Functions of Complex Variable

The main purpose of this chapter is to describe the concept of functions in complex system.

0.1 Function, Domain and Range

Let B be a subset of the set C of complex numbers. Then a function f from B to C, also written
as f : B → C, is a rule that assigns to each member z of S a complex number w in C. The
complex number w is called the value of f at z (or image of z under f ) and is denoted by f (z). So
w = f (z). The set B is called the domain of definition of f , and the set {f (z) : z ∈ S} is called
the range of f .
The domain, here, should not be confused with the domain (open connected set) defined in the
previous chapter. Here, domain appears in analogy with the real functions, and simply stands for
discrete or continuous collection of points in the complex plane permissible for the given function.
For a given function, the set of all permissible points in the complex plane is called its natural
domain. Any proper subset of the natural domain is the restricted domain. We may define
functions on restricted domains. Of course, the domain of a function can be an open connected
set. For example, f : {z : |z| < 1} → C given by f (z) = z 2 + 5 is a function defined on the unit
circular disc |z| < 1. Here |z| < 1 is the restricted domain of f as its natural domain is C. Also,
|z| < 1 is an open connected set.
Since z = x + iy, we can express the function f (z) = z 2 + 5 in terms of x and y as follows:

f (x + iy) = (x + iy)2 + 5 = x2 − y 2 + 5 + i(2xy) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y),

where u(x, y) = x2 − y 2 + 5 and v(x, y) = 2xy are respectively the real and imaginary parts of
f (z). If we choose the polar form z = reiθ , then u and v can be determined as functions of r and
θ.
Also, note that a function of complex variable need not be complex valued. For example,
f (z) = |z|2 = x2 + y 2 with u(x, y) = x2 + y 2 and v(x, y) = 0, is a pure real valued function.

0.1.1 Multiple Valued Functions

Multiple valued functions, which assign more than one value to the domain points, do arise in
complex system as these appear in the real system1 . Such functions are studied by constructing
single valued functions√in a systematic manner. For instance, the function w = z 1/2 assigns two
values namely w = ± reiΘ/2 corresponding to each non-zero complex number z = reiΘ (−π <
1
√
The real function√given by x2 + y 2 = √1 assigns two values namely y = ± 1 − x2 to each value of x ∈ [−1, 1].
The functions y1 = 1 − x2 and y2 = − 1 − x2 are single valued functions. The graphs of these functions are
respectively the upper half and lower half arcs of the circle x2 + y 2 = 1

1
Complex Functions 2

√ √
Θ ≤ π). The functions given by f1 (z) = reiΘ/2 , f1 (0) = 0 and f2 (z) = − reiΘ/2 , f2 (0) = 0 are
both single valued functions defined in the entire complex plane.

0.1.2 Graphing of complex functions

A real valued function y = f (x) of single real variable x involves two real variables x (domain
points) and y (range points). So the function y = f (x) can be visualised graphically by plotting
its graph points (x, y) in the two dimensional xy-plane. A complex valued function w = f (z) =
f (x + iy) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), on the other hand, involves four real variables namely x, y, u and
v. Here, the two real variables x and y are associated with the domain points z = (x, y) while the
other two real variables u and v are associated with the range points w = (u, v). So, plotting of
the graph points (z, w) together requires four dimensional space, which is practically not feasible.
This issue is resolved by plotting the domain points and range points of the function w = f (z)
in two distinct planes, viz., the domain points z = (x, y) are plotted in xy-plane or z-plane while
the range points w = (u, v) are plotted in the uv-plane or w-plane. Thus, a complex function is
visualized by displaying its domain and range in two distinct planes. The complex function maps
or transforms the domain points in the z-plane to the range points in the w-plane. That is why,
we also call a complex function as mapping or transformation. Hereafter, we shall use function,
mapping or transformation interchangeably.

0.2 Elementary complex functions

In this section, we describe various elementary complex functions and their properties.

0.2.1 Polynomials
A function of the form

w = f (z) = c0 + c1 z + c2 z 2 + ........ + cn z n ,

where c0 , c1 , c2 , ......, cn (6= 0) are complex constants, is called a polynomial of degree n. Domain of
any polynomial is C, graphically the entire z-plane. The constant polynomial w = c0 maps the the
entire z-plane to a single point c0 in the w-plane while the identity function w = z maps the entire
z-plane to the entire w-plane. In the following, we discuss some particular polynomial mappings
in detail.

Translation
It is a polynomial mapping of the form

w =z+c

where c = a + ib is a complex constant. Under this mapping the translation takes place from
z = (x, y) to z + c = (x + a, y + b). For example, consider the mapping

w = z + (1 + 2i).

and a rectangular region given by Rz = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1} in the z-plane. Using

w = u + iv and z = x + iy into w = z + (1 + 2i), we get the transformation equations u = x + 1
Complex Functions 3

and v = y + 2. In view of these equations, we find that the lines x = 0 and x = 2 transform to
u = 1 and u = 3 respectively. Similarly, y = 0 and y = 1 transform to v = 2 and v = respectively.
The given region Rz , therefore, transforms to the region Rw = {(u, v) : 1 ≤ u ≤ 3, 2 ≤ v ≤ 3} in
the w-plane as shown in Fig 1.1.

y v

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 x 0 u
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

(a) (b)

Figure 1: The shaded region in the left panel (a) is the rectangular region given by Rz = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤
2, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1}, which is transformed to the shaded rectangular region shown in the right panel (b) given by
Rw = {(u, v) : 1 ≤ u ≤ 3, 2 ≤ v ≤ 3}. We see that under the mapping w = z + 1 + 2i, the image region Rw is
translated by 1 unit along the horizontal axis and 2 units along vertical axis with respect to the domain region Rz .

Rotation and magnification (contraction)

Consider a polynomial mapping of the form

w = cz

where c = r0 eiθ0 6= 0 is a constant. Also c = 1 corresponds to identity mapping. So we let c 6= 1.

Let z = reiθ . So w = rr0 eθ+θ0 . If r0 > 1, then we see that modulus rr0 of the image point w
is r0 times larger (magnification) than the modulus r of the domain point z. In case r0 < 1, the
modulus of w is smaller (contraction) than the modulus of z. Further, the argument θ + θ0 of
w differs by an angle θ0 from the argument θ of z. Geometrically, θ0 is angle between the radii
vectors of z and w. So, under the mapping w = cz, the radius vector of the domain point z rotates
by the angle θ0 .
For example, consider the mapping

w = (1 + i)z.

and a rectangular region given by Rz = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, 0 ≤ y ≤ 3} in the z-plane. Using

w = u + iv and z = x + iy into w = (1 + i)z, the transformation equations are obtained as u = x − y
and v = x + y, or x = (u + v)/2 and y = (v − u)/2. So the lines x = 0, x = 2, y = 0 and y = 3
transform to the lines u + v = 0, u + v = 4, v − u = 0 and v − u = 6 respectively. Therefore the
Complex Functions 4

given region Rz transforms to the region R√w = {(u, v) : 0 ≤ u + v ≤ 4, 0 ≤ v − u ≤ 6} in the

w-plane as shown
√ in Fig 1.2. Since 1 + i = 2eiπ/4 , the image rectangular region Rw is magnified
by a factor 2 and rotated by an angle π/4 with respect the domain rectangular region Rz .
y v

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

x u
-4 -2 0 2 -4 -2 0 2

(a) (b)

Figure 2: The shaded region in the left panel (a) is the rectangular region given by Rz = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x ≤
2, 0 ≤ y ≤ 3}, which is transformed to the shaded rectangular region shown in the right panel (b) given √ by
Rw = {(u, v) : 0 ≤ u + v ≤ 4, 0 ≤ v − u ≤ 6}. We see that the image region Rw is magnified by a factor 2 and
rotated by an angle π/4 with respect the domain region Rz .

Note: A linear polynomial mapping w = cz + d, where c and d are complex constants, is a

combination of translation, rotation and magnification (contraction).

0.2.2 Rational functions

A mapping of the form
f (z)
w= ,
g(z)
where f (z) and g(z) 6= 0 are polynomials, is known as rational function. Polynomials are indeed
rational functions with denominator g(z) = 1, a constant polynomial. Next, we discuss some
particular rational functions.

Inversion and Reflection

Consider the rational mapping
1
w = , (z 6= 0).
z
If z = reiθ , then w = 1r ei(−θ) . So |z||w| = 1. This shows that z and w are inverse points2 with
respect to the unit circle |z| = 1. Also, the argw = −θ = −argz. It tells us that the range
point w is the reflection of the domain point z in the real axis. Thus, under the mapping w = z1 ,
the domain point z exhibits inversion and reflection. Indeed, z undergoes only reflection by the
mapping w = z.
2
Two points A and B are inverse points with respect to a circle x2 + y 2 = a2 of radius a and centre O at the
origin (0, 0) if both the points A and B lie on a ray starting from the origin O(0, 0) and OA.OB= a2 .
Complex Functions 5

Bilinear transformation
It is a rational mapping of the form
az + b
w= ,
cz + d
where a, b, c and d are complex constants such that ad−bc 6= 0. It is also known as linear fractional
transformation or Möbius transformation. This mapping can be rewritten as
a bc − ad 1
w= + ,
c c cz + d
provided c 6= 0. Further, the condition ad − bc 6= 0 ensures that it is not a constant mapping.
Note that the bilinear transformation possesses the features of rotation, magnification (contrac-
tion), inversion, reflection and translation mappings. For, z undergoes rotation and magnification
(contraction) by cz; cz undergoes translation by cz + d; cz + d undergoes inversion and reflection
1 1
by cz+d ; cz+d undergoes rotation and magnification (contraction) by bc−ad 1
c cz+d
and finally bc−ad 1
c cz+d
undergoes translation by ac + bc−ad 1
c cz+d
.

0.2.3 Exponential function

Complex exponential function, denoted by ez or exp z, is defined as

ez = ex eiy ,

where z = x + iy. Obviously, |ez | = ex and arg(ez ) = y + 2kπ, where k is any integer. Also,
the complex exponential function ez reduces to the real exponential function ex for y = 0. Some
properties of ez different from ex are given below.

• ex is positive for all real values of x. However, ez can attain negative values. For instance,
eiπ = cos π + i sin π = −1.

• Since e2πi = 1, so ez+2πi = ez e2πi = ez . This shows that ez is a periodic function with
imaginary period 2πi. On the other hand, ex is not a periodic function.

0.2.4 Logarithmic function

The logarithm of a non-zero complex number z, denoted by log z is defined as the complex number
w such that ew = z. To determine w explicitly, let w = u + iv and z = reiΘ . Then we have

eu eiv = reiΘ .

It follows that

eu = r and v = Θ + 2kπ, where k is any integer.

Thus, the logarithm of z is given by

w = log z = ln r + i(Θ + 2kπ), k = 0, ±1, ±2, .......

Complex Functions 6

Obviously, log z is a multiple valued function. The value of log z corresponding to k = 0 is called
its principal value, and is denoted by Logz, that is,
Log z = ln r + iΘ.
It is, of course, a well defined single valued function of z provided z 6= 0. It reduces to the usual
logarithm of real numbers when z is a positive real number. Now, the multiple valued function
log z can be rewritten as
log z = Log z + 2kπi, k = 0, ±1, ±2, .......
Next, we have
elog z = eLog z e2kπi = eln r+iΘ .1 = eln r eiΘ = reiΘ = z.
On the other hand
log ez = log(ex eiy ) = ln ex + i(y + 2kπ) = x + iy + 2kπi = z + 2kπi.

0.2.5 Complex exponents

Let c be any complex number. Then the function z c , where z 6= 0, is defined as
z c = ec log z .
Since log z is a multiple valued function, so is z c . For instance,
ii = ei log i = ei[ln 1+i(2kπ+π/2)] = e−(4k+1)π/2 , k = 0, ±1, ±2, .....
Following the definition of z c , we have
cz = ez log c ,
the exponential function with base c(6= 0). It is indeed a multiple valued function. The usual
interpretation of ez occurs when the principal value of logarithm is taken into account. For the
principal value, log e = 1.

0.2.6 Trigonometric functions

By Euler’s formula, we know that eix = cos x + i sin x and e−ix = cos x − i sin x. So the sine and
cosine functions of the real variable x can be written as
eix − e−ix eix + e−ix
sin x = , cos x = .
2i 2
In analogy, the sine and cosine functions of a complex variable z are defined as
eiz − e−iz eiz + e−iz
sin z = , cos z = .
2i 2
Clearly, these functions reduce to sin x and cos x in case z is restricted to the real number x.
This fact serves as a motivation for the above definitions of sin z and cos z. Next, we define
the other elementary trigonometric functions given by tan z = sin z/ cos z, cot z = cos z/ sin z,
sec z = 1/ cos z and csc z = 1/ sin z, allowing the values of z for which the denominator of the
function under consideration is non-zero.
Let z, z1 and z2 be any complex numbers. Then the following identities can easily be established:
Complex Functions 7

(1) sin(−z) = − sin z, cos(−z) = cos z

(2) sin(z1 + z2 ) + sin(z1 − z2 ) = 2 sin z1 cos z2

(3) sin(z1 + z2 ) = sin z1 cos z2 + cos z1 sin z2

(4) cos(z1 + z2 ) = cos z1 cos z2 − sin z1 sin z2

(5) sin2 z + cos2 z = 1, 1 + tan2 z = sec2 z, 1 + cot2 z = csc2 z

(6) sin 2z = 2 sin z cos z, cos 2z = cos2 z − sin2 z

(7) sin(z + π/2) = cos z, cos(z + π/2) = − sin z

(8) sin(iy) = i sinh y, cos(iy) = cosh y, where sinh y = (ey − e−y )/2 and cosh y = (ey + e−y )/2

(9) sin z = sin(x + iy) = sin x cos(iy) + cos x sin(iy) = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y

(10) cos z = cos(x + iy) = cos x cos(iy) + sin x sin(iy) = cos x cosh y + i sin x sinh y

(11) sin(z + 2π) = sin z, cos(z + 2π) = cos z

(12) | sin z|2 = sin2 x + sinh2 y

For, | sin z|2 = sin2 x cosh2 y+cos2 x sinh2 y = sin2 x cosh2 y+(1−sin2 x) sinh2 y = sin2 x(cosh2 y−
sinh2 y) + sinh2 y = sin2 x + sinh2 y

(13) | cos z|2 = cos2 x + sinh2 y

Note that the identities in (11) indicate that sin z and cos z are periodic functions with period
2π each. The identities (12) and (13) tell us that sin z and cos z are unbounded functions in the
complex plane since sinh2 y → ∞ as y → ∞ and therefore | sin z| → ∞ as well as | cos z| → ∞
in the limit y → ∞. In contrast, sin x and cos x are bounded functions in their domain of real
numbers since −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 and −1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 for all x ∈ R.

0.2.7 Inverse Trigonometric functions

If z = sin w, then w defines inverse sine of z and is denoted by sin−1 z. So w = sin−z is the inverse
sine function. Now, the relation

eiw − e−iw
z = sin w = .
2i
yields the following quadratic equation in eiw .

(eiw )2 − 2iz(eiw ) − 1 = 0.

Solving for eiw , we get

eiw = iz + (1 − z 2 )1/2 or w = −i log[iz + (1 − z 2 )1/2 ].

Thus, we have

sin−1 z = −i log[iz + (1 − z 2 )1/2 ].

Complex Functions 8

Note that (1 + z 2 )1/2 is a double valued function. Also, the logarithmic function is multiple valued
function. Consequently, sin−1 z is a multiple valued function.
In analogy to sin−1 z, we define inverse cosine and tangent functions denoted by cos−1 z and
tan−1 z from the relations w = cos z and w = tan z, respectively. Further, we can prove that the
multiple valued functions cos−1 z and tan−1 z are given by

cos−1 z = −i log[z + i(1 − z 2 )1/2 ].

i i+z
tan−1 z = log .
2 i−z

0.2.8 Hyperbolic functions

The hyperbolic sine and cosine functions, denoted by sinh z and cosh z respectively, are defined as
ez − e−z ez + e−z
sinh z = , cosh z = .
2 2
These definitions are motivated by the fact that these functions reduce to their counterparts
sinh x = (ex − e−x )/2 and cosh x = (ex + e−x )/2 in real system when z is restricted to the real
variable x. The other elementary hyperbolic functions are defined as tanh z = sinh z/ cosh z,
coth z = cosh z/ sinh z, sech z = 1/ cosh z and csch z = 1/ sinh z, allowing the values of z for which
the denominator of the function under consideration is non-zero. Some useful identities related to
the hyperbolic functions are given below.
(1) sinh(−z) = − sinh z, cosh(−z) = cosh z
(2) cosh2 z − sinh2 z = 1
(3) −i sinh(iz) = sin z, cosh(iz) = cos z, −i sin(iz) = sinh z, cos(iz) = cosh z
(4) sinh(z1 + z2 ) = sinh z1 cosh z2 + cosh z1 sinh z2
(5) cosh(z1 + z2 ) = cosh z1 cosh z2 + sinh z1 sinh z2
(6) sinh z = sinh(x + iy) = sinh x cosh(iy) + cosh x sinh(iy) = sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y
(7) cosh z = cosh(x + iy) = cosh x cosh(iy) + sinh x sinh(iy) = cosh x cos y + i sinh x sin y
(8) | sinh z|2 = sinh2 x + sin2 y
(9) | cosh z|2 = sinh2 x + cos2 y

0.2.9 Inverse hyperbolic functions

If z = sinh w, then w defines inverse hyperbolic sine of z and is denoted by sinh−1 z. So w = sinh−1 z
is the inverse hyperbolic sine function. Now, the relation
ew − e−w
z = sinh w = .
2
yields

w = log[z + (z 2 + 1)1/2 ].
Complex Functions 9

Thus, we have

sinh−1 z = log[z + (z 2 + 1)1/2 ].

Note that (1 + z 2 )1/2 is a double valued function. Also, the logarithmic function is multiple valued
function. Consequently, sinh−1 z is a multiple valued function.
In analogy to sinh−1 z, we define inverse hyperbolic cosine and tangent functions denoted by
cosh−1 z and tanh−1 z from the relations w = cosh z and w = tanh z, respectively. Further, we can
prove that the multiple valued functions cosh−1 z and tanh−1 z are given by

cosh−1 z = log[z + (z 2 − 1)1/2 ].

1 1+z
tan−1 z = log .
2 1−z