PHARMACY PRACTICE REVISION PACK

1. State and explain the characteristics of a profession.

The nature of a profession is viewed by one of the school thoughts based on its character,
trait or attribute. This approach is termed the characteristic approach. The following are
therefore the characteristics of a profession according to this school of thought.
a) A profession determines its own standards of education and
training
The standards of education and training are determined by members of that
profession because they are the ones who know what is required for that profession
and what it takes for one to be accepted as a member of that profession.
b) Student professionals undergo extensive training and
specialisation process
Student professionals undergo extensive training and specialisation and socialisation
process for a number of years so as to gain specialised knowledge to enable them
practice professionally. The socialisation process enables them to execute their work
/ service effectively and also to interact with public and other members of the
profession
c) Professional practice is legally recognised by some form of
licensure
This is done by the state to protect the public by restricting the practice only to
registered and licensed members of that profession. Annual practicing licenses are
therefore issued to dully licensed members as proof of registration. The Health
Professions Act #24 of 2009 of the laws of Zambia section 6 and 15 provides for
registration and licensing of health practitioners respectively. Anyone who
contravenes these provisions is liable to charge.
d) Licensing and admission boards are run by members of
that profession
Members of the profession runs licensing and admission boards because they are in
a right position to assess who is qualified and competent to practice. For instance
the Pharmaceutical regulatory Authority board which is responsible for licensing of
premises is directed by a Pharmacist. The Health Professions Act # 24 of 2009 0f the
laws of Zambia provides 2 representatives from the pharmacy profession (each
from the Pharmaceutical Society of Zambia and the Pharmaceutical regulatory
Authority to sit on the council.

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 e) Most legislation which affects the profession is shaped
by that profession
Since members of the profession are the ones who know the limits of operation for
that profession, they are rightly suited to participate in shaping of laws that affect
the operation of that profession. For example the Pharmaceutical Act # 14 of 2004
of the laws of Zambia (which repealed the Pharmacy and Poison Act) was shaped by
pharmacist
f) The profession gains income, power and status and demand high
calibre students
Members of a profession are appreciated by the community for the wonderful
services they provide. They also gain power and status in the community they live
and can therefore demand students of high calibre so that there is continuity of
delivery of quality services.
g) The profession is relatively free from lay evaluation
Since members of the profession are the only ones who have specialised knowledge
and knows all there is to know about the practice and or operation of that
profession, members of the public (lay persons) can not evaluate the operation of
that profession.
h) The norms of practice enforced by the profession are
often more stringent than legal controls
Professionals have their own code of ethics which they abide by so as to monitor
their practice and operation. These norms are more stringent than legal controls
because they are specific and not generalised.
i) Members of the profession have a powerful sense of
identification and affiliation within their group (occupation).
Members of the profession are proud to associated and identified as members of
that profession. Members of the profession show the sense of belonging by
subscribing to their profession and proudly indicate against their names that they
are members of that profession ( eg members of the pharmaceutical society of
Zambia use titles like, MPharmSZ) They also willingly abide to the code of ethics of
that profession and can represent their profession when need arises.
j) A profession is likely to remain a life time occupation
A profession is likely to remain a life time occupation due to fact that it has gained vital
knowledge and offers services which are vital to the society. The members of that
profession are the only one who are qualified and knows all there is to know about that
profession. The professional services shall therefore be relied upon by the community
throughout life.

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 2. Explain why pharmacy is a profession in the context of the core features of a
profession
For a profession to be called a profession it has to posses the following core features
I. SPECIALISED KNOWLEDGE AND LENGTH OF TRAINING

An individual must undergo a period of training to attain specialised knowledge needed

for one to be accepted into a profession. This period of training is invariably long (eg 7
years for Doctors, 5 years for Pharmacist, 4 years for Biomedical scientists etc). The
training is highly specialised and it is largely this specialised knowledge that sets
professionals apart from lay persons. Therefore the lay person is reliant on the service of
the expert.

II. SERVICE ORIENTED

Professionals are service oriented in that they are not intent on pursuing their self
interest but deliver their services/work in best interest of their clients.

III. MONOPOLY OF PRACTICE

Monopoly of practice is granted by the state in order to protect the public. This ensures
that only qualified and licensed members of that profession can execute the unique
services to the community. It is therefore illegal for people other than members of the
profession to carry out defined tasks.

IV. SELF REGULATION

A profession has been given a mandate by the state to police or monitor and control its
operations/ work. A profession regulates the length of training, decides who can enter
the profession and assesses who is competent to practice. The unusual degree of skill
and knowledge involved in professional activities means that none professionals are not
properly equipped to evaluate the professional’s activities. In addition to legal controls,
a profession has its own set norms, standard of practice and code of ethics to which
members of the profession adhere to. These norms, standard of practice and code of
ethics are more stringent than legal legislations or externally set legislation. Therefore if
a professional does not perform according to the set standards or ethics or is
incompetent, his or her peers will prevail over the outcome.

THEREFORE IS PHARMACY A PROFESSION?

Pharmacy is indeed a profession because it possesses all the four (4) core features of a
profession as indicated below

PHARMACY LENGTH OF TRAINING AND SPECIALISED KNOWLEDGE

In most countries one has to undertake a university degree for a period of 4 or 5 years
followed by internship or preregistration for one year in order to qualify and be
registered as a Pharmacist. Upon successful completion of this length training, the
Pharmacist has a unique knowledge and skills related to the preparation of drugs and

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 medicines and drug use. The Pharmacist is therefore referred to as an expert of drugs
because it is the pharmacist alone who knows all there is to know about drugs.

PHARMACY IS SERVICE ORIENTED

Pharmacists are service oriented in that all the pharmaceutical services they provide in
various settings ( e.g hospital pharmacy, community pharmacy, clinical pharmacy,
academic pharmacy and industrial pharmacy) are provided for the benefit of the
recipient (customer). This is in line with one of the code of ethics for Pharmacists which
states that “the prime concern of the Pharmacist should be the welfare of the client
who is the patient”

PHARMACY ENJOYS MONOPOLY OF PRACTICE

In most countries of the world, the practice of pharmacy is required that one should be
licensed by law to be registered as a Pharmacist. In Zambia one has to be registered by
Health professions council of Zambia in order to practice as a Pharmacist. This is
provided for in the Health Professions Act #24 of 2009 in section 6 and 15 which states
that one has to be registered and licensed under the Act in order to practice as a health
practitioner.

In the United Kingdom one has to be registered by the Royal council of Great Britain
which is empowered by the royal charter to register Pharmacists

SELF REGULATION AS APPLIED TO PHARMACY

In most countries of the world, registering boards are run by Pharmacists or pharmacists
are represented on the boards. For example in Zambia, two (2) Pharmacists are
provided for in schedule one (1) of the Health Professions Act # 24 of 2009 to sit at the
Health Profession Council of Zambia board. Five (5) pharmacists are also required as
provided for in Pharmaceutical Act # 14 of 2004, to sit on the Pharmaceutical Regulatory
Authority as representatives of the Pharmaceutical society of Zambia.

In the USA, Pharmacy boards in various states are run by Pharmacists.

Besides legal controls, pharmacists in most countries and states also have codes of
ethics for pharmacists to self regulate its operations.

3. Define the following terms

I. Pharmaceutical care
Pharmaceutical care is the responsible provision of Pharmaco-therapy (drug therapy) for the
purpose of achieving definite outcomes that improves the patient quality of life. It is a
collaborative process that aims to prevent and identify and solve medicinal products and
health related problems. This is a continuous quality improvement process for the use of
medicinal products.

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 II. Essential medicines
“Essential medicines are those that satisfy the priority health care needs of the
population.
They are selected with due regard to public health relevance, evidence on efficacy and
safety, and comparative cost-effectiveness. Essential medicines are intended to be
available within the context of functioning health systems at all times in adequate
amounts, in the appropriate dosage forms, with assured quality and adequate
information, and at a price the individual and the community can afford. The
implementation of the concept of essential medicines is intended to be flexible and
adaptable to many different situations; exactly which medicines are regarded as
essential remains a national responsibility.”

4. What do you understand by the term ‘POLICY’ and what is the purpose of policy

A Policy is an idea which is elaborated, set in writing, ratified by existing authorities and
designed to guide the course of action.
The Zambian cabinet office defined policy as a statement of goals, objective and courses of
action outlined by government to provide guidance for intended action.
The purpose of a policy is therefore to give a frame work or to provide guidance for the
implementation of the set goals and objective.
5. State the uniqueness of the pharmacist’s expertise
Pharmacists are uniquely qualified because of the following;
a) They understand the principles of quality assurance as they apply to medicines
b) They appreciate the intricacies of the principles of the distribution chain and the
principles of efficient stock keeping and stock turnover
c) They are familiar with the pricing structures applied to medicinal products which are
obtained from markets they operate.
d) They are custodian of much technical information on products available on their
domestic markets
e) They able to provide informed advice to patients on their illness and often those on
chronic conditions
f) They provide an interface between the duties of prescribing and selling or supply of
medicines and in so doing they dispose off any perceived or potential conflict of
interest between function of two functions
6. Write short note on the following
I. The scope of Pharmaceutical care
Pharmaceutical care is concerned with the following;

A. The design of the care plan

A pharmaco-therapy plan should be developed with the active participation of

the patient. The pharmacist’s contribution should focus on the balance
between the complexity of the therapy, the cost and the patient’s likelihood of
the patient adhering to the plan. The patient should be fully informed in easily
understandable language of the essential elements of the plan, including their

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 own responsibilities. The plan must be documented in the patient’s record
and, where appropriate, communicated to other healthcare providers.

B. Implementation of the plan

The pharmacist works with the patient to maximise patient understanding
and commitment to the pharmaceutical care therapy plan. The pharmacist
ensures that the patient knows how to use all necessary medication and any
equipment associated with monitoring or administration properly.

C. Delivery of accessible appropriate and cost effective care of patients

The pharmacist, collaborating with other healthcare providers and the
patient, identifies and evaluates the most appropriate action to ensure the
safety and effectiveness (including cost effectiveness) of current or planned
pharmaco-therapy and to minimise current or potential future health-
related problems.

USE OF PHARMACEUTICAL CARE

 Pharmaceutical care facilitates the prevention, identification and resolution of
problems that could interfere with the goals of drug treatment
 Pharmaceutical care includes all aspects of therapeutics use of medicines
from organisation level to individual patient level
 Good pharmaceutical practice should therefore lead to better use of
professional time and serve resources

II. The elements/Pre-requisites to Good Pharmaceutical care

a) Involving patients as partners in decisions made about the therapy
b) S
Identifying and addressing the patient Pharmaceutical care needs
c) Helping patients to get the best from medicines that they use thereby monitoring or
improving their quality of life.
d) Avoid ill health caused by inappropriate or inadequate drug therapy
e) Improving access to efficacy and cost effective medicines for those that will benefit
from them
f) Reducing waste and inefficiency in the way medicines are procured, supplied or used
g) Making better use of the skills of professionals particularly Pharmacists working
together as multi-disciplinary approach to medicine usage.

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 7. Explain the meaning of the “Health Team”

A health team is a group of people who share a common health goals and common
objectives determined by the community needs to the achievement of which each member
contributes in accordance with his/her competence and skills and in coordination with the
function of others.
The health care team is composed of the following members.
 Patients
 Professional and technical members eg. Pharmacist, Doctors, Nurses, Biomedical
Scientist, Pharmacy Technologist, Nurses, Physitherapists, Radiographers etc.
 Supportive staff/members eg clerks, accountants, drivers, human resource officers,
cleaners, security officers etc

8. Briefly outline the scope of decisions on drug therapy that the pharmacist is
involved in making in the practice of Clinical Pharmacy.
In clinical Pharmacy, the Pharmacist is involved in making decision concerning drug therapy
in ;
 The choice of drug
The pharmacist makes decisions in the choice of the most appropriate drug to use in
a particular condition.
 The most appropriate drug regimen
Apart from choosing the right drug, the pharmacist also decides the most
appropriate regimen to adopt.
 Monitoring adherence
The pharmacists should decide on how to monitor the patient’s adherence to the
drug regimen.
 Monitoring therapeutic outcomes.
It is the duty of the pharmacist to monitor how the patient is responding to
treatment. Therefore decisions must be made on how best to monitor these
(therapeutic) outcomes.
 Cost effectiveness
The pharmacist must ensure that the patient receives a cost effective therapy.

9. Write short notes on “ extended role of the Pharmacist”

According to the Nuffield report, the pharmacist has a unique and vital role to play in the
provision of health care to the community.
The extended role of the pharmacist as indicated by the Nuffield inquiry and the British
government green and white paper include the following;
a) Advice patients on ailments
b) Advice patients on sensible and effective ways of using medicines
c) Provision of domiciliary to housebound or isolated patients

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 d) Participation in continuing education of community health care practitioners
e) Participation in health education and promotions
f) Supervision of supply and safe keeping of medicines in residential special homes
g) Keep records of dispensed and purchased medicines
h) Registration of elderly patients
i) Advise prescribers on economic and effective prescribing and on the effects
medicines
j) Monitoring and reporting of adverse drug reactions and side effects
k) Advising general practitioners on administration and handling of complex substances
l) Conduct diagnostic testing such as measuring of glucose, BP, Cholesterol levels etc
10. The contemporary and future pharmacist is to be epitomised by “The Seven Star
Pharmacist” Explain fully;
The WHO consultancy team agreed that contemporary and future pharmacists must possess
specific knowledge attitudes, skills and behaviours in support of their roles. These roles
should be considered essential, minimum, common expectations of national health care
systems worldwide. The consultancy summarized these roles in “the seven star
pharmacist:”
a. Care-giver - the pharmacist provides caring services. Whether these services are
clinical, analytical, technological or regulatory, the pharmacist must be comfortable
interacting with individuals and populations. The pharmacist must view his or her
practice as integrated and continuous with those of the health care system and other
pharmacists. Services must be of the highest quality.

b. Decision-maker - the appropriate, efficacious and cost effective use of resources (e.g.,
personnel, medicines, chemicals, equipment, procedures, and practices) should be at
the foundation of the pharmacist’s work. Achieving this goal requires the ability to
evaluate, synthesize and decide upon the most appropriate course of action.

c. Communicator - the pharmacist is in an ideal position between physician and patient

and communicate information on health and medicines to the public. As such, he or she
must be knowledgeable and confident while interacting with other health professionals
and the public. Communication involves verbal, non-verbal, listening and writing skills.

d. Leader - whether the pharmacist finds him/herself in multidisciplinary (e.g., team)

caring situations or in areas where other health care providers are in short supply or
non-existent, he/she is obligated to assume a leadership position in the overall welfare
of the community. Leadership involves compassion and empathy as well as the ability to
make decisions, communicate, and manage effectively.

e. Manager - the pharmacist must effectively manage resources (human, physical and
fiscal) and information; he or she must also be comfortable being managed by others,
whether an employer or the manager/leader of a health care team. More and more,
information and its related technology will provide challenges to the pharmacist as
he/she assumes greater responsibility for sharing information about medicines and
related products.

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 f. Life-long-learner - it is no longer possible to learn all one must learn in pharmacy school
in order to practice a life-long career as a pharmacist. The concepts, principles and
commitment to life-long learning must begin while attending pharmacy school and must
be supported throughout the pharmacist’s career. Pharmacists should learn how to
learn.

g. Teacher - the pharmacist has a responsibility to assist with the education and training of
future generations of pharmacists. Participating as a teacher not only imparts knowledge
to others, it offers an opportunity for the practitioner to gain new knowledge and to
fine-tune existing skills.

 A Pharmacist with the above skills and attitudes should make himself/herself an
indispensable partner in the health care system of the nation.

11. Describe the role of the pharmacist in the health care system with respect to
community and hospital pharmacy
With the development of specific and potent synthetic drugs, the emphasis of pharmacist’s
responsibility has moved substantially towards the utilisation of scientific knowledge in the
proper use of modern medicines and the protection of the public against dangers that are
inherent in their use. Pharmacists are employed in community pharmacy, hospital
pharmacy, regulatory control and drug management, the pharmaceutical industry and
academic activities. In all these fields their aim is to ensure optimum drug therapy. In
community and hospital pharmacy their roles are explained below.
a) Community pharmacy

Community pharmacists are the health professionals most accessible to the public.

The main activities of community pharmacist include the following

PROCESSING OF PRESCRIPTIONS

The pharmacist verifies the validity, safety and appropriateness of the prescription
order, checks the patient medication record before dispensing the prescription (when
such records are kept in the pharmacy), ensure that the quantities of medications are
dispensed accurately. The pharmacist also counsels the patient before handing over the
medication. In many countries, the community pharmacist is in a unique position to to
be fully aware of the patient’s past and current drug history and consequently can
provide essential advice to the prescriber.

CARE OF PATIENTS OR CLINICAL PHARMACY

The community pharmacist seeks to collect and integrate information about the
patient’s drug history, clarify the patient’s understanding of the intended dosage
regimen and method of administration and advises the patient of drug-related
precautions, and in some countries monitors and evaluates the therapeutic response.

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 MONITORING OF DRUG UTILISATION

The pharmacist can participate in arrangements for monitoring the utilisation of drugs,
such as practice research projects and schemes to analyse prescriptions for the
monitoring of adverse drug reactions.

EXTEMPORANEOUS PREPARATIONS AND SMALL SCALE MANUFACTURE OF

MEDICINES

Pharmacists everywhere continue to prepare medicines in the pharmacy. This enables

them to adapt the formulation of medicines to the needs of the an individual patient.
New developments in drugs and delivery systems may well extend the need for
individually adapted medicines and thus increase the pharmacist’s need to continue
with pharmacy formulation. In some countries, pharmacists engage in small scale
manufacture of medicine which is in accord with good manufacturing and distribution
practice guidelines.

TRADITIONAL AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINES

In some countries, community pharmacists supply traditional medicines and dispense

homoeopathic prescriptions.

INFORMING HEALTH CARE PROFESSIONALS AND THE PUBLIC

The community pharmacist can compile and maintain information on all medicines, and
particularly on newly introduced medicines and then provide this information to other
health care professionals and to patients and use it in promoting the rational use of
drugs by providing advice and explanations to physicians and to members of the public.

RESPONDING TO SYMPTOMS OF AILMENTS

The pharmacist receives requests from members of the public for advice on a variety of
symptoms and when indicated, refers the inquiries to a medical practitioner. If the
symptoms relate to a self-limiting minor ailment, the pharmacist can supply a non-
prescription medicine with advice to consult a medical practitioner if the symptoms
persist for more than few days. Alternatively, the pharmacist may give advice without
supplying medicines

HEALTH PROMOTIONS

The pharmacist can take part in health promotion campaigns locally and at national level
on a wide range of health related topics and particularly drug related topics or topics
concerned with other health problems and family planning. They may also take part in
the education of local community groups in health promotion and in campaigns on
disease prevention such as malaria and extended programme on immunisation.

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 DOMICILIARY SERVICES

In a number of countries, the community pharmacist provides an advisory as well as a

supply service to residential homes for the elderly and other long-term patients. In some
countries, policies are being developed under which pharmacists will visit certain
categories of house-bound patients to provide the counselling service that the patient
could have received had they been able to visit the pharmacy.

AGRICULTURE AND VETERINARY PRACTICE

Pharmacist supply animal medicines and medicated animal feeds.

b) Hospital pharmacy
Hospitals and other institutions and facilities such as outpatient clinics may be operated
by the government or privately owned. While many of the pharmacist’s activities in a
hospital pharmacy may be similar to those performed by community pharmacists, they
differ in a number of ways. Additionally, the hospital pharmacist performs the following
activities.

 Has more opportunity to interact closely with the prescribers and therefore can
promote the rational prescribing and use of drugs
 Provides specialised pharmaceutical services and expertise especially in larger
hospitals where there is more than one pharmacist.
 Having access to medical records, the pharmacist is in a position to influence the
selection of drugs and dosage regimens, to monitor patient compliance and
therapeutic response to drugs and recognise and report adverse drug reactions.
 Can learn more easily than the community pharmacist assess and monitor the
patterns of drug usage and thus recommend changes where necessary
 Serves as a member of policy-making bodies including those concerned with
drug selection, the use of antibiotics and hospital infections (Drugs and
Therapeutics Committee) and thereby influence the preparation of and
composition of an essential drug list or formulary.
 The hospital pharmacist is in a better to educate other health professionals
about the rational use of drugs
 More easily participates in studies to determine the beneficial or adverse effects
of drugs and is involved in the analysis of drugs in body fluids.
 Can control hospital manufacture and procurement of drugs to ensure the
supply of high quality products.
12. Write short notes on the Public Sector Health System under the following headings
I. Mission.

The mission of the Public Sector System is to provide equity of assess to all Zambians to
quality and cost effective health care as close to the family as possible.

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 II. Goals

The goals of the public sector system include the following

 To achieve equity in health opportunities

 To increase the life expectancy of all Zambians
 To create an environment that support health
 To encourage life style that support health
 To improve individual and family health through efficient administered
population centred activities
 To fight communicable diseases such as skin infections, diarrhoea, dysentery,
STDs, TB and HIV/AIDS
 To fight non-communicable diseases such as hypertension, diabetes, mental
illnesses
 To improve the welfare of the mother and the child
13. Write short notes on the Zambia National Drug Policy (NDP) under the following
headings
I. Mission

The mission of the Zambian National Drug Policy is “ to provide equity of access to all
Zambians to good quality, safe and efficacy medicines affordable and rationally used as
close to the family as possible”

II. The goal of the NDP with regard to selection of Drugs for use at all levels of
health care.

The goal in this regard is to select drug list for all levels of health care, whether
government or private, faith based through participatory approach by pharmacy and
therapeutic committee and guidance by the National formulary committee for most
Common diseases and condition prevalent in different parts of Zambia by generic names
based on safety efficacy, quality and cost effectiveness and in as first, second and third
line alternatives

III. The goal of the NDP with regard to traditional medicines

The goal is to make traditional medicine’s an integral part of Zambia and promote
research and development and rational use of traditional medicines in Zambia

IV. The goal of the NDP with regard to pharmaceutical personnel

The goal is to provide well motivated pharmaceutical personnel in conducive

environment in which competence are available in the right place at the right time
providing equity of access to safe, cost effective and good quality medicines which are
rationally used so as to provide efficient and effective pharmaceutical care in both public
and private sector.

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 V. The goal of the NDP with regard to funding of essential medicines

The goal is to provide sufficient funding for good quality essential medicines which are
professionally, efficiently and cost effectively procured, stored and distributed as close
to the family as possible.

14. Explain “the magna charta of pharmacy” as an aspect of the evolution of the profession of
pharmacy
The magna charta of pharmacy was a series of health legislation which were completed in
1240 and provided for the following
 The separation of pharmacy from medicine
 Official supervision
 An oath to obligate pharmacist to prepare drugs reliably according to skilled art in a
uniform and suitable quality.

By the 15th century, elaborations of the pharmacist’s responsibilities were made. Fore
example

 The Pharmacist code of Genoa which was revised in 1407

 Compendium for pharmacist by an Italian named Saladini ali Ascalo

15. Explain the contribution of pharmacists to the historical evolution of scientific

journals and to the historical development of pharmaceutical journals.
Development of scientific and pharmaceutical journals occurred in 16th and 17th century
mainly the European countries. These developments were being spearheaded by
pharmacists.
Pharmacists started by contributing much to the development of scientific periodical
literature.
The periodical literature further developed purely to Pharmaceutical organisations and
Pharmaceutical periodicals which later saw the development of pharmaceutical journals.
The pharmaceutical journals and reference works were produced by pharmacists

16. Describe the main features of the history of pharmacy in the first half of the middle
age
The middle age period is the period from the advent of Christianity to about 15th century.
During the first half of the middle Ages, the following main features of the history of
pharmacy happened.
A. CHANGE OF PRACTICE FROM LAY PRACTITIONERS TO CLERICS.
 The practice of pharmacy and medicine in the western world changed from lay
practitioners to clerics.
 Pharmaceutical study and practice as other aspect of intellectual life centred
around monasteries
 Monks cultivated and collected medicinal plants in addition to their religious life.

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  Armarrium, pigmentarium was a room in the monastery where drugs were kept
to which a laboratory was sometimes attached because expert extraction of
aromatic and cordial oils were done in some of these laboratories.

B. DEVELOPMENT OF LITERATURE IN FORM OF TREATISES AND GUIDES

Treatises and guides were developed in the first half of the middle ages.
TREATISES

The Greco-Roman treatises which were hand written in latin were used as basis for
health sciences. Two widely used treatises on simple drugs were

 The herbal of pseudo-Ampoules in the 6th century AD

 A condensate of galeus in the 11th century AD

GUIDES

These are guides used in compounding compound drugs. Two types of latin
compilations formed practical literature for medicine and pharmacy. These are
the Anti-dotaria (is similar to median dispensations) and the Recepteria (similar
to modern formulary.

17. Give an account of the development of pharmacopoeia.

The development of pharmacopoeia started as a call to respond to the proliferation of
formulas and the risk of varying composition in compound drugs of the same name.
Consequently the dispensatorium of various cordus was adopted in 1546 as official for the
imperial city of Nuremburg. Other local pharmacopoeias were adopted in the 16th century.
For example, the Nuovo receptario was published as a standard for the city of Florence.
Pharmacopoeia Londinensis first edition was published in 1618 and was intended for the
whole of England. As such it was intended for such a large political grouping.

18. Write short notes on the notable development in pharmacy during the modern
ages.
The modern age is the period during renaissance to the 21st century . notable development
in pharmacy during this period include the following;
i. THE INFLUENCE OF PARACELSUS

Paracelsus whose full names are Phillippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus

von Hohenheim, was born in a swiss village in 1493 and died on 24th September
1541. He was a renaissance physician botanist, alchemist,astrologer and general
occultist. He was named Paracelsus because he was believed to be equal or greater
than Aulus Cornelius Celsus who was a roman encyclopedist.

Paracelsus exercised a revolutionary influence on pharmacy and medicine. He influenced

the transformation of pharmacy from a profession based primarily on botanical science
to one based on chemical science.

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 He propounded the concept of the body as a chemical laboratory and published his first
treatise in 1529.

Through the followers of Paracelsus (the alchemist), pharmaceutical work became more
based on chemistry rather than botanical science. Because of his influence, pharmacist
became well vested in chemistry to the extent that they made notable
developments/contributions to chemistry as a science. Eg a Swedish pharmacist chemist
called Carl Wilhelm discovered oxygen a year before Priestly.

ii. DEPARTURE FROM GUILDS AND DEVELOPMENT OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIETIES, SELF

GOVERNANCE AND MORE ADVANCED TRAINING

By 18th century, guilds were becoming replaced by modern professional societies

especially in Italy and France. The modern professional societies offered varying degrees
of self governance. They also provided for more studies and higher learning as
prerequisite to entrance to the profession. For example in Italy in the 19th century, in
Prussia (1725), obligatory examinations based on academic standards were instituted as
requirements for Pharmacists thereby placing pharmacy among the scientific
professions..

In 1803, French legislation provided 6 pharmacy schools of registrations. The pharmacy

curricula were established in 1808 by Bavaria followed by other German states.

iii. DRUG STANDARDISATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF PHARMACOPOEIA

The proliferation of formulas and the risk of varying composition in compound drugs
of the same name stimulated the trend towards standardisation.
Consequently the dispensatorium of various cordus was adopted in 1546 as official
for the imperial city of Nuremburg. Other local pharmacopoeias were adopted in the
16th century.
For example, the Nuovo receptario was published as a standard for the city of
Florence. Pharmacopoeia Londinensis first edition was published in 1618 and was
intended for the whole of England. As such it was intended for such a large political
grouping.

iv. DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL

Development of scientific and pharmaceutical journals occurred in 16th and 17th

century mainly the European countries. These developments were being
spearheaded by pharmacists.
Pharmacists started by contributing much to the development of scientific periodical
literature.
The periodical literature further developed to purely to Pharmaceutical
organisations and Pharmaceutical periodicals which later saw the development of
pharmaceutical journals.
The pharmaceutical journals and reference works were produced by pharmacists

UNCLE WHAMS @ 2010. PHARMACY PRACTICE REVISION PACK. BPHARM3 Page 15

 v. FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATIONS FOR
PHARMACY
 In 1607 the society of Apothecaries was formed in Britain.
 Subsequently a royal charter gave apothecaries monopoly in the dispensing
of medicines against physicians prescriptions
 The company of grocers retained the right to sell drugs and spices and later
became druggists
 People who were unable to reach conventional medical help went to
Apothecaries for advice and treatment
 Dispensing within the dispensary was established by the college of
physicians in 1596 and assistants who were either druggists or
 The apprentices to apothecaries became to be known as chemists
 In 1841 the pharmaceutical society of great Britain was founded
 In 1843, the pharmaceutical society of Great Britain was incorporated by the
royal charter. The PSGB was founded to
 Represent the interest of pharmacists
 Raise their profile among professionals
 Promote education and training
 The pharmaceutical Acts of 1852 and 1868 restricted the use of titles such
as pharmaceutical chemist and druggist or Pharmacist to those registered
with the society (PSGB)
 The pharmacy and poison Act of 1933 required membership of the society
together with registration of premises for all persons engaged in selling or
dispensing of listed poisons and dispensed controlled medicines. Since that
time, the premises should at all times be under the personal control of the
Pharmacist.
 In 1988 the pharmaceutical society of Great Britain was renamed the Royal
Society of Great Britain.

UNCLE WHAMS @ 2010.BPHARM3

“For our light and momentary troubles are achieving for us an eternal glory that far outweighs
them all. So we fix our eyes not on what is seen, but on what is unseen. For what is seen is
temporary, but what is unseen is eternal (2 corinthians 4:17-18)”

The love of Christ Constrains Me.

UNCLE WHAMS @ 2010. PHARMACY PRACTICE REVISION PACK. BPHARM3 Page 16