DRAFT Juluy 2009

1
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Content Page

4.1 Materials for Clothing and Textiles 1

4.1.1 Textile Fibre Properties 2
4.1.2 Textile Fibre classification 2
4.1.3 Natural Fibres 3
4.1.4 Regenerated Fibres 15
4.1.5 Synthetic Fibres 19
4.1.6 Advanced Fibre Properties 26
4.1.7 Ways to Produce New Textile Materials 33
4.1.8 Other Materials Than Textile Fibres That Can Be Used 34
For Making Clothing

4.2 Fabric Construction 40

4.2.1 Types of Fabrics 40
4.2.2 Colouration 44
4.2.3 Finishing 48
4.2.4 Fabric Quality 52

2
DRAFT July 2009

4.1 Materials for Clothing and Textiles

Clothes and textiles can be made from different materials. Most of them are made
from fabrics which are composed by a variety of fibres. People encounter different
forms of fibres in their daily life, some are textiles fibres for making fabrics and textiles,
others are non-textile fibres which include dietary fibre that can be found in our food,
nerve and muscle fibre found in living organism, optical and reinforcement fibres for
industrial uses.

Figure 4.1 Various kinds of fibre

Textile fibre is the basic unit of clothing and textiles and each type of fibre has its own
properties and characteristics. Usually, they are spun into yarns, woven or knitted into
fabrics and then made into clothing and textiles.

1
DRAFT Juluy 2009

4.1.1 Textile Fibres Properties

Fibres are the basic substance building up fabrics. General properties of fibre are as
follows:

Fibres are in line shape or thread-like substances.

Fibres are very fine with very small diameter.
There are two major types of fibre regarding to their length: short fibre and long
fibre.
They are soft, flexible and can be bent easily.
Fibres are very light in terms of weight.
The surface of fibres can be either shiny like silk or dull like cotton.
Some are elastic.
Some possess natural colour or some are coloured later given that colouration
is an important process in textile products.

4.1.2 Textile Fibre Classification

Generally, types of fibres are classified based on their sources. There are three main
groups of fibres. They are namely natural, regenerated and man-made fibre.

2
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Figure 4.2 Common fibre classification

4.1.3 Natural Fibres

Those are fibres extracted from nature. They come from plants, animals and even
minerals.

(A) Plants

Fibres can be obtained from different parts of plants, including seeds, basts (stem
skin), leaves, etc.

(j) Cotton

Cotton is the most common textile fibre in the world with great economical value.
Cotton plants are not just grown for fibre. Their seeds can be used for preparing
cooking oil. Having high protein content, cotton seeds are also used as

3
DRAFT Juluy 2009

supplementary diet for feeding livestock and poultry. From seed to cotton, it takes
around 150 to 180 days. Cotton fibres are seeds hair. Sea-Island cotton is the
longest cotton fibre with the length that ranges from 3.5 to 5 cm, Egyptian cotton
ranges from 2.5 to 4.5 cm, and Asian cotton is the shortest that ranges from 1 to 1.8
cm.

Fibre identification
Burning Tests Other Tests
- burns quickly with afterglow Tearing Test
- smell like burnt paper - short fibres appear at the torn edges
- pale grey residue and powdery ash Solubility Test
- dissolves in sulphuric acid

Properties
Physical
- very fine fibre (1 – 4
dex)
- ranges from 20 – 40
mm long
- flattened tube like
thread with twist
- creamy white or
yellowish in colour
- relatively low on luster
- weight ranging from
very light to heavy
Mechanical
- poor extensibility
- good strength
- good abrasion
resistance and
durability
- poor elasticity /
resilient
- creases easily
Chemical
- damaged by
concentrated mineral
acids (e.g. sulfuric acid)
and chlorine bleach
- strong alkalis improve
absorbency, luster and
strength

Clothing comfort
Warmth
- usually cool to wear
- can be warmer by
using different yarn
and fabric construction
Absorbency Next-to-skin Comfort
- absorbs up to 20% of - very comfortable next
water vapour and not to the skin because
feel wet cotton fibres are fine
- absorbs moisture and soft
rapidly and can retain
up to 60% moisture of
their own weight
without dripping
- dries slowly

4
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Application and after care

Typical fabric
calico, corduroy, denim,
gningham, drill, terry
toweling
** International Cotton
Emblem**
Application After Care
Apparel - easy to wash
- shirts, blouses, - can be boiled but
underwear, trousers, lower temperature for
jeans, nightwear coloured items
Accessories - white items can be
- handkerchiefs, laces, bleached
ribbons, trimmings, - iron at quite high
umbrellas temperature up to
Household Textiles 200°C
- household linen, - can be dry cleaned by
curtains, towels, normal solvent
furniture coverings - can be tumble dried
Technical Textiles - may shrink
- workwear and
protective clothing,
tents, awnings, sewing
thread, medical and
sanitary supplies

(ii) Flax

Flax is another plant fibre that has a long history. Similar to cotton, flax is planted not
just for fibre production. Its seed can be used for meal and producing oil, linseed oil,
which some use as low temperature frying oil, to prepare salads and some for
industrial use in painting and coating. Besides, various parts of flax plant are used for
making dye, paper, medicines, fishing nets, soap, etc. Flax plants have even been
recently used as fuel.

The extraction of fibre from the plants’ stalks passes through the following steps,
which involves a lot of labour work. This accounts for linen being an expensive good.
The steps are as follows:

(1) Retting

Cut stems will go through a process called retting which is to degrade of inner

5
DRAFT Juluy 2009

straw and free outer fibres. There are several retting methods such as liquid
retting (to rot straw with water), field retting (to rot straw in open field, this
occupies a large space), enzyme retting (use specific enzyme to rot straw), etc.
The former two processes are employing bacteria to break down the skin and
inner straw while the latter process is using chemical.

(2) Dressing

Dressing is sub-divided into three separated processes, breaking, scutching and

heckling. Breaking is to break the stalk into pieces without harming the fibre
portion. Scutching is to scrap away the straw from the fibre. Heckling, just like
combing, passes fibres through a series of heckles of different sizes to remove
remaining straw.

(3) Cleansing

After further cleansing the extracted fibre, it is readily for yarn spinning.

Fibre identification
Burning Tests
- burns quickly with afterglow
- smell like burnt paper
- pale grey residue with powdery ash
Other Tests
Dry Tearing Test
- long fibers appear at the torn edges
- dissolved by sulphuric acid

Properties
Physical
- coarse fibre bundle
- ranges from 45 –
90cm long
- moderate yellow to
gray in colour, the best
grade is creamy white
in colour
- subdued luster
- cylindrical shape with
nodes / joints
- straight and smooth
Mechanical Chemical
- very strong fibre and - damaged by acids but
even stronger when not alkalis
wet
- good abrasion
resistance, durable
and long lasting
- brittle and poor in
flexibility
- very poor extensibility
and elasticity
- creases badly

6
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Clothing comfort
Warmth Absorbency Next-to-skin Comfort
- cool to wear as poor - absorbs water quickly - stiff and with a firm
insulation properties - fast drying, releases handle
absorbed water
quickly

Application and after care

Typical fabric Application After Care
Interlining, Holland (for Apparel - can be boiled but
window blinds), mattress - summer and leisure lower temperature for
ticking wear, blouses, shirts, coloured items
** Linen Seal** skirts, trousers, - white items can be
jackets, suits, bleached
interlinings - can be ironed up to
Accessories 220°C
- pockets, bags, shoes, - can be dry cleaned by
luggage, handbag, normal solvent
trimmings - can be tumble dried
Household Textiles - may shrink
- household linen,
tablecloths, curtains,
tea towels, drapes,
furniture and wall
coverings, mattress
lining, upholstery
fabrics
Technical Textiles
- tarpulins, ropes,
sewing thread,
geotextiles

(B) Animals

Animal fibres are protein fibres which come mainly from hair of animals such as sheep,
goats, camels, horses, some are from insects, silk worms, etc. Leather and fur can
also be made into garments and are considered as other textile materials rather than
fibre.

7
DRAFT Juluy 2009

(i) Wool

Wool is a kind of animal fibre taken from fleece of sheep and goats. The quality of
wool fibres is assessed based on several characteristics including fibre length,
fineness, colour, cleanliness, damage and surface scales. The finer the fibre, the
softer it is. However, it is less durable and easier to pill. For garment purposes,
fineness is expected to be smaller than 25 micron. Coarser fibres are usually used for
making carpets and rugs as they are resistant to abrasion. The finest and softest wool
comes from Merino sheep which is about 7.5 – 12.5cm long and 16.9 – 22.6 microns
in diameter.

Fineness (micron) Grade

< 24.5 Fine
24.5 – 31.4 Medium
31.5 – 35.4 Fine Crossbred
>35.5 Coarse Crossbred

Figure 4.3 Fineness of various grades of wool fibres

Fibre identification
Burning Tests
- small and sputtering flame, self
extinguishing
- smell like burning hair
- black residue with friable cinder
Other Tests
Solubility Test
- cold and concentrated sulphuric acid
has scarcely any effect
- boiling 5% caustic soda and little
lithium hypochlorite solutions or
strong alkaline will dissolve wool

Properties
Physical Mechanical Chemical
- 50 – over 150mm in - medium strength and - weakened by alkalis
length not very durable - damaged by chlorine
- fine (15~23um), - strength decreases bleaches
medium (24~30um) when wet - acids does not damage
and coarse (over - very good in wool unless of a high
30um) extensibility, even concentration
- light weight better when wet
- surface with - moderate abrasion
overlapping scales and resistance

8
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Physical Mechanical Chemical

crimps - good elongation,
- colour ranges from elastic recovery
white to cream, beige, - excellent resilience
tan and black - poor dimensional
stability
- felting occurred when
affected by heat and
moisture

Clothing comfort
Warmth
- excellent for insulation
as air is trapped by
scales
- warm to wear
Absorbency Next-to-skin Comfort
- high moisture - except for fine wool,
absorption next-to-skin comfort is
(hydrophilic) can not so good
absorb 1/3 of its weight
in water without feeling
set
- water repellent
(hydrophobic) can
repels raindrops
- absorbs moisture
slowly and resists
moisture

Application and after care

Typical fabric
felt, tweed, gabardine
** Woolmark **
** Woolmark Blend **
Application
Apparel
- suits, pullovers,
sweater, waistcoats,
overcoats, dresses,
winter clothing
Accessories
- ties, scarves, hats,
socks, stockings
Household Textiles
- carpets, upholstery
fabrics, blankets,
After Care
- wash with care
- do not bleach with
chlorine bleach, could
be cleaned using
Perchloroethylene
- will shrink and felt
- steam iron at 150°C
with a pressing cloth
otherwise the fabric
goes shiny
- do not tumble dry

9
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Typical fabric Application After Care

draperies
Technical Textiles
- industrial felt, fire
protection clothing,
agricultural blankets,
geotextiles
- do not dry in direct
sunlight or over direct
heat
- dry cleaning
recommended

(ii) Hair
Hair fibres possess similar structure and properties (physical, mechanical and
chemical) as wool. But, they are much smoother, longer and with scales that are less
prominent. The care of hair fibres is also very similar to that of wool. Hair fibres
include camel hair, mohair, cashmere, alpaca, llama, vicuna and angora (rabbit hair).

Hair Fibre Properties Application

Camel Hair - fine, heavy, soft, weak, - outerwear, interlining
(undercoat of the lightly crimped
camel) - warm, water-repellent,
durable
Mohair - long, soft, lightly curled, - outerwear
(hair of the Angora - warm, smooth, slippery,
goat) have a silky lustre
- absorb dye evenly and
permanently
- good abrasion,
crease-resistant
- dust-repellent, fire-resistant
Cashmere - - soft, light, lustrous - -expensive luxury
(underhair of the - very warm and expensive fabrics for coats and
Kashmir goat or - crease-resistant, dirt suits
cashmere goat from repellent - luxury knitwear and
India, Tibet, - non-static, fire-resistant interior textiles for cars,
Mongolia and areas planes, yachts
near Himalayan
mountains)

Alpaca, llama, - fine, soft, strong, lightly - expensive knitted

vicuna crimped, very warm fabrics, jacket,

10
DRAFT Juluy 2009

(Alpaca and vicuna - high luster, durable overcoats, blankets

are different kinds of - water repellent, high
llama) insulative quality

Angora - long, fine, very light, silky - thermal underwear and

(hair of Angora - good moisture absorbency ski underwear when
rabbit) blended with wool

(iii) Silk

Silk is another kind of animal fibre obtained from cocoons of silkworm larvae.
Silkworms can be obtained from cultivation (sericulture) or wild. Mulberry silkworm
(Bombyx mori) is the species for sericulture. Same as wool, silk fibre is protein in
nature. Silk has been popular in Eastern countries such as China for many decades.
Initially, it was mainly for kings and it became luxury fabrics for the rich.

Fibre identification
Burning Tests Other Tests
- small flame, slowly self extinguishing Solubility Test
- smell like burning hair or horn - dissolves in sulphuric acid
- black residue with friable cinder - dissolves in lithium hypochlorite

Figure 4.4 Micrographs of both cultivated and Tussah (wild) silk fibres. (Source:
American Association of Textile Colorists and Chemists)

11
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Figure 4.5 3D shape of silk fibres (Source: American Association of Textile

Colorists and Chemists)

Properties
Physical Mechanical Chemical
- filaments up to 1km in - strong, durable and - turns yellow and
length light degrades when
- triangular in - loses up to 20% of its exposed to alkaline
cross-section with strength when wet detergent and chloride
round corners - elastic, extensibility lies bleach
- smooth and rod like between 10% to 30% - affected by
surface with some - with stable dimensional perspiration,
striations stability antiperspirant and
- with natural shinness - fairly crease-resistant, perfume, may change
- individual filament is creases drop out colour and becomes
too fine to be wound - smooth and soft handle brittle
separately, 7 – 10 of
them are collected and
wound together to form
the raw or greige silk
- cultivated silk is soft,
smooth and lustrous
- wild silk is coarse,
irregular and thicker
than cultivated silk,
normally brown, but

12
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Physical Mechanical Chemical

maybe yellow, orange,
or green in colour

Clothing comfort
Warmth Absorbency Next-to-skin Comfort
- both cool and warm - can absorb and hold - very good next-to-skin
- fabrics made are very 1/3 of its weight in comfort for its softness
fine and lie smoothly water without feeling and fineness
on the skin, this allows wet
very small amount of
air enclosed between
the skin and the fabric
which provides a
cooling effect
- The compact and fine
fabrics are also good
insulator which enclose
the warm air between
the skin and the fabric

Application and after care

Typical fabric
Cultivated silk - Chiffon,
crepe, damask, satin, twill,
voile
Wild silk - tussah silk,
doupion, Shantung
** Silk Seal**
Application After Care
Apparel - wash with gentle
- dresses, blouses, detergents with
lingerie, ski underwear, minimum agitation and
evening dress cool rinse
Accessories - steam and water can
- scarves, squares, remove stains
gloves, ties, hats, - do not bleached unless
artificial flowers, non chlorine bleach is
handbags, umbrellas used
Household Textiles - do not tumble dry or
- wall hangings, drapes, dry in direct sunlight
wall coverings, carpets, - iron with dry iron at 120
lampshades, to 150°C on back of
bedclothes fabric, do not press on
Technical Textiles seam

13
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Typical fabric Application After Care

- sewing thread, - best to be dry cleaned
embroidery threads,
racing bicycle tyres

(C) Mineral Fibres

Beside plants and animals, fibres can also be obtained from minerals. Fibres from six
type of minerals, chrysotile, amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite and actinolite,
are called asbestos. The main chemical composite of the asbestos is fibrous form of
hydrated magnesium silicates. They are strong with high tensile strength, flame
resistant and good insulator of electricity. Asbestos are widely used in cement, thermal
insulation, electrical insulation, heat resistant garments, etc., in the past. The
drawback of asbestos is health problem. As the fibre is very fine, its dust can trap in
the small air sacs of the lung and cause diseases such as asbestosis, lung cancer, etc.
Now, it is regulatory banned or controlled in many countries. Persons who handle
asbestos material need to equip with self-sustain respirators to protect the lung.

14
DRAFT Juluy 2009

(A) Asbestos fibres on mineral (B) Electronic micrograph of asbestos fibre

Figure 4.6 Asbestos fibre

(Source: (A) www.ehs.sfu.ca (B) erc.carleton.edu)

Another type of mineral fibre is glass fibres. They are mainly used as reinforcement
fibre in the composite material and heat insulation products. Furthermore, metal fibres
or yarns, such as silver, aluminum, etc., are frequently used for decorative purpose.
As metal fibre are electrical conductive, they also employ for anti-static clothing for
petroleum and electronic industry which can dissipate the accumulative charges to
avoid explosion and electronic device damage.

4.1.4 Regenerated Fibres

Although there are a lot of advantages that cotton (or cellulosic) fibres possess, the
sources of this kind of fibre are limited. People are looking for ways to produce fibres
with similar properties. Regenerated fibres are mainly a group of cellulosic fibres that,
through chemical methods, being regenerated from other cellulosic such as wood
pulp, etc., that are not commonly used in the textile industry. Discovery of
nitrocellulose is the milestone of the development of regenerated fibres. It can be
dissolved in acetone (organic solvent). The basic principle of producing regenerated
fibres is the dissolution of cellulose and the regeneration of fibres through fibre
spinning. The process produces filament yarns which can be chopped into staple to
imitate natural fibres. Recently, renewable resources such as bamboo are used for
regenerated fibre production.

15
DRAFT Juluy 2009

(A) Acetate

Acetate or cellulose acetate fibres are produced through the process of treating
cellulose with acetic acid anhydride.

Fibre identification
Burning Tests Other Tests
- burns quickly and melts in a flame Solubility Test
- with an acidic smell - soluble in acetone, dichloromethane,
- with hard and black residue glacial acetic acid and formic acid
- sensitive to both acids and alkalis

Properties
Physical
- filaments or cut into
staple
- white fibre with
longitudinal
- variable fineness, can
be spun as microfibres
- striations and irregular
cross section
- subdued luster, smooth
- full handle and elegant
drape
Mechanical Chemical
- low strength, even - thermoplastic
weaker when wet - melts at temperature
- poor abrasion over 135°C
resistance, elasticity - resistance in weak
and resilience acids and alkalis
- dimensionally unstable
- creases and shrink
easily

Clothing comfort
Warmth Absorbency Next-to-skin Comfort
- not very warm - low moisture - comfortable but prone
absorption to static
- fast drying

Application and after care

Typical fabric Application After Care
brocade, satin, taffeta Apparel - thermoplastic and
** Arnel** - silk-type fabrics for sensitive to dry heat
** Tricel ** dresses, robes, - must be washed and
lingerie, lining ironed carefully

16
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Typical fabric Application After Care

Accessories - do not bleach
- trimmings - do not tumble dried
Household Textiles - can be dry cleaned
- embroidery yarns,
ribbons, window
treatment
Technical Textiles
- microfiber performance
fabrics, cigarette filter

(B) Viscose Rayon

Viscose rayon is another kind of regenerated fibre from cellulose. It is produced by the
‘viscose process’ through wet spinning. This process is based on the dissolution of
cellulose from wood pulp using carbon disulphide (CS2).

Fibre identification
Burning Tests
- burns quickly with bright flame and
afterglow
- smell like burning paper
- with pale grey powdery ash
Other Tests
Wet Tearing Test
- tears straight through a wet spot
Solubility Test
- dissolves in sulphuric acid
- attacked by hydrochloric acid

Properties
Physical
- filaments or cut into
staples
- white, lustrous fibre
with irregular cross
section
- variable fineness
- light weight
Mechanical Chemical
- lower strength, - thermoplastic
abrasion resistance - degraded by acids and
and durability than alkalis
cotton, can tear when
wet
- wet strength is 40-70%
lower than its dry
strength
- dimensionally unstable
- poor elastic recovery,
shrink and creases

17
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Physical Mechanical Chemical

easily
- poor resiliency
- good extensibility

Clothing comfort
Warmth Absorbency Next-to-skin Comfort
- low warmth as low - more absorbent than - fine and soft, very good
ability to trap air cotton, absorbs next to the skin comfort
- cool to the touch 11-14% of water
vapour
- high moisture
absorption
(hydrophilic), swells
and absorbs 80 to
120% of water in liquid
water
- non-static

Application and after care

Typical fabric Application After Care
Filament Can be used to resembles - wash in 60°C water
- lustrous and crepe wool, silk, cotton or linen - do not bleach
fabric - iron temperature in
Apparel 60°C
Staple - dresses, shirts, suits, - easy to iron
- cotton, linen and lingerie, sportswear - can be dry cleaned
wool-like fabric Accessories - do not tumble dried
- trimmings
Household Textiles
- curtains, lining fabrics,
blankets, tablecloths,
bedspreads,
slipcovers, upholstery
fabrics, drappies
Technical Textiles
- medical and sanitary
products where good

18
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Typical fabric Application After Care

absorbency is required

4.1.5 Synthetic Fibres

Synthetic fibres refer to fibres based on polymerisation of monomers. Monomers are
mainly obtained from petroleum. Petroleum is a non-renewable resource and will use
up in time. Scientists are continuously looking for substitutions, particularly renewable
resources. New fibres have evolved based on chemicals extracted from corn, sugar
beet, Soya bean, etc., e.g. Polylactic acid fibre.

(A) Polyester

Polyester fibres refer to polymer containing ester (—COO—) linkage which generated
from an acid (R-COOH) and an alcohol (R’-OH). The most common polyester is
polyethylene terephthalate (PET).

Fibre identification
Burning Tests
- melts and shrinks from the flame
- form a brownish mass
- hard and uncrushable residue
Other Tests
Solubility Test
- soluble in concentrated sulphuric
acid, concentrated potassium
hydroxide, tetrachloroethane and
phenols, dichlorobenzene

Properties
Physical Mechanical Chemical
- filaments or cut into - good strength, lost - thermoplastic, heat
staples strength with long sensitive, melts at
- variable fineness from exposure to sunlight around 350°C
microfibers to coarse - abrasion resistant, tear - resistant to acids,
fibres resistance and durable alkalis, solvents
- white fibre with - good extensibility (15 –
different cross 50%)
sections: round, - good elasticity, crease
tri-and multilobal, oval resistant
and hollow - dimensionally very
- range from high luster stable

19
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Physical Mechanical Chemical

to matt depending on
fibre cross-section and
addition of delustrants

Clothing comfort
Warmth
- enclosed little air
- good insulator if made
into bulky fabric
-
Absorbency Next-to-skin Comfort
- little moisture - next-to-skin comfort is
absorption not very good
- fast drying - prone to static

Application and after care

Typical fabric
Staple fibre fabrics,
textured filament fabrics,
microfiber fabrics
Application After Care
Apparel - wash in 60°C water
- underwear, causal and - do not bleach
formal wear, uniforms, - iron temperature in
outerwear, rainwear, 60°C
lining, microfibre fleece - can be dry cleaned
garments - can be tumble dried
Accessories
- ties, scarves,
Household Textiles
- furnishing, upholstery,
carpets, pillows, hotel
bedding, sewing
threading
Technical Textiles
- transport textiles,
ropes, sails, tents, tyre
cord, geotextiles,
medical textiles such
as artificial ligaments

20
DRAFT Juluy 2009

(B) Polyamide (Nylon)

This is a fibre composed of linear polymer of amide linkage (—NHCO—) which is

formed from reacting an acid (R-COOH) and an amine (R’-NH2).

Fibre identification
Burning Tests Other Tests
- shrinks and melts away from flame Solubility Test
with fibre-forming drips - destroyed by 80% formic acid,
- hard and uncrushable residue hydrochloric acid and concentrated
mineral acids
- slightly degraded by dilute organic
acids

Properties
Physical Mechanical Chemical
- produced in filaments - very strong but lower - thermoplastic, can be
or cut into staples modulus permanently shaped by
- transparent and - excellent abrasion heat
resembles a glass rod resistance and tear - resistant to alkalis and
with round cross resistance, very many solvents but
section durable affected by
- variable fineness from - wet strength is 80 to concentrated acids
microfibers to coarse 90% of the dry - becomes yellow and
fibres - very high breaking lose strength when
- may be dyed to many elongation (20 – 80%), exposed to sunlight for
colours both wet or dry a long time
- range from high luster - very resilient and
to matt, depending on wrinkle resistant
fibre cross section and - good elasticity, good
addition of delustrants crease recovery
- fabrics may be fine and
soft or firm according to
fibre fineness, fabric
construction and
finishing
- light weight

21
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Clothing comfort
Warmth Absorbency Next-to-skin Comfort
- thermal insulation - small moisture - can be made into fine
depends on whether it absorption (3.5 – 4.5%) and soft fibres
is flat and textured - windproof, - prone to static
filaments hydrophobic, water - uncomfortable in warm
- flat filaments trap very repellent and humid weather
little air therefore cool
to wear
- textured filaments trap
air so warm to wear

Application and after care

Typical fabric
Staple fibre fabrics,
textured filament fabrics,
microfiber fabrics
(e.g. Nylon 6, Nylon 6,6)
Application After Care
Apparel - wash in 40°C water
- tights, underwear,, - iron without steam in
nightwear, lining, active 40°C
sports wear, fleece - do not bleach
garment - can be dry cleaned
Accessories - tumbled dried with care
- socks, ties
Household Textiles
- carpets, curtains,
umbrellas, sewing
yarns
Technical Textiles
- tents, ropes, sails,
parachutes, tyre cords,
seat belts

(C) Acrylic

Acrylic or polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fibre is an additional polymer. Acrylic fibre is polymer

containing at least 85% acrylonitrile monomer (H2C=CH-CN). It is commonly used as
wool substitute as its resilient resembles to that of wool but without felting and
shrinkage tendency.

Modacrylic refers as modified acrylic. As per USA fibre regulation definition,

22
DRAFT Juluy 2009

modacrylic is a copolymer containing less than 85% but at least 35% acrylonitrile
monomer.

Fibre identification
Burning Tests Other Tests
- shrinks and burns with a sooty flame Solubility Test
- with melting, dripping and forms black - dissolves in dimethylformamide,
beads dimethylacetamide and nitric acid
- pungent smell
- hard and unbreakable residue

Properties
Physical Mechanical Chemical
- produced as staples, - strong and durable - thermoplastics, burns
crimp with striations when compare with and melts when
and may be smooth or cotton and wool exposed to open flame
twisted surface - good extensibility - crimp, pleats and
- variable fineness, - good resistance to light creases can be heat
ranges from microfiber and chemical, set
to coarse fibres - moderate resiliency, - may shrink and
- wet-spun acrylics are round and bean discolour with high
round and bean shapes have greater temperature
shaped resilience - resists acids except
- dry-spun acrylics are - moderate tenacity nitric acid
dog-boned shaped with - wrinkle resistant, - moderately resists
increased softness and moderate elastic alkalis but degraded by
luster recovery sodium hydroxide
- wool-like handle - has pilling tendency
- may be dyed to many - moderate dimensional
colours stability
- range from high luster - soft
to matt depending on
fibre cross section and
addition of delustrants
- low density

23
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Clothing comfort
Warmth Absorbency Next-to-skin Comfort
- warm, insulating - low absorbency - comfortable to wear
qualities similar to wool - fast drying - prone to static

Application and after care

Typical fabric
Usually blended with other
fibres, such as cotton,
linen, viscose rayon, wool
and silk
Application After Care
Apparel - wash in 40°C water
- lightweight, - iron with low
nonallergenic wool temperature around
substitutes, sweaters, 40°C
fleece, knitted wear, - strong detergents and
pile, fake-fur and fleece non-chloride bleach
fabrics may be used
Accessories - dry-cleaning solvents
- socks may cause stiffening
Household Textiles
- blankets, curtains,
upholstery, carpet,
fluffy knitting yarns
Technical Textiles
- awnings, tarpaulins,
tents, outdoor furniture,
microfiber performance
fabrics

(D) Spandex

Spandex is USA fibre generic name for elastic fibre and in the European market, it is
called elastane. It is mainly composed of segmented polyurethane (PU). According to
the USA fibre regulation definition, fibres that contain at 85% by weight of segmented
PU are referred as Spandex. Spandex filament is usually incorporated in fabrics to
produce elasticity.

Fibre identification
Burning Tests Other Tests
- burns and melts, continues to burn Solubility Test
when the flame is removed - dissolves in cyclohexanone and

24
DRAFT Juluy 2009

- drips but does not shrink from the dichlorobenzene

flame
- with a chemical odor
- with hard and black residue

Properties
Physical Mechanical Chemical
- cross sectional - excellent elastic - degraded by
appearance: fibrillar recovery (can be concentrated chlorine
- longitudinal stretched by from bleach and becomes
appearance: smooth 400 – 700% and yellowish
or striated recovers its original - thermoplastics and
- white or gray and length) melts at 230°C
delustered - good strength,
- from 20 to 4300 denier resiliency and
- monofilament or dimensional stability
multifilament - very high crease
resistant
- poor abrasion
resistance and tenacity
when compared with
other fibres

Clothing comfort
Warmth Absorbency Next-to-skin Comfort
- Low warmth, always - absorbent and dyes - adds stretch to comfort
used in blends well - soft or firm handle

Application and after care

Typical fabric Application After Care
Need to be combined with Apparel - may be machine
other fibres, natural or - body-hugging washed or dry cleaned
synthetic to make into comfortable garments - can be tumble dried
fabric, e.g. - sports wear, skiwear, and iron up to 150°C
- swimwear lingerie, hosiery, - aged when subjected
- hosiery leisurewear, fashion to extreme stretching
- jersey fabrics products
- woven fabrics Accessories

25
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Typical fabric Application After Care

- flat knits - shoes
Technical Textiles
-medical products such as
bandages, nappies

4.1.6 Advanced Fibre Properties

(A) Polymers

Textile fibres are made from a class of chemical called polymer, natural or synthetic
forming polymer. Polymer is a long chain shaped molecule made from a number of
repeating chemical units called monomer. Polymer is also called macromolecule as its
size is comparatively larger than that of usual chemical compounds. They are
fundamental constituent of many materials ranging from plastics and rubbers to
complicated biological substances such as carbohydrate and protein.

Figure 4.8 A segment of linear polymer chain building up with monomers

Natural polymers exist as short fibres, which will be combed, lined up and twisted to
make longer, usable lengths.

cellulose based fibres, such as cotton and flax, are composed of the glucose
polymer cellulose
animal fibre, like wool, is composed of the protein polymer keratin

‘Regenerated’ fibres, e.g. viscose are fine continuous filaments of regenerated

cellulose.

26
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Synthetic fibres are made from petrochemicals using the process of polymerisation.
Polymerisation refers to chemical reactions that link monomer(s) together to form
synthetic polymer. There are two types of chemical reactions, addition and
condensation. Additional polymers are made by adding identical monomers to each
other to form long chains. The polymer produced is called homopolymer. Polyethylene
(PE), plastic which is used for polybag, is an example of this type of polymer. Another
example is polyacrylonitrile (PAN) or acrylic.

Figure 4.8 Polymerisation through addition reaction.

Condensation polymers are made by adding different monomers together to form long
chains. Two or more types of monomers are used, the polymer is called
heteropolymer. The name of the polymer is usually based on the chemical structure of
linkage. For example, Polyester is a kind of polymer based on ester (—COO—)
linkage. Nylon (or polyamide) is another example based on the amide (—NH-CO—)
linkage.

27
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Figure 4.9 Condensation polymerisation of polyester.

Another type of polymer is called block copolymer. This is a kind of polymer with two
different kinds of monomers linked together either in branch or block structure.
Elastane is made by block polymerization.

28
DRAFT Juluy 2009

(B) Shape (Morphology)

Shape is the one of the fundamental characteristics of textile fibres. The study of
shape, appearance and form of a substance is called “morphology”. The fundamental
substance of fibre is polymers. Basically, different kinds of polymeric substances in a
fibre and the different arrangements of polymers (microstructures) within the fibre
determine the shape. There are many factors affecting fibres’ shape. Take cotton as
an example. It is the fibre extracted from cotton plants. The shape of cotton fibre is
grown by natural. However, weather, soil condition, irrigation, etc, will affect the growth
of cotton plants and also cotton fibres in terms of their yield, fibre length, etc. On the
contrary, polyester is made from petroleum chemicals. Its shape is determined by the
way how it is manufactured. The process is called fibre spinning. For fibres taken from
nature, their shapes can be used as fibre identity. However, for man-made fibre
shapes that are not definite, they can be made into different forms as one desires.

Figure 4.10 Micrographs of two different forms of acrylic fibres. The left-hand side
fibre is oval shape (modified wet spun, 3.0 denier (0.33 tex) per filament, semi dull
lustre) and the right-hand side fibre is bi-lobed and tri-lobed shape (solvent spun).
(Source: American Association for Textile Colorists and Chemists)

Fibre shape determines many of the final properties of fabric such as smoothness,

29
DRAFT Juluy 2009

shininess, shrinkage, easiness of yarn spinning, pilling resistance, etc.

Figure 4.11 Micrograph of various textile fibres

As shape relates to many properties, there are processes to modify fibre shapes to
produce a particular effect. Mercerisation of cotton is an example. As natural cotton
fibres are in ribbon shape and they look dull, mercerisation is a process using strong
alkaline to swell cotton fibres. The inflated fibres give silky shininess to cotton fibres.
Another advantage is strengthening of fibre.

Figure 4.12 Comparison of the shapes of natural cotton and mercerized cotton fibres.
As the ribbon shape being inflated by strong alkaline, mercerised cotton has fuller
shape and reflects light evenly. This is why mercerised cotton has silky shininess
appearance.

30
DRAFT Juluy 2009

(C) Arrangements of Polymer in Fibres

Polymers align along the fibre lengthwise dimension. Such arrangement not just gives
rise to the thread-like shape of fibre, it also contributes to other properties such as
strength of fibre, swelling behavior in water, absorbency, etc.

Although polymeric molecules align mainly along the fibre axis, the alignment of
polymer will give rise to two microstructures, crystalline and amorphous region.
Crystalline structure is a region where polymeric chains are orderly arranged and
demonstrate crystal properties. This is the rigid section that renders the material
stiffness and strength. Crystalline section is usually opaque. As polymer chains are
orderly arranged, light can be reflected in definite pattern efficiently.

Figure 4.13 Crystalline and amorphous micro-structures of polymeric chains in fibres.

Different polymer chains are illustrated in different colours. Polymer chains aligned
orderly in particular axis in the crystalline region. Polymer chains being arranged
randomly without any order in the amorphous region.

As polymeric chains are not orderly arranged, there are many intermolecular spaces
in the region. Other molecules such as water, dye, etc can easily diffuse in and out.
This region is important for water absorption and dyeing. Of course, another factor
concerning water absorption is the presence of hydrophilic (water liking) groups in the
polymeric chain.

The relative proportion of these two microstructures determines a lot of fibre

properties such as strength, dyeability, absorbency, transparency, softness, etc. More
proportion of crystalline structures renders fibres greater strength, e.g. nylon. Greater
proportion of amorphous structures renders fibres greater water absorption ability,
easy colouration and more soft, etc.

31
DRAFT Juluy 2009

(D) Moisture Regain

Most of the textile fibres are hydroscopic. Hydroscopic substances all have the ability
to attract water molecules from the moist surrounding and release water molecules to
dry surrounding through desorption. The driving force behind is most textile fibres
possess hydrophilic (water – loving) groups that can bond to water molecule through a
weak link called hydrogen bonding. This is a property affecting a number of physical
characteristics such as hand feel (i.e. comfortability), weight, strength, colour stability,
pilling and abrasion resistance, etc of textile products.

Moisture regain of textile fibre is the percentage of the amount of water a fibre can
hold in a particular environment, which is usually standardised at 21°C, 65% relative
humidity, in respect to the dry weight of the fibre.

Amount of water
Moisture Regain = X 100%
Fibre Dry Weight

Material Moisture Regain (%)

Acrylic hand knitting
1.5
yarn
Cellulose acetate 6
Cotton 8.5
Flax and hemp 12
Nylon 4
Silk 11
Viscose rayon 11
Wool tops 18.5
Scoured wool 16

Figure 4.14 Moisture content of various textile fibres

As one can see, man-made fibres such as acrylic have low moisture regain. This is
one of the reasons why some end users may feel uncomfortable with man-made fibre
products. A majority of people agree that cotton is comfortable and one reason is its
high moisture content. Furthermore, moisture regain of a fibre indicates the degree of
hydroscopy of fibre. Low hydroscopic substances, such as acrylic, are hard to dye and
usually carried out at high temperature.

32
DRAFT Juluy 2009

4.1.7 Ways to Produce New Textile Materials

(A) Blending

Blending is mix two or more fibres together. The advantage of fibre blending is that
poor properties of one component can be compensated by good ones of the other
component. For example, some natural fibres shrink and wrinkle after laundering.
Blending with man-made fibres can reduce shrinkage and wrinkle of natural fibres.

Different fibres can blend in fibre, yarn or fabric stage. There are many combinations
of blending materials. Blending ratio can also be tuned to control the blended fabric
properties. All these make blended fibres a versatile group of textile materials for
various kinds of applications.

Blending combination Example

Natural - natural Cotton - Ramie
Natural - regenerated Cotton - Rayon
Natural - synthetic Wool - Polyester
Synthetic – regenerated Polyester - Rayon
Synthetic - synthetic Nylon - Spandex

Figure 4.15 Various kinds of blending of different textile materials

(B) New Textile Fibres Development

Polymer research has started from the 19th century and was well developed
throughout the period from the 60s to the 80s. Nowadays, new advancement of
synthetic textile materials is not too much. The new direction of synthetic textile fibre
production leans more towards environmental protection. The major supply of
chemicals is based on the petroleum industry. Petroleum is a fossil fuel and
non-renewable. As the volume of petroleum content is decreasing in the world,
researchers are looking for new sources for chemicals production. Recently, fibre
scientists start using chemicals from fast growing plants such as corn, soya bean,
sugar cane, etc.

33
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Polylactic Acid (PLA) Fibres

PLA fibre is a newly developed textile fibre which is generated based on corn rather
than petroleum chemicals. This fibre is manufactured from the lactic acid obtained
from the fermentation of sugar extracted from corn. Some call it “corn” fibre. The fibre
has low moisture regain and good wicking, which makes it good for sportswear. It
demonstrates low flammability with less smoke generated during its production
process. It is very light and resistant to ultraviolet radiation. The merit of the fibre is
that it is an environmentally friendly fibre as it is generated from renewable resources.

4.1.8 Materials Other Than Textile Fibres that Can be Used

for Making Clothing
Apart from textile fibres, there are many other types of materials that can be used for
making garments. Some of them have a longer history than that of textile fibres.

(A) Leather and Fur

Leather and fur have had a very long history. Ancient people used them for clothing
long before the use of textile. They hunted animals for food and cut the skin of animals
for making clothing that kept them warm. Nowadays, leather usually comes from
cows, sheep, pigs, etc. Fur is also skin from animals but with hair. Fur keeps warm
much better than leather and is used for winter clothing. Nowadays, fur is usually
taken from precious animals such as arctic fox. To avoid the extinction of the species,
many countries have restriction on the hunting of those animals. Fur garments are
expensive because of the limited supply of fur and they are usually handmade.

34
DRAFT Juluy 2009

(A) red leather jacket (B) fox fur clothing

Figure 4.16 Typical leather and fur clothing

35
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Leather is also called ‘hide’, which is a part of animal skin. Leather is:

Flexible
Durable
Strong
Dimensional stable
Abrasion resistant
Flame resistant
Water resistant

Leather from different animals and body parts has its unique texture and different
properties. Leather along the backbone is with more strength than that across the
backbone direction. Yet, leather cross the backbone is more stretchable.

Figure 4.17 Leather structure

36
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Figure 4.18 Anisotropy of leather

(B) Metal

Metals are heavy, inflexible, hard, no water absorption, etc. It is seldom used for
making modern garments. However, metal armors were one of the important military
and warfare necessity in the past. They provide maximum protection to the body from
attacks of all sorts of sharp weapons. The major drawbacks are its heavy weight and
inflexibility. Nowadays, metal can be used as decoration and accessories. It can also
be incorporated in garment in the form of yarn or foil.

37
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Figure 4.19 Modern made metallic armor for collection. The armor is built from
forged and hammered mild steel plates.
(Source: © 2006 Kropserkel Inc.)

(C) Paper

Paper (or non-woven) fabrics are commonly used as disposable or one time use items
such as disposable underwear, diaper, lab coat, etc. The costing is comparatively
lower than that of usual textiles. Unlike textile fabrics, the production of non-woven
fabrics needs no yarn. It is a direct process done with fibres. Fibres are laid randomly
and interlocked with other fibre strands through entanglement, adhesive or fusion. As
the production steps are simple, its cost is greatly reduced.

(D) Plastics

Plastics are developed in parallel with synthetic fibres. It can be applied to clothing,
particularly to raincoats. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene (PE) are the
common plastics employed. The difference between plastics and textile fibres are
their different forms. Plastic are extruded in sheet form for clothing while textile fibres

38
DRAFT Juluy 2009

are extruded in thread form. Plastic are a kind of versatile material and provide a wide
varieties of surface texture such as smooth, embossed, imitate leather, etc. Imitated
leather is usually composed of a thick layer of polyurethane (PU) foam and coated
with a thin layer of PVC that is molded to give the leather a look texture. For
increasing strength, a layer of textile cloth is bonded underneath as backing. There is
another kind of clothing plastic called “pleather” which refers to plastic leather or
synthetic leather. Pleather is a thick layer of plastic with moulded leather texture on
the face or its smooth surface. The back side is usually bonded with a layer of textile
cloth for improving strength and making wearers feel comfortable.

(A) Leather jacket (B) PVC raincoat

Figure 4.20 Plastic clothing

39
DRAFT Juluy 2009

4.2 Fabric Construction

Fabric is constructed from yarns. Yarns are threads which are made from smaller
threads. Fabrics are readily made materials for the production of various kinds of
textile products.

Figure 4.21 Different stages of textile production

There are two basic types of textile fibres, staples (short fibres) and filaments (long
fibres). Staples are short and need to be twisted together to form yarns. Filaments are
very long and require very few twisting to form yarns.

Figure 4.22 Basic types of yarn

4.2.1 Types of Fabrics

Fabrics are constructed from yarns. Basically, there are two main types of fabrics,
woven and knit fabric. They are produced completely differently and they certainly
possess different properties.

40
DRAFT Juluy 2009

(A) Woven Fabrics

Woven fabrics are made from interlacing two sets of yarns at a right angle. The
process is called weaving. Yarns parallel to length are called warps or ends. Yarns
parallel to width are called wefts or fills. Warp yarns require under tension during the
weaving process. They usually have greater strength than wefts. Warp yarns pass
over and under the wefts alternatively. Weft yarns run in similar pattern. By changing
such interweaving pattern, different types of woven fabrics can be produced. Woven
fabrics are strong fabrics with greater stability in terms of the maintenance of their
shape. They will not shrink much after laundering.

Figure 4.23 Basic construction of a woven fabric. The purple yarns are warps and
the yellow yarns are wefts.

(B) Knit Fabrics

The construction of knit fabrics is completely different from that of woven fabrics. They
are formed by interlocking yarn loops. The process is called knitting. Hand knitting
garments are produced based on such technique. Yarns are running across the width
of fabrics. The direction is called course. The direction parallel to length is called wale.

41
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Figure 4.24 Basic construction of a knit fabric. Alternate courses are illustrated in
blue and green. For circular knit fabric, they can be the same yarn.

Knit fabrics formed from yarn loops can be extended widthwise more easily. They are
soft and can be draped easily. However, they are a form of weaker fabric that is more
stretchable and less dimensionally stable. Knit garments are advised to be washed by
hand or washing machine with gentle cycle to minimise shrinkage.

The two basic loops structures are called purl and knit stitches. By arranging these
two basic structures, various kinds of knit fabrics can be produced.

Figure 4.25 Two types of yarn loops present in knit fabric

Furthermore, the appearance of the face and the back of knit fabrics are different. The
face side of a knit fabric has the “V” shape of yarn segments. The back side of the
fabric looks differently.

42
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Figure 4.26 Back side of a knit fabric

(C) Non-Woven Fabrics

Non-woven fabrics are constructed differently from the above two types of fabrics.
They are directly produced from fibres without yarn. This minimises the cost of
production and non-woven fabrics are cheaper and usually applied to garments of
one-time use. One of the examples is the protective clothing used in hospitals. This
kind of clothing is expected to be disposed immediately after use to avoid bacterial
infection.

The formation of non-woven fabrics is by compressing fibres together through:

Mechanical bonding
Glue
Heat fusion

Common materials used to produce non-woven fabrics are synthetic fibres such as
polypropylene (PP), polyester, etc. Non-woven fabrics are popular nowadays in terms
of the application of many products other than clothing. Some examples of all these
different applications are dust filter and environmental shopping bag.

43
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Figure 4.27 Non-woven fabrics

4.3.2 Colouration
Colouration is an important process in terms of textile production. Textile colours are
achieved through two processes, dyeing and printing. Dyeing gives solid colours to
fabrics and printing gives colour patterns to fabrics.

(A) Colour Basics

The colours are light radiation which may come directly from the light source that are
transmitted or reflected by objects. Lights can be considered as waves with different
wavelengths. Human eyes can only see a certain part of the light spectrum. These
lights that fall into this part of the colour spectrum visible to human eyes are called
visible lights, ranging from wavelength 400 nm to 700 nm. Blue light is a short
wavelength, around 400 nm and carries higher energy. Red light is a longer
wavelength, around 700 nm, and carries lower energy. There are three elements that
help to percept the colour(s) of an object. They are light, the object and the eyes.
Without one of them, one will not be able to see the object’s colour.

Figure 4.28 Red and blue light radiation

(B) Dyeing

44
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Dyeing is the colouration of textiles by the application of dyes. Dyes are a group of
colour molecules (colourants) with the following characteristics:

Water soluble
Affinity to textile fibres

There is another type of colourants called pigment which are:

Water insoluble
No affinity to textile fibres
Combined to fibres through binders

Dyeing is carried out in water and the water is called the dye liquor. Dye molecules
migrate from the dye liquor to the textile fibres. Dyes are then absorbed by fibres.
From that point onward, the dyes are exhausted. However, this is not the final
destination of dyes. They will further diffuse into the fibres and finally combine with a
particular fibre structure called dyesite. This process is called fixation. Fixed dyes do
not easily migrate back to the dye liquor. The amount of dye exhausted is equal to the
amount of dye absorbed and fixed. Of course, absorbed dyes may diffuse back to the
dye liquor before they are fixed. The fixing process is called desorption. In the
situation when exhaustion rate is equal to desorption rate, the dyeing process attains
equilibrium and any further dyeing will not result in any further increase in colour depth.
The amount of dye exhausted at this stage is called equilibrium exhaustion.

45
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Figure 4.29 Dyeing process

(C) Printing

Printing can be considered as a local colouration process. Colour will only apply to the
printed area and the unprinted area will not be coloured. Printing is carried out with
print paste which consists of a high concentration of colourant together with thickener.
The purpose of the thickener used in this process is to limit the side migration of
colourants (or sometimes called bleeding). Dye and pigment can be applied. For
pigment print, binders are mixed into the print paste.

Printing patterns are usually transferred to rotary screens or flatbed screens. The
unprinted area is blocked by photosensitive resist and left the printed area open. Print
paste is squeezed through the printed area and transferred onto fabrics.

46
DRAFT Juluy 2009

(A) Flatbed screen printing

(B) Rotary screen printing

Figure 30 Principle of textile printing

(D) Colour Fastness

The resistance of colour of a dyed or printed textile is called colour fastness. The
resistance can be measured in two aspects. They are namely, colour change and
staining.

Colour change generally refers to the fading of colour in respect to various processing
and daily actions such as washing. Staining refers to the colour migration from the
item to its adjacent item. For the sake of measurement, white fabrics are usually
selected to be the adjacent material.

Colour fastness is affected by the types of dye applied and the dyeing operation. It is
also measured in terms of various factors. Common colour fastness properties are:

Washing
Light
Rubbing

47
DRAFT Juluy 2009

4.2.3 Finishing
Finishing is commonly referring to treatments applied to textiles for the modification or
addition of the textile properties. There are many types of finishing that may change
surface appearance, absorption properties, etc. Finishing can be applied through
mechanical or chemical process.

(A) Mechanical Finishing

Mechanical finishing refers to the finishing achieved through mechanical actions.

They usually modify the surface appearance and hand feel of fabrics.

(i) Raising

This is a process to produce raised surface on the fabric through brushing. Short
fibres are uplifted from yarns by brushing rollers. The brushed surface is soft and
comfortable. The brushed side is usually facing the skin and one of the major
applications of brushed fabrics is sleepwear. Brushing can also be applied to both
sides of fabrics. However, brushed fabrics have weaker strength as yarns are
damaged. The more the brushing, the weaker the fabric becomes. Apart from
brushing rollers, sanding can also produce raised surface which produces suede
effect. By decreasing the sand size, peach surface can be produced on fabrics.

Figure 4.31 Brushing

48
DRAFT Juluy 2009

(ii) Calendaring

This process applies a heavy and usually heated metal calendar on either one side or
both sides of fabrics, which is similar to ironing. This will produce a smooth surface
and increase the luster of fabrics.

Figure 4.32 Calendaring

(iii) Embossing

This process applies an embossing calendar to fabrics. The embossment is usually

patterned to produce an embossed pattern on fabrics. The calendars of either of both
sides can be heated for synthetic fabric to enhance the embossing effect.

Figure 4.33 Embossing

(iv) Fulling

This is a specific finishing process for woolen fabric. The fabrics are subject to
moisture, heat, friction and pressure control, which are main reasons that cause
shrinkage. The treated fabrics become much compact and dense. This produces a
fulling hand feel.

49
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Figure 4.34 Schematic diagram of an fulling equipment

(B) Chemical Finishing

These kinds of finishing produce wide varieties of effects on fabrics through chemical
treatments. They can enhance the dimensional stability, induce water resistance,
improve softness, etc. Some of these different kinds of finishing are as follows:-.

(i) Water Repellency

Most of the untreated textile materials absorb water or moisture to a certain degree.
Water repellency finish aims to render fabric resistance to wetting. The finish is based
on the application of water repelling agents such as wax, olefin, fluoropolymer, etc.
For fabrics with water repelling finish, water will form spherical or hemispherical
droplets on the surface of fabrics.

(ii) Water Proofing

Water proofing finish renders the fabrics’ impermeability to water. This is usually done
by coating textiles with plastic such as PVC, olefin, silicone rubber, etc. Such kind of
finish can prevent water from passing through the fabrics but it also blocks air diffusion.
This makes the wearers feel uncomfortable when wearing clothing of this sort. Modern
water proof textiles can combine water resistance and air permeability together. An
example of this kind of modern water proof textile would be Gore-tex.

50
DRAFT Juluy 2009

(iii) Stain Resistance

This finishing shares similar principles of that of water repellency finish. Low surface
tension substances are applied to fabric surface. Dirt cannot attach firmly or even
without any attachment to fabric surface. Contemporary stain resistance agents are
mainly based on fluoropolymer such as Teflon. This group of polymers is well known
to have low surface tension.

(iv) Antibacterial Finishing

This finishing applies germicides to fabrics to kill or stop the growth of bacteria.
Several major applications of this finishing are:

Sportswear, underwear and socks to prevent bacterial decomposition of

sweat from causing irritating and unpleasant odor.

Medical uniform to prevent bacterial infection.

General products to prevent bacterial degradation of textile material.

Below are several newly developments of antibacterial finishing:

Incorporation of nano-sized silver in yarn.

Plasma induced germicide attachment to textile fibres to produce
permanent antibacterial properties.

Coating that contains microcapsule of antibacterial agent that can be
released gradually upon daily usage.

Apart from bacterial attack, textile materials are also subject to fungal attack such as
mildew. Sometimes white cotton towel in the bathroom is stained with dark purple
spots. They are fungus. Fungus can also degrade cellulose to form slippery gel and
fabrics can be rotten and break very easily. There are also different kinds of antifungal
finishing to prevent these situations.

(v) Antistatic Finishing

Static electricity refers to the transfer of charges, particularly electrons, from one
substance to another through rubbing. As textiles are dielectric (non-electrical
conducting) materials, extra charges cumulate and cannot conduct away. When the
cumulated charges build up to a certain level, they may discharge through air when
some other objects approach. Static electricity builds up much more easily in dry
season. Most of us may experience sparking when we take off clothes in winter.

51
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Antistatic finishing can be achieved by incorporating conducting threads or yarns in

fabrics so that extra charges can be conducted away without excessively
accumulating on clothing. Antistatic clothing is particularly important in certain
industries such as electronic and petroleum industries.

(vi) Nanotechnology

The term “nanotechnology” is very popular nowadays. You can see this term on a lot
of commercial products such as cosmetics and electric appliance. “Nano” is a SI
(International System of Units) prefix for describing numerical value. “Nano” stands for
10-9 only and nanotechnology refers to a length with its nanometre equal to10-9 m.
Nanotechnology refers to the manufacturing or handling of materials in nanometre
scale. Chemically speaking, an atom sizes in the range of 10-10 m. Nano scale is 10
times bigger than an atom. In other words, this technology refers to the manufacturing
of products in molecular scale.

The main difference between nanotechnology and the traditional manufacturing

process is the surface of products. For example, traditional techniques cannot
produce a very uniform surface but nanotechnology can produce a very fine uniform
surface that renders extra properties.

Below are some of the examples for the application of nanotechnology in textiles.

Stain proof finishing.

Antimicrobial finishing.

Odorless textile.

Fragrance release finishing.

Skin care finishing.

4.2.4 Fabric Quality

Fabric quality can be measured in many aspects. Some of the aspects are as
follows:-.

(A) Strength

Fabric strength is one of the important properties that determines the different
application of fabrics. For example, work wear may require carrying heavy tools
around as oppose to casual wear. The fabrics used in work wear must be strong

52
DRAFT Juluy 2009

enough.

Fabric strength is usually expressed in term of tensile strength. “Tensile” refers to the
tension created by pulling force. Tensile strength is measured by pulling the textile
until it break and is defined as the unit breaking force per specimen width.

Figure 4.35 Tensile strength

(B) Elongation

Elongation measures the stretchability of textile. Generally speaking, woven fabrics

are less stretchable than knit fabrics. Knit fabrics are more stretchable along the width
rather than along the wale as yarn loops can straighten and extend. For woven fabrics,
weftwise (widthwise) direction is more stretchable than warpwise (lengthwise)
direction. Warp yarns are already straightened during weaving and they are not
extended easily.

(C) Elasticity

Elasticity is similar to stretchability but it also measures the recovery power of the
fabric. Although knit fabrics demonstrate slightly elastic along the course direction,
normal fabrics are generally considered as non-elastic. A true elastic fabric contains
elastic fibre. The common kind of elastic fibre is called spandex or elastane, which is
mainly composed of polyurethane polymer. The famous brand of such kind of elastic
fibre is “Lycra”, which was formerly owned by Du Pont, from Invista. There is another
type of elastic fibre called elastoester. Swimwear requires good abrasion resistance
and elasticity. Most of them are made with fabrics of nylon/spandex blend. It is
important to note that spandex can be extended five time of its original length without

53
DRAFT Juluy 2009

breakage and it returns back to its original length upon the release of loading.

(D) Abrasion Resistance

Abrasion means rubbing. Abrasion resistance is one of the properties of textiles as

most of the textile products always rub against different surfaces during their daily
application. Abrasion resistance refers to the number of cycles of rubbing will render
defects on fabric. These defects include rupture, yarn breakage, surface coating chip
off, colour loss, etc. Some textile products require good abrasion resistance. For
example, textile furniture covers require very high abrasion resistance.

(E) Pilling Resistance

Pilling refers to the entanglement of short fibres forming small balls of fibre. The
formation of pill is also through rubbing. Fuzz or short fibres may rise from the yarn
surface. Further rubbing may entangle the fuzz to form pilling. Pilling resistance is
affected by many factors such as yarn twisting, fibre stiffness, impurities, etc. The
more the yarn twisting, the more the fibres bound tightly and harder together and this
prevents the fibres from being rubbed off the surface. Stiffer fibres are more resistant
to pilling formation as they require a longer length to turn around. Flexible fibres form
pilling more easily as they turn around at shorter length.

Figure 4.36 A photo that shows pilling on a piece of fabric

54
DRAFT Juluy 2009

(F) Dimensional Stability

After laundering, it is common to find that the clothes have shrunk. This relates to the
dimensional stability of fabrics. Fabrics usually shrink after laundering. This
phenomenon is due to the relaxation of stress that has been imposed on yarns during
weaving. Woven fabrics are much compact than knit fabrics. Woven fabrics have a
greater resistance to shrinkage. Dimensional change is not limited to just shrinkage.
Over agitation during washing may result growth in fabrics. The commercial
acceptance of fabric growth is stricter than shrinkage as fabric growth produce poor
looking puckering on fabrics.

(G) Wrinkle Resistance

Wrinkle resistance is an appearance property of fabrics after wash or daily use.

Cellulosic fibres are well known as a kind of poor wrinkle resistant material. They form
wrinkles easily. Cellulosic clothing requires ironing after washing because wrinkles
can be removed by ironing. Cellulosic fibres that are blended with synthetic fibres
such as polyester, polyamide render better wrinkle resistance. Another way to
enhance wrinkle resistance is resin (wrinkle free) finishing. Resin fixes the fabric
construction and maintains fabric dimension and appearance. The drawbacks of
wrinkle free finishing are lower fabric strength and present of formaldehyde.
Depending on amount, formaldehyde may cause unpleasant “fishy” smell, skin
irradiation and induce cancer.

(H) Absorbency

Water absorbency refers to the ability of fabrics to pick up water and is particularly
important to the following products.

Sportswear
Underwear
Bathroom towels
Kitchen towels

Good water absorbency does not refer to just the quick uptake of water but also the
fabrics’ ability to hold water in greater amount. Cellulosic fibres are a good example.
Synthetic fibres are usually not good at absorbing water and they are rarely used to
produce towels. Water absorbency may be hindered by surface finishing and
industrial impurities. For example, yarns may come with lubricants that are oily based

55
DRAFT Juluy 2009

substances. This may prevent water uptake. This is the reason why new towels are
recommended to be washed once before use.

56
DRAFT Juluy 2009

Not for Sale

The copyright of the materials in this booklet belongs to the Education Bureau. The materials
can be used by schools only for educational purpose. Written prior permission of the
Education Bureau must be sought for other commercial uses.

57