Journal of

Materials
Processing
Technology
ELSEVIER J. Mater. Process. Technol. 45 (1994) 583-588

A NEW CRITERION TO PREDICT NECKING FAILURE UNDER BIAXIAL STRETCHING

Sujit Kumar a, P. P. Date b and K. Narasimhan a

aDepartment of Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science

bDepartment of Mechanical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay

Bombay 400076 INDIA

Localized necking limits useful forming of sheet materials. Several theoretical models predict limit strains
under biaxial stretching conditions. Models that assume infinite-length defects (M-K approach) or finite
compact defects (FEM approach) have been successful in predicting limit strains. In both these approaches,
a failure criteria is required to predict the limit strain during simulation. Failure criteria based on
comparing the principal strains, strain rates in the defect and the bulk region of the deforming sheet are
reviewed. A new failure criterion is developed, which is defined in terms of thickness gradients that
develop during biaxial stretching. This new criterion can be used under a wide range of forming conditions
to predict limit strains. FLDs predicted using the new criterion are compared to: (a) FLDs predicted by
other existing criteria and (b) Experimental FLDs. The effect of material parameters on the shape of the
FLDs is predicted using the new criterion.

1. INTRODUCTION the first analytical model to predict localized

The failure mode of sheet metals in
stretch forming operations usually involves
formation of a localized neck, a locally thinned
region, within which strain is concentrated,
followed by fracture within the localized neck [1-
5]. The maximum strains that can be attained in
sheet materials prior to the onset of localized
necking are generally referred to as the forming
limit strains. A plot of the combination of such
major and minor limit strains (~1" and ~2') in the
principal strain space constitutes a forming limit
diagram (FLD). A FLD is a measure of the sheet
materials resistance to localized necking [1-7].
Early calculations of FLDs were based on
Hill's criterion for localized necking along a
direction of zero extension [8]. Hill's criterion
does not allow for localized necking of materials
with smooth yield surfaces under biaxial
stretching (E2>0) conditions. Marciniak and
Kuczynski (M-K) [9] and Marciniak et al. [1%
by introducing a thickness imperfection of infinite
length normal to the principal stress, developed
necking in biaxial stretching of sheets. Since
then, several researchers have used M-K analysis
to predict localized necking during biaxial
stretching. The variants of M-K analysis have
been reviewed in the past [7, 11, 12].
In establishing the original theory, M-K
considered a material element with uniform
mechanical properties but with a notch in
thickness extending across it, along the minor
principal stress direction. The geometrical notch
serves as a mechanical analog for a hypothesized
initial local weakness. The ratio of the thickness
of the notch to that of the bulk was defined as the
weakness factor, f.
thickness o f notch
f - (1)
thickness o f b u l k
More than eighty percent of industry
failures occur near plane strain conditions.
Therefore, the limit strain in plane strain
conditions (FLDo) is a quantity usually sought in
experiments. It is possible to predict the

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584
experimentally observed FLD o by a suitable
choice of the weakness factor, £ In fact, since f
has an unknown physical meaning, it is simply a
fitting parameter that allows a model to predict
the experimentally observed FLD o [13].
In all the M-K type analysis, a failure
criterion is required to predict the limit strains.
Several criteria exist for this purpose, some of
which are reviewed in the next section. In all
these criteria, necking is predicted by comparing
either the strain or strain rate in the notch to that
in the bulk. But in experiments, necking is never
measured in this way. In fact, a neck is measured
or perceived only by the presence of a thickness
gradient in the region of the neck. Therefore, we
propose a failure criterion based on the thickness
gradients developing during stretching.
This paper analyzes the development of
thickness gradients in fiat sheets subjected to
biaxial stretching. We propose that at the onset of
localized necking, the thickness ratio between
adjoining elements across the neck attains a
critical magnitude. FLDs predicted by using this
new criterion and other existing criteria are
compared with experimental data. The effect of
material parameters on the shape of FLD is
predicted using the new failure criterion.
2. REVIEW OF FAILURE CRITERIA
During the simulation of biaxial
stretching of sheet, strain gradients within the
samples grow, eventually to produce large strains
within the notch corresponding to the formation
of a localized neck during the actual stretching of
a sheet. In order to predict the limit strain, i.e.,
the limit strain far removed from the notch when
necking occurs, a failure criterion is required. A
FLD can then be constructed by repeating the
simulation for several strain paths and plotting the
bulk strain when the failure criterion is reached.
In the original theory, M-K [9, 10[
considered a failure criterion which is given by
oc'ln
R u - x = -- >_ 100 (2)
6"2n
The M-K criterion implies that at the
onset of localized necking, the notch(N) has
attained near plane strain conditions.
Narasimhan and Wagoner [ 13 [
considered three failure criteria which were
evaluated and compared. All of them were based
on comparing the strain rate in the notch (N) to
that in the bulk (B). These failure criteria arc as
follows:
1). Major strain criterion (R1) is given by:
R~ = a'~2 _> 10.00 (31)
gl/?
2). Minor strain criterion (R2) is given by:
,5"2B
R2 . . . . >_ 10.00 (4)
6"2 ,v
This criterion corresponds to the notch attaining
near plane strain condition, similar to the original
M-K criterion.
3). Effective strain criterion (R3) is given by
R3 = ~ _>4 0 0 (5)
This criterion is independent of the strain state
since effective strain is a scalar quanti~'.
In all the above criteria the subscripts 'B'
and 'N' refer to the bulk and the notch respectively
and the subscripts '1' and '2' refer to the major and
the minor principal stress directions respectively.
FLDs based on these three criteria showed little
variation, typically less than 0.1 percent in ~;2 for
a given e 1 [13].
3. T H E NEW FAILURE CRITERION
In experiments, a localized neck is
perceived by the presence of a critical thickness
gradient in the vicinity of the neck. Such a
perception of the neck is independent of the strain
path, rate of forming and the type of sheet metal
(i.e. the material properties) being formed. In the
M-K type analysis, the above concept implies that
necking should be predicted when the ratio of the
thickness of the notch to that of the bulk reaches a
critical magnitude, say, C. The magnitude of C
should be independent of strain path, ratc of
forming and sheet metal properties. In our biaxial
study simulation, we follow the evolution of the

weakness factor, f. We then" predict necking when
this weakness factor reaches the critical
magnitude, C. The new criterion can be
represented as follows:
f n e w = current thickness of notch _<C (6)
current thickness of bulk
The magnitude of C will be determined
experimentally by measuring the thickness
gradients across localized necks in a few tensile
samples.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 The effect of material properties on fnew
By using one of the earlier failure criteria
[13], say, the major strain criterion, R1, the effect
of the material properties (n, m, r) on the
weakness factor at necking, fnew, can be
predicted. The weakness factor at necking, fnew,
decreases with an increase in the work hardening
exponent, n, for both plane strain (ps) and
balanced biaxial (bb) stretching conditions as seen
in figure 1. The ratio, (fnew)PS/(fnew) bb, also
correspondingly decreases with an increase in the
work hardening exponent, n. It is also observed
that (fnew)P s is higher than (fnew)bb.
The effect of the strain rate sensitivity, m
on the weakness factor at necking, fnew, can be
seen in figure 2. With an increase in m, fnew
decreases. The trend in the variation of fnew with
m is similar to the variation of fnew with n for
both plane strain (ps) and balanced biaxial (bb)
stretching conditions. However, the sensitivity of
the predicted fnew with n is less than the
sensitivity of the predicted fnew with m.
The normal anisotropic parameter, r,
does not produce a change in (fnew)P s as shown
in figure 3. However, with an increase in r,
(fnew) bb increases rapidly and correspondingly,
the ratio, (fnew)PS/(fnew) bb, decreases rapidly.
This effect of r is in confirmation with the theory
proposed by Sowerby and Duncan [14] which
explains that the effect of the r-value is more
pronounced in the balanced biaxial stretching
condition for materials with a smooth yield
surface (Hill's 1948 quadratic yield theory).
The results in figures 1, 2, and 3, show
that the fnew does not remain constant in the
range of properties investigated (simulated using
585
the major strain criterion). These results,
therefore, are not consistent with what is
intuitively expected, namely, a constant fnew for
different conditions of strain path and material
properties. The proposed new criterion should
then predict different shapes of the FLDs as
compared to the other criteria.
4.2 Experimental determination of C
Three flat sheets of mild steel were
deformed under tensile loading until a neck just
begins to initiate, i.e. at the point of maximum
load. Figure 4 shows the variation in thickness of
the sample in the direction perpendicular to the
neck. As expected, the thickness decreases and
then increases across the neck. All the three flat
sheet samples showed similar behaviour. It can be
seen from figure 5 that the thickness ratio between
adjoining elements (1 mm apart) across the neck
(fnew) reaches a critical magnitude of 0.91 at the
onset of necking. All the three flat sheet samples
show a similar trend and the fnew reaches a
critical magnitude of 0.91 across the neck. The
value of C is therefore selected as 0.91 for the
simulation work.
Thus, according to the proposed new
failure criterion, necking is predicted when:
f n e w < 0.91 (7)
4.3 Comparison of predicted FLDs
Using the new failure criterion, FLDs
were simulated for AK steel and 2036-T4-A1.
The FLDs predicted using the new criterion are
compared with the experimental FLDs and the
FLDs predicted by using the original M-K
criterion, RM_K, equation 2, for the two different
materials. In the case of AK steel the FLD
predicted by using the new failure criterion
showed a better correlation with experimental
FLD than that predicted by using RM. K as seen in
figure 6. However, both the predicted FLDs cross
over the experimental FLD at a low strain path (c
2&l). The experimental FLD for AK steel was
determined by Ghosh and Hecker [15]. The
initial weakness factor, fo, for both the failure
criteria were selected such that the predicted
FLD o matches with the experimental FLD o. The
magnitude of fo for both the M-K criterion and
586
the new criterion was 0.994. It is just a
coincidence that the value of fo for both these
criteria were equal. For 2036-T4-A1 the FLDs
predicted by both the failure criteria coincided and
their deviation from the experimental FLD is
pronounced as seen in figure 8. In this case the
magnitude of f0 for M-K criterion and the new
criterion were 0.998 and 0.991 repectively. The
experimental FLD for 2036-T4-A1 was
determined by Chan [ 16].
4.4 Effect of material properties on the FLD
shape
We use the following ratio, P, called the
FLD shape parameter, to represent the shape of
the FLD for our sensitivity analysis. This
definition of P was introduced by Narasimhan and
Wagoner [13].
t, _ c ~ * ( p = 0.8) (8)
el*(/[3 = 0.2)
where p is the strain ratio, ~2*/el *
Figures 9, 10, and l I show the predicted
variation of P with an increase in the material
parameters, namely, n, m and r. The sensitivity of
P with the material parameters is almost similar
for both the failure criteria (M-K and the new
criterion). However, the absolute magnitude of P
is lower for the predictions using the new
criterion. This implies that the limit strains
predicted by using the new failure criterion arc
less dependent on the degree of biaxiality than the
limit strains predicted by using the M-K criterion.
5. CONCLUSIONS
• A new failure criterion is proposed which
predicts necking when the thickness gradients
across the neck fails below a critical
magnitude, C.
• Limited experimental data show that at the
onset of localized necking the gradient of
thickness across the neck reaches a critical
magnitude of approximately 0.91.
* The FLD predicted using the new criterion
showed better correlation with experimental
FLD in the case of AK steel, but showed
similar prediction as M-K criterion for the
case of 2036-T4-AI.
The new criterion predicts less dependence of
limit strains on the degree of biaxialiU for the
range of material properties investigated
REFERENCES
i S.P Kceler and WA. Backofcn. Trans. ASM.
56 (1963) 25.
2 S.P. Keeler, Sheet Metal Industries, 42 (i965)
683.
3. S.P. Keeler, Understanding Sheet Metal
Formability, Machinery (1968) 88.
4. G.M. Goodwin, SAE Automotive
Engineering, Congress, Paper N o 68009~
Detroit (1968).
5. M Azrin and W.A. Backofen, Met. [rans_ !
(1970)
6. SS. Hecker, Formability, Analysis,
Modeling, and Experimentation, S.S. Hecket
AK. Ghosh, and H. L. Gegel, eds.. TMS-
AIME,Warrendale,PA (1978) 150.
7 A.K Ghosh, Mechanics of Sheet Metat
Forming, D.P Koistinen and N.M. W a n g
eds., Plenum Press, New York, NY (1978)
287.
8. R. Hill, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, l (1952) I ~
9. Z. Marciniak and K Kuczynski, lm
Mech. Sci., 9 (1967) 609.
10. Z. Marciniak, K. Kuczynski, and T. Pokora
lnt. J. Mech. Sci., 15 (1973) 780
l 1. KS. Chan, Forming Limit Diagrams:
Concepts, Methods and Applications, R i-t.
Wagoner, KS. Chan, SP. Keeler. eds. 3"MS
Warrendale, PA (1989) 73.
12. P.B. Mellor, Int. Met. Rev., 26 (1981) i
13. K Narasimhan and R.H. Wagoner, Mctall.
Trans. A, 22A (1991) 2664
14. R. Sowerby and J.L. Duncan, lnt J Mecb
Sci., 13 (1971) 217.
15. AK. Ghosh and S.S. Hecker, Metall Trans.
5 (1974) 2161.
16. KS. Chan, Metall Trans. A, 16A (19851
629
 587

!.!5 0.8
m=O01
2 1.10 r = l .5
1.05 f=0.98
©
1.00 -- C O C O 0 (fnew') ps 0.6
E
0.95 E
A,L, L L A (fnew) bb
0.90 .c_
LJ
z D.85 (z}
<{ 0.4
0.80 Z

0 75 I I I I I O
T
0.0 01 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.6
sample 1
WORK HARDENING EXPONENT, n 0.2 -- u c ~ u a sample 2
,',,*,AA,~ sample 3
Fig.1 The effect of n on fnew
o.o I I I I I I I I I
1.15 -10-8-6-4-2 0 2 4 6 8 10
oD
n=0.39
1.10 - r=1.5 DISTANCE ACROSS NECK in mm
~- 1.05 f=0.98
0
b ~.oo - COO00 (fne ") p'
Fig.4 Variation of thickness
u_ 0 . 9 5 ?f ~bb across the neck
t~
-- ~UP_,e,U ( "~'fn"'P'/(f ~bb
~ 0.90 /" "*" "*" "~" "*" \'new/ /\-new/
~A
z 0.85

~J 0.80
0,75
0.00 0.01 0.02
1.00
STRAIN RATE SENSITIVITY, m

oo0
Fig.2 The effect of m on fnew ~ o.98

1.15 . . . . 0
m=O,01 ~ 0.96
1.10 -- ~ n=0.39 0

1.00 -- cacao (fo.w) P" a: 0.94

~- o . 9 s - ~===~/f:;:/"
0.90 . . . . . k new/ /k .e,,/

08s - ~-. o o o ~ 0.92

',<' 0.80 -
~ 0.75 ~ I I
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.90
-10-8-6-4-2 0 2 4 6 8 10
NORMAL ANISOTROPY PARAMETER, r
DISTANCE ACROSS NECK in mm

Fig.5 The variation of thickness

Fig.5 The e f f e c t of r on fnew ratio between adjoining elements
across the neck
588

0.5
m=0.012 Z.5 r
n=0.21 _ 12,~S,DO M--K c r l f e n o ~
I r= 1 .54 .~-~--~ ,..~- ~,~,,s,s,~ New c r i t e r i o n
L(fo)~=0.998 ~ a S ~ ~- LLJ I
0.4
V"
c~

o s Li
<8
< rn--b 0

0.2 '= 0.98 z,

< 1.C} ~ .....................
experimentol
8mE]E~E] M - K c r i t e r i o n r: £ 0.2
O i _ L~,Snew criterion(nc) W()~k HAAOENIi'd( ; X;' ~N~N

:~ ~, [he erxer- - -
0.o I I __L_ .....
O0 01 02 0.3 04 0
MINOR STRAIN, e2 ] ./-:i
n ~" [- r~':0.59
Fig.6 Experimental and Predicted
i. 4 ! : 0 98
FLD:, for AK S t e e l

,1:
,,t }
a_ 1 o
go

uo
L
I ~ M-K criterion [
-----4
i ~.*-~f new c r h e n o n i
1,.0 L ~ J
0.00 0,0 ! 3,02
0.7
STRAIN RATE S E N S I T i V i ? m
n%=0024
0.6 --r=0.77 _/
Fig,9 The effect of m c ;:'
- 0.5

~. 0.4 2.00 r
~Y m i B~P~E] M--K c r i t e r i o n
~.*, new c r i t e r i o n
0.,_t I .75 ~-
O ". \ m= 0 0 !
2 "~ n=0.39
0.2 <: t \ f ~:0.98
.~ 1 , 5 0 ~-
n ~ a , ~ n new critedon(nc)
r~s~ M - K CRITERION
0.1 - OOOOO e x p e r i m e n t a l
~ 1,25 ~
o.o t I i I _
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.5 ,oo L_ _ _ _ I . . . . . L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

MINOR STRAIN, e2 0.5 1.0 15 ~ ~,

NORMAL ANISOTROPY PARAMETER r
Fig.7 Experimental and Predicted
FLDs for 2056-T4 Aluminium
Fig.10 The effect of , i: