiterates, they are not
familiar with the bank transactions. A majority
of the shepherds did not find access to bank
loans.
• Absence of wool cording unit:
Very few wool cording unit are functional.
• Superstitious belief:
Due to high rate of illiteracy, they are more
gullible and superstitious in their outlook. They
hoped to cure diseases of by performing by
some age old tradition followed by their fore
fathers. At some places, hand upside down (a
live lamb or sheep) to prevent the attack of
disease to their flocks. They believe in doing
so, because all disease could be nullified by
way of hanging upside down a live lamb/sheep.
• Lack of awareness about diseases by the
shepherds:
The veterinary services are inadequate and the
staff of the veterinary department could not
meet shepherds by way conducting
awareness camps to sanitize the shepherds
about the probable diseases that would often
affect the sheep.
• Lack of Government Assistance:
As adequate veterinary services have not
available, as result shepherds experienced
heavy losses. In general, the veterinary
hospitals, most of the time does not have
sufficient medicines.
25
 • Acute water scarcity:
Water in the most of lake is not found in
summer. In summer, shepherds face acute
water scarcity.
• Attack by wild animals:
As the flock is always o grazing and under
resting in the open area, wild animals, such as
wolves and leopards find it easy to prey upon
them leopard attack.
• Road and train accidents:
On the either side of the Railway tract, good
quality of fodder available. The rearers tend
their flocks for grazing purpose on either side
of the railway tracts. Sheep by nature sheepish,
if one sheep falls into a pit, all other sheeps
follow suit and if a sheep crosses railway tract,
the remaining do the same without way thinking
sheepish mentally.
• Small land holding by the rearers:
A majority of the sheep rearers come under
either marginal or small farmers category
based on land house holding. The land house
holdings are just sufficient to keep the flock in
the rain and shine in their own lands, leave alone
maintaining their own grazing lands. This has
seriously constrained in maintaining larger
flocks by the shepherds.
• Lack of insecurity to shepherds:
There is no security to the children of
shepherds in jungle from wild animals as well
as from bad peoples.
• Seasonal Diseases:
Sheeps are subjected to seasonal diseases
of which the viral diseases because rampant
due to the wet conditions that prevailed an
account of the recent heavy rains. There are
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LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
many diseases by which sheep may suffer.
Blue tongue is the one of the main diseases of
sheep.
• Blue tongue disease:
Blue tongue disease is a contagious, insect-
borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep
and less frequently cattle, goat and buffaloes.
It is caused by the Blue Tongue virus (BTV).
The virus is transmitted by the midge
culicoides imicola, culicoides variipennis and
other culicoides. The virus belongs to family:
Reoviridae and Genus: Orbivirus.
Signs: Major signs are high fever, excessive
salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and
cyanosis of the tongue. Swelling of the lips and
tongue this sign is confined to a minority of the
animals. Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal
discharge and stertorous respiration. Some
animals also develop foot lesion beginning with
coronitis, with consequent lameness. In sheep, this
can lead to knee walking. Not all animals develop
signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly
and the sickest die within a week. For affected
animals which do not die. Recovery is very slow,
lasting several months. The incubation period is 5-
20 days and all signs usually develop within a
month. The mortality rate is normally low, but it is
high in susceptible breed of sheep.
Control & Prevention: The main prevention for
blue tongue disease is vaccination.
Conclusion:
Sheep farming is a traditional livestock farming
business. Before starting a sheep farm, choose
proper breeds because maximum profits mostly
depend on selecting high quality and healthy sheep
breeds. If possible visit some farms practically in
your areas and gather experience and finally do it.
26
 Bovine Neosporosis: an update
Prafullata Bashetti*, Raksha Suresh and Geeta D Leishangthem
Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Science,
Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana
*corresponding author: prafullata20@gmail.com
U
Introduction oocysts in the faeces 5 to 17 days after the infection.
These unsporulated oocysts undergo sporulation
Neospora caninum is an obligate intracellular
in the environment. Intermediate hosts (cattle)
protozoan which infects domestic and wild animals.
ingest oocysts that are found in contaminated food
It was discovered in 1984 in dogs. Previously N.
and water. Sporozoites are released in the intestinal
caninum was confused with Toxoplasma gondii.
tract where they penetrate cells and become
But in 1988 some remarkable differences were
tachyzoites (a rapidly dividing asexual phase).
identified by researchers with respect to their
Tachyzoites divide and quickly spread to other host
intermediate host, virulence factors and
cells, which they invade and often destroy.
pathogenesis. The characteristic difference
Tachyzoites have been found in neural cells,
between these two parasites is that the N. caninum
macrophages, fibroblasts, vascular endothelial
does not cause zoonotic infection while T. gondii is
cells, hepatocytes, and muscular cells including
responsible for zoonosis.Indogs it causes clinical
those of myocardium, and the placenta in pregnant
disease, while in cattle it is mainly responsible for
cows. The tachyzoites can be transmitted vertically
abortion. And this is a major cause of infectious
from a dam through the placenta to the fetus. In
abortion and congenital disease in cattle worldwide.
neural cells, tachyzoites can transform into
In other infectious abortions vaccines have been
bradyzoites (a slowly dividing asexual phase). The
proven effective for limiting and preventing future
bradyzoites form tissue cysts around themselves
abortions but such a vaccine is not yet developed
for protection; they remain latent until the immune
for N. caninum induced abortion. Thus vaccine
system of the intermediate host is suppressed.
development has a high research priority.
Cysts have been found in the brain, spinal cord,
Host range and retina. Tachyzoites in placental tissue (and likely
It affects a wide range of domestic and wild bradyzoites in tissue cysts), when consumed by a
animals. However, viable Neospora has been dog, implant in the gastrointestinal tract where they
isolated from only a few hosts (cattle, sheep, water mature, begin to shed oocysts, and complete the
buffalo, dog, horse, bison and white- tailed deer) horizontal transmission cycle.

Life cycle Transmission

N. caninum has heteroxenous life cycle. The dog
is a definitive host of N. caninum, although it is
suspected that the dog may also serve as an
intermediate host. Cattle, horse and sheep may act
as an intermediate host. Dog sheds unsporulated
Vertical transmission from the dam to the fetus is
the important mode of transmission.After birth the
infection can occur by ingestion of oocysts. N.
caninum is one of the most efficiently
transplacentally transmitted parasites among all

LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020 27

 known microbes in cattle. Other modes of
transmission suggested are via milk, and semen.
Venereal transmission is possible, but under
experimental conditions large numbers of
tachyzoites are necessary for infection.
Clinical signs
N. caninum is a major cause of abortion in both
dairy beef cattle. Cows of any age may abort from
three months gestation to term. But most of the
abortions can occur at five to six month of gestation.
Foetuses may die in utero, be resorbed,
mummified, autolyzed, stillborn, born alive with
clinical signs, or born clinically normal but
persistently infected.Clinical signs, other than
abortion in calves less than two months of age,
include neurologic signs, an inability to rise and
below average birth weight. The hind limbs and the
forelimbs may be flexed or hyperextended. The
neurologic examination may reveal ataxia,
decreased patellar reflexes, and loss of
consciousproprioception. Exophthalmia or an
asymmetrical appearance in the eyes may be seen.
Occasionally birth defects like hydrocephalus and
a narrowing of the spinal cord may occur.
Pathogenesis of abortion
Bovine neosporosis is mainly a disease of the
placenta and fetus. When there is infection of
parasite to a pregnant animal it will result in
parasitemia. Parasite also invade the uterine
caruncle and crosses the placental villus and reach
the fetus. For abortion to occur either fetus or its
placenta has to be damaged.Several factors may
interact to each other for abortion.
Primary parasite-induced placental damage may
leads release of maternalprostaglandins that in turn
cause luteolysis and abortion. Fetal damage may
occur due to primary tissue damagecaused by the
LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
multiplication of N. caninum in the fetus or due to
insufficient oxygen/nutrition, secondary to
placentaldamage. In addition to these release of
maternal pro-inflammatory cytokine leads to
abortion. While clearly all theseproposed
mechanisms are related in one way or another,one
or more of them may be more important in a
giveninstance and all may be influenced by the
stage of gestation.
Diagnosis
For the diagnosis of the disease, the ideal
diagnostic samples include the aborted foetus along
with placenta and sera from the dam. The other
samples include brain, liver and heart. The tissue
should be prepared by standard protocol.
Diagnosis of the bovine neosporosis is done by
following the below parameters
1. Clinical history: It includes clinical signs,
symptomsand also information about the abortion
pattern, foetal age and foetal status can give a
diagnosis. There are two patterns of abortion in field
i.e., endemic and epidemic. In endemic abortion
pattern herds have persistent rate of abortion
greater than 5% per year. In the epidemic pattern,
abortion storms take place during which a high
proportion of pregnant cattle abort over a relatively
brief period of time (within a few weeks).
2. Serological techniques: The most useful
technique for diagnosing N. caninum infection in
vivo is detection of specific antibody against the
parasitic antigen. There are several assays for
detection of antibody such as indirect fluorescent
antibodytest (IFAT), various enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), immunoblotting
(IB) and direct agglutination tests (DATs). Each test
system has both advantages anddrawbacks and
these should be carefully considered
whenchoosing tests for different applications.
28
 A. Indirect fluorescent antibody test: The IFAT
was the first and most widely used technique for
the diagnosis of N. caninum infection. IFAT is
basedon the principle of affixing intact tachyzoites
to microscopicslides. An IFAT result is considered
positive when unbroken tachyzoite membrane
fluorescence is seen. Performance of this test
requires training and experience and the result
always depends on the subjectivity of the reader.
B. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assays
(ELISA): This technique is suitable for processing
of large number of samples. Different types of
ELISA have been developed like indirect ELISA and
competitive inhibition ELISA. Butmost commonly
used is an indirect ELISA based on soluble
tachyzoite antigens. Both serum and milk can be
tested using this technique.
3. Molecular technique
Molecular techniques like PCR, Nested-PCR, and
Real-time PCR were employed for detection of
internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) DNA region of
N. caninum in blood or semen or tissue. Several
studies have shown that the ITS1 region is a good
marker for distinguishing members of the family
Sarcocystidae.
4. Gross and Histopathology:
Gross lesions are rare, but may be present in heart,
skeletal muscle, and the brain. Pale white foci may
be present in skeletal muscles and the heart. Minute
pale to dark foci of necrosis in the brain and
hydrocephalus may occur. Often the fetuses are
autolyzed and mummified. Focal areas of
discoloration may be present in placental
cotyledons. Histopathology is the most important
diagnostic procedure with lesions typically found
LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
in several tissues of aborted foetus and placenta.
There may be presence of degenerative to
inflammatory lesions throughout the foetal tissues,
mainly in the central nervous system (CNS), heart
and the liver. In brain there will be non-suppurative
encephalomyelitis. In the CNS, the characteristic
lesion of neosporosis consists of focal
mononuclear cell infiltration around a central
necrotic area. Glial proliferation is more common
in fetuses aborted in the third trimester. The lesions
in the brain are often accompanied by some
vascular endothelial hyperplasia and associated
mild infiltration by mononuclear cells. Other
histologic lesions that are consistently found include
non-suppurative myocarditis, focal non-suppurative
myositis and non-suppurative periportal hepatitis.
5. Immunohistochemistry:
Immunohistochemistry is the most common
method of detection of N. caninum in foetal brain
and other tissue such as lung, liver and heart. The
advantage of this technique is its high specificity.
Immunohistochemical staining is more reliable to
demonstrate N. caninum in lesions than the
conventional H and E staining and all tissues
showing lesions should be treated
immunohistochemically for N. caninum to exclude
neosporosis.
References
1. Dubey JP and Schares P (2011) Neosporosis
in animals-the last five years. Veterinary
Parasitiology 180: 90-108
2. Fávero, Juscivete F. et al (2017) Risk factors
for Neospora caninum infection in dairy cattle
and their possible cause-effect relation for
disease. Microbial pathogenesis 110: 202-207.
29
 Zoonotic diseases of cattle and its management
Dr.G.Senthil Kumar, Dr.T.Arul Kumar, Dr.P.Vikramachakravarthy,
Dr.P.Sankar and Dr.R.Ezakial Napolean
Department of Clinics, Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal- 637 001.
(Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai)
U
Introduction : The popular definition is that
Zoonotic diseases are diseases which can be
transmitted from animals to humans and from
humans to animals. Zoonotic diseases may be
acquired or spread in a variety of ways: through
the air (aerosol), by direct contact, by contact with
an inanimate object that harbors the disease
(fomite transmission), by oral ingestion, and by
insect transmission. They include anthrax,
brucellosis, cryptosporidiosis, dermatophilosis,
Escherichia coli, giardiasis, leptospirosis,
listeriosis, pseudocowpox, Q fever, rabies,
ringworm, salmonellosis, tuberculosis, and
vesicular stomatitis.
Anthrax :
It is a bacterial disease caused by Bacillus
anthracis, which forms spores that survive for years
in the environment. Cattle, sheep, and goats are at
the highest risk of developing anthrax, but other farm
animals, as well as wildlife and humans, can
contract the disease. Most animals are infected by
oral ingestion of soil contaminated with anthrax
spores. Biting flies can transmit the bacterium,
which results in redness and swelling at the bite
site. The most common clinical sign in animals is
sudden death. Blood may be seen oozing from the
mouth, nose, and anus of animals that died of
anthrax. Animals that have died of anthrax should
be burned or buried deeply and covered with lime.
The area should be thoroughly decontaminated with
lime, as anthrax spores can survive in the soil for
decades.
Brucellosis :
It is caused by the bacterium Brucella, which can
affect a wide variety of animals including cattle, pigs,
sheep, goats, horses, and dogs. Brucella
LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
organisms can be present in birthing tissues or
fluids (aborted fetuses, fetal fluids, placentas, and
vaginal discharges), and also in milk, urine, blood,
and semen. The most common clinical sign in cattle
is late-term abortion, but many infected cattle do
not show any clinical signs. Most infections in
humans are associated with drinking or eating
unpasteurized milk products. Common symptoms
in humans are undulating fever, weakness,
headache, joint pain, and night sweats.
Cryptosporidiosis :
Cyrptosporidium is a protozoal parasite that
causes diarrhea. Most animals can be infected
with Cryptosporidium, but clinical signs are most
commonly observed in calves less than 1 month
old. Infected animals shed the organism in their
feces, contaminating the environment.
Cryptosporidium can then be ingested from
infected food or water. Humans are infected by
consuming food or water contaminated with the
organism or by failing to wash their hands after
exposure to infective feces or animals. Most people
who are infected do not become sick. For those
individuals that show clinical signs, explosive
diarrhea and abdominal pain are common.
Vomiting, fever, and muscle cramps may also
occur. Prevention efforts in humans focus on hand
washing, especially after handling or being around
animals and before eating or handling food.
Dermatophilosis :
It is a bacterial skin disease caused by
Dermatophilus congolensis, and is also known as
rain rot, lumpy wool, and strawberry foot rot. It most
commonly affects cattle, sheep, goats, and horses.
The disease is spread by direct contact with
infected skin or through biting insects. Wet
30
 conditions allow the bacteria to spread. Infected
animals should be isolated and treated with
antibiotics. Human infections can be prevented by
wearing gloves and washing hands thoroughly after
working with infected animals.
Escherichia coli :
Escherichia coli (E. coli) are bacteria normally
found in the intestines of people and animals.
However, some strains cause a severe, often
bloody, diarrhea in humans. Animals are the
carriers of the bacteria, and humans become
infected by ingesting contaminated food or water,
especially undercooked ground beef,
unpasteurized juice and milk, and vegetables. E.
coli O157:H7 is a particularly virulent strain of E.
coli that in humans can cause abdominal cramping,
bloody diarrhea, and occasionally, especially in
young children and the elderly, life threatening kidney
disease and a hemolytic uremic syndrome. E.
coli O157:H7 may cause diarrhea in young calves,
but most infected cattle show no clinical signs.
Prevention focuses on hand washing and proper
food hygiene. Do not drink unpasteurized milk or
milk products, juice, or cider. Make sure drinking
water, especially well water, is adequately
disinfected.
Giardiasis :
Giardia lamblia is an intestinal protozoal parasite
that may or may not cause disease in
cattle. Giardia is present in soil, food, and water that
have been contaminated by infected feces. It can
be prevented by avoiding untreated drinking water
and thoroughly washing all fruits and vegetables.
Frequent hand washing is also recommended.
Leptospirosis :
It is a bacterial disease caused by Leptospira
interrogans that can occur in a large number of
animals, including cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses,
and dogs. Leptospirosis is spread through the urine
of infected animals and can survive in water and
soil for months. The most common clinical signs
in cattle are abortion and weak newborn calves.
LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
Cattle, and especially rodents, may show no signs
of illness but carry and pass the organism in their
urine. Humans acquire leptospirosis through direct
contact, ingestion, or inhalation of the bacteria.
Prevention involves rodent control and elimination
of standing water. Avoid water, such as ponds,
where animals congregate and urinate, and wear
gloves when handling reproductive fluids or when
being exposed to urine.
Listeriosis :
It is caused by the bacterium Listeria
monocytogenes. Cattle, sheep, and goats are
commonly affected. Common signs of infection in
livestock are circling, incoordination, and the inability
to chew and swallow. Pregnant animals may abort.
Prevention consists of washing produce, cooking
meats properly, and avoiding unpasteurized milk
and milk products. Pregnant women should avoid
deli meats and soft cheeses. Gloves should be
worn while assisting calvings and hands washed
afterward.
Pseudocowpox :
Pseudocowpox is a virus that causes small raised
sores and scabs on the teats and udders of cattle.
The virus is spread from cow to cow by milkers
and milking equipment, and causes small raised
sores that later scab. Humans acquire
pseudocowpox by direct contact with infected
cows, and can develop painful scabby sores on
the hands and arms. People should wear gloves
when handling infected cows, and thoroughly wash
hands and arms after milking.
Q Fever :
It is caused by the bacterium Coxiella burneti and
causes abortions in cattle, sheep, and goats.
Animals acquire Q fever through contact with
reproductive fluids and milk from infected animals.
Humans develop a fever, night sweats, and
pneumonia and hepatitis in severe cases.
Miscarriages, premature delivery, and infections of
the placenta are possible in pregnant women. To
prevent the spread of Q fever, aborted fetuses and
reproductive tissues should be buried or burned.
31
 Rabies :
It is a deadly viral infection affecting all mammals,
including humans. Rabies is spread in the saliva
of a rabid animal, typically through bite wounds.
Cattle may show changes in behavior, excessive
vocalization, have difficulty swallowing, drool, and/
or become paralyzed. People contract rabies
through exposure to infected saliva in open wounds
or mucous membranes (eyes, nose, and mouth).
If there is human exposure to an animal with rabies,
a physician should be contacted immediately so
post-exposure prophylactic injections can be
initiated.
Ringworm :
It is a skin infection caused by fungi of the
Trichophyton or Microspora species. Animals get
ringworm by direct contact with an infected animal
or by being in an infected environment, such as a
barn. Ringworm is characterized by hairless, crusty
circular areas on the skin. People are infected with
ringworm through direct contact with infected
animals. In humans, ringworm forms itchy areas
on the skin that are round and irritated. Good
hygiene and thorough hand and forearm washing
after handling infected cattle will help decrease the
risk of ringworm.
Salmonellosis :
Salmonella are bacteria that are shed in the feces
of infected animals. Many animals are susceptible
to Salmonella, including cattle. Infection occurs as
a result of the ingestion of contaminated feed, water,
or grass. Humans may develop diarrhea, abdominal
cramping, and fever, which can be very severe.
Animals with diarrhea should be isolated and the
area disinfected. Meat and eggs should be
adequately cooked and proper food handling
hygiene should be used. Always wash hands after
touching or working with animals.
Tuberculosis :
It is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium
bovis which is shed in respiratory secretions,
feces, and milk of infected animals. Cattle are
infected by inhaling or ingesting the bacterium.
Weight loss, weakness, low-grade fever, and
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LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
coughing are common clinical signs of infection in
cattle.
Vesicular Stomatitis :
It is a viral disease, producing blister-like sores on
the mouth and feet of infected animals. The disease
is transmitted by flies or direct contact. People
develop flu-like symptoms and occasionally
develop blisters in their mouth and on their hands.
Prevention is by wearing gloves while handling
animals suspected of having vesicular stomatitis.
Hands should be thoroughly washed after handling
any animals.
Summary : There are numerous zoonotic
diseases that can be transferred from cattle to
humans. These diseases cause mild to severe
symptoms and are a definite concern for farmers
and their families. While some of the diseases are
rare, their potential for devastating outcomes
makes it necessary to take precautions for these
diseases seriously. Luckily, many of the precautions
taken to prevent these diseases are the same.
• Washing hands with soap after handling
animals is the most important precaution. Soap
should be readily available in the barn/lavatory
areas.
• Unpasteurized milk and milk products should
be avoided. This is especially true for children,
the elderly, and pregnant women.
• All meat should be cooked to appropriate
internal temperatures. Ground beef should be
cooked until reaching an internal temperature
of 165°F and the juices run clear.
• Raw meat and eggs should be handled as if
they contai n infectious organisms.
• All surfaces and utensils used to prepare raw
foods should be thoroughly washed with hot
water and soap. Utensils used on raw foods
should not be used later in the cooking or
serving process.
If any of these diseases suspected in the farm it
has to be informed to the concerned veterinarian
and suspected on any persons of the farm or house,
the same has to be consulted with the physician.
32
 Management of lactating buffalo during heat stress
[summer]: housing & microenvironment modifications
1*
Dr.A.K.Wankar, 1a
Dr.P.M.Kekan, 1Dr.S.B.Daware, 2Dr.B.L.Kumawat, 3Dr.M.F.M.F.Siddiqui
1*
Corresponding Author, Assistant Professor, Department of Veterinary Physiology, College of Veterinary & Animal
1

Sciences [MAFSU], Parbhani

1
Assistant Professor, Department of Veterinary Physiology, College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences [MAFSU], Parbhani
1a
I/C Professor, Livestock Product Technology Department, College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences [MAFSU], Parbhani
2
Assistant Professor, Animal Reproduction Gynaecology & Obstetrics Department, College of Veterinary & Animal
Sciences [MAFSU], Parbhani
3
Assistant Professor, Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences [MAFSU], Parbhani
1*
Corresponding Author
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Introduction low/average milk producers. It is well documented
that HS leads to decrease in lactation length by 20-
Buffaloes population in India is 108.7 million i.e. 58
35 days, milk yield by 5-21 %, as well as decrease
% of world buffalo population (BAFHS, 2014). The
in milk constituents like, fat, SNF, protein, lactose
buffaloes are primarily reared for their milk
etc by 3.97-7.92 %. Temperature humidity index
contributing to 51 % of total milk yield in our country
[THI] is used to measure comfort and stress levels
and 55 % globally. It is also reared for its meat and
in animals, and every 1 unit THI increment leads to
as drought animals. India is categorised as tropical/
decrease in milk production by 0.26 kg/day/animal.
subtropical country, because of which the
To maintain homeostasis, more energy is directed
summers are prolonged and intense, coupled with
for thermoregulatory purposes and there is less
occasional heat waves. This exposes the livestock
hepatic glucose, fatty acids [FA] and non estrified
to heat stress [HS] and its deleterious effects. The
fatty acids [NEFA] available to be converted into
buffalo as compared to cattle is more susceptible
glucose at mammary glands. Decrease in feed
to HS mainly due to its black coloured skin, less
intake [FI] and decreased substrates available for
sweat glands and thick epidermal skin layer,
milk synthesis are major factors responsible for
making heat dissipation by conduction and radiation
significant reduction in milk production during HS.
more difficult (Borghese et. al., 2007). When
Overall, decreased lactation length, milk yield and
animals suffer from HS there is immediate
milk components during HS leads to significant
decrease in feed intake, alteration in physiology,
economic losses to the farmers. This HS impact
behaviour and metabolism. All these changes are
is further aggravated by traditional housing systems
essential for stress survival, channelling energy for
and managerial practices in India.
thermoregulation instead of production and
reproduction. Common signs of heat stress in buffaloes

The maintenance energy for thermoregulation • Increased nervousness, restlessness and

doubles the energy demand during heat stress. The aggressiveness
lactating animals are already under a negative
• Increased rectal temperature, respiration rates
energy balance, this coupled with heat stress can
and panting, increased pulse/heart rates,
significantly potentiate animal stress. High yielders
sweating rates and drooling, frothing and
are more severely affected during heat stress, than
salivating.

LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020 33

 • Skin becomes very hot in beginning thereafter
becomes very cold when thermoregulation is
severely compromised.
• Gait and balance disturbances, seizures, loss
of consciousness during extreme HS.
Housing practices to reduce the impact of HS
Heat stress can be due to high environmental
temperatures and humidity or combination of both.
Buffaloes are subjected to both hot dry [HD] and
hot humid [HH] stress conditions in India.
• In both HD and HH conditions shed walls
should be short or netted so that fresh air always
circulates inside the shed and buffaloes can
dissipate the excess heat to the environment.
• Animals should never be exposed to direct
sunlight in daytime but kept under shaded area
or trees. While at night time they should be kept
in open paddock, which keeps them
comfortable, gives exercise leading to optimum
health and no significant reduction in milk yield.
• The ventilation inside animal shed should be
proper, which will take away trapped heat away
and bring fresh air inside. This air movement
is very essential to maintain/modify the
microenvironment around the animal to
dissipate heat.
• Ceiling fans help to circulate the air and cool
the animals and should be installed at a specific
height so that air circulation/movement is
optimum inside shed.
• Foggers and misters use low water volumes
with high pressure to produce mist/fog/very
small water droplets inside the shed. This
system helps to decrease the shed
temperatures and humidity, enabling animals
to dissipate excess heat to surroundings. This
controlled/modified microenvironment and milk
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yield is maintained at optimum levels or can
increase (Das et. al., 2014).
• The floor should be kept clean, cool and not
directly exposed to sunlight, so that the animals
don’t gain radiation heat energy.
• If installation of fans, foggers, misters is not
possible then khas taati should be installed at
all doors and windows of the shed. Water
should be regularly sprinkled over these khas
taati, so that incoming air is cooled and animal
micro environment is kept constant.
Managemental practices the impact of HS
Humans are rearing animals using traditional
knowledge and practices. These practices,
although good needs modifications with our current
scientific advancements. Combination of old and
new practices will lead to improvement, growth and
commercialization of animal husbandry.
• Avoid overcrowding inside animal shed, as it
reduces the available space and increases
stress. Low space also makes heat dissipation
more difficult. Animals can be comfortably kept
under open tree shades or loose paddock.
• Animals kept under tree shade or loose
paddocks do not accumulate excess heat and
also get regular exercise which is essential for
optimum physiology, behaviour and production
aspect.
• Sprinkling water 2-3 times/day especially 30-
45 minutes before milking improve the
thermoregulation and is very useful for
maintaining milk yield throughout lactation
length.
• Buffaloes if possible, should be allowed to
wallow in clean fresh water 2-3 times a day
which results in rapid cooling off. Sprinkling
water and wallowing are most simple, feasible
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 cost effective ways as compared to other
costly strategies to combat HS.
• Special care should be taken that the river, tank
or pond used for wallowing should be close to
animal house otherwise the long travelling to
wallowing pond will further elevate the HS on
animals. This cooling effect achieved while
wallowing maintain homeothermy and more
energy is available for production and
reproductive purposes.
• Regularity in milking times is essential as
physiological and circadian rhythms are
activated at fixed time intervals.
• Milking 2-3 times is more effective than milking
only once a day as it results in complete udder
emptying and positive stimulus to endocrine &
central nervous system for further milk
production. Milk production can increase from
5-20 % by adopting this strategy.
• Before milking the animals should be handled
very humanely/gently as there is immediate
secretion of catecholamines [epinephrine; nor-
epinephrine] when animals are afraid,
stressed, blocking/reducing the milk let down
reflex directly as well as indirectly. This blockage
can lead to significant less milk produced/
animal, resulting in economic losses.
• Buffaloes are considered slow milkers than
cattle and it takes 2-10 minutes for milk ejection
reflex to establish. Therefore it is very important
that the milking should be quick, short and
complete as there is high pressure initially, and
then it decreases. Also, residual milk in udder
leads to negative stimulus leading to less milk
production/yield.
• Instead of hot afternoon period milking should
be done during cooler late evening times when
animals are not under HS.
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LIVESTOCK LINE, JULY 2020
• Avoid long distance grazing of animals, as it
will compound the heat load on animals further.
Instead night time grazing can be adopted
during summers to reduce HS impact on
animals.
• Instead of large meals, animal should be
provided small frequent rations, which will
reduce the heat increment during fermentation
process.
• Addition of high quality bypass proteins and fats
can be incorporated in ration to further reduce
the metabolic fermentation heat generation and
to improve nutrition.
• Use of probiotics, prebiotics, natural and
synthetic immune-boosters also help to negate
the effect of HS and maintain optimum
production and reproduction.
Special care and attention is needed for lactating
buffaloes during summers. Simple and scientific
modifications in housing and managemental
practices make the animal environment optimum,
decrease heat stress and maintain milk production.
References
1. BAHFS (2014). Basic animal Husbandry and
Fishery Statistics (http://dahd.nic.in/dahd/
statistics/ animal husbandry – statistics -
division.aspx).
2. BORGHESE A, RASMUSSEN M, THOMAS CS
(2007). Milking management of dairy buffalo.
Ital. J. Anim. Sci. 6(2): 39-50.
3. DAS KS, SINGH JK, SINGH G, UPADHYAY RC,
MALIK R and OBEROI PS (2014). Heat stress
alleviation in lactating buffaloes: Effect on
physiological response, metabolic hormone,
milk production and composition. Ind. J Anim.
Sci. 84 (3): 275–280.
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 Taeniasis / Cysticercosis - a neglected zoonosis of
public health importance
Angappan Madesh1* and Akanksha Yadav1
1
PhD scholar, Division of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute,
Izatnagar, Bareilly-243122, Uttar Pradesh. *Email: angappandr@gmail.com
U
Introduction
Human taeniasis/cysticercosis is a zoonotic
disease caused by the pork tapeworm
Taeniasolium. The World Health Organization
(WHO) designated taeniasis/cysticercosis as
one of the 17 neglected tropical diseases (NTDs)
affecting the poorest people in the world.
Taeniasolium infection (taeniasis) is an
intestinal infection with adult tapeworms that
follows ingestion of contaminated
pork. Cysticercosis is infection with larvae of T.
solium, which develops after ingestion of ova
excreted in human feces. Adult worms may
cause mild gastrointestinal symptoms or
passage of a motile segment in the stool.
Cysticercosis is usually asymptomatic unless
larvae invade the central nervous system,
resulting in neurocysticercosis, which can cause
seizures and various other neurologic signs.
Neurocysticercosis may be recognized on brain
imaging studies. Fewer than half of patients with
neurocysticercosis have adult T. solium in their
intestines and thus eggs or proglottids in their
stool. It is endemic in less developed countries
where pigs are raised as a food source like most
of the north eastern part of India. Taeniasis/
cysticercosis can thus be considered a poverty-
perpetuating disease with adverse economic
consequences to the affected populations.
Life cycle
T solium has a complex two-host life cycle.
Human beings are the only definitive host and
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harbour the adult tapeworm (taeniasis), whereas
both people and pigs can act as intermediate
hosts and harbour the larvae or cysticerci. eggs
or gravid proglottids are excreted in the feces of
the definitive host (humans). Intermediate host
(pigs) gets infection by ingestion of eggs or
gravid proglottids contaminated in the
vegetation. The eggs or gravid proglottids travel
to the pig’s intestine and it reaches the muscles
through circulatory system, where they develop
into cysticerci (infective form). Man gets infection
by eating the raw or undercooked flesh of an
infected animal. Cystercerci travel to the small
intestine of man and develop into adult worm.
Interestingly auto infection occurs in T.solium
infection by fecal-oral contamination or reverse
peristalsis. In this condition, eggs or gravid
proglottids re-enter the body via the mouth or
reverse peristalsis movement and often travel
to eyes (ocular cysticercosis) and/or central
nervous system (neurocysticercosis), where they
develop into cysticerci.
Intermediate stage:
Cysticercuscellulosae(Measly pork)
Location: Heart, diaphragm, internal masseter,
tongue, neck, intercostals and abdominal
muscles, brain, eye occasionally liver, lung and
kidney
Clinical manifestations in humans
• Cysticercosis is more dangerous than
taeniasis in man. It includes:
36
 Figure: Cysticerciin infected pork
• Myocysticercosis: Muscular spasms and
muscle fatigue.
• Ocular cysticercosis: Anterior chamber of
eye and vitreous humor may contain
cysticerci which lead to uveitis, retinitis and
conjunctivitis.
• Neurocysticercosis: Presence of cyst in
various locations of brain which includes
meninges, cerebral cortex and ventricles.
Clinical signs vary depends on the location
of the cyst. Usually symptoms include
meningitis, epilepsy and visual
disturbances.
Diagnosis
• Based on history of the case and clinical
signs.
• Examination of human stools for detection
of eggs or gravid proglottids.
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Detection of coproantigen using ELISA.
• Tissue biopsy examination
• MRI or CT scan for the diagnosis of
neurocysticercosis.
Treatment
• Praziquantel for cysticercosis- 5 to 10 mg/
kg orally as a single dose
• Niclosamide for taeniasis- a single 2-g dose
(For children, the dose is 50 mg/kg
(maximum 2 g) once)
• Surgical removal of cyst.
Prevention and control of human infection
Prevention and treatment of pig infection
• Proper pig management facilities: no free-
ranging or scavenging pigs
• No feeding human waste or fecally
contaminated feeds to pigs
37
 • Pig vaccinations
• Mass drug administration (e.g., praziquantel,
niclosamide, or oxfendazole)
• Provision of health hardware: functioning
toilets and clean water access in villages,
ongoing maintenance of these facilities
• No open defecation by humans
• Health education and social mobilization
measures for change in hygiene and
sanitation practices
Treatment of humans with taeniasis/
cysticercosis
• Identification of infected/carriers through
active/passive surveillance measures
• Individual treatment
• Mass drug administration such as
Praziquantel,Niclosamide
Prevention of human infections
• Hand and food hygiene measures
• Strict meat inspection practices and
regulations
• Sufficient cooking of pork - e” 63° C (e” 145°
F) for minimum 3 minutes
• Changes in cultural and religious practices
on consumption of raw pork
References
1) Héctor H García, Armando E Gonzalez,
Carlton A W Evans, Robert H Gilman,
Cysticercosis Working Group in Peru. 2011.
Taeniasoliumcysticercosis. Lancet. Author
manuscript; available in PMC 2011 May
27.Published in final edited form as: Lancet.
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2003 Aug 16; 362(9383): 547–556. doi:
10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14117-7
2) Aung, A.K. and Spelman, D.W., 2016.
Taeniasoliumtaeniasis and cysticercosis in
Southeast Asia. The American journal of
tropical medicine and hygiene, 94(5),
pp.947-954.
3) World Health Organization. Taeniasis/
Cysticercosis. 2015. http://www.who.int/
mediacentre/factsheets/fs376/en/ Available
at. Accessed July 27, 2015.
4) Carabin H, Traoré
AA. Taeniasolium taeniasis and
cysticercosis control and elimination through
community-based interventions. Curr Trop
Med Rep. 2014;1:181–193.
5) Hotez PJ, Bottazzi ME, Strych U, Chang LY,
Lim YA, Goodenow MM, AbuBakar S.
Neglected tropical diseases among the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN): overview and update. PLoSNegl
Trop Dis. 2015;9:e0003575.
6) Coral-Almeida M, Gabriël S, Abatih EN,
Praet N, Benitez W, Dorny
P. Taeniasolium human cysticercosis: a
systematic review of sero-epidemiological
data from endemic zones around the
world. PLoSNegl Trop
Dis. 2015;9:e0003919.
7) Carabin H, Ndimubanzi PC, Budke CM,
Nguyen H, Qian Y, Cowan LD, Stoner JA,
Rainwater E, Dickey M. Clinical
manifestations associated with
neurocysticercosis: a systematic
review. PLoSNegl Trop Dis. 2011;5:e1152.
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