FOUNDATION UNIVERSITY

Rawalpindi Campus
(Spring-2020)
Report on ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
ENGLISH III
(BCSE-6A)

Syed Shahabal Shah Hamdani

F171-BCSE050
 CONTENTS

I. ARTIFICIAL I NTELLIGENCE..........................................................................................................2
A. INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................2
B. AI STRATEGIES.......................................................................................................................3
C. CHARACTERISTICS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE..................................................................3
II. FOUNDATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE............................................................................4
III. Applications ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE..................................................................................5
A. Techniques.............................................................................................................................5
B. Subfields of application AI.....................................................................................................5
IV. SOFTWARES DEVELOPED FOR ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE.......................................................7
A. Mycin System.........................................................................................................................7
B. Dendral System......................................................................................................................7
V. CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................................8
VI. REFERENCES...........................................................................................................................9
 I. ARTIFICIAL I NTELLIGENCE
 
A. INTRODUCTION
Since the advent of computers, scientific and technological research has been carried out in
order for them to solve and carry out some activities typical of human beings, and many
processes have been automated, achieving efficiency in time and resources invested to
carry out any type of activity.

Because artificial intelligence had many parents, there is no consensus to define that

concept, but we can say that artificial intelligence is responsible for modeling human
intelligence in computer systems.   

Artificial Intelligence (AI) can be said to be one of the most fascinating and challenging
areas of computer science, in its area of cognitive science. It was born as a
mere philosophical and philosophical study of human intelligence, mixed with man's
concern to imitate nature, even wanting to imitate himself.   

 
It is the part of Science that deals with the design of intelligent computing systems, that is,
systems that exhibit the characteristics that we associate with intelligence in human
behavior that refers to language comprehension, learning, reasoning, problem solving,
among others.
 
Artificial intelligence is a field of research and application that tries to get computers to
simulate human intelligence in a certain way. The problem is that human intelligence is
difficult to circumscribe and define. In effect, intelligence is a complex behavior that
includes consciousness, the unconscious, cognitive processes.
The objectives of artificial intelligence: A computer executes the orders to process data that
is supplied to it without having the capacity to develop any reasoning about said
information. Against this, the proposal of artificial intelligence is to make the processor
adapt to the method of human reasoning and communication, so that it can not only put into
practice the algorithms that man introduces into it, but establish his own to solve problems.
 
The computer can calculate the area of a polygon as long as it has the program that
provides it with the data for the measurement of one of its sides and the corresponding
formula to carry out this operation; artificial intelligence intends that the processor be
instructed in the principles of geometry, in order to solve the question by itself, using an
algorithm of its own creation. In short, artificial intelligence explores the mechanisms that
turn the computer into a thinking machine.
 
The possibility of this hypothesis becoming a reality is rejected by numerous computer
experts. In any case, paths continue to be explored and progress is verified day by day.

B. AI STRATEGIES 
AI can make effective use of:

 New techniques and advanced programming environments.      

 Techniques for dealing with heuristics, which tries to solve problems using
creativity and lateral thinking or divergent thinking.      
 New intelligent hardware systems.      
 

C.  CHARACTERISTICS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE. 

1. A fundamental characteristic that distinguishes Artificial Intelligence methods
from numerical methods is the use of non-mathematical symbols, although it is not
enough to fully distinguish it.

2. Other types of programs, such as compilers and database systems, also process

symbols and are not considered to use Artificial Intelligence techniques.

3. The behavior of the programs is not explicitly described by the algorithm. The

sequence of steps followed by the program is influenced by the particular problem at
hand. The program specifies how to find the sequence of steps necessary to solve a
given problem (declarative program). In contrast to non-Artificial Intelligence
programs, which follow a defined algorithm, which specifies, explicitly, how to find
the output variables for any given input variable (procedure program).

4. The conclusions of a declarative program are not fixed and are partially
determined by the intermediate conclusions reached during considerations of the
 specific problem. Object-oriented languages share this property and have been
characterized by their affinity with Artificial Intelligence.

5. Knowledge-based reasoning implies that these programs incorporate factors and

relationships from the real world and the field of knowledge in which they
operate. Contrary to specific-purpose programs, such as accounting and scientific
calculations; Artificial Intelligence programs can distinguish between the reasoning
program or inference engine and knowledge base by giving it the ability to explain
discrepancies between them.

6. Applicability to badly structured data and problems, without Artificial

Intelligence techniques programs cannot work with this type of problem. An
example is conflict resolution in goal-oriented tasks such as planning, or task
diagnosis in a real-world system: with little information, with a close solution and
not necessarily exact.

II. FOUNDATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Disciplines on which artificial intelligence is based, which are:

 
 Philosophy (from 428 BC to the present day)
 Mathematics (approximately from the year 800 to the present)
 Economy (from 1776 to the present)
  Neuroscience (from the year 1861 to the present)
 Psychology (from the year 1879 to the present)
 Computational Engineering (from 1940 to the present)
 Control theory and cybernetics (from the year 1948 to the present)
 Linguistics (from the year 1957 to the present.

III. Applications ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

The areas of application of Artificial Intelligence can be divided into two, according to the
content of the study or according to the tools and techniques used. They are developed
below:

A.  Techniques 
Because the applications of AI are many and very diverse, some of the subfields are
grouped around the techniques relevant to each class of problems.

B.  Subfields of application AI 

 AI in medicine:   which includes the interpretation of medical images, diagnosis,
expert systems to help doctors, monitoring and control in intensive care units,
prosthetic design, drug design, intelligent tutor systems for various aspects of
medicine.
 AI in robotics: which includes vision, motor control, learning, planning,
linguistic communication, cooperative behavior.

 AI in many aspects of engineering:   fault diagnosis, intelligent control

systems, intelligent manufacturing systems, intelligent design assistance, integrated
sales, design, production, maintenance systems, expert configuration tools. AI in
software engineering includes synthesis of programs, verification, debugging, testing
and monitoring of software.
 
 AI in interfaces and "help" systems: As computers are used for more and
more applications involving interaction with humans, there is increasing pressure to
build easier-to-use machines for non-experts.
 AI in education:   includes various types of intelligent tutoring systems and
student management systems. 
 AI in information management: this includes the use of AI in data mining,
web tracking, mail filtering, etc.
 AI in Math: Designing tools to help with different kinds of math functions, now
so widely used that they are no longer recognized as AI products.
 AI in the entertainment industry: AI is increasingly used in computer games
and synthetic character generation and control systems, whether in text-based
interaction or with the generation of animated movies or Interactive "avatars" in
virtual worlds.

 AI in biology:   There are many complicated problems in biology where more or

less intelligent computer systems are being developed, for example, DNA analysis,
prediction of the folding structure of complex molecules, prediction, modeling of
biological processes, evolution, embryo development, behavior of different
organisms.

 AI in Law: for example, expert systems to help lawyers, or systems to give legal

advice and help to non-lawyers.
 
 AI in architecture: urban design, traffic management: tools to help solve design
problems that present multiple constraints, help predict people's behavior in new
environments, tools to analyze patterns of observed phenomena.
 
 AI in literature:   art and music: identification of authors, modeling of generation
processes and recognition, teaching applications.

 AI in crime detection and prevention:   for example, counterfeiting detection,

learning to detect evidence of police corruption, software to monitor Internet
transactions, help plan police operations, search police evidence databases that crimes
are committed by the same person, etc.
 
  AI in commerce: The   Internet has allowed commerce, especially electronic
commerce and the use of software agents of different kinds to provide, search, analyze
or interpret information, one of the fastest growing areas in terms of the number of
applications developed, make decisions, negotiate with other agents, etc.
 AI in space:   remote control of space vehicles and autonomous robots.
 AI in military activities: This may be the area where most of the funds have
been spent and where it is not easy to learn from the details.  

IV. SOFTWARES DEVELOPED FOR ARTIFICIAL

INTELLIGENCE
 

A. Mycin System    
Mycin is an expert system developed in the early 1970s by Edward Shortliffe at Stanford
University. It was written in Lisp , and was initially inspired by Dendral , another expert
system that had some success in the late 1960s. Its main function was to diagnose infectious
blood diseases; Furthermore, Mycin was able to "reason" the process followed to arrive at
these diagnoses, and to prescribe personalized medications to each patient (according to
their height, weight, etc.).          

Mycin's operation was mainly based on a simple inference engine, which managed

a knowledge base of approximately 500 rules. The program captured inputs from a series of
questions (such as, Does the patient discomfort in the chest? Or Has the patient been
operated before? ), Which usually answered the doctor of the patient. After this process,
Mycin showed the output on the screen, which consisted of a series of
possible diseases (ordered by their associated probability), the explanation of the reason for
each of these diagnoses, and a series of recommendations on the treatment to be followed
by the patient. To calculate the probability of each of the results, the authors developed an
empirical technique based on certainty factors. These certainty factors were calculated in
such a way that based on some evidence, a certainty factor is assigned to the hypothesis.

B.  Dendral System 
Dendral (Interprets Molecular Structure) is the name of an expert system developed
by Edward Feigenbaum and other programmers at Stanford University in the mid -1960s,
and its development lasted ten years, ( 1965 to 1975 )           
It was the first expert system to be used for real purposes, apart from computational
research, and for approximately 10 years, the system had some success
among chemists and biologists, since it greatly facilitated the inference of molecular
structures, a domain in which Dendral was specialized.     
Initially written in Lisp , its working philosophy departs from the classical structures of the
most typical expert systems (such as Mycin or XCon ), since its implementation did not
explicitly separate the knowledge of the inference engine. However, it soon became one of
the role models for many of the expert system programmers of the time.         

V. CONCLUSION

The evolution of Artificial Intelligence requires the intervention of professionals in

different areas of knowledge. Once artificial intelligence has an intelligence equal to or
greater than that of man, at that moment a change will arise around the world, in which
artificial intelligence has everything to gain if it realizes that it does not need humans to
dominate the universe.

In the future, artificial intelligence could easily take over all human colonies off earth, and
the human race will never be able to fight in empty space on equal terms.
 
As it has been observed, one of the biggest criticisms of artificial intelligence is the
characteristic of completely imitating a human being, but these criticisms overlook that no
human being has the ability to solve all existing problems. Therefore, it is very important to
detonate what types of problems they will be able to solve, the strategy and algorithms that
they will carry out to arrive at said answer.

A problem that is provided in AI is the communication that it will have with the user. This
setback is due to the diversity of language, which already appeared in the first computer
operating systems. The human being can communicate through his native language, which
implies that either the person must learn the language of the machine like any other known
language, or the machine will have to interpret the message that the person gives it.

On many occasions the machines give the impression of possessing intelligence, but despite
this, we could not say that they are intelligent, since until now they have only been
emulations of certain processes.
With the growth of technology AI has advanced enormously, but nevertheless it does not
resemble the intelligence of a human being, but there are many machines that perform
different processes that can do it more efficiently than any human being.
 

VI. REFERENCES

  VG  Saquicela , “Introduction to artificial intelligence,” University of Cuenca,

Faculty of Engineering
  C. Peñafiel, “ Artificial Intelligence “, Salesian Polytechnic University Student,
available online: http://www.slideshare.net/cristianp77/inteligencia-artificial-
paper
  Webpage about Artificial Intelligence
( nd ) :  http://www.gestiopolis.com/administracion-estrategia/inteligencia-
artificial.htm

  Eduardo Fermé; Extract about Artificial Intelligence (2011):  http://www-

2.dc.uba.ar/materias/ia/clase1

  Webpage on Foundations of Artificial

Intelligence ( nd  ): http://www.angelfire.com/falcon/miqueleiz/03Fundamentosdela
IA.htm

  Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

(2011): http://www.lsi.upc.edu/~bejar/ia/transpas/teoria/1-IA-introduccion.pdf

  Álvaro Barreiro García; Webpage on rational
systems :  http://www.dc.fi.udc.es/ai/~barreiro/iadocen/iatema01/node6.html

  Davis Flores, Dynamic presentation on rational

systems (2012):  http://prezi.com/ka2icmnecmqw/sistemas-que-piensan-racionalmente/
Webpage on Fundamentals and bases of Artificial
Intelligence ( na ):  http://www.ehu.es/netart/alum0506/ainhoa_diaz/i_artificial.htm