Types of Discourse in Written Texts

Consider these definitions of the different types of texts according to the type of discourse
they include:

1- Descriptive texts: They describe a person, a thing, a place …etc. In other words, they tell
us how somebody/something is like. (They try to create a mental picture or image in the
reader’s mind).

2- Expository texts: They explain why things happen in a certain way (Cause/effect) or how
they are what they are (manner). They can also explain how things are similar or different
(comparing). (They try to help the reader to understand something).

3- Argumentative texts: They either defend or criticize a point of view using arguments in
order to convince the reader. (They provide evidence and give reasons in order to prove
something).

4- Narrative texts: They tell/ narrate a story or a series of events (either imaginary or real
ones). (They tell what happened).

5- Prescriptive texts: They give instructions. In other words, they give directions and tell you
what to do or what not to do. (In prescriptive essays, we generally find expressions of advice,
obligation, prohibition, absence of obligation or the imperative mode).

N.B. We can find more than one type of discourse in a written. Here, we should look for the
one which is dominant in the text.

Let’s put it into practice!

Now, read the following reading passages and try to identify the type of discourse used in each
of them. Then try to give a title to each text.
Text One : Title: ……………………………………………………………………………………..
Type of discourse: ……………………………………………………….

In the small villages of Kenya, Africa, most kids want to read books. But no roads lead to their homes, only
miles and miles of sand. Cars and trucks are useless. So library books arrive on the backs of camels. Camels can
handle the sand and the books. Two camels, a driver, and a librarian walk to the villages. One camel carries about
400 pounds of books, and the other carries a tent. At each village, the librarian sets up the tent and displays the
books inside. Two weeks later, the camels return with new books.

Some people in northern Thailand live on mountains and in jungles. Their “libraries” are carried on the backs
of elephants. These massive mammals can handle the difficult journey. Because of their size, they can carry heavy
loads of books in metal cases. The metal protects the books from the heavy rains that fall in the area.

Indonesia has its own challenges. This country is made up of over 17,000 islands. Therefore, most people travel
by boat, and so do their library books. A wooden library boat holds about 500 books packed in boxes. Boxes of
books are left in villages and are traded for new books a few weeks later.
For people who live in a remote area and can’t get to a library, a library that comes to them brings more than
books. It brings a whole world of information.

Text Two : Title: ……………………………………………………………………………………..

Type of discourse: ……………………………………………………….

There has been a lot of talk lately about the importance of teaching values in the classroom. Values are
characteristics such as honesty, kindness, hard work and integrity. Schools should support these values, but they
should not be held responsible to teach them. It is up to the parents to decide what values should be taught. This is
the parents’ job and right.

One reason is that the schools do not have time to teach all of the necessary values. Teachers barely have
enough time to teach the subjects and topics they are already responsible for teaching. How would the schools
decide which values to teach ? There would be teachers who disagree with parents on what to teach.

Another reason is that there is not enough money to take on this job. School budgets are already stretched too
thin. Schools do not have the resources to teach values adequately. Students need consistent modelling and
instruction on these life skills. Let the schools support these values but focus on the curriculum.

Text Three : Title: ……………………………………………………………………………………..

Type of discourse: ……………………………………………………….

The rise of the Maya began about AD 250, and what is known to archaeologists as the Classic Period of Mayan
culture lasted until about AD 900. At its height, the Mayan civilization consisted of more than 40 cities, each with
a population between 5,000 and 50,000. Among the principal cities were Tikal, Uaxactún, Copán, Bonampak, Dos
Pilas, Calakmul, Palenque, and Río Bec. The peak Mayan population may have reached 2,000,000 people, most of
whom were settled in the lowlands of what is now Guatemala.
After AD 900, however, the classical Mayan civilization declined precipitously, leaving the great cities and
ceremonial centres vacant and overgrown with jungle vegetation. The causes of this decline are uncertain; some
scholars have suggested that armed conflicts and the exhaustion of agricultural land were responsible. Discoveries
in the 21st century, however, have led scholars to posit that the cause of the sudden decline was probably associated
with the war-related disruption of river and land trade routes.
During the Post-Classic Period (900–1519), cities such as Chichén Itzá, Uxmal, and Mayapán in the highlands
of the Yucatán Peninsula continued to flourish for several centuries after the great lowland cities had become
depopulated. By the time the Spaniards conquered the area in the early 16th century, most of the Maya had become
village-dwelling agriculturists who practised the religious rites of their forebears.
Text Four : Title: ……………………………………………………………………………………..
Type of discourse: ……………………………………………………….
I hope that you are all aware of the importance of this year. It is the year when you will take your final exams
and it is, therefore, a make-or-break year. Some of you have worked hard throughout the years and what all these
students will need to do is to keep up the good work. Others among you have left themselves a mountain to climb.
They will have to study very hard and do a great deal of revision if they are going to pass the forthcoming exam.
It is important to understand that, if you start working hard now, it is not too late. You must not simply throw the
towel at this stage but you must start now. Do not decide to put the whole thing off until tomorrow. You must try to
work out a study timetable and stick to it. You also need to make sure that you have peace and quiet to work in. If
some of you find it difficult to find the right study conditions at home, then we will be happy to let you stay on after
the official end of the school day and provide you with a quiet place to study.
On the other hand, I am not suggesting that you study all the time. You will need plenty of rest and relaxation if
you are to study effectively. However, this is a year for making some social sacrifices. It is time to give up the parties
and take up the books.
At last, I wish you all a successful year and some excellent exam passes at the end of it.

Text Five : Title: ……………………………………………………………………………………..

Type of discourse: ……………………………………………………….
The American system of school education differs from the systems in some countries. There are state-supported
public schools and private secondary schools. Public state schools are free and private schools are fee-paying. Each
individual state has its own system of public schools. The federal government pays little or no attention to the
schools.
Elementary education begins at the age of six with the first grade (form) and continues through to the eighth
grade. In most states children are supposed to go to school until the age of sixteen (or until they have finished the
eighth grade).
The elementary school is followed by four years of secondary school or high school as it is called there. In some
states the last two years of the elementary and the first years of the secondary school are combined into a junior high
school.
The programme of studies in the elementary school is different at different schools. It includes English,
arithmetic (sometimes elementary algebra), geography, history of the USA and elementary natural science including
physiology. Physical training, singing, drawing, and handwork (wood or metal work) are also taught. Sometimes a
foreign language and the study of general history are begun.
Besides giving general education, some high school subjects are useful to those who hope to find jobs in industry
and agriculture. Some schools give preparatory education to those planning to enter colleges and universities. Each
state has its own university.
Text Six : Title: ……………………………………………………………………………………..
Type of discourse: ……………………………………………………….
The first thing to understand about cheating is that the vast majority of young people believe that cheating is
wrong. However, surveys show that most young people cheat at least once in their high school careers. Therefore,
the most important question is why do young people behave in ways that are inconsistent with their beliefs?
According to Gary Niel, an educator who has studied cheating in our schools, the answer is survival. In other
words, students cheat in order to save themselves from the anger of a parent or teacher and to avoid being
embarrassed. College acceptance is another reason for cheating. There is a lot of competition to get accepted at the
best schools which require great grades. As a result, if you cannot do the work, you have to be dishonest and cheat.
In addition, many students feel that everyone is cheating, so they will be at a disadvantage if they don’t cheat.
In order to eradicate this phenomenon, schools should not tolerate cheating in any form and the punishments
should be rigorously enforced. In addition, students must have some responsibility. They must learn to be true to
themselves and their values and not be swayed by outside pressures and influences.
Text Seven : Title: ……………………………………………………………………………………..
Type of discourse: ……………………………………………………….
Each of the great civilisations of the past contributed some way or another to enhance the cultural and technical
level of human communities. They all achieved realisations that gradually transformed the destiny of nations and
turned them into highly organised groups having in their hands more efficient means that enable them to develop a
better capacity in the fight for survival and ,therefore, to lead a more comfortable life.
The Chinese, for example, were among the first people to show to the others how to combine intelligence and
discipline in order to construct a dynamic society able to offer to its inhabitants prosperity and security. The
Egyptians in their turn managed to bring considerable improvements in the branches of farming, architecture,
medicine, writing and religion. Despite the hostile environment where they evolved, they succeeded to impose their
will-power and perseverance so as to win the respect of their neighbours and immortalize their name in history.
As regards the Babylonians, they devoted their skills to further the spheres of astronomy, law-making, building,
cattle-breeding and land-working. The Phoenicians, too, helped in accomplishing exceptional advances in matters
connected with ship-building, international trade and sailing across seas. When the Greeks arrived, they promoted
mathematics, philosophy and democracy. They also gave a strong impetus to scientific research, rational thinking,
mythology and artistic creations. The Romans, as well, applied themselves for elevating the fate of the human race.
They dedicated their talent for the pursuit of arts, the construction of towns and public works, the laying of rules and
political bodies, the expansion of commerce and introduction of more effective strategies in the military field.

Text Eight : Title: ……………………………………………………………………………………..

Type of discourse: ……………………………………………………….
Khufu's pyramid is perhaps the most colossal single building ever erected on the planet. Its sides rise at an angle
of 51°52′ and are accurately oriented to the four cardinal points of the compass. The Great Pyramid's core is made
of yellowish limestone blocks, the outer casing (now almost completely gone) and the inner passages are of finer
light-coloured limestone, and the interior burial chamber is built of huge blocks of granite. Approximately 2.3
million blocks of stone were cut, transported, and assembled to create the 5.75-million-ton structure, which is a
masterpiece of technical skill and engineering ability. The internal walls as well as those few outer-casing stones
that still remain in place show finer joints than any other masonry constructed in ancient Egypt.

The entrance to the Great Pyramid is on the north side, about 59 feet (18 metres) above ground level. A sloping
corridor descends from it through the pyramid's interior masonry, penetrates the rocky soil on which the structure
rests, and ends in an unfinished underground chamber. From the descending corridor branches an ascending
passageway that leads to a room known as the Queen's Chamber and to a great slanting gallery that is 151 feet (46
metres) long. At the upper end of this gallery, a long and narrow passage gives access to the burial room proper,
usually termed the King's Chamber. This room is entirely lined and roofed with granite. From the chamber two
narrow shafts run obliquely through the masonry to the exterior of the pyramid; it is not known whether they were
designed for a religious purpose or were meant for ventilation. Above the King's Chamber are five compartments
separated by massive horizontal granite slabs; the likely purpose of these slabs was to shield the ceiling of the burial
chamber by diverting the immense thrust exerted by the overlying masses of masonry.

The question of how the pyramid was built has not received a wholly satisfactory answer. According to the ancient
Greek historian Herodotus, the Great Pyramid took 20 years to construct and demanded the labour of 100,000 men.