85

CHAPTER-III

HAZARDOUS AND TOXIC EFFECTS OF

THERMAL POWER PLANTS POLLUTION
The health ofthe people is really the foundation upon which
all their happiness and their powers as a stale depend.
-Benjamin Disraeli.

The biblical phrase ‘ashes to ashes, dust to dust’, applies to man

himself, but it may not apply to what he leaves behind. Man is able to contribute
a variety of substances to environment, which include non-degradable
substances also. Owing to the rapid industrialization and consequent increase in
the standard of living, the demand for energy is constantly increasing. Coal is
one form of energy, which is used abundantly in the production of electricity. It
is wellknown that coal has the greatest potential for environmental damage to
man and his surroundings. In India, 17 categories of heavily polluting
industries have been identified among which thermal power is one1. Pollutant is
a physical agent which if found in excess, alters the quality of environment
adversely. Though electricity is a clean form of energy at the point of
consumption, the process of its production generates several types of
environmental pollution. Towards the end of this century, total power
generation will be 1,00,000 MW and thermal power plants will generate about
70,000 MW2.
Indian coals are known to have deposited in Gondwana trough
lakes. These lakes received lithogenic fluxes from mineralised Indian shields
enriching the coal with trace metals like Pb, Zn, Cu, Cd, Co, Ni, Mn, Th, U etc.
High content of ash only adds up to these metal values since fine mineral
1. “INDIA, 1997” Reference Annual, compiled and edited by Research and Training
Division, Published by Publication Division, Government of India, 1997. P-23.
2. Op.cit, Dr.B.K.Sharma and Dr. H.Kaur, P-227.
 .86

particulates (sediments), which represent ash in the coal are but sinks of many
trace metals in a sedimentary basin of coal formation. Besides toxic heavy
metals coal carries 0.3% to 0.5% of halogens like chlorine, flourine and sodium
salts etc. At present, the coal burning by power sector is approximately 65
million tons per day. Every three tons of carbon burnt will consume eight tons of
oxygen3. Unfortunately, the indian coal is of very bad quality with high ash
content and less calorific value.

Environmental Pollution:
The environmental pollution is a necessary evil of man made
progress. It is the most horrible ecological crisis, which we are facing today
globally. The unlimited rapacious exploitation of nature by man has disturbed
die delicate ecological balance existing between living and non-living
components of the earth. This led to threat of survival of mankind and other
biota on the earth. The most important and common pollutants are, deposited
matter such as soot, smoke, tar, dust and grit, gases such as CO, CO2, NOx, SO2,
flourine, chlorine, ozone, ammonia etc., chemical compounds like aldehydes,
detergents, hydrogen fluorides, arsines, and phosgenes, toxic metals like
cadmium, mercury, lead and iron. Economic poisons like herbicides, pesticides,
fungicides, insecticides, rodentcides etc., fertilizers like N, K, P etc., sewage
such as human wastes and radioactive substances such as argon-41, cobalt-60,
caesium-137 and iodine-131.

The burning of coal has many adverse effects on different

systems, which are classified as air pollution, solid waste pollution, soil
pollution, noise pollution, thermal pollution and radiation pollution. When coal
is burnt, it produces fine ash particles, some polycyclic hydrocarbons, mercury
and other toxic metals4. Coal conversion may produce powerful carcinogens.
3. “Survey ofthe environment”, Published by The Hindu, 1994. P-51.
4. Barry Commoner, “The Poverty ofPower: Energy and Economic Crisis”, Jonathan Cape,
London, 1976. P-78.
 87
An American Public Health Association (APHA) study points to
research findings that 80% of known clinical congenital malformations and
spontaneous abortions are of unknown origin while at the same time a very
broad range of chemical agents have been shown in the laboratory to produce
teratogenic effects under certain conditions. Usually long periods are taken
between cause and effect.5 Pollution could be causing genetic mutations that will
not be apparent for decades or generations.

Air Pollution:
Atmosphere is not just the air we breathe but also a gaseous
substance enveloping the earth protecting all living beings from harmful solar
and cosmic radiation. Upto 25 Kms, the atmosphere comprises of nitrogen
(78.09%), oxygen (20.95%), argon (0.93%) and carbon-di-oxide (0.03%).
Besides these, Neon, Helium, Ozone, and Hydrogen are also present in small
quantities. Due to air pollutants released by different industries, the quality of
air has been deteriorating. Air pollution can be defined as “substances
introduced into the air by the activity of mankind in such concentrations
sufficient to cause serious effects on his health, vegetables, property or
interference with the enjoyment of his property”. During the combustion of coal
three major pollutants are released into the air which are very harmful to people
and nature. Those are Sulphurous Oxides, Nitrous Oxides and particulate matter.
This particulate matter is released in the form of fly ash6.

Effects of SO2:
SO2 is colourless, non-flammable gas which has an acid taste at
concentrations less than 1 ppm or air and which has a pungent, irritating odour
at concentrations above about 3 ppm. SO2 emisssions are
5. Rice O’dell, “Environmental Awakening: The New Revolution to protect the Earth”,
Ballinger Publishing co., Cambridge, 1980. P-137.Ibid.
6. op.cit.. Dr. B.K.Shanna and Dr. H.Kaur, P-227.
 ' 88

directly related to the sulphur content of coal. Actually, the air borne sulphur
can be useful in some areas where it is deficient. Recently scientists came to

know that sulphur dioxide can be airborne for considerable distance and can get
reacted with water to form Sulphuric Acid. Small amounts of SO2 is absorbed
with metals to form metal sulphates. SO2 penetrates the plants through stomata
and is converted to bisulphate and sulphite ions within the plants. SO2 readily
gets oxidised to SO3 in atmosphere by photo-chemical or catalytic processes and
in the presence of moisture it becomes sulphuric acid or a sulphate salt and soon
precipitates out of the atmosphere.
Robinson and Robins, have estimated that sulphur oxides from
man’s activities introduce 6.6 million metric tons of sulphur or 132 million
metric tonnes of sulphur-di-oxide into the atmosphere annually, largely from
coal and petroleum combustion7. Much higher concentrations of SO2 occur near

coal fired power stations. Sulphur oxides can damage materials and property
through their conversion into highly reactive sulphuric acid. Discolouration and
physical deterioration are produced in building materials (lime stone, marble,
roofing, slate and mortar) and sculpture. The corrosion of most metals especially
iron, steel and zinc is accelerated by atmospheres polluted by SO2. Particulate
matter, humidity and elevated temperatures play important synergistic roles.
Deterioration and fading are also produced in fabrics (such as cotton, nylon and
rayon) leather and paper.

SO2 also affects vegetation adversely. High concentrations over

short periods of time can produce acute leaf injury, such as necrotic (tissue
destruction) blotching of broad-leaved plants and grasses of brownish
discoloration with tips of pine needles. Lower concentrations over longer
periods (days or weeks) causes chronic leaf injury such as gradual yellowing
(chlorosis) as chlorophyll production is impeded.
7. Timmy Katyal and Satake, “Environmental Pollution”, Anmol Publications, New Delhi,
1989. P-151.
 89

S02 and H2SO4 are both capable of irritating the respiratory

system of animals and men. It paralyses or destroys bronchial cilia in air passage
of men, constricts bronchiae, damages lungs, lowers resistance to pneumonia
and influenza and causes bronchitis, emphysema and irritation of mucous
membrane8. A large power plant may bum 10,000 tonnes of coal a day. If this
coal is contaminated with 3% Sulphur, some 900 tons of sulphur-di-oxide per
day will be discharged. This will become some one thousand and five hundred
tonnes of sulphuric acid by the addition of oxygen and hydrogen to the
molecule. A low concentration of H2S, causes head ache, nausea, lassitude,
collapse, coma and death. A concentration of 150 ppm brings about conjuctivitis
and irritation of the mucous membrane, causes colic diarrhoea and bronchial
pneumonia. In high concentration, death may take place within seconds from
even one or two inhalations9.
Nitrogenous Oxides:
NOx exhibits a longer life time in the atmosphere. It is produced
by oxidation of nitrogen in the air at high temperatures. It corrodes metals and
fades the textile dyes. The concentration of 1 ppm for a day and 0.35 ppm for
several months causes leaf injury and reduction in growth. In the presence of
sun light atomic Oxygen from the photochemical reduction of N02, it reacts
with a number of reactive Hydrocarbons (Methane, Ethane, Toluene etc.,), that
originate from the burning of fossil fuels to form reactive intermediates called
radicals. These radicals, then combine with Oxygen, Hydrocarbons and N02 to
form still more radicals. As a result Nitrogen-di-oxide regenerates.
NO disappears and ozone accumulates and a number of
secondary pollutants are formed such as Formaldehyde, Aldehyde and Peroxy
acetyl nitrate or (PAN). All of these collectively form photochemical smog.
Heat from any source may make atmospheric Nitrogen and Oxygen to react into
Nitrogen Oxides.
8. op.cit., UEE, P-151. 9. Ibid, P-1454.
 90

The Nitric Oxide gets oxidized to Nitrogen-di-oxide, by

atmospheric Oxygen, which reacts with the molecular Oxygen of the
atmosphere to form ozone. Ozone is now reported to be responsible for several
widespread diseases like whither of tobacco, leaf tip bum. In human beings
stinging of eyes, coughing, headache, tired feeling, edema, hemorrhage and
aging of lung tissues are observed.

Acid Rain:
Acid rain is an environmental problem that knows no boundaries.
Increasing acidity in natural waters or soils is becoming a problem all over the
world. The term Acid rain was first used by Robert Angus in 1872. Literally, it
means the presence of excessive acids in rainwater. It consists mainly H2SO4
and HNO3. The ratios of these depend on quantities of oxides of sulphates and
Nitrogen emitted. H2S04 is 60% - 70%, HNO3 is 30% - 40% and HC1 comes
next. The Sulphur or Nitrogen Oxides are produced mainly from the combustion
of fossil fuels, smelters, power plants, automobile exhausts. Burning of fossil
fuels for power generations contributes to 60% - 70% of total SO2 emitted
globally. Acid rain can be either wet or dry. Acid rain, snow, dew, frost and mist
represent the wet form of deposition, while dust particles containing sulphates
and nitrates, settled on earth is called dry deposition.
Acid rain results in a significant reduction in fish population
accompanied by a decrease in the variety of species in food chain. The acidic
water which has a P11 value below 5 can also leach aluminium from the soil.
Many bacteria and blue green algae are killed due to the acidification disrupting
die whole ecological balance. It destroys trees, corrodes monuments, buildings
etc., leading to a loss of crores of rupees. Acid rain plays havoc with human
nervous system by making a person an easy prey to neurological diseases. SOx
and NOx produce highly toxic compounds which contaminates the potable water
enter our body. It destroys crops and forests. Acidification of soil changes it’s
biology and chemistry.
 91

When die soil becomes acidified, plants can absorb Cadmium

more easily and a high level of Cadmium in plants is dangerous for animals and
human beings. Other effects are corrosion of metals, weakening or disintegration
of textiles, paper and marble. Hydrogen Sulphide tarnishes silver and blackens
leaded house paints.

Chloro-fluoro-Carbons:
Burning of coal releases chloro-fluoro-carbons, and contributes
to the destruction of Ozone layer. With a temperature range of 1500°C in the
boiler furnace and 150°C in the stack outlet and in the presence of variety of
catalytic heavy metals in the matrix, a combination of the halogens like Chlorine
and Fluorine with Carbon atoms takes place to generate Chloro-fluoro-
carbons(CFCs). The generation of these CFCs will be so large in the coal
consumption thermal plants when compared to the consumption of industrial
CFCs, which would be very small10. Therefore, we must start looking into the
de-ozonization capacity of coal combustion.
Aerosols, which come from the burning of fossil fuels,
destroys ozone layer that protects us from ultraviolet radiation. Some scientists
feel that direct exposure to ultraviolet radiation damages die human immune
system causing stoppage of tissue growth, cataracts, albumin coagulation and
increases the incidence of skin cancer. Leguminous plants such as pea, bean
etc., are highly affected by this radiation. It causes severe damage to various
forms of aquatic larvae, plankton, fishes and other biota of aquatic system.
Latest data show that aerosols are also weakening another critical component of
Ozone defense i.e. a reaction between Methane and Chlorine, which results in
the formation of harmless Hydrogen chloride locking up Chlorine that might
otherwise form destructive Chlorine Monoxide. Intense Ultra Violet
radiation would affect climatic changes causing global warming and global rain
fall etc., by depleting the protective ozone cover.
10. op.cii, “Survey ofenvironment”, P-50.
 92

Incomplete combustion of fuels release hydrocarbons which leads to

necrosis, chlorosis, inhibition of terminal growth in plants and irritation of mucous
membrane, eye irritation, bronchial constriction in men. Some may even lead to
cancers.
Inorganic Compounds:
Chemical analysis of fly ash reveals the presence of heavy metals
which are present in traces such as copper, cadmium, molybdenum, mercury, arsenic,
selenium etc11. The inorganic arsenic compounds are harmful and usually they affect
skin. Cadmium is deposited for the most part in liver, kidney and lung. It may cause
hyper-glycemia and reduces immuno-competency and anemia due to its interference
with iron-metabolism. Hydrogen chloride, mercury, selenium, vanadium are also some
of the toxic elements that are produced from combustion of coal.
Carbon Monoxide:
It originates from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. It
damages body cells and poses serious health hazard. It forms Carboxy-haemoglobin in
red blood corpuscles, which prevents them from cairrying oxygen to all parts of body
effectively.
Carbon-di-Oxide:
The atmosphere contains about 700 billion tons of Carbon, mostly as
CO2. Globally, we are adding > 2 billion tons Carbon annually, into the atmosphere,
about 50% of which remains in the atmosphere. The anthropogenic contribution of CO2
in the air is expected to double in the next 50 years. Increase in CO2 release after 1985
is expected to be mostly from coal combustion. The increase in C02 will cause a global
wanning of 2°-4° C and leads to green house effect It is also called atmospheric effect,
Global warming or Carbon-di-oxide problem. A Greenhouse is that body which allows
the short wave length incoming solar radiation but does not allow the long wave
outgoing terrestrial infra-red radiations to escape. The CO2 acts as a giant
greenhouse around the globe because the sun’s infra-red rays are trapped by CO2
and prevented from escaping into space. As the CO2 levels increase, this
process is intensified.
11. Kiran Singh and Apama Chauhan, "Copper uptake by Bacillus SubtUis from flyash”,
Vol.13, No.l, March, 1997, p65.
 Power stations based on fossil fuels, especially coal are significant and
wide spread major sources of man-made CO2. The average global temperature
increased from 0.3 to 0.6° C, over the past century and is expected to raise between 1.5
to 4.5° C by 2030 AD12. When the percentage of C02 increases, the percentage of

Oxygen decreases. This causes breathlessness and heart problems.

Solid Waste Pollution and Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM);

Solid and liquid aerosols suspended in the atmosphere are termed as
particulate matter. Extensive industrial use of coal in the steel and electrical power
industries is the major source of particulates. These particulates reduce visibility,
damage property and carry poisonous materials into the lungs. It is evident that around
50 percent of the dust particles are less than 10 microns in diameter and so are
respirable. Benzene soluble matter was found to be about 60 percent, which is fatal to
human health because it is mostly carcinogenic13. Since our coal is of very least quality

having 30-45% ash content When the combustion starts huge quantities of ash finds it’s
way through stack as it becomes less and less in weight. It is called fly ash. The
remaining ash is collected at the bottom, which is called bottom ash, is sent to the ash
pond.
The matrix elements Fe, Si, Ba, Ca and Mg exhibit low extractability
in aqueous environment Silica and Alumina are in high levels where as other elements
are smaller in quantity. Most respirable sub-micron particles pass through precipitators
into the atmosphere. Highly volatile elements are enriched by condensation on small fly
ash particles before their release into atmosphere. Smaller particles (1 Micron) contain
as much as 80% of the mass of elements. The concentration of Lead and Vanadium
increases with decreasing particle size in coal fly ash. It causes damage to macrophage
membrane. Respiratory diseases like Bronchitis and Emphysema have been observed.
Particulates corrode metals and electronic equipment. Many people are affected by the
fly ash every day.

12. B. Madhusudan, T.Krishnudu and K.B.S. Prasad, “Emerging trends in clean coal
technologies and their future prospects”, Information Digest on Energy, Vol.17, No.2, June,
1997, Published by T.E.R.I, India. P-85.
13. M.K.Ghose and S.K.Banerjee,"Physico-chemical characteristics of airborne dust emitted
by coal washeries in India”, Energy Environment Monitor, Voi.13, No.l, 1997. P-11.
 94

The diseases are incurable like asthma and other respiratory

troubles. The ash also causes ocular injuries, which sometimes become so severe
that permanent damage of the eyes is inevitable. Even surgical operations are
needed to cure the ailment. People suffer from serious disease called
‘Pneumoconiosis’ resulting in bronchospasm and bronchial inflammation. They
cannot breath freely and labored breathing becomes painful. The disease usually
becomes chronic. This needs steroids for treatment, which again produce
harmful effects over time. It effects all age groups and it is a serious problem
for the children, young men and women.
High temperature silica, the dominant mineral of the ash, has no
lattice site to accommodate any of the toxic metals. Thus die entire mass of
toxic metals is confined to the surface of the newly formed ash particulate and is
easily released into die environment ‘Silicosis’, another disease is inevitable to
die persons who inhale the ashes. Silica accumulates in the lungs over a period
and makes diem flabby and lax. Due to inhalation of unbumt hydrocarbon-
benzopyrine etc., die inhabitants suffer from eaterrhal inflammation, cough,
dyspepsia, gnawing pain of stomach, and bowels complaint, the recovery from
which is very difficult

CO2, SO2 and H2SO4 badly effect die skin, trachea and eyes of
the people in the neighborhood. Besides these ailments, the coal particles bring
about injury to the cornea of the eyes. Powdered coal is burnt in the furnaces
and when stormy wind blows, coal particles from the dump form into a huge
cloud making the atmosphere dark. These suspended coal particles in the air
stick on to the eye, corrode it and produce ulceration. A countless number of
patients with the above problem visit the eye surgeon of the locality. They do
not recover even after prolonged treatment by eye specialists. The children of
the poor families of the locality collect pieces of coal that fall in to the ash pond
from the pipe conveying ash mixed with water. It is also injurious to their
health.
 95

Besides the above hazards, many unfavorable psychological

effects are observed especially on the women who usually remain indoors.
Local physicians have reported this observation. The frequent cleaning of ash
deposited on floor, furniture, roof and other domestic articles, become extremely
irritating to the housewives. Therefore, they gradually become petulant and
impatient. Finally, it tells upon the health of these people and various kinds of
mental, physical and sociological complaints will develope14.

Soil Pollution:
Contamination of soil and water may occur from leaching of
trace elements during mining, cleaning and storage of coal and from storage
areas for solid-waste fly ash. Fly ash is the major source of Ni, Cu, Cr that is
deposited on the soil. The pollutants affect and alter chemical and biological
properties of soil. Consequently, hazardous chemicals can enter into human
food chain from water. Metallic contaminants destroy bacteria and beneficial
organisms in the soil.

Noise Pollution:
Much noise is produced during the operation of turbines and
other heavy machinery. This noise exceeds the safety limits within the plant and
some times out side the plant also.

Water Pollution:
About 30% of all coal is transported directly from the mine to
the user. The rest is washed to reduce the inorganic and ash content. If not
returned to the mine the residue can accumulate in piles. Rainwater can leach
salts and acid from the piles and contaminate the nearby streams.
14. “Contribution of Thermal Power Station to Pollution at Bandel (W.B.)”, in the
International Encyclopaedia of Ecology and Environment, Vol.10, Published by I.I.E.E., New
Delhi, 1990. P-1454-55.
 96
Thermal Pollution:
According to the second law of thermodynamics, no process that
converts heat into mechanical work can be completely efficient and any such
process must waste a certain fraction of the heat15. Coal/Oil fired generators and
atomic energy plants cause large amounts of waste heat, which is carried away
as hot water and cause thermal pollution or calcification. Thermal pollution
produces distinct changes in aquatic biota. A body of water at 30°-35° is
essentially a biological desert and many game fish require temperature of 10°C
for successful reproduction, although they can survive above this temperature. A
temperature rise of 10°C will double the rate of many chemical reactions and so
the decay of organic matter, the rusting of iron and the solution rate of salts are
also accelerated by Calcification.
Since the rate of change of salts in organisms increase, any
toxins are liable to exert greater effects and temperature fluctuations are likely to
affect organisms. Thermal pollution then can exert a disruptive effect on aquatic
eco-systems causing a change in the composition of species. The conversion
efficiency of fossil fuels, notably that of coal is about 35 to 40%. The rejected
energy in the form of waste heat is dumped on to the atmosphere acting as the
external heat sink. Power stations use large quantities of water in condensers for
the cooling and condensing of the exhaust steam from the turbines. This water,
whose temperature is raised after cooling the steam, is left into the nearby rivers.

Metal toxicity:
The higher order effects of a large-scale entry of toxic metals
into the eco-system around a coal based thermal plant go unnoticed. Metal
toxicity arising out of ingestion through water, the food chain, inhalation has
15. G.C. Chhatwal, M.C. Mehra, M. Satake, T. Katyal, M. Kalyal and T. Nagalinga,
“Environmental Radiation and Thermo! Pollution and their control”, Anmol Publicaitons,
New Delhi, 1989. P-104.
 97

been documented in great detail. Damages like silicosis and carcinogenesis

arising out of metal toxicity are restricted to individuals. But genotoxic damages
like teratogenic and mutogenic changes often known to be caused by metal
toxicity have grave implications for the survival of mankind.
Regarding energy problem, the issues are international. We are
all in this together and must individually and collectively, where possible devise
agreed means in developing the energy resources we need while at the same
time paying due regard to environmental considerations. Coal usage is at present
less convenient than other fuels. Big strides need to be made in conversion
technology and by other means to increase it’s convenience.
Energy systems must be evaluated in the light of their impact on
the total environment in all aspects of their respective production methods and
uses. As more and more air and water pollution control devices are employed
more of solid waste will be generated. Finally, much of the environmental
damage from the use of energy lies in the systems, which provide the energy to
the consumers. It is critically necessary that environmental impacts of various
energy policies and of new energy technologies be considered to meet
reasonable energy demands without significantly harming the environment.
The hazardous effects of thermal power plants are discussed in
detail in the foregoing paragraphs. To assess these effects in the selected plants,
frequency tables are prepared from the data collected in the questionnaires filled
up by the households in and around these plants. These are discussed in the next
chapter.