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Sirs
Sirs
The systemic inflammatory response to a variety of severe clinical
insults
Two or more of the following conditions:
(1) Fever (oral temperature > 38°C) or hypothermia (<36°C);
(2) Tachypnea (>24 breaths/min);
(3) Tachycardia (heart rate >90 beats/min);
(4) Leukocytosis (>12,000/L), leukopenia (<4,000/L)
Systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS)
SIRS may have an infectious or a noninfectious etiology
SEPSIS
Sepsis
• severe sepsis associated with
dysfunction of organs distant from the site of
infection.
Severe sepsis may be accompanied by hypotension or evidence of
hypoperfusion.
• septic shock hypotension cannot
be corrected by infusing fluids.
Severe Sepsis cases US Population
1800 600
1600 550
500
1400
450
1200
400
1000
350
800 300
600 250
2001 2025 2050
Annual deaths by disease (CDC)
breast cancer
colon cancer
diseases
lung cancer
myocardial
infarction
severe sepsis
Medical device, catheterisms Invasive manipulations
Gram ‐ Gram + Fungi polymicrobial Classic pathogens
< 5% °
16%
40% *
6%
31% **
* Enterobacteriaceae, pseudomonads, Haemophilus spp., other gram‐negative bacteria.
** Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase‐negative staphylococci, enterococci, Streptococcus pneumoniae,
other streptococci, other gram‐positive bacteria.
° Such as Neisseria meningitidis, S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae, and Streptococcus pyogenes
Conditions That May Predispose to Infections with
Positive Blood Cultures
Microbial Isolate Condition
Gram‐negative bacilli Diabetes mellitus
Lymphoproliferative diseases
Cirrhosis of the liver
Burns
Invasive procedures or devices
Neutropenia
Indwelling urinary catheter
Diverticulitis, perforated viscus
Gram‐positive bacteria Intravascular catheters
Indwelling mechanical devices
Burns
Neutropenia
Intravenous drug use
Infection with superantigen‐producing S. pyogenes
Fungi Neutropenia
Broad‐spectrum antimicrobial therapy
causes and causes and
consequences of local consequences of
release of TNF‐α systemic release
of TNF‐α
Common effects of TNF‐α,
which acts on blood vessels,
especially venules, to increase
blood flow, to increase
vascular permeability to fluid,
proteins, and cells, and to
increase endothelial
adhesiveness for leukocytes
and platelets
Local release thus allows
an influx into the infected
tissue of fluid, cells, and
proteins that participate in
host defense
Later, blood clots form in
the small vessels,
preventing spread of the
infection via the blood, and
the accumulated fluid and
cells drain to regional lymph
nodes where the adaptive
immune response is
initiated
Criteria for the Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome,
Adapted from the American College of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medicine
Consensus Conference
Two or more of the following are required:
1) Body temperature >38°C or <36°C
2) Heart rate >90 beats per minute
3) Respiratory rate >20 breaths per minute or arterial CO2
tension less than 32 mmHg or a need for mechanical
ventilation
4) White blood count greater than 12,000/mm3 or 4000/mm3
or <10% immature forms
Sepsis represents SIRS, which has been induced by an infection.
Definitions (ACCP/SCCM)
Severe Sepsis: Multiple Organ Dysfunction Syndrome
• Sepsis plus >1 organ (MODS): The presence of altered
dysfunction. organ function in an acutely ill patient
• MODS. such that homeostasis cannot be
• Septic Shock. maintained without intervention.
Clinical Signs of Septic Shock
Hemodynamic Alterations
Septic Shock is divided into two stages. A warm phase known as the Hyperdynamic phase and a
cold phase known as the Hypodynamic phase.
Hyperdynamic State (“Warm Shock”)
Tachycardia.
Elevated or normal cardiac output.
Decreased systemic vascular
resistance.
Hypodynamic State (“Cold Shock”)
Low cardiac output.
Myocardial Depression.
Altered Vasculature.
Altered Organ Perfusion.
Imbalance of O2 delivery and Consumption.
Metabolic (Lactic) Acidosis.
ipertono arteriole riduzione letto capillare
VASODILATAZIONE Æ ↓O2 tissutale
precapillari e costrizione
sfinteri precapillari
in tale fase PA e Gc sono poco apertura shunt
modificate arterovenosi
Esaurimento vascolare
↓
riapertura degli sfinteri
precapillari
↓
ristagno di sangue nei capillari,
riduzione ritorno venoso
↓
↓ Gc, ↓ PA e venosa centrale
↓
VASOPARALISI generalizzta con
ristagno di sangue in periferia,
immobilizzazione 60% della
massa sanguigna
Inflammatory endothelial dysfunction
Infection
mediators
vasodilation
Microvascular
plugging Edema
hypotension organ‐specific
Maldistribution of Microvascular Blood Flow
Cell‐ Organ
Ischemia
death dysfunction
The disease has started but remains limited
Pre‐Shock
Compensated Shock
Decompensated Shock, reversible
Decompensated Shock, Irreversible
Clinical Signs of Sepsis
Fever
Leukocytosis
Tachypnea
Reduced
Vascular
Tone
Sources of infection
• Suspect intravenous‐line infections when intravenous line has been in
place for a prolonged period, usually > 1week. Central intravenous lines are
the lines most commonly associated with bacteremia or sepsis. Peripheral
venous lines are almost never involved, and arterial lines are rarely
associated with bacteremia, although it can still occur.
• Patients with an intra‐abdominal or pelvic source of
infection usually have a history of antecedent conditions
that predispose to perforation or abscess (eg, chronic or
retrocecal subacute appendicitis, diverticulitis, Crohn
disease, previous abdominal surgery, cholecystitis).
Sources of infection
• The urinary tract source is suggested by an antecedent
history of pyelonephritis, stone disease, congenital
abnormal collecting system, prostate enlargement, or
previous prostate or renal surgery.
• Patients with diabetes, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), or alcoholism or who are
taking steroids are also at an increased risk for bacteremia.
Physical examination
This may be helpful in suggesting a potential source for sepsis.
Only 50% of patients with central intravenous‐line infections have
evidence of infection at the insertion site.
•Diffuse abdominal pain:
peritonitis, pancreatitis
•Right upper abdominal •Left upper
quadrant pain: gallbladder abdominal
etiology (eg, cholecystitis, quadrant pain:
cholangitis); hepatic abscess splenic abscess
•Left lower
•Right lower abdominal
abdominal
quadrant pain: appendicitis;
quadrant pain:
cecal diverticulitis
sigmoid
diverticulitis
Physical examination: skin
Laboratory Studies
• Blood cultures: Obtain blood cultures upon admission to demonstrate the organism
responsible for infection.
• A WBC count is usually not helpful because of the numerous conditions that mimic sepsis
and that manifest as leukocytosis with variable degrees of a left shift. Leukocytosis with a
left shift is a nonspecific diagnostic finding. It is as common in noninfection as in infection.
• Obtain a urine Gram stain, urinalysis, and urine culture.
• If central intravenous‐line sepsis is suspected, remove the line and send the tip for
semiquantitative bacterial culture.
•Obtain a buffy coat of the white cells from peripheral blood stained by
acridine orange, or use the Gram method to demonstrate bacteria
responsible for the bacteremia or septic process. While the yield is low,
stained buffy coat smears, if positive, are the best rapid test available to
demonstrate organisms that cause bacteremia. If the stained buffy coat
smear yields a positive result, it demonstrates the morphology of the
bacteria that is causing the bacteremia, which provides rapid information
on which to base empiric antimicrobial therapy.
Imaging Studies
• Chest radiography is important to rule out pneumonia and diagnose other
causes of pulmonary infiltrates
reduction of the gallbladder
lumen with irregular
• Ultrasonography
enlargement of the wall
containing multiple stones
• CT scan or MRI
Optimize Organ Perfusion
Support Dysfunctional Organ
Expand effective blood volume.
Hemodynamic monitoring.
Systems
Control Infection Source Renal replacement therapies
(CVVHD, HD).
Drainage
Surgical Cardiovascular support (pressors,
Radiologically‐guided inotropes).
Culture‐directed antimicrobial therapy Mechanical ventilation.
Support of reticuloendothelial system Transfusion for hematologic
Enteral / parenteral nutritional dysfunction.
support
Minimize immunosuppressive Minimize exposure to hepatotoxic
therapies and nephrotoxic therapies.
Antibiotic Selection & Administration
Experimental Therapies in Sepsis
Modulation of Host Response
Targeting Endotoxin
Anti‐endotoxin monoclonal antibody failed to reduce mortality
in gram negative sepsis.
Neutralizing TNF
Excellent animal data.
Large clinical trials of anti‐TNF monoclonal antibodies showed a
very small reduction in mortality (3.5%).